Electric Charge (1)

Evidence for electric

charges is everywhere, e.g.
static electricity.
lightning.
Benjamin Franklin (1700s)
discovered that there are
two types of charges:
positive charge.
negative charge.
Electric Charge (2)
Franklin also discovered that like charges
repel and unlike charges attract one
another.
Electric charge is
quantized (Millikan)
The smallest possible unit is the charge on one electron
or one proton:
e = 1.602 x 10
-19
Coulombs
Q = Ne
conserved (Franklin)

Electrostatic Charging
Objects may be charged by
friction (useful for charging insulators)
conduction (requires contact with
another charged object).
induction (requires no contact with
another charged object).

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-i/static-electric-current/electrification.php
Electrostatic Induction
(For conductor only)
Charging by electrostatic induction
A charged body is brought
near a neutral conductor.
The conductor is earthed
by touching with a finger
while the charged body is
still present.
The finger is removed.
The charged body is then
removed.
Force between Two Point Charges
The force between two point charges is
directly proportional to the magnitude of each
charge (q
1
, q
2
),
inversely proportional to the square of the
separation between their centers (r),
directed along the line connecting their centres.

+q
1
-q
2

r
Coulombs Law
Coulomb's law describes the force between two
charged particles.

2
2 1
)
4
1
(
r
q q
F
o
tc
=
For a vacuum
Where c
o
is called the permittivity
of free space and
c
o
= 8.85 10
-12
F m
-1
2 - 2 9
C m N 10 0 . 9
4
1
~
o
tc
And also
http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~vawter/PhysicsNet/QTMovies/ElectricForce/CoulombLawMain.html
CoulombLaw Apparatus
Torsion Balance
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-iv/electric-charges/coulombs-torsion-balance.php
Electric Fields
The space around a charged body, where electric
force is experienced by a test charge, is called an
electric field.

By a test charge we
mean a charge so small
that the force it exerts
does not significantly
alter the distribution of
the charges that create
the field.

http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/nforcefield.html

Electric Field Lines
The electric field lines indicate the direction of the
force due to the given field on a positive test charge.
The field points in the direction tangent to the field
line at any point.
The number of field lines drawn per unit cross-
sectional area is proportional to the electric field
strength.
F
+q
Properties of Field Lines
The field lines cannot cross.
The closer the lines the
stronger the field.
Where the lines are parallel
and uniform spaced, the field
is uniform.
Electric field lines start on positive charges and end on
negative charges.
The number of lines starting or ending is proportional to
the magnitude of charge.
http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets.html

Electric Field Patterns (1)
Electric field lines for a
single positive point
charge
Electric field lines for a
single negative point
charge
Electric Field Patterns (2)
Electric field lines for two
charges of opposite sign
Electric field lines for two
equal positive charges
Electric Field Patterns (3)
Electric field lines between two oppositely
charged parallel plates
Electric Field Strength
The electric field strength , E, at any point in an
electric field is defined as the force per unit charge
exerted on a tiny positive test charge at that point.
q
F
E =
Unit : N C
-1
or V m
-1

E represents a vector quantity whose direction is
that of the force that would be experienced by a
positive test charge.
The magnitude of q must be small enough not to
affect the distribution of the charges that are
responsible for E.
Electric Field Strength due to a
Point Charge
By Coulombs law
2
)
4
1
(
r
Qq
F
o
tc
=
By the definition of E
q
F
E =
Then we have
2
)
4
1
(
r
Q
E
o
tc
=
Notice that E depends only on Q which produces
the field, and not on the value of the test charge q.
Q
q
E
r
Vector Addition of Electric Field
Suppose we have several point charges Q
1
,
Q
2
and Q
3
etc. Then we can
Evaluate E
1
, E
2
and E
3
etc., and
Find E = EE
i
by using vector addition.
+Q
1

-Q
2

r
1

r
2

E
1

E
2

E
Electric Field and Conductor
Any net charge on a good
conductor distributes
itself on the surface.
E is always perpendicular
to the surface outside of
the conductor. (i.e. E has
no component parallel to
the surface.)
E is zero within a good
conductor.
If the charge are kept moving, as in current, these properties
need not apply
Electric Field due to a Charged
Spherical Conductor
Inside the sphere
The electric field is zero.
Outside the sphere
For r > a
2
)
4
1
(
r
Q
E
o
tc
=
E
r
a
o
c
o
On the surface of the sphere
o
E
c
o
=
Where o is the surface charge density.
Electric Field due to a Non-conducting
Charged Sphere
Inside a non-conductor,
which does not have
free electrons, an
electric field can exist.
The electric field outside
a nonconductor need not
to be perpendicular to
the surface.
E
r
a
o
c
o
Electric Potential Energy
The Coulomb force is a conservative force
(i.e. The work done by it on a particle which
moves around a closed path returning to its
initial position is zero.)
Therefore, a particle moving under the
influence of a Coulomb force is said to have
an electric potential energy defined by
U = qV
Electric Potential Energy
As the electric force is a
radial one, work is only
done for movement
along the line joining the
two charges.
AU=0 for any tangential
displacement.
Hence AU is
independent of the path
taken in moving between
two configurations.
Electric Potential Energy
A negative potential energy means that
work must be done against the electric field
in moving the charges apart.
Electric Potential Energy of a System
Consider an electric field formed by a system of
N charges.
Work has to be done to assemble the charges
from infinity in their final positions.
The electric potential energy of the field is
defined to be the algebraic sum of the electric
potential energy for every pair of charges.
i
i
i
V q U

=
2
1
Electric Potential
Electric potential is a measure of the electrical
potential energy per unit charge at a point in
an electric field.
The electric potential at a point in an electric
field is the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point.

q
W
V =
Unit : volts (V)
Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
The Concept of Potential
Potential is the analog of height.
Field Strength and Potential Gradient
The work done by a force
F to move the test charge
q against the electric force
by a small distance Ar is

q
F
E = As
and
q
W
V = A
We get
r
V
E
A
A
=
Hence
dr
dV
E = for Ar 0
i.e. Electric field strength = -potential gradient
http://www.falstad.com/vector2de/

r F W A =
Electric Potential due to a Point
Charge
In terms of the E-field, the electric potential is
defined by
}

=
r
Edr V
The - sign indicates that work is done against
the electric force.
For the electric field due to a point charge Q, it can
be shown that
r
Q
V
o
tc 4
1
=
Electric Potential for a Charged
Spherical Conductor
Inside the sphere the
electric potential is
constant, but not zero.
The field at any point
outside the sphere is
exactly the same as if
the whole charge were
concentrated at the
centre of the sphere.
r
V
0
a
r
Q
o
tc 4
1
a
Q
o
tc 4
1
Flame Probe Experiment (1)
To find the variation of electric potential around a
charged spherical conductor.
Flame Probe Experiment (2)
To measure how the electric potential changes at
different locations near the metal sphere.
+
e.h.t.
10 MO
gas
flame probe
insulated clamp
metre rule
V
insulated support
stand
metal sphere
Flame Probe Experiment (3)
To measure how the potential
changes at different locations
within a uniform electric field.
10 MO
E.H.T
+
_
V
metre rule
Potential changes within a uniform
electric field
0 V
18V
4V
14V
10V
6V
2V
12V
16V
8V
Equipotentials uniform field
+ 18 V
Distance from top plate
Potential
E = -dV/dx
is constant.
Zero Potential
The practical zero potential is that of the Earth.
The theoretical zero potential, according to the
definition of V, is that of a point at infinity.
Potential
(V)
Distance (x)
2 8 16 4 16 4 2 8
High field
intensity
Low field
intensity
Potential Difference
The electric potential difference is the difference
in potential energy per unit charge.
Potential Difference
The potential difference across two points A and B
is defined as the work done by the electric field to
move a unit charge from point A to point B.
A B AB
V V
q
W
V = =
V
B
>V
A
if an external agent does
positive work when moving a
positive charge.
The work done is independent of path.
Electric Potential between two
Charged Parallel Plates
The work done by the electric field E to move a
positive charge q from A to B is
W = qV
AB

As W = Fd and F = qE
V
AB
= Ed
Where d is the distance
between AB
Equipotentials
An equipotential surface is one on which all
points are at the same potential.
The potential difference between any two
points on the surface is zero.
No work is required to move a charge along an
equipotential.
The surface of a conductor is an equipotential
surface.
http://www.slcc.edu/schools/hum_sci/physics/tutor/2220/e_fields/java/
Contours
The concept of potential, V, in electricity is
equivalent to the concept of altitude, h, in
the case of gravitational field.
http://maxwell.ucdavis.edu/~electro/potential/equipotential.html

Topographic maps
All points on the same line are at
the same elevation, just as all
points on the same equipotential
lines are at the same voltage.
Water will always flow
downhill,hence the rivers are
always perpendicular to the lines
on the topographic map, similar to
the way electric field lines are
always perpendicular to
equipotential lines.
When lines are close together, the
slope is steep, e.g. a cliff, just as
close equipotential lines indicate a
strong electric field.
Lakes are at the same elevation,
in the same way conductors are at
the same potential.
Equipotential surfaces and Field Lines
(1)
Equipotential surfaces and Field Lines
(2)
The equipotentials are
always perpendicular
to the field lines.
The density of the
equipotentials
represents the strength
of the electric field.
The equipotentials
never cross each other.
Equipotential surfaces and Field
Lines (3)
A conducting Material in an Electric Field
Consider a pair of oppositely charged plates
which established a uniform field between them.
+
-
conductor
V/V
0
x/m
E/V m
-1

0
x/m
Electrostatic Shielding
The field inside the hollow metal box is zero.
A conducting box used in this way is an
effective device for shielding delicate
instruments and electronic circuit from
unwanted external electric field.
The inside of a car or an airplane is relatively
safe from lightning.

+
-
Comparison between Electrostatic
and Gravitational Fields
Electrostatic field Gravitational field
Field strength (unit)
Force
Field strength outside
isolated sphere
Potential outside
isolated sphere
Energy transferred
q
F
E =
m
F
g = (N C
-1
)
(N kg
-1
)
2
2 1
4
1
r
q q
F
o
tc
=
2
2 1
r
m m
G F =
2
4
1
r
Q
E
o
tc
=
2
r
M
G g =
r
Q
V
o
tc 4
1
=
r
M
G V =
W=qV W=mV
Differences between Electrostatic
field and Gravitational field
The gravitational force is always attractive while
the Coulombian force can either be attractive or
repulsive.
An electric field can be shielded while a
gravitational field cannot.
The magnitude of the Coulombian force depends
upon the medium separating the charges while
the gravitational force is independent of the
medium

Coaxial cable
Viewing Electric Field Pattern (1)
Viewing Electric Field Pattern (2)
Viewing Electric Field Pattern (3)
Millikans Oil Drop Experiment
http://www.hesston.edu/Academic/FACULTY/NELSONK/PhysicsResearch/Millikan/millikan.html
http://physics.wku.edu/~womble/phys260/millikan.html
Faradays Ice-pail Experiment
Gold Leaf Electroscope
The gold leaf electroscope is
an instrument whose leaves
diverge when it is charged.
The leaf rises because it has
the same charge as the stem
of the electroscope and like
charges repel.
An electroscope can only
indicate the presence and
relative magnitude of charge.
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-i/static-electric-current/gold-leaf-electroscope.php
Flame Probe
To measure the electric potential at which
the probe is situated.
gas
tape tape
insulated wire solder
hypodermic
needle
flame
glue
rubber tubing
insulated
support
The ions produced
by the flame
neutralize the
charge induced on
the probe.