SHGD 6101

FILE 2a

MATTER AND THE COSMOS

WHAT IS ECOLOGY?

KINDS OF ECOLOGY
Ecology, Bionomics, Environmental Science

The branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their ENVIRONMENT, especially as manifested by natural cycles and rhythms, community development and structure, interactions between different kinds of organisms, geographic distributions, and population alterations. (Webster's, 3d ed)

FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION

ONE OF THE MOST FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION IN ECOLOGY IS THE ORGANIZATION OF MATTER IN THE UNIVERSE OR COSMOS

WHAT IS THE BASIC CONSTITUENT OF THE UNIVERSE?

BASIC CONSTITUENT OF THE UNIVERSE MATTER

ENERGY FORCES

MATTER

There are five main states of matter: Solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and BoseEinstein condensates

FORCES

ENERGY

LETS LOOK AT MATTER FIRST. WHAT MAKE UP MATTER?

HISTORY
Early in human history , people thought that all matter was composed of 4 + 1main elements :

Earth, Wind, Water, Fire. + space

simplistic viewpoint

AT ABOUT 2500 YEARS AGO..THE CONCEPT OF ATOMS

Greek philosopher Democritus (460-371 B.C.) formulated the atomic hypothesis: All matter consists of smallest (indivisible) entities (atoms), separated by empty space.

Combinations of the different kinds of atoms form all the things in nature.

The name atom comes from the Greek "" tomos (from -, "un-" + temno, "to cut"), which means uncuttable, or indivisible, something that cannot be divided further.

17TH AND 18TH CENTURY

In the 17th and 18th centuries, chemists provided a physical basis for this idea by showing that certain substances could not be further broken down by chemical methods.

SO, MATTER IS MADE UP OF ATOM

ATOM IS THE BASIC UNIT OF MATTER, THEN LETS LOOK HOW MATTER IS ORGANIZED IN THIS UNIVERSE

UPWARD

HIERACHIES OF MATTER

DOWNWARD

FROM ATOM TO INDIVIDUAL

FROM INDIVIDUAL TO BIOSPHERE

FROM BIOSPHERE TO THE SOLAR SYSTEM

FROM SOLAR SYSTEM TO GALAXY

MILKY WAY

FROM MILKY WAY TO LOCAL GROUP

The Local Group is a small collection of galaxies consisting of three large spiral galaxies (the Milky Way, Andromeda, and M32) plus many smaller satellite galaxies.

The satellite galaxies have low masses and low luminosities, which makes it difficult to detect them, and many were only discovered recently.

FROM LOCAL GROUP TO CLUSTER

The Virgo Cluster is a cluster of galaxies whose center is 53.8 0.3 Mly away in the constellation Virgo. Comprise approximately 1300 (and possibly up to 2000) member galaxies.

The Virgo Cluster is the closest and beststudied great cluster of galaxies, lying at a distance of approximately 20 Mpc in the constellation of Virgo.

Morphological Type Elliptical

Number 30

S0
Spiral

49
128

Dwarf elliptical
Dwarf S0

828
30

Dwarf irregular
Dwarf irregular/elliptical Other

89
89 34

Total

1277

The Hercules cluster (Abell 2151) is about 650 million light years away.

CENTAURUS CLUSTER

FORNAX CLUSTER

DISTANT GALAXY CLUSTER

FROM GALAXY CLUSTER TO SUPERCLUSTER

VIRGO SUPERCLUSTER

FROM super cluster TO UNIVERSE

UNIVERSE THE COSMOS

From Universe to MULTI-UNIVERSE????

MULTI-UNIVERSE????

SO, WE HAVE SEEN HOW ORGANIZATION OF MATTER FROM ATOM UPWARDS (COSMOS)

LETS REFLECT FOR A SECOND!!

HOW

LARGE IS THE cosmos?

LETS START OUR JOURNEY TO FIND OUT!!

FASTEN YOUR SEAT BELT

OUR SPEED

TRAVEL AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT (VACUUM) 299,792,458 metres per second (approximately 186,282 miles per second). OR ABOUT 300,000 KM / SEC 1079 MILLION KM PER HOUR

IN 134 millisecond

SPEED: 800KM/HR; 13 HOURS

1.255 s

EARTH TO MARS : 12 MINS 47 SECS

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE?

TIME FROM THE SUN

Speed Of Light Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto* Minimum in millions KM (Perihelion) 45.9 (2.55 Light Minutes) 107.4 (5.97 Light Minutes) 147 (8.17 Light Minutes) 206.7 (11.48 Light Minutes) 741 (41.17 Light Minutes) Maximum in millions KM (Aphelion) 69.7 (3.87 Light Minutes) 109 (6.05 Light Minutes) 152 (8.44 Light Minutes) 249 (13.83 Light Minutes) 816 (45.34 Light Minutes) 1,507 (1.37 Light Hours) 3,004 (2.73 Light Hours) 4,537 (4.12 Light Hours) 7,375 (6.70 Light Hours)

1,347 (1.22 Light Hours)

2,735 (2.49 Light Hours) 4,456 (4.05 Light Hours) 4,425 (4.02 Light Hours)

DISTANCE TRAVELLED FOR 1 YEAR

9,452,040,000,000 KM
TRILLION (12 ZEROS)

COUNTING 1 MILLION = 11.6 DAYS

41666.66666666667 DAYS

114.1552511415525 YEARS

LETS START OUR JOURNEY NOW

FIRST FEW SECONDS AND MINUTES

AFTER 4.36 LY..

41.2 TRILLION KM

WITHIN 12.5 LY VIEW - 33 STARS

AT 250 LY VIEW EDGE OF GALACTIC TAIL

AT 5000 LY VIEW

Our order of stars was just shading on the tail of the galaxy.

OUR GALAXY MILKY WAY

MILKY WAY
1,039,500 TRILLION KM DIAMETER

500,000 LY
4,725,000 TRILLION KM

Our Galaxy has few globular galaxy clusters floating around it, drawing them into through gravity.

2.5 ML : ANDROMEDA GALAXY

5,000,000 LY VIEW

47,250,000 TRILLION KM

This Galaxy system (containing a Galaxy and galaxy clusters} is only one of 3 in our tiny corner of 5 million light years.

BEYOND 5 M LY

We're only one of many galaxies within the Virgo Supercluster. The Supercluster contains the Virgo Cluster and 2 other clusters. We're only in a lone group of 3 galaxies somewhere cast on the side of the cluster, hanging on to its tail.

BEYOND 100 M LY

This amazingly huge Virgo Supercluster is but a bump on an endless intertwining of galactic filament that's the texture of the Universe. Connecting like yarn thread to other superclusters.

14 B LY

WHICH, is but an amazingly tiny portion of yarn on a scale of 14 billion light years. Everything is intertwined and composed of endless possibilities and compositions.

SUMMARY

Earths home galaxy, the Milky Way, consists of more than 100 billion stars and its spiral arms extend across 100,000 light-years.

SO, WHAT IS THE SIZE OF OUR UNIVERSE?

SEE. U TUBE HOW BIG IS THE UNIVERSE? HD COSMIC WAKENING

THEN, A VERY IMPORTANTNASA AN IMPORTANT DISCOVERY BY DISCOVERY BY NASA

The explosion of Stars (FORMING RED ROSES), Galaxies and the Universe in the Noble Quran had been confirmed by NASA.

SURAH AL-RAHMAN (55:37)

Selain itu ketika langit pecah-belah lalu menjadilah ia merah mawar, berkilat seperti minyak; And when the heaven is split open and becomes rose-colored like oil.

HUBBLES 21ST ANNIVERSARY

To celebrate the 21st anniversary of the Hubble Space Telescope's deployment into space, astronomers at the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Md., pointed Hubble's eye at an especially photogenic pair of interacting galaxies called Arp 273. The larger of the spiral galaxies, known as UGC 1810, has a disk that is distorted into a rose-like shape by the gravitational tidal pull of the companion galaxy below it, known as UGC 1813 Credit: NASA, ESA, A. Riess (STScI/JHU), L. Macri (Texas A&M University), and Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)

HOW ARE THESE ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE POSSIBLE?

Between 1993 and 2002, four missions repaired, upgraded, and replaced systems on the telescope, . one final servicing mission completed in 2009. The telescope is now expected to function until at least 2014. Its scientific successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), is due to be launched by 2018.

Space telescope that was carried into orbit by a Space Shuttle in 1990 and remains in operation. A 2.4 meter (about 8 ft.) aperture telescope in low Earth orbit, Hubble's four main instruments observe in the near ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared. The telescope is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble.

DONE

HIERACHIES OF MATTER

HOW ABOUT DOWNWARD?

REVISIT EARLIER SLIDE

More than 2000 years ago the Greek philosopher Democritus (460-371 B.C.) formulated the atomic hypothesis: All matter consists of smallest (indivisible) entities (atoms), separated by empty space. Combinations of the different kinds of atoms form all the things in nature.

HOWEVER IN 1897 (ALMOST 2000 YEARS LATER)

THEN, IN 1911-NUCLEUS

The New Zealander, Ernest Rutherford, performed an experiment that consisted of shooting alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold. He then detected that very few of these bounced back instead of going through the foil. He then concluded that within the atom there was a tiny dense center which he called the nucleus, which caused some alpha particles to bounce back.

NUCLEUS

Its size is only about 10-12 cm, i.e. 1000 times smaller than an atom. From this it can be seen, that the atoms and therefore ordinary matter are mainly empty space. Matter can therefore be compressed enormously, e.g. in a neutron star, where gravitation exerts a crushing force, and matter is compressed by a factor 1000000 million - the pyramid of Cheops would fit into a nutshell at that density.

BY THEN
Discovery of the electron in 1897 and of the atomic nucleus in 1911 established that the atom is actually a composite of a cloud of electrons surrounding a tiny but heavy core.

IN 1918 - PROTON
In 1917, Rutherford proved that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei, a result usually described as the discovery of the proton. He noticed that, when alpha particles were shot into air, and (after experimentation) to a higher degree into pure nitrogen gas, his scintillation detectors showed the signatures of hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford determined that this hydrogen could have come only from the nitrogen, and therefore nitrogen must contain hydrogen nuclei. The hydrogen nucleus is, therefore, present in other nuclei as an elementary particle, which Rutherford named the proton, after the neuter singular of the Greek word for "first", .

1985- MALAYSIAN DISCOVERED THIS PROTON!!!!

SIZE OF THE PROTON

In 1956 Hofstadter and his collaborators measured the size of the proton for the first time, by using the world's biggest (at that time) linear accelerator to shoot high energy electrons at hydrogen (Nobel prize 1961).
They found a size of about 10-13cm, which is about 1/10 the size of a nucleus. This measurement indicated that there might be something inside the proton, and raised doubts, whether it was truly elementary.

NOT UNTIL 1932 - NEUTRON

By the early 1930s it was found that the nucleus is composed of even smaller particles, called protons and neutrons
Rutherford predicted the existence of the neutron in 1920. Twelve years later, his assistant, English physicist James Chadwick found it.

AT LAST..AFTER 35 YEARS (1897-1932)

1897 ELECTRON (J.J. THOMSON) 1911 NUCLEUS (E. RUTHERFORD) 1918 PROTON (E. RUTHERFORD) 1932 NEUTRON (JAMES CHADWICK)

SIMPLEST ATOM : HYDROGEN

POPULAR ATOM: OXYGEN

MIDDLE-WEIGHT ATOM: CHLORINE

HEAVY-WEIGHT ATOM: MERCURY

DANGEROUS ATOM: URANIUM

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has verified and now recognizes the claims for discovery of 112 elements (1 through 112); another five discoveries have been claimed by competent researchers and published in peer reviewed journals (113 through 116 and 118) but have not yet received verification and acceptance by IUPAC.

CAN WE SEE ATOM?

First Picture of atoms

High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) of crystal lattice. The distance between each white dot is the inter-atomic distance. This was in a pile of photos from a materials science research paper wrote 20 years ago.

TEM images of selected nanoparticle assemblies. a) HfO2, b) Nd2O5, c) Ga2O3, d) In2O3, e) Sn0.90In0.10Ox, f) Fe3O4

HRTEM image of a part of an In2O3 cubic nanoparticle, b) 2nm nanoparticle Sn0.95In0.05Ox, c) a 16 nm nanoparticle of Fe3O4, d) a part of a Nb2O5 nanoplatelet. Inserts show respective PS.

Crystal growth of Co nanoparticles step by step

HRTEM images of Co particles at different growth stages. (a) a small Co cluster on the Mg2SiO4 surface. (b) and (c) spherical clusters of Co nanocrystallites in different diameters. (d) HRTEM image of an edge area of a polygonal Co particle, showing a large domain of Co single crystal. (e) TEM image of a polygonal particle of Co. (f) A polygonal Co particle resulted from recrystallisation of two clusters originally located at the ends of two Mg2SiO4 branches. [S. Xie, W. Zhou, Y. Q. Zhu, J. Phys. Chem. B, 108, 11561-6 (2004)].

HRTEM brings us a direct view of the crystal structure in the nanocrystals. The HRTEM cross-section of the Si nanowires explains the 6-fold symmetry of the GaAs nanowhiskers observed by SEM.

A sphere with a diameter of 1/100.000mm, consisting out of 17000 Copper atoms

MAKING IT POSSIBLE
High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) is an imaging mode of the transmission electron microscope (TEM) that allows the imaging of the crystallographic structure of a sample at an atomic scale. At present, the highest resolution realised is 0.8 ngstrms (0.08 nm) with microscopes such as the OAM at NCEM. Ongoing research soon push the resolution of HRTEM to 0.5 . At these small scales, individual atoms and crystalline defects can be imaged.

TIMELINE

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

1674 Anton van Leeuwenhoek

Electron microscopes (1931) use streams of electrons instead of light to create images.

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE LIGHT MICROSCOPE 18TH CENTURY

1981 SCANNING TUNNELLING MICROSCOPE

Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer

Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.

APPRECIATING NANOMETER SCALE

Nano From the Greek word for dwarfand means 10-9, or onebillionth. Here it refers to one-billionth of a meter, or 1 nanometer (nm). 1 nanometer is about 3 atoms long.

CENTIMETERS - PICOMETERS

 Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale.

NANOTECHNOLOGY

K. Eric Drexler popularized the word 'nanotechnology' in the 1980's,

15,342 atoms - parallel-shaft speed reducer gear

COMPOSITE VS ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

 SO FAR, WHAT WE HAVE SEEN AT THE SUB-ATOMIC, AMONG THE THREE I.E. PROTON, NEUTRON & ELECTRON, ONLY THE LAST IS A FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLE.
BOTH PROTON & NEUTRON IS STILL A COMPOSITE PARTICLE. IN OTHER WORDS, IT IS COMPOSED OF A STILL SMALLER PARTICLES,

Stop here

SO.WHAT MAKES UP THE PROTON AND NEUTRON THEN?

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

WHAT ARE ELEMENTARY PARTICLES?

An elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle not known to have substructure; that is, it is not known to be made up of smaller particles. If an elementary particle truly has no substructure, then it is one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which all other particles are made. Historically, the hadrons (mesons and baryons such as the proton and neutron) and even whole atoms were once regarded as elementary particles.

WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTARY PARTICLES?

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
There are 36 kinds of elementary particles (38 if the hypothesized graviton and Higgs boson are included). 12 kinds of matter particles 12 kinds of force-communicating particles, (Force carriers) 12 kinds of anti-particles for each matter particle.

HOW ARE THESE ELEMENTARY PARTICLES ORGANIZED?

ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

Particles can be divided into two classes on the basis of their spins:

FERMIONS - half-integer spin BOSONS Integer spin

SUB-DIVISION OF FERMION
FERMION (MATTER PARTICLES) CAN BE FURTHER SUB-DIVIDED INTO TWO :
QUARKS (6 TYPES) LEPTONS (6 TYPES)

TOTAL = 12 TYPES OF MATTER PARTICLES

WHAT ARE QUARKS?

A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.

QUARKS ARE ONLY FOUND WITHIN HADRONS (PROTON & NEUTRON)

Due to a phenomenon

known as color confinement, quarks are never found in isolation; they can only be found within hadrons. what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of the hadrons themselves.

For this reason, much of

TYPES OR FLAVOUR OF QUARKS

There are six types of quarks:

UP DOWN CHARM STRANGE TOP BOTTOM

QUARK SPIN

STRUCTURE OF QUARK AND GLUON

Gluons are elementary particles which act as the exchange particles (or gauge bosons) for the color force between quarks, analogous to the exchange of photons in the electromagnetic force between two charged particles.

CHRONOLOGY OF DISCOVERY
1963/8: U, D, S 1974: C 1977: B (FERMILAB)

1995: T (FERMILAB)

1968 FORMALLY DISCOVERED

Murray Gell-Mann. Deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center.

INTRINSIC PROPERTIES
Quarks have various intrinsic properties: Electric charge, Color charge, Spin, and Mass.

MASSES & STABILITY

Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay : the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the universe, whereas charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks can only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and in particle accelerators).

RELATIVE MASS OF QUARKS

QUARKS OF PROTON
A proton, composed of two up quarks and one down quark. (The color assignment of individual quarks is not important, only that all three colors are present.)

Composition:

Elementary particle

Particle statistics Generation: Interaction Symbol(s): Antiparticle: Theorized: Discovered: Types: Electric charge: Color charge Spin

Fermionic 1st, 2nd, 3rd Electromagnetism, Gravitation, Strong, Weak q Antiquark (q)

Murray Gell-Mann (1964) George Zweig (1964)

SLAC (~1968) 6 (up, down, charm, strange, top and bottom) +23 e, 13 e Yes
1 2

PROTON

The proton according to the new realistic quark model: Besides the three quarks of the naive model, there are the gluon strings, which can break and form numerous quark-antiquark pairs of the 'sea'.

QUARKS OF NEUTRON

ANTI-QUARKS

ANTIQUARKS (6)

u, pronounced "u-bar," and d, pronounced "d-bar ETC.

QUARK-ANTIQUARK IN PROTON

LEPTONS

LEPTONS
A lepton is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. The best known of all leptons is the electron which governs nearly all of chemistry as it is found in atoms and is directly tied to all chemical properties. Two main classes of leptons exist: charged leptons (also known as the electron-like leptons), and neutral leptons (better known as neutrinos).

Charged leptons can combine with other particles to form various composite particles such as atoms and positronium, while neutrinos rarely interact with anything, and are consequently rarely observed.

THERE ARE SIX TYPES OF LEPTONS, KNOWN AS FLAVOURS, FORMING THREE GENERATIONS.
First Generation is the electronic leptons: electrons (e) electron neutrinos (e) Second Generation (muonic leptons: muons () muon neutrinos ();

Third Generation (tauonic leptons), taus () tau neutrinos ().

LEPTONS: RELATIVE MASS

ELECTRON

ELECTRON
Electrons have the least mass of all the charged leptons. The heavier muons and taus will rapidly change into electrons through a process of particle decay. Thus electrons are stable and the most common charged lepton in the universe, whereas muons and taus can only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and those occurring in particle accelerator.

Electron Beam

ELECTRON
Negative electric charge. No known components or substructure, and therefore is believed to be an elementary particle. Mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is a half integer value in units of which means that it is a fermion. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, which is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign.

ANTI-LEPTONS

For each leptons there is antilepton

Antileptons
First generation Name Symbol Second generation Name antimuon Symbol Third generation Name antitau Symbol

antielectron (positron)

e+

electron antineutrino e

muon antineutrino

tau antineutrino

ANTI-LEPTONS

GENERATIONS OR PAIRS
The matter particles come in three generations: the particles in each successive generation have greater mass but are otherwise the same as their corresponding particles in the first generation. Only particles of the first generation are stable (the particles of the other generations tending to decay into other particles). They are the up quark, the down quark, the electron, and the electron neutrino.

SO, WE HAVE SEEN

6 QUARKS + 6 ANTIQUARKS AND 6 LEPTONS + 6 ANTILEPTONS

24 MATTER PARTICLES

SUMMARY: QUARK/LEPTON/ANTI

24 MATTER PARTICLES

WE HAVE DISCUSSED ALL THE FERMIONS

QUARKS (6) + ANTIQUARK (6) LEPTONS (6) + ANTILEPTONS (6)

NOW, LETS LOOK AT THE BOSONS

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
There are 36 kinds of elementary particles (38 if the hypothesized graviton and Higgs boson are included). 12 kinds of matter particles 12 kinds of anti-particle but for each matter particle. 12 kinds of force-communicating particles, (Force carriers)

BOSON
Sub-atomic particles having properties unlike or opposing those of fermions.
The word boson derives from the name of Satyendra Nath Bose.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FERMION AND BOSON

FERMIONS Obey FermiDirac statistics BOSONS Obey BoseEinstein statistics.

Two or more fermions cannot occupy the same quantum state.

Fermions, which have half-integer spin Fermions are usually associated with matter

Several bosons can occupy the same quantum state.

Observed bosons have integer spin Bosons are often force carrier particles

HOW MANY elementary BOSON PARTICLES ARE THERE?

8 gluons of the strong nuclear force, 3 weak bosons of the weak nuclear force (the W-minus, the W-plus, and the Z bosons), Photon of the electromagnetic force. TOTAL = 12 (Excluding the Higgs Boson & Graviton)

PHOTONS
A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic interaction and the basic unit of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is also the force carrier for the electromagnetic force.

Composition Statistics Group

Elementary particle Bosonic Gauge boson

Interactions
Symbol Theorized Mass Mean lifetime Electric charge

Electromagnetic
, h, or Albert Einstein 0 <11018 eV/c2 Stable[ 0 <11035

Spin
Parity C parity Condensed

1
-1 -1[ I(JPC) = 0,1(1--)

ELECTROMAGNETIC

GLUONS

GLUONS
Gluons are the exchange particles for the color force between quarks, analogous to the exchange of photons in the electromagnetic force between two charged particles. The gluon can be considered to be the fundamental exchange particle underlying the strong interaction between protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

PROPERTIES OF GLUONS
Composition Elementary particle Statistics Bosonic Group Gauge boson

Interactions

Strong interaction

Symbol

Theorized

Murray Gell-Mann (1962)[1

Discovered

TASSO collaboration at DESY (1979)[2][3]

Types

Mass

0 MeV/c2 (Theoretical value)[ < 20 MeV/c2 (Experimental limit)

Electric charge

0 e[4]

Color charge

octet (8 linearly independent types)

Spin

GLUONS

STRUCTURE OF QUARK AND GLUON

Gluons are elementary particles which act as the exchange particles (or gauge bosons) for the color force between quarks, analogous to the exchange of photons in the electromagnetic force between two charged particles.

8 COLORED GLUONS (Bosons). Denoted: g

COLOR-CHARGE
Quarks and gluons are color-charged particles. Just as electrically-charged particles interact by exchanging photons in electromagnetic interactions, color-charged particles exchange gluons in strong interactions. When two quarks are close to one another, they exchange gluons and create a very strong color force field that binds the quarks together. The force field gets stronger as the quarks get further apart. Quarks constantly change their color charges as they exchange gluons with other quarks.

COLOR CHARGE

There are three color charge Three corresponding anticolor (complementary color) charges. Each quark has one of the three color charges Each antiquark has one of the three anticolor charges.

WEAK BOSONS

THE 3 WEAK BOSONS

The W and Z bosons are the elementary particles that mediate the weak interaction; their symbols are W+ , W and Z.
The W and Z bosons were discovered experimentally in 1981, and their masses were found to be as the Standard Model predicted.

Composition Statistics Group Interactions Theorized Discovered

Elementary particle Bosonic Gauge boson Weak interaction Glashow, Weinberg, Salam (1968) UA1 and UA2 collaborations, 1983 W: 80.3980.023 GeV/2[1] Z: 91.18760.0021 GeV/c2[2 W: 1 e Z: 0 e 1

Mass

Electric charge

Spin

3 WEAK GLUONS (Bosons). Denoted: W- Zo W+.

HIGGS BOSON

HIGGS BOSONS
The Higgs boson is a hypothetical massive elementary particle predicted to exist by the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics. Postulated to resolve inconsistencies in theoretical physics. Experiments attempting to find the particle are currently being performed using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN and were being performed at Fermilab's Tevatron until Tevatron's closure in September 30th 2011.

The Higgs boson is the only elementary particle in the Standard Model that has not yet been observed in particle physics experiments.

In 1967 Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam incorporated the Higgs mechanism into Glashow's electroweak theory, giving it its modern form.

Composition Statistics Status

Elementary particle Bosonic Hypothetical F. Englert, R. Brout P. Higgs G. S. Guralnik C. R. Hagen and T. W. B. Kibble (1964) Not yet (as of September 2011); searches ongoing at the LHC 1, according to the Standard Model; 5 or more, according to supersymmetric models 115185 GeV/c (model-dependent upper bound[) 0

HIGGS BOSON

Theorized

Discovered

Types

Mass Spin

GRAVITONS

GRAVITON

The graviton is a hypothetical elementary particle that mediates the force of gravitation in the framework of quantum field theory. If it exists, the graviton must be massless (because the gravitational force has unlimited range) and must have a spin of 2.

Composition
Statistics Group Interactions Status Symbol

Elementary particle
Bosonic Gauge boson Gravitation theoretical G[

Antiparticle

Self
1930s[ The name is attributed to Dmitrii Blokhintsev and F.M. Gal'perin in 1934[ hypothetical 0 Stable 0e 2

Theorized

Discovered Mass Mean lifetime Electric charge Spin

GRAVITON GLUONS (Bosons). Hypothetical.

NOW LETS LOOK AT THE ORGANIZATION OF THE COMPOSITE PARTICLES

CLASSES OF PARTICLES
Fermions- Particles with half integer spin that obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle Bosons- Particles with integer spin. These particles are not limited by the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The Forces There are 4 fundamental forces that particles experience. In order of strength, they are: The Strong Force The Electromagnetic Force The Weak Force The Gravity Classes of Particles All particles, be they fundamental or composite, fall into one of two classes, Fermions or Bosons.

HADRON

HADRON
A hadron (Greek: hadrs, "stout, thick") A composite particle made of quarks held together by the strong force (as atoms and molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force).

HADRON = TWO FAMILIES

Hadrons are categorized into two families: Baryons (made of three quarks) Mesons (made of one quark and one antiquark).

BEST KNOWN = PROTONS & NEUTRONS

The best-known hadrons are:
Protons

Neutrons

Both are baryons, which are components of atomic nuclei.

STABILITY OF HADRONS
All hadrons except protons are unstable and undergo particle decay However neutrons are stable inside atomic nuclei.

BARYONS

BARYON
A baryon is a composite particle made up of three quarks The name "baryon" comes from the Greek word for "heavy" (, barys), because, at the time of their naming, most known particles had lower masses than the baryons.

MOST FAMILIAR = P & N

The most familiar baryons are the protons and neutrons that make up most of the mass of the visible matter in the universe.

TYPES OF BARYON BASE ON TYPE OF QUARKS

Baryons can be categorise into the three kinds base on the type combination of the quarks: Type I : One type of quark (uuu, ddd, ...). Type II : Two types of quarks (uud, uus, ...).

Type III : Three types of quarks (uds, udc, ...).

BARYONIC SHARE OF THE MASS OF THE UNIVERSE

MESONS

MESONS = 1Q + 1AQ

Mesons are subatomic particles composed of one quark and one antiquark, bound together by the strong interaction. A radius roughly one femtometer: 1015 m, which is about 23 the size of a proton or neutron.

ALL UNSTABLE = DECAY

All mesons are unstable, with the longest-lived lasting for only a few 100millionths (108) of a second. Charged mesons decay (sometimes through intermediate particles) to form electrons and neutrinos.

Uncharged mesons may decay to photons

PROPERTIES OF MESON
Composition Statistics Group CompositeQuarks and antiquarks Bosonic Hadrons

Interactions
Theorized Discovered

Strong
Hideki Yukawa (1935) 1947

Types
Mass

~140
From 139 MeV/c2 (+) to 9,460 MeV/c2 ()

Electric charge
Spin

1 e 0 e, +1 e
0, 1

BEST KNOWN PIONS & KAON

The best-known mesons are the pion and the kaon, which were discovered during cosmic ray experiments in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

KAON

PROPERTY OF PIONS
Composition + : ud 0 : uu or dd : du Bosonic Mesons Strong + , 0 , and Hideki Yukawa (1935) Csar Lattes, Giuseppe Occhialini (1947) and Cecil Powell

Statistics Group Interactions

Symbol

Theorized Discovered

Types

3
: 139.57018(35) MeV/c2 0 : 134.9766(6) MeV/c2 + : +1 e 0 :0e : 1 e 0 -1

Mass

Electric charge

Spin Parity

PROPERTY OF KAONS
Composition K+ : us K0 : ds / sd K : su Bosonic Mesons Strong K+ , K0 , K

Statistics Group Interactions

Symbol

Types

3
K : 493.6670.013 MeV/c2 K0 : 497.6480.022 MeV/c2 K : e K0 :0 0

Mass

Electric charge

Spin

Kaons Eta Rho Phi Upsilon (Many, Many More)

SUMMARY: BARYON VS MESON

IN TERMS OF WEIGHT

LEPTONS = LIGHT-WEIGHT

BARYON = HEAVY-WEIGHT

MESON = MIDDLE-WEIGHT

OTHER HADRONS

OTHER HADRONS: TETRAQUARKS & PENTAQUARKS

Other types of hadron may exist, such as: Tetraquarks (or, more generally, exotic mesons) Pentaquarks (exotic baryons),

But no current evidence conclusively suggests their existence.

WE HAVE FINISHED LOOKING AT THE COMPOSITE PARTICLES

SUMMARY

SUMMARY
All elementary particles are either bosons or fermions (depending on their spin). Particles normally associated with matter are fermions. They have half-integer spin and are divided into twelve flavours. Particles associated with fundamental forces are bosons and they have integer spin.

SUMMARY - FERMIONS
Fermions: Quarks up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom Leptons electron neutrino, electron, muon neutrino, muon, tau neutrino, tau (+ antiquarks and antileptons = 12)

SUMMARY - BOSONS
Bosons: Gauge bosons : Gluon, W and Z bosons, Photon Other bosons : Higgs boson & Graviton

SUMMARY LIST OF LEPTONS

(Antiparticle in Parenthesis) Electron (Positron) Muon (Antimuon)

Tauon (Antitauon)
Electron Neutrino (Electron Antineutrino)

Muon Neutrino (Muon Antineutrino)

Tauon Neutrino (Tauon Antineutrino)

SUMMARY LIST OF QUARKS

(Antiparticle in Parenthesis) Up Quark (Antiup Quark) Down Quark (Antidown Quark)

Strange Quark (Antistrange Quark)

Charm Quark (Anticharm Quark)

Bottom Quark (Antibottom Quark)

Top Quark (Antitop Quark)

SUMMARY LIST OF HADRONS

Mesons- Made of a Quark and Antiquark Baryons- Made of three Quarks

SUMMARY LIST OF MESONS

Pions Kaons Eta

Rho
Phi Upsilon

(Many, Many More)

SUMMARY LIST OF BARYONS

Proton (up, up, down) Neutron (up, down, down) Delta Plus Plus (up, up, up)

Omega (strange, strange, strange)

(Many, Many More)

SUMMARY OVERVIEW

SUMMARY

RELATIVE SIZES

THE STANDARD MODEL

STANDARD MODEL
The Standard Model is the name given to the current theory of fundamental particles and how they interact. This theory includes: Strong interactions due to the color charges of quarks and gluons. A combined theory of weak and electromagnetic interaction, known as electroweak theory, that introduces W and Z bosons as the carrier particles of weak processes, and photons as mediators to electromagnetic interactions.

FINALIZED IN THE 70s

Developed throughout the mid to late 20th century.
The current formulation was finalized in the mid 1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks.

CREDENTIALS
Since then, discoveries of the:
Bottom quark (1977), Top quark (1995) and Tau neutrino (2000)

Give credence to the Standard Model.

THEORY OF EVERYTHING (TOE)

Because of its success in explaining a wide variety of experimental results, the Standard Model is sometimes regarded as a theory of almost everything.

The Standard Model of Particle Physics

The are 12 fundamental particles that make up matter (orange and green boxes) and 4 fundamental force carriers (purple boxes). These appear to be anchored to the Higgs boson in the center.

The current theoretical framework that describes elementary particles and their forces, known as the Standard Model, is based on experiments that started in 1897 with the discovery of the electron.
Today, we know that there are six leptons, six quarks and four force carriers.

STANDARD MODEL - CONTD

SHORT FALL

Still, the Standard Model falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions because it does not incorporate the physics of general relativity, such as gravitation, and dark energy.

ALSO NOT INCLUDING DARK MATTER

The theory does not contain any viable dark matter particle that possesses all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology.

NOT ACCOUNTING NEUTRINO OSCILLATIONS

It also does not correctly account for neutrino oscillations (and their non-zero masses).

Neutrino oscillation is a quantum mechanical phenomenon predicted by Bruno Pontecorvo whereby a neutrino created with a specific lepton flavor (electron, muon or tau) can later be measured to have a different flavor.

THE SHORT FALL : DARK ENERGY AND DARK MATTER

IN A NUTSHELL

PLACES OF PARTICLE STUDIES

CERN
The European Organization for Nuclear Research (French: Organisation Europenne pour la Recherche Nuclaire) is an international organization whose purpose is to operate the world's largest particle physics laboratory, Situated in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the FrancoSwiss border. Established in 1954, the organization has twenty European member states.

CERN - WHERE

LARGE HADRON COLLIDER

SUPER PROTON SYNCHROTON

FERMI NATIONAL ACCELERATOR LABORATORY (FERMILAB), BATAVIA NEAR CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.

Fermilab's Tevatron is the world's largest proton-antiproton collider

FERMILAB COLLISION DETECTOR AT CDF - (C) CONCEIVABLYTECH

RESULTS

THANK YOU ..BYE