Tissue

Course Title: Basic Anatomy Course No. PHR 111 Course Teacher: Shahana Sharmin (SS)

Tissue
Definition : An aggregate of same type of cells combined by sub serving the same general function independently and united by varying amounts of intercellular substance. e.g., blood, bones, cartilage etc.

Classification
Epithelial tissue Connective (Mesenchymal) Muscle tissue Nerve tissue

Epithelial Tissue
It is normally found as a covering either externally or internally. It is the simplest and the least specialized animal tissue. The tissue depends upon the other underlying tissues for its nourishment. The epithelial tissue can originate from any of the three germ layers-ectoderm, mesoderm or endoderm.

Origin : The epithelial tissue can originate from any of the three germ layers -- Ectoderm -- Mesoderm -- Endoderm.

Epithelial Tissue
Characteristics : The cells always have a definite shape. They are either polygonal or cuboidal (isodiametric) or rectangular. Very rarely are the cells irregular. The cells are compactly arranged on a thin, structureless basement membrane which is secreted by the cells themselves. Due to the compact arrangement, intercellular spaces are usually absent. However, sometimes small intercellular spaces may be present filled with a cementing substance. The cells are characterised by the presence of a large amount of cytoplasm. It may be clear and transparent or granular. The cells are always uninucleate. The nucleus is large and prominent. The cells are capable of undergoing simple mitotic divisions.

Epithelial Tissue
Functions:
Protection Protect skin from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water. Sensation Sensory stimuli penetrate through epithelial cell. Secretion In glands, epithelial tissue is specialized to secret specific chemical substances such as enzymes, hormons and lubricating fluids. Absorption Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from the digestive foods Excretion Epithelial cells in the kidney excrete waste products from the body and reabsorb materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands. Diffusion Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and nutrients. Cleaning Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign bodies which have entered the air passages. Reduce friction The smooth tightly-interlocking, epithelial cells that line the entire circulatory system reduce friction between the blood and walls of blood vessel.

Epithelial Tissue
Classification:
1. 2. How many layers are present Simple (one layer) Stratified (multi layers) The shape of the cells Squamous: Flat Cuboidal: square Columnar: column

Identification:
1. a) Simple Epithelia secretion, absorption, and filtration, but not protection. Simple Squamous Epithelium Found in alveoli in the lungs, blood and lymph capillaries, parietal membranes that line body cavities. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Found in ovaries, kidney tubules, ducts of the pancreas, liver, salivary glands, testes Simple Columnar Epithelium Found in Lining of the digestive tract (look for purple goblet cells that secrete mucous) uterine tubules Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Found in Lining of the respiratory tract.

b)

c)

d)

Epithelial Tissue
2. Stratified Epithelium
Stratified Squamous Epithelium Found in outer layer of the skin. oral cavity, throat, vagina, anal canal b). Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Found in mammary glands, sweat glands, pancreas,ovarian follicles c). Stratified Columnar Epithelium Found in vas-deferens, male urethra, parts of the pharynx d). Transitional Epithelium Found in Lines the bladder, and ureters thus it is subject to stretching forces. Glandular Epithelium 1). Types of secretion Endocrine: Secrete products into tissue fluid or blood. Exocrine: Secrete products into ducts that open into some internal or externally 2). Classified by the: i). Methods of secretion ii). Number of cells a. Unicellular b. Multicellular Number of ducts : Simple Complex/compound Shapes of the secretary portions: Tubular Alveolar/acinar a)

Epithelial Tissue

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Connective Tissue
Characteristics : Presence of very few cells, which are loosely, arranged with prominent intercellular spaces. They are all developed from the mesoderm. Presence of a ground substance called matrix secreted by the cells. Presence of supporting structures in the matrix called fibres. Usually the fibres are of two types white fibres made up of a protein called collagen and yellow fibres made up of a protein called elastin.

Connective Tissue
Classification : Connective tissue proper where, matrix is soft and homogeneous. Fibres are present. Supporting tissue where, matrix is hard and rigid. Fibres may be present or absent. Fluid connective tissue where, matrix is in the liquid form. Fibres are absent.

Connective Tissue

Different types of cells in Connective tissue

Connective Tissue
Varieties :
Areolar Tissue Adipose Tissue White Fibrous Tissue Yellow Elastic Tissue Reticular Tissue Blood and Haemopoietic Tissue Cartilage Jelly-like Tissue Osseous Tissue (Bone) Reticulo-endothelial Tissue

Connective Tissue
Function : It connects and binds various other tissues and organs. It forms a protective covering around almost all-visceral organs. It forms a packing tissue, filling the unused spaces in the body. It forms a bedding substance inside various organs, in which the functional units are enclosed. It plays an important role in the transport mechanism in the body. Some connective tissue cells produce a substance called heparin, which prevents clotting of blood inside the body. Some connective tissue cells are capable of ingesting disease producing germs by phagocytosis. Some connective tissue cells play an important role in thermoregulation.

Muscular Tissue
The muscular tissue is a tissue that is capable of bringing about different types of movements in the body. It is one of the highly specialized animal tissues. It is a derivative of mesoderm. The muscular tissue exhibits a unique property called contractibility. It is the capacity of the cells to exhibit regular contractions and relaxations. Hence, it is also known as contractile tissue.

Muscular Tissue
Characteristics : The cells are always elongated and are therefore described as muscle fibres. Each muscle fibre usually has a limiting membrane called sarcolemma, in addition to the cell membrane. The cytoplasm in the muscle fibres is specialised for contraction and is known as sarcoplasm. The sarcoplasm always encloses minute, microscopic contractile units called myofibrils. The myofibrils are in turn composed of ultra microscopic units called myofilaments. The myofilaments are of two types. a) Thin filaments, which are about 50 A0 in diameter and are composed of a simple protein, called actin. b) Thick filaments, which are about 100 A0 in diameter and are composed of a simple protein called myosin. The muscular tissue has a direct blood supply (vascular) The muscle fibres have very limited capacity to undergo cell division.

Muscular Tissue
Function : Movement of the osseous tissue at the joints encompasses. a) Locomotion of the body from here to there. b) Changes in position of the body c) Development of muscular skills involved in our activities and in our speech. Much production of body heat and fluid balance is a concomitant contribution of muscles to the whole body. Muscles help in maintaining the posture of the body, formation of walls of body cavities and the support of the organs within cavities. Reciprocate by helping to protect blood vessels and assist in maintaining the circulation of the body by forceful contraction of the heart. As muscles help in respiration, they contribute to the provision for oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide maintaining the vital acid-base balance of the body. Muscles are agent of the brain by means of which we maintain our independence and give overt expression to our inner thoughts and feelings. They also assist in reacting the threats of danger to our well being and that of others dear to us.

Muscular Tissue
Classification : Skeletal striated voluntary Cardiac striated involuntary Visceral non striated involuntary

Muscular Tissue
Skeletal muscle : The skeletal muscles fibers are multinucleated cylindrical structures having a clear display of longitudinal and crossstriations. This muscular tissue is responsible for voluntary movement of the living systems. It can perform work of rapid powerful contraction as well as that of prolonged slow sustained tonic contraction. Distribution : These muscles mostly in all instances are attached to osseous tissues. The human skeletal muscle is pink in color due to the presence of muscle pigments and high vascularity. Due to variation in color there are red and white muscles.

Muscular Tissue
Cardiac Muscle : The cardiac muscles (involuntary striated) contracts rhythmically and automatically, which is particularly maintaining in life process of the living system by assessing the supply of nutrients, o2 and removal of metabolic waste products. Distribution : The cardiac muscles are actually forming the muscular body of the heart. These muscles are also present in small amounts in the great vessels ending in or opening from the heart.

Muscular Tissue
Visceral muscle : The visceral muscle is also known as the plain non striated, smooth involuntary muscle. It is called non-striated because it has got no cross striations. Distribution : These muscles are presents in all hollow viscera, e.g., gastro-intestinal tract, ducts of the glands, blood vessels, respiratory, urogenital and lymphatic systems of the body. These are also present in the dermis, ciliary body and iris of the eye.

Cardiac Muscle

Skeletal Tissue

Visceral Tissue

Different types of Muscle Cell

Nervous Tissue
This is a highly specialized tissue for reception , discharge of stimuli and transmission. It is made up of nerve cells and their processes, called the nerve fibers. Receptive processes are known as dendrons or dendride and the discharging process is known as axon. A nerve cell body or perikayron with all its processes is called a neuron. There are also Neuroglial cells which support the nerve cells

Nervous Tissue
Neurons Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of nerve tissue. They perform the major function of transmitting nerves impulses. Anatomically, a nerve tissue comprises of many neurons that are joined by the connective tissues. Though neurons differ in shape and size, the basic structure is same for all the three types. A neuron consists of the following structural parts: Cell body - The cell body (soma or perikaryon) is enclosed by a plasma membrane. - It is made up of nucleus and cytoplasm. Inside the cytoplasm, granules (Nissl bodies), mitochondria, golgi complex, lysosomes and other cell organelles are present. - The cell body is responsible for controlling the metabolic activities of the neuron.

Nervous Tissue
Neuron Axon - An axon is an elongated structure (few millimeters to one meter) covered by a protective, insulating medullary sheath that helps in stimulating the nerve transmission. Medullary sheath is further composed of two layers; - an inner fatty layer called the myelin sheath - an outside cellular layer called the neurilemma or sheath of Schwann cells. Nodes of Ranvier are present at specific intervals in the medullary sheath. In general, a nerve tissue consists of only one axon, which conducts nerve impulses from the cell body to muscles, other nerves and/or glands. An axon performs the function of transmitting output signals from the neuron. Dendrites - Dendrites are short and non myelinated structures that conduct impulses from various nerves or organs towards the cell body. In simpler terms they transmit input signals to the neuron. Nerve cells are functionally connected to each other at a junction known as a synapse, where the terminal branches of an axon and the dendrites of another neuron lie in close proximity to each other but never make direct contact.

Nervous Tissue
Neuroglia - Neuroglia or glial cells are protective and supportive structures of nervous tissue. - Found in bunches surrounding the neurons and have the ability to regenerate in case of injury. - Neuroglia provide nutrition and immune protection to the neurons. - Responsible for the formation of myelin sheath and maintaining homeostasis inside the neurons. - Some of the forms of neuroglia are astrocytes (provide metabolic support to nervous tissue) and oligodendrocytes (support axons), microglia (repair the damage of neurons).

Nervous Tissue

Nervous Tissue
Function : Nervous tissue allows an organism to sense stimuli in both the internal and external environment. The stimuli are analyzed and integrated to provide appropriate, co-ordinated responses in various organs. The afferent or sensory neurons conduct nerve impulses from the sense organs and receptors to the central nervous system. Internuncial or connector neurons supply the connection between the afferent and efferent neurons as well as different parts of the central nervous system. Efferent or somatic motor neurons transmit the impulse from the central nervous system to a muscle (the effector organ) which then react to the initial stimulus. Autonomic motor or efferent neurons transmit impulses to the involuntary muscles and glands.

Cancer Cell
Differences between cancer cell & normal cell. The genetic structures of normal tissue cell & cancer cell are different. Cancer cell disrespect normal growth limits and does not obey Feedback Mechanism which controls the cellular growth & reproduction. Cancer cell compete with normal cells for nutrition, i.e. when they increase to a great extent , they draw all the nutrition resulting normal cell to suffer from lack of nutrition. Due to their rapid mobility they spread throughout the body and do not combine to form a tissue.

BONES
Bones or osseous tissue is the hardest of all connective tissue which constitutes the skeleton. It is made up of bone cells and intercellular ground substance. The organic part of the latter which is about 40% is composed of collagen fibres, the osteocollagenous fibres & about 60% is bound by a mucopolysaccharide cementing material, the ossein. Bone is covered with periosteum. There are 3 types of bone cells : - Osteoblast - Osteoclast - Osteocyte

BONES
Osteoblast : This is concerned with bone formation & is found in the growing surface where the bony matrix is deposited. It is strongly basophilic& cuboidal or pyramidal in shape & its has a large nucleus with a single nucleolus. For calcification , bone-forming osteoblast possesses a rich concentration of enzyme, alkaline phosphate in the cytoplasm.

BONES
Osteocyte : It is trapped or osteoblast within the organic matrix. Thus osteocyte remains trapped within the Lacuna. This cell has small ovoid, highly chromatic nucleus. The cytoplasm of osteocyte is faintly stained with basic dye and contains lipid droplets, granules & also glycogen.

BONES
Osteoclast : Its a giant bone cell with about 20 or more darkly stained nuclei & lightly eosinophilic cytoplasm. It is often found in a hollow pit, known as Howships Lacuna, near the surface of bone. It is not a pinocytic cell, but probably it secrets a proteolytic enzyme to dissolve bone tissue.

BONES

Fig : Structure of bone

BONES
Classification : According to the density and hardness, bone is divided into - Compact or dense or ivory bone. - Cancellated or spongy bone.

BONES
Compact bone : It has a series of Haversian canals around which concentric layers of bone cells (osteocytes) and minerals occur. New bone is formed by the osteocytes. The Haversian canals form a network of blood vessels and nerves that nourish and monitor the osteocytes.

BONES
Spongy Bone : Spongy bone occurs at the ends of long bones and is less dense than compact bone. The spongy bone of the femur, humerus, and sternum contains red marrow, in which stem cells reproduce and form the cellular components of the blood and immune system. Yellow marrow, at the center of these bones, is used to store fats. The outer layer of the bones is known as the periosteum. The inner layer of the periosteum forms new bone or modifies existing bone to meet new conditions. It is rich in nerve endings and blood and lymphatic vessels. When fractures occur, the pain is carried to the brain by nerves running through the periosteum.

BONES
Formation of bones (Ossification) : There are two ways of formation of bones : - Cartilaginous ossification - Membranous ossification Cartilaginous ossification : Firstly, a cartilage is formed , subsequently the cartilage is calcified, then the calcified cartilage undergoes resorption & in its place it is deposited. Membranous ossification : Initially the cartilaginous phase does not appear. In general the, the long bones like the femur and humerus develop in the cartilaginous way whereas the flat bones of skull are examples of membranous ossification.

BONES development

BONES development cont

BONES
Function : It performs a mechanical function in forming the skeletal support & shape to the body. It affords protection to the vital organs of the cranial & thoracic cavities & to the deep blood vessels & nerves from injury. It serves a great reservoir for minerals, specially phosphorous & calcium to the blood. The bone cells help in maintaining bodys electrolyte balance. They also serve as a de-toxicating function. It lodges bone marrow. It serves as the basis for the attachment of muscles. It assists the respiratory system in forming the nasal cavity & the beginning of the digestive system in forming the mouth. It also assists in the transmission of sound to the auditory nerve.

CARTILAGE
It is a connective tissue that is translucent, firm in texture & to some extent elastic. It is made up of cartilage cells, chondroblasts & a large amount of intercellular ground substances, constituted by the fibres & 2 types of proteins chondromucoid & chondroalbunoid. The cartilage cells or chondrocytes occupy small spaces called lacunae in the matrix.

CARTILAGE
Classification :
According to the difference in no. of cartilage cells & the nature of the ground substance Cartilage are three types - Hyaline cartilage - Fibrocartilage - Elastic cartilage

CARTILAGE
Hyaline Cartilage : It is made up of cartilage cells & clear homogenous ground substances completely devoid of any fibrous tissue. Hyaline means glass & in fresh condition it appears as a translucent bluish white mass. Distribution : It is found in the articular end of the bones (articular cartilage), between the epiphysis and the diaphysis of the growing long bones (epiphyseal cartilage), at the anterior end of the ribs (costal cartilage). The cartilage of the nose, external meatus, larynx, trachea and bronchial tubes also belong to this class.

CARTILAGE
Fibrocartilage : This type of cartilage is present where great tensile strength with flexibility and rigidity are required. The cells are large, arranged in groups and placed inside lacunae. Distribution : It is found in the intervertebral discs, the menisci of knee joints, mandibular joints, pubic symphysis, linigs of many tendon grooves in bones, in the attachments of some tendons.

CARTILAGE
Elastic cartilage : It is present in the area where support with flexibility is required. It is yellow in color & contains many elastic fibres. It differs from Hyaline cartilage only fro the presence of its enormous elastic fibres in the matrix. Distribution :It is found in external ear (pinna), Eustachian tube, epiglottis & in some of the laryngeal cartilages.

CARTILAGE
Functions : It helps to maintain shape & rigidity of structure combined with certain amount of elasticity Hyaline cartilage serves also the very important function of forming the primary medium in which cartilaginous development of bones takes place. Fibrous cartilage acts as strong, flexible connecting substance between bones. Elastic cartilage maintain & strengthened the attached organs.

CARTILAGE CELLS