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An ordered list Insertions and deletions are made at one end, called top
push push pop
Illustration
E top D top D C top C C B B top B B A top A A A A Inserting and deleting elements in a stack
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D top C B A
2
fp al
fp main
(a) (b) *Figure 3.2: System stack after function call a1 (p.103)
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Boolean IsEmpty(stack) ::= if(stack == CreateS(max_stack_size)) return TRUE else return FALSE Element Delete(stack) ::= if(IsEmpty(stack)) return else remove and return the item on the top of the stack.
*Structure 3.1: Abstract data type Stack (p.104)
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Add to a stack
void add(int *top, element item) { if (*top >= MAX_STACK_SIZE-1) { stack_full( ); return; } stack[++*top] = item; } *program 3.1: Add to a stack (p.104)
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An ordered list All insertions take place at one end, rear All deletions take place at the opposite end, front
Illustration
D rear C B front A rear D C front B rear front
10
rear front
B A
C rear B front A
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Queue (ADT)
structure Queue is objects: a finite ordered list with zero or more elements. functions: for all queue Queue, item element, max_ queue_ size positive integer Queue CreateQ(max_queue_size) ::= create an empty queue whose maximum size is max_queue_size Boolean IsFullQ(queue, max_queue_size) ::= if(number of elements in queue == max_queue_size) return TRUE else return FALSE Queue AddQ(queue, item) ::= if (IsFullQ(queue)) queue_full else insert item at rear of queue and return queue
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Boolean IsEmptyQ(queue) ::= if (queue ==CreateQ(max_queue_size)) return TRUE else return FALSE Element DeleteQ(queue) ::= if (IsEmptyQ(queue)) return else remove and return the item at front of queue.
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Add to a queue
void addq(int *rear, element item) { if (*rear == MAX_QUEUE_SIZE_1) { queue_full( ); return; } queue [++*rear] = item; } *Program 3.3: Add to a queue (p.108)
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Full Circular queue (waste one space ) *Figure 3.7: Full circular queues and then we remove the item (p.110)
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rear=front
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Evaluation of Expressions
Evaluating
a complex expression in computer ((rear+1==front)||((rear==MaxQueueSize-1)&&! front)) x= a/b- c+ d*e- a*c Figuring out the order of operation within any expression A precedence hierarchy within any programming language See Figure 3.12
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to write expressions
a parenthesis-free notation
Stack operands until find an operator, Meet operator, remove correct operands for this operator, Perform the operation, Stack the result
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int eval(void) { precedence token; char symbol; int op1, op2; int n = 0; /* counter for the expression string */ int top = -1; token = get_token(&symbol, &n); while (token != eos) { if (token == operand) add(&top, symbol-0); /* stack add */ exp: character array
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else { /* remove two operands, perform operation, and return result to the stack */ op2 = delete(&top); /* stack delete */ op1 = delete(&top); switch(token) { case plus: add(&top, op1+op2); break; case minus: add(&top, op1-op2); break; case times: add(&top, op1*op2); break; case divide: add(&top, op1/op2); break; case mod: add(&top, op1%op2); } } token = get_token (&symbol, &n); } return delete(&top); /* return result */ }
*Program 3.9: Function to evaluate a postfix expression (p.122)
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precedence get_token(char *symbol, int *n) { *symbol =expr[(*n)++]; switch (*symbol) { case ( : return lparen; case ) : return rparen; case +: return plus; case - : return minus; case / : return divide; case * : return times; case % : return mod; case \0 : return eos; default : return operand; } }
*Program 3.10: Function to get a token from the input string (p.123)
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Infix to Postfix
1)
Method I 1) Fully parenthesize the expression 2) Move all binary operators so that they replace their corresponding right parentheses 3) Delete all parentheses Examples:a/b-c+d*e-a*c ((((a/b)-c)+(d*e))-(a*c)), fully parentheses ab/c-de*+ac*-, replace right parentheses *+ *and delete all parentheses Disadvantage inefficient, two passes
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Infix to Postfix
Method II 1) scan the infix expression left-to-right 2) output operand encountered 3) output operators depending on their precedence, i.e., higher precedence operators first Example: a+b*c, simple expression a+b*c
Top [2] -1 0 0 1 1 -1
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Infix to Postfix
Example:
Output
+ +
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Infix to Postfix
Last
two examples suggests a precedencebased scheme for stacking and unstacking operators
precedence stack[MaxStackSize]; precedence stack[MaxStackSize]; /* isp and icp arrays --index is value of precedence /* isp and icp arrays index is value of precedence lparen, rparen, plus, minus, time divide, mod, eos */ lparen, rparen, plus, minus, time divide, mod, eos */ static int isp[]= { 0, 19, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 0}; static int isp[]= { 0, 19, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 0}; static int icp[]= {20, 19, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 0}; static int icp[]= {20, 19, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 0};
x
void postfix(void) { /* output the postfix of the expression. The expression string, the stack, and top are global */ char symbol; precedence token; int n = 0; int top = 0; /* place eos on stack */ stack[0] = eos; for (token = get _token(&symbol, &n); token != eos; token = get_token(&symbol, &n)) { if (token == operand) printf (%c, symbol); else if (token == rparen ){
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/*unstack tokens until left parenthesis */ while (stack[top] != lparen) print_token(delete(&top)); delete(&top); /*discard the left parenthesis */ } else{ /* remove and print symbols whose isp is greater than or equal to the current tokens icp */ while(isp[stack[top]] >= icp[token] ) print_token(delete(&top)); f(n)=(g(n)) iff there exist add(&top, token); positive } } while ((token = delete(&top)) != eos) print_token(token); print(\n); }
(n)
constants c1, c2, and n0 such that c1g(n) f(n) c2g(n) for all n, n n0. f(n)=(g(n)) iff g(n) is both an upper and lower bound on f(n).
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Infix
Prefix
: , complier ,
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( , )
50 60 60 60 65
65
70 75 70 70
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m[1], ,
Initially, boundary[i]=top[i].
0 1 [ m/n ] 2[ m/n ] m-1
boundary[ 0] top[ 0]
boundary[1] top[ 1]
boundary[ 2] top[ 2]
boundary[n]
All stacks are empty and divided into roughly equal segments.
*Figure 3.18: Initial configuration for n stacks in memory [m]. (p.129)
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#define MEMORY_SIZE 100 /* size of memory */ #define MAX_STACK_SIZE 100 /* max number of stacks plus 1 */ /* global memory declaration */ element memory[MEMORY_SIZE]; int top[MAX_STACKS]; int boundary[MAX_STACKS]; int n; /* number of stacks entered by the user */ p.128 top[0] = boundary[0] = -1; for (i = 1; i < n; i++) top[i] =boundary[i] =(MEMORY_SIZE/n)*i; boundary[n] = MEMORY_SIZE-1; p.129
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void add(int i, element item) { /* add an item to the ith stack */ if (top[i] == boundary [i+1]) stack_full(i); may have unused storage memory[++top[i]] = item; }
*Program 3.12:Add an item to the stack stack-no (p.129)
element delete(int i) { /* remove top element from the ith stack */ if (top[i] == boundary[i]) return stack_empty(i); return memory[top[i]--]; }
*Program 3.13:Delete an item from the stack stack-no (p.130)
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Find j, stack_no < j < n ( ) such that top[j] < boundary[j+1] or, 0 j < stack_no ( )
b[0]
t[0]
b[1] t[1]
t[j]
b[j+1] b[n]
*Figure 3.19: Configuration when stack i meets stack i+1, but the memory is not full (p.130)
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A Mazing Problem
entrance 010001100011111 100011011100111 011000011110011 110111101101100 110100101111111 001101110100101 011110011111111 001101101111101 110001101100000 001111100011110 010011111011110 1: blocked path 0: through path
*Figure 3.8: An example maze(p.113)
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exit
a possible representation
NW
[row-1][col-1]
NE E
[row][col+1]
[row-1][col] [row-1][col+1]
W
[row][col-1]
[row][col]
SW
[row+1][col-1]
SE
[row+1][col] [row+1][col+1]
a possible implementation
typedef struct { short int vert; next_row = row + move[dir].vert; short int horiz; next_col = col + move[dir].horiz; } offsets; offsets move[8]; /*array of moves for each direction*/
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Initialize a stack to the mazes entrance coordinates and direction to north; while (stack is not empty){ /* move to position at top of stack */ <row, col, dir> = delete from top of stack; while (there are more moves from current position) { <next_row, next_col > = coordinates of next move; dir = direction of move; if ((next_row == EXIT_ROW)&& (next_col == EXIT_COL)) success; if (maze[next_row][next_col] == 0 && mark[next_row][next_col] == 0) {
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/* legal move and havent been there */ mark[next_row][next_col] = 1; /* save current position and direction */ add <row, col, dir> to the top of the stack; row = next_row; col = next_col; dir = north; } } } printf(No path found\n);
*Program 3.7: Initial maze algorithm (p.115)
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m*p
void path (void) { /* output a path through the maze if such a path exists */ int i, row, col, next_row, next_col, dir, found = FALSE; element position; mark[1][1] = 1; top =0; stack[0].row = 1; stack[0].col = 1; stack[0].dir = 1; while (top > -1 && !found) { position = delete(&top); row = position.row; col = position.col; dir = position.dir; while (dir < 8 && !found) { /*move in direction dir */ next_row = row + move[dir].vert; next_col = col + move[dir].horiz;
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if (next_row==EXIT_ROW && next_col==EXIT_COL) found = TRUE; else if ( !maze[next_row][next_col] && !mark[next_row][next_col] { mark[next_row][next_col] = 1; position.row = row; position.col = col; position.dir = ++dir; add(&top, position); row = next_row; col = next_col; dir = 0; } else ++dir; } }
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if (found) { printf(The path is :\n); printf(row col\n); for (i = 0; i <= top; i++) printf( %2d%5d, stack[i].row, stack[i].col); printf(%2d%5d\n, row, col); printf(%2d%5d\n, EXIT_ROW, EXIT_COL); } else printf(The maze does not have a path\n); }
*Program 3.8:Maze search function (p.117)
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