ROLE OF MUSCLES, LIGAMENTS AND TENDONS IN MOVEMENT

The human body three types of muscle tissues: (a) Skeletal muscle (b) Smooth muscle (c) Cardiac muscle A ligament is a specialised type of tough fibrous connective tissue. Ligaments are elastic and they connect bone to bone, holding them together to form a joint. Tendons are flexible but they are not elastic. Tendons connect muscles to bones.

TYPE OF JOINT

CHARACTERISTICS

EXAMPLE Skull

FUNCTION

Immovable/ No movement between fixed bones

Protects tissue of brain and Pelvic girdle sense organ. Vertebral column Cartilage is a shock absorber, cushion joint and reduces friction

Partially movable

Cartilage bridges the joint Movement is restricted

TYPE OF JOINT Movable Hinge

CHARACTERISTICS Ends of bones are covered with cartilage, It is lined with synovial membrane which secretes synovial fluid Movement in one or more directions

EXAMPLE

FUNCTION

Knee Movement in Elbow one plane Finger joint

Ball- andsocket

Shoulder Hip

Movement in all planes and some rotational movement

BENDING OF ARM
When the biceps contracts, the triceps relaxes. The biceps becomes shorter and thicker The triceps becomes longer and thinner. This exert the pulling force which is transmitted to the radius through tendon. The radius is pulled upwards and the arm is bent.

STRAGHTENING THE ARM

When the triceps contracts, the biceps relaxes. The triceps becomes shorter and thicker The biceps becomes longer and thinner. This exert the pulling force on the ulna through its tendon. The ulna and radius, which are jointed to the humerus by the elastics ligaments, is pulled together downwards, causing the arm to straighten

LOCOMOTION IN HUMAN ( WALKING)

The calf muscle contracts to lift up the heel Its exerts a forward thrust by pushing the ball of the foot against the ground The flexor muscle of thigh (bicep femoris) contracts while the extensor (quadriceps femoris) relaxes the leg is bends. The leg is raised up and the body thrust forward.

 As the right foot loses contact with the ground, the weight of the body is now supported by the left leg which is still in contact with the ground The quadriceps femoris contract while biceps femoris relaxes to straighten the leg. The foot then regains contact with the ground (push downward and backward) with the heel touching the ground first. The repeated contraction and relaxtion of muscles result in the walking movement.

LOCOMOTION OF BIRD
The locomotion of bird flight occurs through two ways, namely flapping the wings andgliding. When flapping the wings downwards , the strong and large pectoral muscles contract. Air resistance towards the movement of the wings downwards produces a force that acts upwards against the wings. This force is sent from the wings to the coracoid until the sternum and lifts the whole body of the bird upwards.

 When gliding, the wing acts as an aerofoil. Air moves faster on the upper surface of the aerofoil. An area of low pressure exists on the upper surface and area of high pressure on the bottom surface. A lifting force is produced at the bottom of the wings and lifts the bird.

 Birds have aerofoil wings which generate the lift for flying through air A pair of antagonistic muscles (pectoralis major and pectoralis minor) extend from the sternum to the humerus . Pectoralis minor muscles contract - wings are pulled up (upstroke) Pectoralis major muscles contract - wings are pulled down (downstroke)

 Birds are adapted to flying in the following ways: A- The body is streamlined to reduce resistance in the air when flying. B- The body is light as the bone are hollow. C-The feathers on the tail and the wings provide large surface area. D-The wings are aerofoiled in shape to provide an upward thrust that carries the bird forwards and upward.

LOCOMOTION IN EARTHWORM
Earthworm have a hydrostatic skeleton. The force is applied to a fluid-filled cavity calledthe coelom. The coelom is surrounded by two antagonistic layers of muscles: the circular muscles and the longitudinal muscles. When the circular muscles contract, the longitudinal muscles relax. The earthworm becomes thinner and longer. When the longitudinal muscles contract, the circular muscles relax. The earthworm becomes shorter and thicker.

 An earthworm has chaetae which anchor parts of the body to the ground so that the other parts can be pulled towards the anchored parts. During locomotion, the contracon and relaxation of both muscles produce a peristaltic wave which begins at the front and moves towards the end of the body

 Body wall has both longitudinal & circular muscles (act antagonistically to cause movement) Circular muscle contract and longitudinal muscle relax - causing segments to extend. Circular muscle relax and longitudinal muscle contract - causing segments to shorten. Chaetae secure the shorten segments to the ground (grip to the substratum).

LOCOMOTION OF GRASSHOPPER
A grasshopper has antagonistic muscles called the flexor and extensor muscles which are attached to the interior of the exoskeleton. The rear legs of a grasshopper are adapted for jumping. When the flexor muscle in the upper part of a grasshoppers leg contracts, the lower leg is pulled towards the body. When the extensor muscle contracts, the leg jerks backwards, propelling the grasshopper forward and upwards into the air.

 The antagonistic muscle are flexor and extensor muscles.When the flexor muscle in the upper part of the leg is contracts, the lower leg is pulled towards the body.When the extensor muscle contracts (the flexor muscle relaxes), the hind legs jerks backwards propelling the grasshopper forward and upward into the air.

LOCOMOTION IN FISH
The movement of fish in water is deu to antagonistic action of W-shaped segmental block of muscles. Blocks of muscle on each side of the backbone.are called Myotome. When the myotome on the left side contracts, the myotome on the right side relaxes. As a result, the tail will bend to the left. Then, the contraction and relaxation of muscles occur vice versa. The continuous sweeping movement of the tail from side to side produces the thrust that propels the fish forward.

 Two factors which allow fish to move easily through the water. Fish has a streamlined body shape minimize the frictional drag Has slimy scales that overlap one another backwards

Fins

Function

Dorsal fin

Steering, to change direction and as a

brake to slow down or stop the movement

Pectoral fin

Balancing and to keep the fish steady by preventing diving and rolling movement

Pelvic fin

The propulsion organ/Provides trust and

controls direction
Ventral fin Balancing by preventing rocking and rolling movement

Caudal fin

Balancing by preventing rocking and

LOCOMOTION IN FROG
Hopping -Has long hind legs folded in the Z shape. -The muscle in the hind legs contract and the legs straightened. -This exert a force acting downwards and backwards on the ground. -The opposite force is produce that acts upwards and forwards to lift the frog up and off the ground. -The forelimb which are shorter are extended out during landing while the hind limbs are drawn up close to the body.

The hind legs are long and folded into a 'Z' shape when the frogs are at rest. Extensor muscle contract causing the hind legs straighten suddenly. The force produced is used to push the animal upwards and forwards. The frogs lands on its short forelimbs, which function to absorb shock of impact.

CONSEQUENCE OF IMPAIRED MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM ON SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION

Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disorder of the muscle tissues caused by the lack of nourishment and causes the muscles to become very weak. Arthritis is the inflammation of joints Osteoarthritis is most common in older people where the top layer of cartilage wears away. Rheumatoid arthritis causes inflammation of the synovial membrane of the joints. Gout is condition that results from deposition of uric acid in the joints.

Ways to maintain healthy musculoskeletal system :

Good posture Practising correct and safe exercise technique Taking appropriate precautions during vigorous activities Proper attire for daily activities Take a balanced diet consist of calcium and phosphorus

SUPPORT SYSTEM IN PLANT

To allow leaves in proper position for maximum absorption of sunlight

Importance of support in plants

To allow plant to grow towards sunlight in order for photosynthesis To ensure the fruits are in strategic position for effective dispersal of seeds To allow the plants to stay upright

ADAPTATION OF FLOATING PLANT

The stem and leaf have a special tissue called aerenchyma tissue. This tissue consist of air sacs cells with thin walls and many air spaces in between the cells. The air space provides buoyancy and enable the plant to float and facilitate the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide through stomata.

SUPPORT IN TERRESTRIAL PLANT

Support in terrestial plants are provided by turgidity of cells and woody tissues. The non-woody plants (herbaceous plants) depends on turgidity of the plant cells. The cells in the stem consists of parenchyma cells to absorb water. The turgor pressure that exist in the cells causes the cells to become turgid and causes the stem to be upright, maintains the shape of the plant.

 The terrestrial plant is supported by xylem tissues. Xylem tissue consist of xylem vessels and tracheids which are strengthened with lignin. Thus making the xylem tissues hard and strong to provide support.

 Parenchyma tissue store strach, sugar and water. The cells take in water from the ground by osmosis and become turgid. These turgid cells give support to the plant. Collenchyma tissues are thickened with cellulose and pectin. These collenchyma tissue act as supporting tissues in young plants, non-woody stem and leaves. Sclerenchyma tissue have walls that are thickened with lignin to provide support for the plant. Example: sugar cane stem, fruits and seeds with hard covering.