Aristotle

The Ethics

Metaphysics and Ethics

All things have an end A final cause the good for which a thing is done or the good for an object Shipbuilding Ship Economics Wealth Medicine -- Health

The End of Human Life

There must be some end to human life
That is the reason for which we do all other things

Politics Includes the good for all areas of human life

This inquiry into the good of man is a kind of political enquiry

Preface: The exactness of knowledge

Various disciplines admit different degrees of certainty. We should not expect from ethics and politics the exactitude of physics.

But we should not therefore think it is only a matter of convention.

Happiness as the greatest human good

There is wide agreement that happiness is the greatest human good. But there is little agreement about what happiness (or a well-lived life) consists in.

What is happiness?
Aristotle lays out the view of classes embraced by Plato (that some are dominated by desire, some by spiritedness, some by reason) 1. Some say it consists in a life of pleasure
This is the view of the masses

2. Some say it is the life of honor

This is the view of statesmen

3. Some say it consists in virtue

This is the view of the wise

The final good as self-sufficing

Our true good can scarce be taken away from us. Many goods, however, are only conditional and partial; they aim at something beyond themselves.
Moneymaking ultimately aims at happiness

These thus cannot be confused with the final good, which is self-sufficing.

Contingent goods and a happy life

These various partial, contingent goods contribute to a good life. Contingent goods, which can come and go, are still goods. It is better to have them, than not to have them. Thus one living a fully good life has friends, a certain wealth, physical beauty, etc. Some external goods are necessary. (See also Bk. X, Ch. 8)

More fundamental, however: What is our function?

The human function is a kind of life. It is to exercise ones vital faculties in accord with reason. It is act and live well and beautifully, as an excellent, exemplary human. This means it is to act virtuously.

Human nature
Humans have three parts constituting their nature:
Vegetative soul Appetite
He says these listen to reason

Reason

Reason plays a role in controlling appetites:

If we do this, then we develop character virtues

Two kinds of virtue

Intellectual virtue
This consists in developing intellectual abilities (including the ability to judge how a virtuous person should acti.e., phronesis, or practical wisdom/prudence.

Character virtue
These are moral excellencieshabits of character cultivated in those who live excellently

The development of character

Virtues are not natural. They must be acquired by training. Just as we become pianists by playing piano, we become just by acting justly, courageous by acting courageously, etc. So, too, we become unjust by practicing injustices, cowards by practicing cowardice, etc.

Context sensitive action

The goal is not to follow a principle that applies equally in every situation. It is to develop a character that allows us to judge what action is appropriate in each different kind of situation

Taking pleasure in the right things

Humans are malleable. We can take pleasure and find pain in very different things The virtuous person learns to take pleasure in good things and to find pain in bad things. We also want to avoid finding pleasure at the wrong times or in the wrong manner

The virtuous
The virtuous takes pleasure
In the right things At the right time Toward the right persons In the right manner To the right degree

We take the pleasure or pain that we derive from moral actions as a test of our character.

Hamartanein
Hamartanein is the Greek for missing the mark. Our goal is to hit it. It is difficult, however, because there are many ways of missing it, and few of hitting it.

The golden mean

The goal in virtues of character is to achieve a mean between two extreme forms of character.
We want to avoid both a deficiency and an excess of a certain characteristic.

The mean, however, is relative

The right amount of food for Milo, the wrestler, is different than the right amount of food for me.

Virtue, then, is a habit or trained faculty of choice, the characteristic of which lies in moderation or observance of the mean relatively to the persons concerned, as determined by reason, i.e., as the prudent man would determine it. (NE, Bk II, Ch. 6)

Not all things admit of a mean

Example: Adultery One cant commit too little adultery, or just enough only too much. One cant commit adultery with the right person, in the right way, at the right time, etc.

Nor can there be an excess of the virtues i.e., to much justice, too much moderation, etc.

The golden mean

In feelings of fear and confidence
Mean = courage Deficiency of confidence = cowardliness. Excess of confidence = foolhardiness

In taking money (small and large sums)

Mean = Liberality, magnificence Excess in spending = prodigality, bad taste Deficiency in giving = Illiberality, meanness

With regard to honor and disgrace

Mean = high mindedness Excess = vanity Deficiency = low mindedness

Mean in nearly all things

In anger
Mean = gentleness Excess = wrathfulness Deficiency = wrathlessness

Pleasantness in amusement
Mean = wittiness Excess = buffoonery Deficiency = boorishness

Pleasantness in other affairs

Mean = friendliness Excess = obsequious or flattery Deficiency = disagreeableness, quarrelsomeness

Life of moral virtue is happy in a secondary sense

The development of character virtues is related to intellectual virtue.
In living in accord with virtue, we do develop the intellectual virtue of prudence

The development of this virtue stands in a feedback relationship with the development of virtues of character.
The more virtuous we become, the better we see what virtue calls for in a particular situation.

External goods and the virtues of character

Basic necessities in life must be met to have a good life. They are also necessary for the exercise of character virtues.
Strength is necessary to express bravery. Some money is needed to be liberal.

But we only need moderate amounts of these things to live a life of virtue.

Perfect happiness
This consists in the fullest expression of reason in us. It requires speculation or contemplation, since that is how we most fully express reason. The life of contemplation is the only life pursued completely for itself.
It alone is the life of leisure. All toil is done in the hope that we can find peace/leisure even the toil of the statesman.

But the life of contemplation surpasses what is possible for us it is more of a divine life. We ought, however, to exercise our reason in contemplation as much as possible. The wise person is the happiest of all.

Political Thought
Moral education is important. A good polity: supports the development of good citizenry (the cultivation of the virutes). The best polity: one of virtuous citizens.

Development of Virtue as Human Goal. Development of Virtue as Political Goal.

Humans are rational animals. Humans are political animals (zoon politikon). Human Telos: Happiness (Eudaimonia) is the goal of action.
It requires a certain material basis, but mainly a rational life in combination with the cultivation of the virtues.

The goal of the polity is (among other things) to support this natural goal.
That means the polity must create the basis favorable for the individual development of reasons, education, virtue.

Ethics and Politics

Humans are social animals.
One living outside of the state is either an animal or a God.

Aim of a good polity

to enable citizens a complete human life.

The Polis exists naturally.

Each person shares the aim of pursuing Eudaimonia. The state is necessary for achieving this goal.

A virtuous character is an individual and social product Humans are social beings. Although reason is essential to humans, it is developed better in some societies than in others.

A rational society creates rational citizens.

Legislation
Law is to secure the conditions needed for individuals to maintain a well-lived life.
A well-lived life is an exemplary one.

The measure of an exemplary life is passed on in the polity. The polity thus also assumes the right to help decide what good life of the citizens consists in. Education is an essential governmental duty. A well-educated (virtuous) citizenry is needed to maintain a just state.