MOTIVATION

COURSE OBJECTIVES
COMPARE & CONTRAST MOTIVATION THEORIES APPLY MOTIVATION THEORY TO A BUSINESS SCENARIO

WORKSHOP STRUCTURE
Meaning of Motivation Primary /General/ Secondary Motives? Theories-Content Theories / Process Theories/ Contemporary Theories Motivation in a business context Motivation & Productivity Motivation of Performance through Job Design & Goal Setting/Job Enrichment/Task Design& Measuring Task Scope Job Redesign Application of Goal Setting to Organisational System Performance

Meaning of Motivation
Desires, Wants, Aims, Drives, motives,....It is the set of forces that lead people to behave in particular ways. Motivation is the process that starts with a psychological or physiological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. The key to understanding the process of motivation lies in the meaning of, & relationship among needs , drives and incentives.

DEFINITION
PROCESS THAT ACCOUNTS FOR INDIVIDUALS INTENSITY, DIRECTION AND PERSISTENCE OF EFFORT TOWARDS ATTAINING A GOAL

FAVOURABLE?

HOW HARD ONE TRIES

FOR HOW LONG ONE TRIES

Importance of Motivation
Motivation is important to organizations because in conjunction with ability and environment it determines performance. P=f(M, A, and E).
P-Performance. A-Ability. M-Motivation. E-Environment.

NEEDS, DRIVES & INCENTIVE

NEEDS created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance. DRIVES Drives or motives are set up to alleviate needs Physiological & psychological drives are action oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward reaching an incentive. INCENTIVES the thing that will alleviate the need and reduce the drive in the motivation cycle. Attaining an incentive will restore the balance and reduce corresponding drives.

MOTIVES
PRIMARY- Human motives that are unlearned and
physiologically based- Seek to reduce tension or stimulation eg Hunger , pain , thirst

GENERAL- Must be unlearned but not

physiologically based - Induce the person to increase stimulation(Also called Stimulus Motives) eg:curiosity, manipulation, affection

SECONDARY- Must be Learned eg, Need for

Achievement, Power, Affiliation,Security, Status

Historical Perspective of Motivation

Scientific Management Approach assumed that employee motivation is economically induced Human Relations Approach suggested that favourable employee attitudes result in motivation to work Need Theories take the content approach by attempting to specify what motivates behavior Process Theories focus on how motivated behavior occurs in an effort to satisfy needs Equity Theory -focuses on peoples desire to perceive equity and avoid inequity

Defining Motivation

Key Elements 1. Intensity: how hard a person tries 2. Direction: toward beneficial goal 3. Persistence: how long a person tries

WORK MOTIVATION APPROACHES

CONTENT THEORIES Scientific Managementwages & incentives Human Relations Economic security, working conditions Maslows Hierarchy Herzberg-motivators & Hygiene factors Alderfer-ERG Needs McClellands need for achievement, power and affiliation PROCESS THEORIES CONTEMPORARY THEORIES Lewin & TolmanExpectancy concerns Vroom Valence/expectancy Porter & Lawler Performance Satisfaction Lawler E-P-O expectations Festinger & Homans Cognitive dissonance /exchange Heider, De Charmes and Bern Cognitive evaluation & self perception Adams - equity Kelly & Rotter Attribution/ Locus of control

CONTENT THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

MASLOWS THEORY OF NEED HIERARCHY- Human side of Enterprise HERZBERGS TWO FACTOR THEORY- based on critical incident method data analysis on Engineers /accountants at Pittsburgh ALDERFERS ERG THEORY

Defining Motivation

Key Elements 1. Intensity: how hard a person tries 2. Direction: toward beneficial goal 3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

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MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Self-actualization
Esteem Belongingness & Love Safety Physiological

MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslows hierarchy of needs assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. Can be categorized as deficiency needs -physiological, security and belongingness needs & Growth needsEsteem & Self Actualization. Beginning at the bottom each need level must be satisfied before the level above becomes important.

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Typolog y of Personal ity and Congrue nt Occupati ons

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Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction

Comparis on of Satisfiers and Dissatisfie rs

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Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Presence

Absence
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ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Concepts: More than one need can be operative at the same time.

Core Needs Existence: provision of basic material requirements. Relatedness: desire for relationships. Growth: desire for personal development.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lowerlevel need increases.

David McClellands Theory of Needs

nPow

nAch

nAff

THEORY X THEORY Y
THEORY X
DISLIKE WORK DISLIKE RESPONSIBILITY MUST BE COERCED/CONTROLLED TO PERFORM PLACE ECURITY NEEDS ABOVE ALL FACTORS

THEORY Y
LIKE WORK SEEK RESPONSIBILITY CAN EXERCISE SELF DIRECTION ARE CREATIVE

MURRAYS MANIFEST NEEDS

MURRAYS THEORY BASED ON HUMAN PERSONALITY:THE CONCEPT OF NEEDS-PHYSICAL&PSYCHOLOGICAL DID NOT ARRANGE IN ANY PARTICULAR ORDER OF IMPORTANCE BELIEVED THAT EACH NEED HAS 2 COMPONENTS -DIRECTION ( WHAT WILL SATISFY THE NEED) & INTENSITY ( IMPORTANCE) SOME IDENTIFIED NEEDSACQUISITION AFFILIATION AGGRESSION AUTONOMY NURTURANCE EXHIBITION ORDER IMPULSIVITY POWER

UNDERSATNDING
APPROPRIATE ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS ARE NECESSARY FOR A NEED TO BECOME MANIFEST

HERZBERGS TWO FACTOR THEORY

HYGIENE FACTORS
Company Policy & administration Supervision Salary Interpersonal relations Working Conditions Advancement

MOTIVATORS
Achievement Recognition Work Itself Responsibility

HERZBERGS 2 FACTOR THEORY Hygiene Factors determine dissatisfaction and are extrinsic to work itself like pay , Job security Motivation factors affect satisfaction and are intrinsic to work itself such as recognition & achievement

THE EXISTENCE,RELATEDNESS & GROWTH NEED HIERARHY

Enrichment cycle
Growth needs frustrated

Growth
Relatedness need satisfied

Growth needs satisfied

Relatedness needs frustrated

Relatedness
Existence needs satisfied

Existence
Existence needs frustrated

Deficiency cycle

McCLELLANDS ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT- is the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past. Characterised by people with set moderately difficult goals make moderately risky decisions want immediate feedback become preoccupied with their task assume personal responsibility
Successful but do not reach top positions why

McCLELLANDS MOTIVATION THEORY

NEED FOR POWER-desire to control the resources in ones

environment

NEED FOR AFFILIATION need for human

companionship, need reassurance and approval from others

PROCESS THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

VROOMS EXPECTANCY THEORY PORTER LAWLER MODEL

EXPECTANCY THEORY
Suggest that people are motivated by how much they want something and how likely they think they can get it. Emerged from work of Kurt Lewin & Tolman but applied to workplace by Victor Vroom.

EXPECTANCY THEORY
Strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on:
Strength of an expectation of a given outcome Attractiveness of an outcome to the individual

EXPECTANCY THEORY
Effort to performance expectancy- is the individuals perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance performance to outcome expectancy- is the individuals perception of the probability that performance will lead to a certain outcome outcome-anything that might result from performance valence-how attractive or unattractive an outcome is to an individual

VROOMS THEORY
Departs from the content theories in that it depicts a process of cognitive variables that reflect individual differences in work motivation. Does not attempt to describe what the content is or what the individual differences are. Everyone has a unique combination of valences, instrumentalities and expectancies. It only indicates the conceptual determinants of motivation and how they are related. Does not provide suggestions on hat motivates employees as Maslow-Herzberg Alderfer...

Expectancy Theory

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EQUITY THEORY
People form perceptions of equity or inequity by comparing what they give to the organisation relative to what they get back and how this ratio compares with those of others As a result of perceptions of equity or inequity, people can choose a variety of responses in an effort to maintain equity or reduce perceived inequity

EQUITY THEORY
EQUITY THEORY -Stacy Adams- COGNITIVELY BASED MOTIVATION THEORY Argues that a major input to job performance & satisfaction is the degree of equity ( or inequity) that people perceive in their work situation If a persons perceived ratio is not equal to the others he or she will strive to restore the ratio to equity. This striving to restore equity is the explanation to work motivation.

Equity Theory

Referent Comparisons: Self-inside Self-outside Other-inside Other-outside

Equity Theory (contd)

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Equity Theory (contd)

Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off) 2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others 5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Equity Theory (contd)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Overrewarded employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work. 3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work. 4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees

Equity Theory (contd)

PORTER LAWLER MODEL

Content theories presume that satisfaction leads to improved performance & vice versa. P-L extends Vrooms model & takes motivation, satisfaction, and performance as separate variables Effort needs to be mediated by abilities, traits & role perception and links it to rewards that follow.

PORTER LAWLER MOTIVATION MODEL

Perceivable equitable rewards
Abilities & Traits Intrinsic rewards
EFFORT

Value of reward

Performance

Satisfaction Extrinsic rewards

Role perception

Perceived effortReward probability

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY GOAL SETTING THEORY REEINFORCEMENT THEORY EQUITY THEORY Focuses on peoples desire to

perceive equity and avoid inequity ATTRIBUTION THEORY-LOCUS OF CONTROL/ SELF EFFICACY ATTRIBUTIONS

CONTROL THEORY AGENCY THEORY

Matching Achievers and Jobs

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Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Reinforcement Theory

Concepts:

Behavior is environmentally caused.

Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Flow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory

Ken Thomass Model of Intrinsic Motivation

Employees are intrinsically motivated when rewards an employee gets from work result from:
Choice the ability to freely self-select and perform task activities. Competence the sense of accomplishment from skillfully performing chosen tasks or activities. Meaningfulness pursuing a task that matters in the larger scheme of things. Progress the feeling of significant advancement in achieving the tasks purpose.

Performance Dimensions

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g Contempo rary Theories of Motivatio n

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ATTRIBUTION THEORY
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONAL PERCEPTION AND INTER PERSONAL BEHAVIOR THAN A THEORY OF MOTIVATION. People will behave differently if they perceive internal attributes or external attributes which has important implications for work motivation.

CONTROL THEORY
Degree to which individuals feel they are in control of their own lives/ their jobs affect JOB SATISFACTION & ABSENTEEISM Perceived control also affects job satisfaction & absenteeism

AGENCY THEORY
ASSUMPTION THAT INTEREST OF PRINCIPALS AND AGENTS DIFFER OR MAY BE IN CONFLICT. THIS CAN BE COMPENSATED WITH ESTABLISHMENT OF APPROPRIATE REWARDS OR INCENTIVES TO AGENTS FOR APPROPRIATE OUTCOMES THAT CAN BE A MOTIVATOR FOR ENHANCED PERFORMANCE

SUMMARY
CONTENT THEORIES Scientific Managementwages & incentives Human Relations Economic security, working conditions Maslows Hierarchy Herzberg-motivators & Hygiene factors Alderfer-ERG Needs McClellands need for achievement, power and affiliation PROCESS THEORIES CONTEMPORARY THEORIES Lewin & TolmanExpectancy concerns Vroom Valence/expectancy Porter & Lawler Performance Satisfaction Lawler E-P-O expectations Festinger & Homans Cognitive dissonance /exchange Heider, De Charmes and Bern Cognitive evaluation & self perception Adams - equity Kelly & Rotter Attribution/ Locus of control Goal Theory Reinforcement Control Agency

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the characteristics of high achievers? Evaluate their needs against the three classifications of needs. 2. What implications does security have in a globalised environment where reengineering & downsizing are the order of the day? 3. What is the major criticism of Herzbergs two factor theory of motivation? Do you think it makes a contribution to a better understanding of motivation at the work place? 4. Is it useful to characterise motivation in terms of deficiency? Why or why not? Is it possible to characterise motivation in terms of excess? If so , how? 5. Identify examples from your own experience that support , others that refute , Maslows hierarchy of needs theory?

MOTIVATIING PRODUCTIVITY
Individual-Team Employee Involvement * Participation Programs- Quality Circles, Suggestion Schemes ESOPs

MOTIVATING PERFORMANCE
JOB DESIGN- JOB ENGINEERING JOB ENRICHMENT, JOB CHARACTERISTICS SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING, QUALITY OF WORK LIFE PAY-Skill based, Variable , BENEFITS-Flexibility

JOB ENGINEERING

JOB ENRICHMENT

QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

JOB DESIGN

SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING

JOB CHARACTERISTICS

MOTIVATING FOR ORG GOALS

MBO APPROACH GOAL SETTING
Recognize individual differences Use goals- individual tasks * team roles Give feedback on goal achievement
Participative decision making Link rewards to performance Check for inequities Systems& processes

QUESTIONS FOR ASSIGNMENT/DISCUSSION

Evaluate the need & process theories of motivation.Which of these is of practical value to managers. Apply equity theory to a classroom setting. Specify your inputs and potential outcomes. Choose a likely comparison other , and determine whether you should feel equity or inequity. Do you think expectancy theory is too complex for direct use in organizational settings. what are the motivational problems of participative management or quality circles. do you agree or disagree with the relationship suggested by Porter & Lawler. Cite examples to support or refute the model.