Circulatory System

Blood: - brings nutrients (oxygen, glucose) to cells - takes wastes (carbon dioxide) away from cells Pulmonary Circulation: - deoxygenated blood travels from heart to lungs via artery - oxygenated blood travels from lungs to heart via vein, to rest of body via aorta Systemic Circulation: - oxygenated blood travels from heart to capillary beds all over body via arteries/arterioles - deoxygenated blood travels from capillary beds back to heart via veins/venules

Pulmonary Circulation - Parts of Heart

anterior vena cava pulmonary arteries pulmonary veins right atrium atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve chordae tendinae right ventricle posterior vena cava
2

aorta (aortic arch) pulmonary arteries pulmonary veins left atrium pulmonary/aortic semi-lunar valves atrioventricular (mitral) valve

left ventricle

septum

Pulmonary Circulation
1. deoxygenated blood enters right atrium via anterior/ posterior venae cavae 2. right atrium contracts, forcing blood through tricuspid valve into right ventricle 3. right ventricle contracts, blood travels through pulmonary semilunar valve into pulmonary trunk (pulmonary artery) 4. pulmonary arteries take deoxygenated blood to capillaries of lungs where carbon dioxide diffuses out of blood, oxygen diffuses into blood (oxgenation) 5. oxygenated blood feeds into pulmonary veins, travel from lungs to left atrium 6. left atrium contracts, forcing blood through bicuspid valve into left ventricle 7. left ventricle contracts, forcing blood through aortic 3 semilunar valve into aorta then to rest of body

Pulmonary Circulation
Septum: - prevents mixing of oygenated/deoxygenated blood Chordae Tendinae: - fibrous strings supporting valves, preventing inversion, attached to muscular projections of ventricular walls heartbeat sounds: "lub: - atrioventricular valves close as atria contract/ventricles relax (fill with blood) "dupp": - semi-lunar valves close as ventricles contract/atria relax (fill with blood) Heart Murmurs: - problems with valves closing

Coronary Arteries & Veins

- supply blood to the heart muscle itself - blood in heart inner chambers not used Coronary Arteries: - branch off aorta just above aortic semilunar valve, lie on outside of heart Coronary Veins: - empty into right atrium coronary arteries plugged: - blood not supplied to part of heart - heart attack
5

Control of Heartbeat
intrinsic:heart beats without brain telling it what to do Nodal Tissue: nerve/muscle characteristics SA (sinoatrial) node (pacemaker): sends out signal from upper back wall of right atrium to make atria contract automatically every 0.85 s AV (atrioventricular) node: - SA signal received at base of right atrium near septum - another signal sent to ventricles via Purkinje fibres (conducting fibers) causing ventricular contraction that moves up like a wave

Control of Heartbeat
Medulla Oblongata (part of brain on top of spinal cord): - contains cardiac control center that can alter heart rate (HR) via autonomic nervous system Adrenal medulla (on top of kidneys): - releases protein hormones epinephrine/norepinephrine to HR in response to stress Stimuli: - cause HR to change (pH/CO2 /O2/blood pressure levels)
R

Electrocardiogram (ECG): - record of electrical activity of heart P wave: - atria contract QRS wave: - ventricles contract T wave: - ventricles relax

Q S

Blood Pressure (BP)

systole:- contraction of heart muscle systolic BP: - highest arterial pressure reached during ejection of blood from heart diastole: - relaxation of heart muscle diastolic BP: - lowest arterial pressure, occurs during ventricular relaxing (T - wave in ECG)

sphygmomanometer: - device measuring systolic/diastolic BP

normal blood pressure: - 120/80 (mm Hg)

8

Blood Pressure Condtitions

hypotension: - lower blood pressure than usual hypertension: - higher blood pressure than normal Causes: - diet ( salt causes water to be retained) - stress (blood vessels constrict, lose elasticity, stress on heart muscle) - kidney enzymes (renin BP by retaining salt + water) - atherosclerosis (hardening of arteries due to plaque buildup from saturated fats/cholesterol) - lipoproteins (Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) are cholesterol carriers
9

Blood Pressure Conditions

aneurism: - localized, blood-filled dilation (bulge) of a blood vessel caused by disease/weakening of vessel wall, vessel could burst angina pectoris: - radiating pain in left arm due to insufficient blood flow stroke: - portion of brain dies due to lack of oxygen usually when blood vessel bursts or blocked by embolism thrombus:- stationary clot attached to blood vessel wall that slows flow of blood embolus: - thrombus dislodged, moves along with blood embolism: - when vessel narrows, embolus gets stuck, entirely blocks flow of blood in vessel
10

Systemic Circulation - Blood Vessels

Arteries/Arterioles: - carry blood away from heart to tissues - arterioles smaller, branches of arteries 3 layers: 1. inner endothelium layer provides smooth surface (less friction) 2. thick walls composed of elastic fibres surrounded by skeletal muscle resist blood pressure, allow stretching/recoil 3. outer connective tissue (collagen) layer - sphincters/smooth muscles control blood flow to capillary beds - contraction = diameter = for blood movement BP to remainder of body
11

Systemic Circulation - Blood Vessels

Veins/Venules: - valves open to allow blood to flow only toward heart, close to prevent backward flow of blood epithelium - walls thinner than arterial walls, surrounded by smooth muscle collagen - venules = small vessels that drain blood from capillaries, join to form a vein

12

Systemic Circulation - Blood Vessels

Capillaries:
- narrow, microscopic vessels branching from arterioles - walls one cell layer thick (cell membrane transport) - gases (O2, CO2), small molecules (glucose, amino acids) exchange across walls - sphincter muscles encircle entrance Capillary Beds: - networks of capillaries (at organs/muscles) - sphincters open/close so more/less blood flows to specific areas as needed (more blood to muscles when exercising)

13

Capillary-Tissue Fluid Exchange

blood pressure > osmotic pressure

blood pressure < osmotic pressure

14

Systemic Circulation - Blood Vessels

take blood to/from head carotid arteries anterior vena cava posterior vena cava renal vein renal artery take blood to/from kidneys iliac vein femoral artery take blood to/from legs jugular veins subclavian artery subclavian vein

aorta

take blood to/from arms takes blood from heart chambers to rest of body mesenteric vein mesenteric artery iliac artery

femoral vein
15

Systemic Circulation - Hepatic Portal System

- liver, small intestine, colon surrounded by capillary beds hepatic artery/vein: - blood from aorta to liver and back to posterior vena cava hepatic portal vein: - blood from intestines to liver
superior mesenteric artery/vein:

- blood from aorta to to small intestine - blood from small intestine to hepatic portal vein
inferior mesenteric artery/vein:

- blood from aorta to colon - blood from colon to hepatic portal vein

16

Systemic Circulation:
Blood Velocity, Cross-Sectional Area, Blood Pressure
- cross - sectional area highest at capillaries - blood pressure with distance from heart - blood velocity with distance from heart - when blood reaches capillaries it starts to return to heart, velocity due to vein valves

17

Fetal vs. Adult Circulation

Problems Facing Fetus: 1. cannot access air - no point sending blood to lungs 2. mother responsible for nutrient intake/waste removal Solutions: Arterial Duct (ductus arteriosus): - connects pulmonary artery to aorta; much of blood being pumped from heart to lungs directed to aorta Oval Opening (foramen ovale): - opening between two sides of heart, covered by flap that acts like a valve - some blood pumped through flap from right - left side of heart, bypassing pulmonary circuit - if opening does not close after birth, can cause mixing of blood blue babies open heart surgery
18

Fetal Circulation Solutions

umbilical arteries/veins
vessels traveling to/from placenta - connects umbilical vein to vena cava to bring blood back to fetus heart: - attaches at fetus liver, bypassing most of liver

placenta

- vascularized membrane shared by mother/fetus: site of exchange of gases, nutrients, wastes - chemicals ingested by mother (alcohol, drugs) can harm fetus

venous duct (ductus venosus)

foramen ovale ductus arteriosus

19

Path of Blood Through Fetus

right side of heart oval opening left side of heart (oxygenated blood) pulmonary artery (most blood) via arterial duct aorta tissue (exchange) umbilical arteries (deoxygenated blood) placenta (exchange of gases and nutrients) umbilical vein (oxygenated blood ) venous duct liver posterior venae cava
20

Blood
Functions: 1. liquid connective tissue: transports gases, wastes, nutrients 2. clots to seal injuries 3. fights infection Components: - average person has ~ 5 - 6L of blood Plasma: liquid part, 55% of volume *water, protein, gas, nutrients, salt, wastes Formed elements: 45% of volume - red blood cells (erythrocytes) - white blood cells (leukocytes) - platelets (thrombocytes)
21

Plasma
Water: maintains blood volume, transports molecules *absorbed into blood at colon/nephron Plasma Proteins: maintain blood osmotic pressure, pH Albumin: transport secreted by liver Fibrinogen: clotting produced by formed Globulins: fight infection elements, travel in plasma Gases: O2 from lungs needed for cellular respiration CO2 from tissues is end product of metabolism Nutrients: glucose, fatty acids, amino acids absorbed by intestinal villi Salts: maintain blood osmotic pressure, pH, aid metabolism - absorbed at intestinal villi/nephron Wastes: from tissues, end products of metabolism 22 Hormones/Vitamins: blood/colon, aid metabolism

Formed Elements - Blood Cells

*all formed in red bone marrow Red blood cells: - transport O2, H+(via Hb), CO2,(via H2CO3) (Erythrocytes) - no nucleus - > 95% of formed elements White blood cells: all fight infection (Leukocytes) Granular (lobed nuclei, cytoplasm granules): Basophils, Neutrophils, Eosinophils Agranular (rounded nuclei, no granules): Monocytes, Lymphocytes Platelets: aid clotting (thrombocytes)

23

Immunity
White Blood Cells fight infections: - granulocyte neutrophils/eosinophils & Agranulocyte monocytes engulf invaders at site of infection (phagocytic) - agranulocyte lymphocytes secrete IMMUNOGLOBULINS (ANTIBODIES), which combine with foreign substances (ANTIGENS) to inactivate them (cause lysis) Antibodies: - proteins that attach to invading pathogens - 1 type of antibody specific for 1 type of antigen

Antigen:
- foreign substance (usually protein, sometimes carbohydrate) stimulates release of antibodies to it (protein coat of virus) - individual immune to antigen if they have antibodies to that 24 particular antigen

Antibody Structure
light chain

disulphide bonds
heavy chain

constant region

- antibodies bind to antigen like lock/key - exposure to antigen (naturally or vaccine) can cause active immunity to develop

25

Inflammatory Response
- injured tissues/capillaries release factors that form Bradykinin (stimulates nerves - pain, causes Mast Cells derived from basophils to release Histamine) Histamine causes capillaries to dilate, enlarge, become more permeable - enlarged capillaries cause skin to redden, permeability allows proteins/fluids to escape - swelling results Neutrophils/eosinophils change shape, squeeze through enlarged capillary walls to enter tissue (ameoboid) - monocytes become macrophages - large cells that engage in phagocytosis of old blood cells, bits of dead tissue, bacteria, debris - stimulate release of other white blood cells from bone marrow 26

Inflammatory Response
pus: battlefield debris consisting of living leukocytes, dead cells/tissue, bacteria

capillary

neutrophils/ eosinophils

bradykinin

histamine
27

macrophage

lymphocytes

Blood Clotting
- injured tissue and platelets release enzyme Prothrombinase (vitamin K need for synthesis)

- Prothrombinase catalyzes conversion of Prothrombin to Thrombin (Ca2+ needed for this step) - Thrombin cuts amino acid ends of Fibrogen molecules - Fibrin fragments join together to form long fibers that are the framework of the clot

28

Lymphatic System
Functions: 1. carries nutrients around body, especially fat 2. distributes germ-fighting white blood cells 3. drains intersitial fluid (tissue fluid), that collect in spaces between cells into circulatory system Type of System: - secondary transport system that dumps lymph into circulatory system, no pump of its own
- flow dependent on: pressure from blood system, valves in lymph veins, massaging effect of muscles, peristalsis

Lymph: - resembles plasma, but more dilute: contains ~ 5% protein, 1% salts/extractives 29

Lymphatic System
right lymphatic duct right subclavian vein lymph nodes
- (junctions for lymph transport)

tonsils left subclavian vein red bone marrow

- (red bone marrow, spleen, thymus, tonsils all produce lymphocytes)

thymus thoracic duct

- (drain lymph into circulatory system veins)

lymph veins
- (transport lymph)

spleen lymph nodes valves prevent backflow

30

Lymphatic System
- most interstitial fluid enters lymphatic capillaries - lymph picks up any particles too big to be absorbed through capillary membrane (cell, debris, fat globules, tiny protein particles)

31