1

Solar Car Energy Systems

The Sun
Solar cells
Lithium ion batteries
DC motor
Energy expenditure
Energy performance metric
2
The Sun
AM1 solar constant = 1350 W/m
2

Maximum intensity at noon
Less intensity away from noon and at
larger tilt angles
Solar Flux at 42N mid-July
6AM-6PM CDT
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
6
:
0
0

A
M
8
:
0
0

A
M
1
0
:
0
0

A
M
1
2
:
0
0

P
M
2
:
0
0

P
M
4
:
0
0

P
M
6
:
0
0

P
M
S
o
l
a
r

F
l
u
x

(
W
/
m
2
)
3
Solar Spectrum
Power/unit area-wavelength
wavelength
For blackbody radiation,
T (cm) = 0.3
4
Solar Car Energy Systems
The Sun
Solar cells
Lithium ion batteries
DC motor
Energy expenditure
Energy performance metric
5
Solar Cells
Mostly two types: silicon (Si) and
gallium arsenide (GaAs)
GaAs is more efficient than Si, but more
expensive
Typical efficiency of Si solar cells ~ 15
to 22 %
6
Solar Cells: I-V characteristics
current
voltage
Maximum power
~ 0.5 V
7
Solar Cells: AR coatings
n
Reflectance

R =
n 1
n +1
|
\

|
.
|
2
For n = 1.5, R = 4 %
For n = 3, R = 25 %
Solution: anti-reflection coating
n
n
R = 0 when n = n
1/2

8
Solar Car Energy Systems
The Sun
Solar cells
Lithium ion batteries
DC motor
Energy expenditure
Energy performance metric
9
Lithium Ion Batteries
High voltage: standard 4.0 V
High energy density: 200 Wh/kg (cf. 100
for NiCd and 50 for lead acid batteries)
No memory effect
Slow self-discharge rates
10
Lithium Ion Batteries: how
they work
Negative electrode: LiCoO
2

Positive electrode: graphite
During discharge, Li ions from the oxide
migrate to graphite; graphite has a large
capacity for Li
LiCoO
2
graphite
Li
+

11
Lithium Ion Batteries: Caution
Do not over-discharge. Internal circuitry
disables subsequent charging
Do not overcharge. Two things happen:
lithium plating and overheating. Overheating
releases oxygen from the electrode. Oxygen
reacts with Li, resulting in fire.
12
Solar Car Energy Systems
The Sun
Solar cells
Lithium ion batteries
DC motor
Energy expenditure
Energy performance metric
13
DC Motors
Based on the Lorentz Law
force on the conductor
= magnetic field x current x conductor length
For a given conductor geometry, larger
magnetic field and larger current give larger
propulsion force
Magnetic field is provided by permanent
magnets made of Co-Sm or Al-Co-Ni alloys
14
DC Motors: speed control
Propulsion force current i . magnetic
field B
Moving conductor in a magnetic field
produces an opposing or viscous force,
proportional to B
2

Maximum speed i/B
At the same current, max speed
increased by reducing B
15
Solar Car Energy Systems
The Sun
Solar cells
Lithium ion batteries
DC motor
Energy expenditure
Energy performance metric
16
Energy Dissipation
Friction
Aerodynamic Drag
17
Friction
Friction exists in all sliding and rolling
interfaces
Generally, one writes:
F = mg
where = coefficient of friction,
m = mass
Reduce frictional drag by
Lubricating all moving parts
Reducing mass
18
Aerodynamic Drag
F = 1/2 v
2
AC
D

= air density, v = vehicle speed
A = frontal area, C
D
= coeff of drag

Reduce frontal area

Streamline car body

19
Governing Equation:
energy output
Energy output = (mg + 1/2v
2
AC
D
)L

= coeff of friction (0.015)
m = vehicle mass (300 kg), g accel due to gravity
= air density (1.16 kg/m
3
)
v = vehicle speed
C
D
= coeff of drag (0.11), A = frontal area (0.6 m
2
)
L = distance to destination (400 km)

20
Governing Equation:
energy input
Energy input = q(St + xB)

q = electrical to mech energy conv efficiency (0.95)
S = solar input (1100W)
t = time to complete distance L
B = total battery charge (5000 Wh)
x = fract (0.2) of battery charge B drained
21
Governing Equation
(mg + 1/2v
2
AC
D
)L = q(St + xB)

Writing v = L / t, we have a cubic equation for t -
closed form solution available (Cardan solution)
22
Effect of Vehicle Weight
5.20
5.30
5.40
5.50
5.60
5.70
270 280 290 300 310 320 330
vehicle mass (kg)
t
i
m
e

t
o

f
i
n
i
s
h

(
h
r
)
43.9 mph
47.1 mph
45.5 mph
23
Effect of Aero Drag
5.35
5.40
5.45
5.50
5.55
5.60
0.095 0.1 0.105 0.11 0.115 0.12 0.125
drag coef f
t
i
m
e

t
o

f
i
n
i
s
h

(
h
r
)
45.5 mph 44.7 mph
46.3 mph
24
Effect of Battery Drain
5.00
5.20
5.40
5.60
5.80
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
fract battery drained
t
i
m
e

t
o

f
i
n
i
s
h

(
h
r
)
45.5 mph
47.9 mph
43.2 mph
25
Effect of Solar Input
5.00
5.20
5.40
5.60
5.80
6.00
900 1000 1100 1200 1300
solar energy input (W)
t
i
m
e

t
o

f
i
n
i
s
h

(
h
r
)
45.5 mph
48.0 mph
42.8 mph
26
Findings
Each 10-kg (3.3%) weight reduction saves 6 min
Each 10% reduction in aero drag saves 6 min
Each 3.3% draw from the battery saves 6 min
Each 35-watt (3.3%) increase in solar input saves
6 min

27
Sample Vehicle Spec
Coeff of friction = 0.015; mass = 280 kg
Cd = 0.1; A = 0.6 m
2

S = 1200 W; x = 0.3
q = 0.95; B = 5000 W-hr

Time to finish = 4.68 hr
Speed = 53.1 mph
28
Solar Car Energy Systems
The Sun
Solar cells
Lithium ion batteries
DC motor
Energy expenditure
Energy performance metric
29
Energy Performance Metric
Power
Speed
v
MR
= speed for max range
Slope = min tot drag
30
Concluding Thoughts
Need to pay attention to vehicle weight, aerodynamic
design, power systems and strategy
None matters if the vehicle breaks down because of road
accident, mechanical, or electrical system failure
Reliability is job number one
Each system must have a thorough checklist
System checkout must adhere to this checklist
Practice makes perfect - need multiple practice runs!