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Definition
Data-communication is the combination of dataprocessing and communication. It includes the processing of data of program's running on computersystems, and the communication over great distance where the information is transported by using of electrical-conductivity, radio-waves, light-signals, etc. With data-communication it is possible to communicate over great distances from terminals connected on the communication network.

Three Components of Data Communication

Ddata
Aanalog: Continuous value data (sound, light, temperature) Ddigital: Discrete value (text, integers, symbols) signal Aanalog: Continuously varying electromagnetic wave Ddigital: Series of voltage pulses (square wave) Transmission Analog: Works the same for analog or digital signals Digital: Used only with digital signals

1. Data
Voice Images Digital data Analog data Text Digitized voice or images

ElectroMagnetic Signals
Function of time

Analog (varies smoothly over time) Digital (constant level over time, followed by a change to another level)

Function of frequency (more important)

Spectrum (range of frequencies) Bandwidth (width of the spectrum)

BandWidth
Width of the spectrum of frequencies
that can be transmitted

if spectrum=300 to 3400Hz, bandwidth=3100Hz

Greater bandwidth leads to greater

costs Limited bandwidth leads to distortion

BandWidth on a Voice Circuit

Human hearing ranges from about 20 Hz to
about 14,000 Hz (some up to 20,000 Hz). Human voice ranges from 20 Hz to about 14,000 Hz. The bandwidth of a voice grade telephone circuit is 0 to 4000 Hz or 4000 Hz (4 KHz). Guardbands prevent data transmissions from interfering with other transmission when these circuits are multiplexed using FDM.

Bandwidth on a Voice Circuit

Data Transmissions
Analog Transmission of Analog Data
Telephone networks (PSTN) Digital Transmission of Digital Data A computer system Analog Transmission of Digital Data Uses Modulation/Demodulation (Modem) Digital Transmission of Analog Data Uses Coder/Decoder (CODEC)

Advantages of Digital Transmission

The signal is exact Signals can be checked for errors Noise/interference are easily filtered out A variety of services can be offered over
one line Higher bandwidth is possible with data compression

Why Use Analog Transmission?

Already in place Significantly less expensive Lower attenuation rates Fully sufficient for transmission of voice
signals

Analog Encoding of Digital Data

Data encoding and decoding technique to
represent data using the properties of analog waves Modulation: the conversion of digital signals to analog form Demodulation: the conversion of analog data signals back to digital form

Methods of Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM) or
amplitude shift keying (ASK) Frequency modulation (FM) or frequency shift keying (FSK) Phase modulation or phase shift keying (PSK) Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

Analog Channel Capacity: BPS vs. Baud

Baud=# of signal changes per second. BPS=bits per second In early modems only, baud=BPS. The bit rate and the symbol rate Each signal change can represent more than one bit, through
complex modulation of amplitude, frequency, and/or phase (or baud rate) are the same only when one bit is sent on each symbol.

Digital Transmission of Analog Data

Codec = Coder/Decoder Converts analog signals into a digital form and
converts it back to analog signals Where do we find codecs?
Sound cards Scanners Voice mail Video capture/conferencing

Codec vs. Modem

Codec is for coding analog data into
digital form and decoding it back. The digital data coded by Codec are samples of analog waves. Modem is for modulating digital data into analog form and demodulating it back. The analog symbols carry digital data.

Digital Encoding of Analog Data

Primarily used in retransmission devices The sampling theorem: If a signal is sampled
at regular intervals of time and at a rate higher than twice the significant signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the original signal. Pulse-code modulation (PCM)

8000 samples/sec sufficient for 4000hz

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Analog voice data must be translated into a series of binary digits before they can be transmitted. With Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), the amplitude of the sound wave is sampled at regular intervals and translated into a binary number. The difference between the original analog signal and the translated digital signal is called quantizing error.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Analog voice data must be translated into a series of binary digits before they can be transmitted. With Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), the amplitude of the sound wave is sampled at regular intervals and translated into a binary number. The difference between the original analog signal and the translated digital signal is called quantizing error.

PCM

PCM

PCM

PCM
PCM uses a sampling rate of 8000 samples per second. Each sample is an 8 bit sample resulting in a digital rate of 64,000 bps (8 x 8000).

Converting Samples to Bits

Quantizing Similar concept to pixelization Breaks wave into pieces, assigns a value
in a particular range 8-bit range allows for 256 possible sample levels More bits means greater detail, fewer bits means less detail

Transmission Timing Asynchronous vs. Synchronous

Sampling timing How to make the clocks in a
transmitter and a receiver consistent? Asynchronous transmission sending shorter bit streams and timing is maintained for each small data block. Synchronous transmission To prevent timing draft between transmitter and receiver, their clocks are synchronized. For digital signal, this can be accomplished with Manchester encoding or differential Manchester encoding.

Digital Interfaces
The point at which one device connects
to another Standards define what signals are sent, and how Some standards also define physical connector to be used

Generic Communications Interface Illustration

DTE and DCE

Transmission Efficiency: Multiplexing

Several data sources share a common
transmission medium simultaneously Line sharing saves transmission costs Higher data rates mean more costeffective transmissions Takes advantage of the fact that most individual data sources require relatively low data rates

Multiplexing Diagram

Alternate Approaches to Terminal Support

Direct point-to-point links Multidrop line Multiplexer Integrated MUX function in host

Direct Point-to-Point

Multidrop Line

Multiplexer

Integrated MUX in Host

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Requires analog signaling & transmission Total bandwidth = sum of input bandwidths +
guardbands Modulates signals so that each occupies a different frequency band Standard for radio broadcasting, analog telephone network, and television (broadcast, cable, & satellite)

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Used in digital transmission Requires data rate of the medium to exceed

data rate of signals to be transmitted Signals take turns over medium Slices of data are organized into frames Used in the modern digital telephone system
US, Canada, Japan: DS-0, DS-1 (T-1), DS-3 (T-3), ... Europe, elsewhere: E-1, E3,

TDM

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)

Intelligent TDM Data rate capacity required is well below
the sum of connected capacity Digital only, because it requires more complex framing of data Widely used for remote communications with multiple terminals

STDM

*Transmission Efficiency: Data Compression

Reduces the size of data
files to move more information with fewer bits Used for transmission and for storage Combines w/ multiplexing to increase efficiency Works on the principle of eliminating redundancy

Codes are substituted for

compressed portions of data Lossless: reconstituted data is identical to original (ZIP, GIF) Lossy: reconstituted data is only perceptually equivalent (JPEG, MPEG)

Computer Network
An interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. A system with one control unit and many slaves is not a network.

Computer Network (Cont.)

Distributed Systems
The existence of multiple autonomous computers is transparent to the user. Allocation of jobs to processor and files to disks and all other system functions must be automatic. Distributed system is a software system built on top of a network. Overlap between distributed systems and Computer Network Example: More files around System can involve the User movement.

Computer Network
User must explicitly do everything.

Computer Network (Cont.)

Uses of Computer Network
Companies Resource Sharing Geography High reliability: replication
Saving money on the flow

People Access to information remote

Social Issues News-groups Bulletin Boards

Person To Person communication & email Interactive Entertainment

Client-server model Scalability: Ability to increase system performance gradually as the workload grows.

A Communications Model
Source
Generates data to be transmitted

Transmitter
Converts data into transmittable signals

Transmission system
Carries data

Receiver
Converts received signal into data

Destination
Takes incoming data

Simplified Communications Model Diagram

Key Communications Tasks

Transmission system utilization Interfacing Signal generation Synchronization Exchange management Error detection and correction Addressing and routing Recovery Message formatting Security Network management

Network Hardware
Transmission Technology
Broadcast Network Single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the network. All the others receive Packets in certain contexts, sent by any machine. An address field within the packet specifies for whom it is intended. Multicasting: transmission to a subnet of the machines. Point To Point Network Many connections between individual pairs of machines A packet may have to visit one or more intermediate machine.

Routing algorithms play an important role in PTP networks.

Simplified Data Communications Model

Networking
Point to point communication not usually practical
Devices are too far apart Large set of devices would need impractical number of connections

Solution is a communications network

Simplified Network Model

Local Area Networks

Smaller scope
Building or small campus

Usually owned by same organization as attached devices Data rates much higher Usually broadcast systems Now some switched systems and ATM are being introduced

Local Area Networks (Cont.)

NETWORKS
LAN MAN WAN INTERNET

LAN CHARACTERISTICS
Size Transmission Technology Topology

Restricted in Size

Single Cable 10 to 100 Mbps Low delay (ms) Very few Errors Megabits/Sec. (Unit)

BUS (Ethernet) Ring (Token ring)

MAN

Metropolitan Area Network Support data and voice No switching elements Standard: DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) Two unidirectional buses to which all the computers are connected. Each bus has a head-end, a device that initiates transmission activity. Traffic that is destined for a computer to the right of the sender uses the upper bus, traffics to the left uses the lower one.

Wide Area Networks

Large geographical area Crossing public rights of way Rely in part on common carrier circuits Alternative technologies
Circuit switching Packet switching Frame relay Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)

Wide Area Networks (Cont.)

Host (end system). Subnet (communication subnet). WANs typically have irregular topologies.
WAN CONSISTS OF

Transmission Lines:- Circuits, Channels or Tanks

Switching Elements:Specialized computers used to connect two or more transmission lines.

Internet
Collection of interconnected networks. Example: A collection of LANs connected by a WAN. WAN : (router + hosts). SUBNET : (only routers).

Circuit Switching
Dedicated communications path established for the duration of the conversation E.G. Telephone network

Packet Switching
Data sent out of sequence Small chunks (packets) of data at a time Packets passed from node to node between source and destination Used for terminal to computer and computer to computer communications

Frame Relay
Packet switching systems have large overheads to compensate for errors Modern systems are more reliable Errors can be caught in end system Most overhead for error control is stripped out

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

ATM (cell relay) Evolution of frame relay Little overhead for error control Fixed packet (called cell) length Anything from 10mbps to Gbps Constant data rate using packet switching technique Offers a constant data rate channel

Integrated Services Digital Network

ISDN Designed to replace public telecom system Wide variety of services Entirely digital domain First generation ( narrowband ISDN )
64 kbps channel is the basic unit Circuit-switching orientation Contributed to frame relay

Second generation ( broadband ISDN )

100s of mbps Packet-switching orientation Contributed to ATM ( cell relay )

Protocols
Used for communications between entities in a system Must speak the same language Entities
User applications E-mail facilities Terminals

Systems
Computer Terminal Remote sensor

Protocol Hierarchies
Organized as a series of layers or levels. The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers. Layer n on one-machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine. Protocol: is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed. Peers communicate using the protocol. In reality, no data directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on another machine.

 Each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it. Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The design of layers helps in:
Minimizing the amount of information that must be passed between layers Make it simpler to reduce the implementation of one layer with a completely different one

Protocol Hierarchies (Cont.)

Protocol stack: A list of protocol used by a certain system, one protocol per layer.

Key Elements of a Protocol

Syntax
Data formats Signal levels

Semantics
Control information Error handling

Timing
Speed matching Sequencing

Design Issues for the Layers

Addressing. Data transfer.
Simplex communication. Half-duplex communication. Full-duplex communication.

Number and priorities of the logical connection channels. Many networks provide at least two logical channels per connection, one for normal data and one for urgent data. Error control.
Error detecting code. Error correcting code.

Design Issues (Cont.)

How to receive data in order (sequence no.). How to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver with data (flow control). Size of the message: disassembling >transmitting >reassembling messages. Routing: multiple paths between source and destination.

Protocol Architecture
Task of communication broken up into modules For example file transfer could use three modules
File transfer application Communication service module Network access module

Simplified File Transfer Architecture

A Three Layer Model

Network access layer Transport layer Application layer

Network Access Layer

Exchange of data between the computer and the network Sending computer provides address of destination May invoke levels of service Dependent on type of network used (LAN, packet switched etc.)

Transport Layer
Reliable data exchange Independent of network being used Independent of application

Application Layer
Support for different user applications e.g. e-mail, file transfer

 Active elements in each layer are called ENTITIES. Entity.

Software [example: process.]. Hardware [example: intelligent I/O chip.].

Interfaces and Services

The entities in layer n implement a service used by layer n+1. Layer n called service provider. Layer n + 1 called service user. Services are available at saps (service access points). Each SAP has an address that uniquely identifies it.

Interfaces and Services (Cont.)

IDU: interface data unit. ICI: interface control info. SDU: service data unit.

At a typical interface, the layer n + 1 entity passes an IDU to the layer n entity through the SAP. In order to transfer the SDU, the layer n entity may have to fragment it into several pieces, each of which is given a header and send to as a separate PDU (protocol data unit) such as a packet.

Addressing Requirements
Two levels of addressing required Each computer needs unique network address Each application on a (multi-tasking) computer needs a unique address within the computer
The service access point or SAP

Protocol Architectures and Networks

Protocols in Simplified Architecture

Protocol Data Units (PDU)

At each layer, protocols are used to communicate Control information is added to user data at each layer Transport layer may fragment user data Each fragment has a transport header added
Destination SAP Sequence number Error detection code

This gives a transport protocol data unit

Network PDU
Adds network header
Network address for destination computer Facilities requests

SERVICES
Connection Oriented Modeled after the telephone system Establish a connection Use the Connection Release the connection Acts like a tube: receive data by the same order was sent Messages could be received in different order than it was sent with Connectionless Modeled after posted system

Reliable connection oriented service

Unreliable connectionless service (not acknowledged)

Request reply service

Sender transmits a single datagram containing a request, the reply contains the answer. Used to implement communication in the client-server model.

Operation of a Protocol Architecture

Service Primitives
A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a user or other entity to access the service. Primitive tells the service to
Perform some action OR Report an action by a peer entity.

Example: Connection oriented service with 8 service primitives.

CONNECT.request Request a connection to be established. CONNECT.indication Signal the called party.

Example (Cont.)
CONNECT.response Used by the caller to accept/reject calls. CONNECT.confirm Tell the caller whether the call was accepted. DATA.request Request the data be sent. DATA.indication Signal the arrival of data. DISCONNECT.request Request that a connection be released. DISCONNECT.indication Signal the peer about the request. Service Could be.
Confirmed (Example: CONNECT). Unconfirmed (Example: DISCONNECT).

Relationship of Services to Protocols

Service: is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it. Protocol.
A set of rules governing the format and meaning of the frames, packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer. Entities use protocols in order to implement their service definitions. Entities are free to change their protocols, provided they do not change the service visible to their users.
REFERENCE MODELS OSI References Model TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

Developed by the US defense advanced research project agency (DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET). Used by the global internet. No official model but a working one.
Application layer. Host to host or transport layer. Internet layer. Network access layer. Physical layer.

Physical Layer
Physical interface between data transmission device (e.G. Computer) and transmission medium or network Characteristics of transmission medium Signal levels Data rates Etc.

Network Access Layer

Exchange of data between end system and network Destination address provision Invoking services like priority

Internet Layer (IP)

Systems may be attached to different networks Routing functions across multiple networks Implemented in end systems and routers

Transport Layer (TCP)

Reliable delivery of data Ordering of delivery

Application Layer
Support for user applications e.g. http, SMPT

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture Model

OSI Model
Open systems interconnection Developed by the international organization for standardization (ISO) Seven layers A theoretical system delivered too late! TCP/IP is the de facto standard

OSI References Model

International Standards Organization. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection). Reference model: deals with connecting open systems that are; Open for communication with other systems.

Principles
A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed. Each layer should perform a well-defined function. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally standardized protocols. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together on the same layer out of necessity.

OSI Layers
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical

The Physical Layer

Deals with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. How many volts for 1 or 0. How many microseconds a bit lasts. Mechanics, electrical and procedural interfaces.

Data link Layer

Break the input data up into data frames. Process the acknowledgement frames sent back by the receiver. Insert the frame delimiter. Solve the problems caused by damaged, lost and duplicate frames. Flow control. Full duplex transmission (piggybacking) Medium access sub layer deals with how to control access to the shared channel in broadcast networks.

Network Layer
Routing packets from source to destination. Routes can be static or dynamic Bottleneck, congestion Connect heterogeneous networks (different addressing method, larger packet service). In broadcast networks, routing problem is simple, so the network layer is thin.

Transport Layer
Accept data from the session layer, split it up into smaller units if needed, pass these to the network layer and ensure that the all pieces arrive correctly at the other end Under normal conditions, the transport layer creates a distinct network connection for each transport connection required by the session layer If the transport connection requires a high throughput, the transport layer might create multiple network connections, dividing the data among the network connections to improve throughput

Transport Layer (Cont.)

Transport layer determines what type of service to provide the session layer with and ultimately, the users of the entire network The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, from source to destination Multiple connections will be entering and leaving each host. There is a need to tell which message belongs to which connection (transport header) Establishing and deleting connections across the network Flow control between hosts (as oppose between routers) so fast host cannot overrun a slow one

Session Layer
Allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them A session might be used to allow a user to log into a remote timesharing system or to transfer a file between two machines Example: token management. Only the side holding the token may perform the critical operation. Synchronization: insert a checkpoint.
Example: sending file for 20 hours. After a crash the portion after the checkpoint will be resend again.

Presentation Layer
Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. A typical example of a presentation service is encoding data in a standard agreed upon way. [Character strings, integers, floatingpoint numbers].

Application Layer
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed. Example: incompatible terminal type. One way to solve this problem is to define an abstract network virtual terminal that editor can be written to deal with. To handle each terminal type, a piece of s/w must be written to map the functions of the network virtual terminal onto the real terminal. Other application is file transfer(ftp).

TCP/IP and OSI Protocol Architectures

Example Of Networks
Novell NETWARE.
Client-server model. IPX/SPX. Network layer runs IPX (internet packet exchange). IPX uses 10 byte address (IP uses 4 bytes) flat addressing. Transport protocol.
NCP (network core protocol). Transport service & other services. SPX (sequenced packet exchange): Just transport service.

Example Of Networks (Cont.)

The application can choose between NCP & SPX
Transport control field counts how many networks the packet has traversed. About once a minute, each server broadcasts a packet giving its address and telling what services it offers. SAP (Service Advertising Protocol) is used for broadcasting Routers run some kind of special agent processes to construct databases of which servers are running. When a client is booted, it sends a request for a server. The agent on the local router machine sees this request, and matches up the request with the best server.

Example Of Networks (Cont.)

The APRANET.
Packet switched network, consisting of subnet and host computers. IMPS (interface message processors) connected by transmission lines. Each IMP would be connected to at least two other imps. Each node consists of IMP and a host. Host sends messages of up to 8063 bits to its IMP. IMP breaks the message into packets of at most 1008 bits and forwards them independently toward the destination. 56-kbps lines leased from telephone companies interconnect the IMPS. By 1990, the ARPANET had been overtaken by newer networks.

Example Of Networks (Cont.)

NSFNET
By 1984 NSF Fig 1.26(the U.S. national science Foundation) began designing a high-speed successor to the ARPANET that would be open to all university research groups. By 1995 the NSFNET backbone was no longer needed to interconnect the NSF regional networks because numerous companies were running commercial IP Networks.

Example Of Networks (Cont.)

The Internet. In 1992, the internet society was set up, to promote the use of the internet. Four main applications.
Email. News. Remote login: telnet, rlogin. File transfer: FTP.

Example Of Networks (Cont.)

Gigabit TESTBEDS.
The backbones operate at megabit speeds. Gigabit networks provide better bandwidth but not always much better delay. Example: sending a 1-kbit packet from NYC to san Francisco at (1 mbps) take. 1 msec to pump the bits out and 20 msec for the delay, for a total of 21 msec. A 1-Gbps network can reduce this to 20.001 msec. For some applications, bandwidth is what counts, and these are the applications for which gigabit networks will make a big difference. Examples:- telemedicine & virtual meeting.

THANKS
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