SAINIK SCHOOL COMPUTER SCIENCE KODAGU ASSIGNMENT

1. WHAT ARE WEB BROWSERS? PASTE FEW PICTURES OF SOME WEB BROWSERS.

A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and may be a web page, image, video, or other piece of content.[2] Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. A web browser can also be defined as an application software or program designed to enable users to access, retrieve and view documents and other resources on the Internet. Although browsers are primarily intended to access the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems. The major web browsers are Firefox, Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Opera, and Safari

2.WHAT IS EMAIL? DISCUSS FEW FEATURES OF EMAIL.

Electronic mail, commonly known as email or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the recipient both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Today's email systems are based on a store-and-forward model. Email servers accept, forward, deliver and store messages. Neither the users nor their computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need connect only briefly, typically to an email server, for as long as it takes to send or receive messages. An email message consists of three components, the message envelope, the message header, and the message body. The message header contains control information, including, minimally, an originator's email address and one or more recipient addresses. Usually descriptive information is also added, such as a subject header field and a message submission date/time stamp. Originally a text-only (7-bit ASCII and others) communications medium, email was extended to carry multi-media content attachments, a process standardized in RFC 2045 through 2049. Collectively, these RFCs have come to be called Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME).

Electronic mail predates the inception of the Internet, and was in fact a crucial tool in creating it,[2] but the history of modern, global Internet email services reaches back to the early ARPANET. Standards for encoding email messages were proposed as early as 1973 (RFC 561). Conversion from ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current services. An email sent in the early 1970s looks quite similar to a basic text message sent on the Internet today. Network-based email was initially exchanged on the ARPANET in extensions to the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), but is now carried by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), first published as Internet standard 10 (RFC 821) in 1982. In the process of transporting email messages between systems, SMTP communicates delivery parameters using a message envelope separate from the message (header and body) itself. In 1996, for the first time, more electronic mail was sent than postal mail in the U.S. Almost from its creation, email has been the most widely used Internet application, and in that respect can claim to be the most important. These same capabilities also underlie the technology of mailing lists. The following sections describe the key features of email. Email Is A Push Technology Email Waits For You Email Is One-To-Many Email Is Almost Free.

FEATURES OF EMAIL
Email Is A Push Technology Email Waits For You Email Is One-To-Many Email Is Almost Free

EMAIL IS A PUSH TECHNOLOGY

Electronic mail predates the inception of the Internet, and was in fact a crucial tool in creating it,[2] but the history of modern, global Internet email services reaches back to the early ARPANET. Standards for encoding email messages were proposed as early as 1973 (RFC 561). Conversion from ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current services. An email sent in the early 1970s looks quite similar to a basic text message sent on the Internet today. Network-based email was initially exchanged on the ARPANET in extensions to the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), but is now carried by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), first published as Internet standard 10 (RFC 821) in 1982. In the process of transporting email messages between systems, SMTP communicates delivery parameters using a message envelope separate from the message (header and body) itself. In 1996, for the first time, more electronic mail was sent than postal mail in the U.S. Almost from its creation, email has been the most widely used Internet application, and in that respect can claim to be the most important. These same capabilities also underlie the technology of mailing lists. The following sections describe the key features of email.

EMAIL HAS THE POWER OF ONE-TO-MANY

You can send an email to several people in one simple action. Communications can be divided into four types depending on the number of parties participating in the information transfer: (1) one-to-one, (2) one-to-many, (3) many-to-one, and (4)many-to-many. Each type of communication has its own attributes and strengths. For example, the typical phone call is one-to-one, and the typical meeting is many-to-many. Email is the most successful one-tomany technology, with respect to both sending and receiving: Sending. You can send an email to more than one person at a time, for example to everyone in your family, or to a group of friends. Receiving. You can receive information that has been mailed to more than one person, for example an announcement sent to hundreds of people on a mailing list. The key advantage of this one-to-many communication is efficiency, since instead of sending emails individually, you can save large amounts of time by sending one email to several people at once (also see address groups). Similarly, when you receive an email from an Internet mailing list you are getting information that would probably be impractical to receive any other way, since most organizations don't have the time or resources to send out paper based notices individually to hundreds or even thousands of people. Email Is Almost Free

EMAIL IS ALMOST FREE

Email text takes up very little storage space or network bandwidth and so is very inexpensive. Email is by far the most inexpensive form of communication across global distances. You can send email to anyone in the world, no matter how far away, at no extra cost to you. Use of regular paper mail, telephone, or telegram (while they existed) to communicate the same information would take much longer, and be much more expensive. Based on a very conservative (inflated) cost of $10 a gigabyte for Internet bandwidth, the table below shows that it would take 50 thousand emails to cost $1 in bandwidth transfer. That is why the many choices for email-only accounts are so inexpensive. In comparison, web surfing uses many times more bandwidth.

3. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF USING EMAIL

. With the growing popularity of the Internet, e-mail has become the most popular communication method for the internet users. Email is the fast and effective method of communication and it is probably the most preferred method for online communication. At present, thousands of users are using e-mails every day. Extensive use of e-mail makes it so interesting and so versatile. If you want to send greetings to your grandfather or send some files to friends, you can easily use the e-mail to do so. There are a lot of advantages of email. E-mail has come a long way since its introduction, but still, for the most part of the world it used as a secured, fast and easy way to communicate. Electronic communications policy is essentially a reference tool that is much more developed now, and you can do much more with it than other medium. With an ordinary file, you can send text messages via e-mail address and send greeting cards, manage e-mail, duties or preventing unwanted emails by using a spam folder, and organize and manage tasks in their daily number of mail servers. You can send a heavy file within a minute by email.

However, this wonderful tool is not without fault. Some people use these advantages of email to send viruses and worms through e-mail and in the process they send a lot of emails on your address. If you open and use any file that is infected, it can make a major damage to your computer. An e-mail virus may often be very difficult to understand, especially for someone who have a little or limited knowledge about computer viruses and how they work. If you get an email with no name mentioned on it and if you open that mail, there are high chances for your computer to get infected by the virus and specious worm. The privacy problems mentioned above is a big problem. Almost every e-mail goes through a series of computers before it reaches the recipients inbox, and it is possible that individuals can access e-mail and read it. Therefore, it is important that you have a bullet-proof password. Thus you will be able to make your personal emails secured. Keep your security question and answer in a safe place. Do the best use of email and take the full advantages of email. Do not use it to harass people, because it is the worst use of a good thing.

ADVANTAGES OF EMAIL

I) E-mail is the most modern form of communication. 2) Communication through e-mail is more relaxed. 3) It is informal also. 4) It is cheapest form of communication as today almost every individual has internet connection and thus, he/she gets e-mail facility for free. 5) Users of e-mail can send message to numerous recipients, read and discard message, file and retrieve messages or forward it too. It is fastest as compared to other written means of communication.

4. To send an email log into your email provider. Type out your email and address the email to who you would like to send it to. Click the send button and wait for your confirmation.

EMAIL CLIENT

An email client, email reader, or more formally mail user agent (MUA), is a computer program used to access and manage a user's email. The term can refer to any system capable of accessing the user's email mailbox, regardless of it being a mail user agent, a relaying server, or a human typing on a terminal. In addition, a web application that provides message management, composition, and reception functions is sometimes also considered an email client, but more commonly referred to as webmail. Popular email clients include Microsoft Outlook, IBM Lotus Notes,Pegasus Mail, Mozilla's Thunderbird, and Apple Inc.'s Mail.

RETRIEVING MESSAGES FROM A MAILBOX

Like most client programs, an email client is only active when a user runs it. The most common arrangement is for an email user (the client) to make an arrangement with a remote Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) server for the receipt and storage of the client's emails. The MTA, using a suitable mail delivery agent (MDA), adds email messages to a client's storage as they arrive. The remote mail storage is referred to as the user's mailbox. The default setting on many Unix systems is for the mail server to store formatted messages in mbox, within the user's HOME directory. Of course, users of the system can log-in and run a mail client on the same computer that hosts their mailboxes; in which case, the server is not actually remote, other than in a generic sense. Emails are stored in the user's mailbox on the remote server until the user's email client requests them to be downloaded to the user's computer, or can otherwise access the user's mailbox on the possibly remote server. The email client can be set up to connect to multiple mailboxes at the same time and to request the download of emails either automatically, such as at pre-set intervals, or the request can be manually initiated by the user. A user's mailbox can be accessed in two dedicated ways. The Post Office Protocol (POP) allows the user to download messages one at a time and only deletes them from the server after they have been successfully saved on local storage. It is possible to leave messages on the server to permit another client to access them. However, there is no provision for flagging a specific message as seen, answered, or forwarded, thus POP is not convenient for users who access the same mail from different machines. Alternatively, the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) allows users to keep messages on the server, flagging them as appropriate. IMAP provides folders and sub-folders, which can be shared among different users with possibly different access rights. Typically, the Sent, Drafts, and Trash folders are created by default. IMAP features an idle extension for real time updates, providing faster notification than polling, where long lasting connections are feasible. In addition, the mailbox storage can be accessed directly by programs running on the server or via shared disks. Direct access can be more efficient but is less portable as it depends on the mailbox format; it is used by some email clients, including some webmail applications.

MESSAGE COMPOSITION

Email clients usually contain user interfaces to display and edit text. Some applications permit the use of program-external editor. The email clients will perform formatting according to RFC 5322 for headers and body, and MIME for non-textual content and attachments. Headers include the destination fields, To, Cc, and Bcc, and the originator fields From which is the message's author(s), Sender in case there are more authors, and Reply-To in case responses should be addressed to a different mailbox. To better assist the user with destination fields, many clients maintain one or more address books and/or are able to connect to an LDAP directory server. For originator fields, clients may support different identities. Client settings require the user's real name and email address for each user's identity, and possibly a list of LDAP servers.

SUBMITTING MESSAGES TO A SERVER

When a user wishes to create and send an email, the email client will handle the task. The email client is usually set up automatically to connect to the user's mail server, which is typically either an MSA or an MTA, two variations of the SMTP protocol. The email client which uses the SMTP protocol creates an authentication extension, which the mail server uses to authenticate the sender. This method eases modularity and nomadic computing. The older method was for the mail server to recognize the client's IP address, e.g. because the client is on the same machine and uses internal address 127.0.0.1, or because the client's IP address is controlled by the same internet service provider that provides both internet access and mail services. Client settings require the name or IP address of the preferred outgoing mail server, the port number (25 for MTA, 587 for MSA), and the user name and password for the authentication, if any. There is a non-standard port 465 for SSL encrypted SMTP sessions, that many clients and servers support for backward compatibility.

ENCRYPTION

With no encryption, much like for postcards, email activity is plainly visible by any occasional eavesdropper. Email encryption enables to safeguard privacy by encrypting the mail sessions, the body of the message, or both. Without it, anyone with network access and the right tools can monitor email and obtain login passwords. Examples of concern include the government censorship and surveillance and fellow wireless network users such as at an Internet cafe

ENCRYPTION OF MAIL SESSIONS

All relevant email protocols have an option to encrypt the whole session, to prevent a user's name and password from being sniffed. They are strongly suggested for nomadic users and whenever the internet access provider is not trusted.[1] When sending mail, users can only control encryption at the first hop from a client to its configured outgoing mail server. At any further hop, messages may be transmitted with or without encryption, depending solely on the general configuration of the transmitting server and the capabilities of the receiving one. Encrypted mail sessions deliver messages in their original format, i.e. plain text or encrypted body, on a user's local mailbox and on the destination server's. The latter server is operated by an email hosting service provider, possibly a different entity than the internet access provider currently at hand.

ENCRYPTION OF THE MESSAGE BODY

There are two models for managing cryptographic keys. S/MIME employs a model based on a trusted certificate authority (CA) that signs users' public keys. OpenPGP employs a somewhat more flexible web of trust mechanism that allows users to sign one another's public keys. OpenPGP is also more flexible in the format of the messages, in that it still supports plain message encryption and signing as they used to work before MIME standardization. In both cases, only the message body is encrypted. Header fields, including originator, recipients, and subject, remain in plain text.

WEBMAIL

In addition to the fat client email clients and small email clients, there are also Web-based email applications called webmail. Webmail has several advantages, including an ability to send and receive email away from the user's normal base using a web browser, thus eliminating the need for an email client. Some websites are dedicated to providing email services, including Hotmail, Gmail, AOL, and Yahoo; but there are many internet service providers which provide webmail services as part of their internet service package. The main limitations of webmail are that user interactions are subject to the website's operating system and the general inability to download email messages and compose or work on the messages offline, although Gmail does offer Offline Gmail through the installation of Gears and there are also other tools [2] to integrate parts of the webmail functionality into the OS (e.g. creating messages directly from third party applications via MAPI). The advantage of webmail provided by a regular mail server is that email remains on the mail server until the user can return to the base computer, when they can be downloaded. Users may be able to choose whether to leave a copy of the email on the server for a backup.

WEB MAIL

A major disadvantage of webmail is that the hosting corporation or institution retains control over the individual's email as it is performing a storage function in addition to the service function. Since the sole storage location is hosted and controlled by the corporation or institution the individual does not "have" their email but only has "access" to it and that access is under the sole control of the corporation or institution. This becomes a problem when users loses their email account through hacking or malice and are unable to retrieve the only copies of their stored email. Webmail will also be affected by the speed and quality of the internet connection and this may be a problem for dial-up connection users. A major advantage of webmail is that the individual's email is available everywhere there is an internet connection and a browser and the individual does not need a computer with their mail application installed in it. With webmail the users' email is usually backed up with multiple redundancy and corporations and institutions usually provide extremely reliable service as well as excellent spam filtering services. Privacy concerns have been raised about webmail as corporations are storing large amounts of personal information.

4. WRITE THE PROCESS OF SENDING A MESSAGE FROM ONE COMPUTER TO THE OTHER ON INTERNET. WHAT IS THE ROLE OF CLIENT-SERVER TECHNOLOGY AND TCP/IP IN IT? popular protocols for retrieving mail include POP3 ]==Protocols== While

and IMAP4, sending mail is usually done using the SMTP protocol. Another important standard supported by most email clients is MIME, which is used to send binary file email attachments. Attachments are files that are not part of the email proper, but are sent with the email. Most email clients use a User-Agent[4] header field to identify the software used to send the message. According to RFC 2076, this is a common but non-standard header field. RFC 6409, Message Submission for Mail, details the role of the Mail submission agent. RFC 5068, Email Submission Operations: Access and Accountability Requirements, provides a survey of the concepts of MTA, MSA, MDA, and MUA. It mentions that "Access Providers MUST NOT block users from accessing the external Internet using the SUBMISSION port 587" and that "MUAs SHOULD use the SUBMISSION port for message submission.

PORT NUMBERS

Email servers and client use the following TCP port numbers by convention, but customized configuration exist:
protocol use plain text or encrypt sessions plain text sessions only encrypt sessions only POP3 incoming mail 110

POP3
incoming mail 110
995 IMAP4 incoming mail 143 993 SMTP outgoing mail 25 (unofficial)[5] 465 MSA outgoing mail 587

MSA outgoing mail 587

HTTP webmail 80 443 Note that while webmail obeys the earlier HTTP disposition of having separate ports for encrypt and plain text sessions, mail protocols use the STARTTLS technique, thereby allowing encryption to start on an already established TCP connection. RFC 2595 discourages the use of the previously established ports 995 and 993.

PROPRIETARY CLIENT PROTOCOLS

Microsoft mail systems define the proprietary Messaging Application Programming Interface (MAPI) that is used in client applications, such as Microsoft Outlook, to access Microsoft Exchange electronic mail servers.

INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP

TCP and IP were developed by a Department of Defense (DOD) research project to connect a number different networks designed by different vendors into a network of networks (the "Internet"). It was initially successful because it delivered a few basic services that everyone needs (file transfer, electronic mail, remote logon) across a very large number of client and server systems. Several computers in a small department can use TCP/IP (along with other protocols) on a single LAN. The IP component provides routing from the department to the enterprise network, then to regional networks, and finally to the global Internet. On the battlefield a communications network will sustain damage, so the DOD designed TCP/IP to be robust and automatically recover from any node or phone line failure. This design allows the construction of very large networks with less central management. However, because of the automatic recovery, network problems can go undiagnosed and uncorrected for long periods of time. As with all other communications protocol, TCP/IP is composed of layers:

IP

IP - is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node. IP forwards each packet based on a four byte destination address (the IP number). The Internet authorities assign ranges of numbers to different organizations. The organizations assign groups of their numbers to departments. IP operates on gateway machines that move data from department to organization to region and then around the world.

TCP

TCP - is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to server. Data can be lost in the intermediate network. TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and completely received.

SOCKETS

Sockets

- is a name given to the package of subroutines that provide access to TCP/IP on most systems.

NETWORK OF LOWEST BIDDERS

The Army puts out a bid on a computer and DEC wins the bid. The Air Force puts out a bid and IBM wins. The Navy bid is won by Unisys. Then the President decides to invade Grenada and the armed forces discover that their computers cannot talk to each other. The DOD must build a "network" out of systems each of which, by law, was delivered by the lowest bidder on a single contract.

The Internet Protocol was developed to create a Network of Networks (the "Internet"). Individual machines are first connected to a LAN (Ethernet or Token Ring). TCP/IP shares the LAN with other uses (a Novell file server, Windows for Workgroups peer systems). One device provides the TCP/IP connection between the LAN and the rest of the world. To insure that all types of systems from all vendors can communicate, TCP/IP is absolutely standardized on the LAN. However, larger networks based on long distances and phone lines are more volatile. In the US, many large corporations would wish to reuse large internal networks based on IBM's SNA. In Europe, the national phone companies traditionally standardize on X.25. However, the sudden explosion of high speed microprocessors, fiber optics, and digital phone systems has created a burst of new options: ISDN, frame relay, FDDI, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). New technologies arise and become obsolete within a few years. With cable TV and phone companies competing to build the National Information Superhighway, no single standard can govern citywide, nationwide, or worldwide communications. The original design of TCP/IP as a Network of Networks fits nicely within the current technological uncertainty. TCP/IP data can be sent across a LAN, or it can be carried within an internal corporate SNA network, or it can piggyback on the cable TV service. Furthermore, machines connected to any of these networks can communicate to any other network through gateways supplied by the network vendor.

ADDRESSES

Each technology has its own convention for transmitting messages between two machines within the same network. On a LAN, messages are sent between machines by supplying the six byte unique identifier (the "MAC" address). In an SNA network, every machine has Logical Units with their own network address. DECNET, Appletalk, and Novell IPX all have a scheme for assigning numbers to each local network and to each workstation attached to the network.

On top of these local or vendor specific network addresses, TCP/IP assigns a unique number to every workstation in the world. This "IP number" is a four byte value that, by convention, is expressed by converting each byte into a decimal number (0 to 255) and separating the bytes with a period. For example, the PC Lube and Tune server is 130.132.59.234. An organization begins by sending electronic mail to Hostmaster@INTERNIC.NET requesting assignment of a network number. It is still possible for almost anyone to get assignment of a number for a small "Class C" network in which the first three bytes identify the network and the last byte identifies the individual computer. The author followed this procedure and was assigned the numbers 192.35.91.* for a network of computers at his house. Larger organizations can get a "Class B" network where the first two bytes identify the network and the last two bytes identify each of up to 64 thousand individual workstations. Yale's Class B network is 130.132, so all computers with IP address 130.132.*.* are

connected through Yale.

The organization then connects to the Internet through one of a dozen regional or specialized network suppliers. The network vendor is given the subscriber network number and adds it to the routing configuration in its own machines and those of the other major network suppliers. There is no mathematical formula that translates the numbers 192.35.91 or 130.132 into "Yale University" or "New Haven, CT." The machines that manage large regional networks or the central Internet routers managed by the National Science Foundation can only locate these networks by looking each network number up in a table. There are potentially thousands of Class B networks, and millions of Class C networks, but computer memory costs are low, so the tables are reasonable. Customers that connect to the Internet, even customers as large as IBM, do not need to maintain any information on other networks. They send all external data to the regional carrier to which they subscribe, and the regional carrier maintains the tables and does the appropriate routing.

New Haven is in a border state, split 50-50 between the Yankees and the Red Sox. In this spirit, Yale recently switched its connection from the Middle Atlantic regional network to the New England carrier. When the switch occurred, tables in the other regional areas and in the national spine had to be updated, so that traffic for 130.132 was routed through Boston instead of New Jersey. The large network carriers handle the paperwork and can perform such a switch given sufficient notice. During a conversion period, the university was connected to both networks so that messages could arrive through either path.

SUBNETS

Although the individual subscribers do not need to tabulate network numbers or provide explicit routing, it is convenient for most Class B networks to be internally managed as a much smaller and simpler version of the larger network organizations. It is common to subdivide the two bytes available for internal assignment into a one byte department number and a one byte workstation ID. The enterprise network is built using commercially available TCP/IP router boxes. Each router has small tables with 255 entries to translate the one byte department number into selection of a destination Ethernet connected to one of the routers. Messages to the PC Lube and Tune server (130.132.59.234) are sent through the national and New England regional networks based on the 130.132 part of the number. Arriving at Yale, the 59 department ID selects an Ethernet connector in the C& IS building. The 234 selects a particular workstation on that LAN. The Yale network must be updated as new Ethernets and departments are added, but it is not effected by changes outside the university or the movement of machines within the department. A Uncertain Path

A UNCERTAIN PATH

Every time a message arrives at an IP router, it makes an individual decision about where to send it next. There is concept of a session with a preselected path for all traffic. Consider a company with facilities in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago and Atlanta. It could build a network from four phone lines forming a loop (NY to Chicago to LA to Atlanta to NY). A message arriving at the NY router could go to LA via either Chicago or Atlanta. The reply could come back the other way. How does the router make a decision between routes? There is no correct answer. Traffic could be routed by the "clockwise" algorithm (go NY to Atlanta, LA to Chicago). The routers could alternate, sending one message to Atlanta and the next to Chicago. More sophisticated routing measures traffic patterns and sends data through the least busy link.

If one phone line in this network breaks down, traffic can still reach its destination through a roundabout path. After losing the NY to Chicago line, data can be sent NY to Atlanta to LA to Chicago. This provides continued service though with degraded performance. This kind of recovery is the primary design feature of IP. The loss of the line is immediately detected by the routers in NY and Chicago, but somehow this information must be sent to the other nodes. Otherwise, LA could continue to send NY messages through Chicago, where they arrive at a "dead end." Each network adopts some Router Protocol which periodically updates the routing tables throughout the network with information about changes in route status. If the size of the network grows, then the complexity of the routing updates will increase as will the cost of transmitting them. Building a single network that covers the entire US would be unreasonably complicated. Fortunately, the Internet is designed as a Network of Networks. This means that loops and redundancy are built into each regional carrier. The regional network handles its own problems and reroutes messages internally. Its Router Protocol updates the tables in its own routers, but no routing updates need to propagate from a regional carrier to the NSF spine or to the other regions (unless, of course, a subscriber switches permanently from one region to another).

UNDIAGNOSED PROBLEMS

IBM designs its SNA networks to be centrally managed. If any error occurs, it is reported to the network authorities. By design, any error is a problem that should be corrected or repaired. IP networks, however, were designed to be robust. In battlefield conditions, the loss of a node or line is a normal circumstance. Casualties can be sorted out later on, but the network must stay up. So IP networks are robust. They automatically (and silently) reconfigure themselves when something goes wrong. If there is enough redundancy built into the system, then communication is maintained. In 1975 when SNA was designed, such redundancy would be prohibitively expensive, or it might have been argued that only the Defense Department could afford it. Today, however, simple routers cost no more than a PC. However, the TCP/IP design that, "Errors are normal and can be largely ignored," produces problems of its own.

Data traffic is frequently organized around "hubs," much like airline traffic. One could imagine an IP router in Atlanta routing messages for smaller cities throughout the Southeast. The problem is that data arrives without a reservation. Airline companies experience the problem around major events, like the Super Bowl. Just before the game, everyone wants to fly into the city. After the game, everyone wants to fly out. Imbalance occurs on the network when something new gets advertised. Adam Curry announced the server at "mtv.com" and his regional carrier was swamped with traffic the next day. The problem is that messages come in from the entire world over high speed lines, but they go out to mtv.com over what was then a slow speed phone line. Occasionally a snow storm cancels flights and airports fill up with stranded passengers. Many go off to hotels in town. When data arrives at a congested router, there is no place to send the overflow. Excess packets are simply discarded. It becomes the responsibility of the sender to retry the data a few seconds later and to persist until it finally gets through. This recovery is provided by the TCP component of the Internet protocol.

TCP was designed to recover from node or line failures where the network propagates routing table changes to all router nodes. Since the update takes some time, TCP is slow to initiate recovery. The TCP algorithms are not tuned to optimally handle packet loss due to traffic congestion. Instead, the traditional Internet response to traffic problems has been to increase the speed of lines and equipment in order to say ahead of growth in demand. TCP treats the data as a stream of bytes. It logically assigns a sequence number to each byte. The TCP packet has a header that says, in effect, "This packet starts with byte 379642 and contains 200 bytes of data." The receiver can detect missing or incorrectly sequenced packets. TCP acknowledges data that has been received and retransmits data that has been lost. The TCP design means that error recovery is done end-to-end between the Client and Server machine. There is no formal standard for tracking problems in the middle of the network, though each network has adopted some ad hoc tools.

NEED TO KNOW

There are three levels of TCP/IP knowledge. Those who administer a regional or national network must design a system of long distance phone lines, dedicated routing devices, and very large configuration files. They must know the IP numbers and physical locations of thousands of subscriber networks. They must also have a formal network monitor strategy to detect problems and respond quickly. Each large company or university that subscribes to the Internet must have an intermediate level of network organization and expertise. A half dozen routers might be configured to connect several dozen departmental LANs in several buildings. All traffic outside the organization would typically be routed to a single connection to a regional network provider. However, the end user can install TCP/IP on a personal computer without any knowledge of either the corporate or regional network. Three pieces of information are required:

The IP address assigned to this personal computer The part of the IP address (the subnet mask) that distinguishes other machines on the same LAN (messages can be sent to them directly) from machines in other departments or elsewhere in the world (which are sent to a router machine) The IP address of the router machine that connects this LAN to the rest of the world. In the case of the PCLT server, the IP address is 130.132.59.234. Since the first three bytes designate this department, a "subnet mask" is defined as 255.255.255.0 (255 is the largest byte value and represents the number with all bits turned on). It is a Yale convention (which we recommend to everyone) that the router for each department have station number 1 within the department network. Thus the PCLT router is 130.132.59.1. Thus the PCLT server is configured with the values:

My IP address: 130.132.59.234 Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0 Default router: 130.132.59.1 The subnet mask tells the server that any other machine with an IP address beginning 130.132.59.* is on the same department LAN, so messages are sent to it directly. Any IP address beginning with a different value is accessed indirectly by sending the message through the router at 130.132.59.1 (which is on the departmental LAN). Additional information is available in self-study courses from SRA (1-800-SRA-1277) TCP/IP [34610]

5.WRITE NOTES ON WEB SERVER, WEB PAGE, WEBSITE, WEB CLIENT. EXPLAIN

WEB SERVER

Web server can refer to either the hardware (the computer) or the software (the computer application) that helps to deliver Web content that can be accessed through the Internet.[1] The most common use of web servers is to host websites, but there are other uses such as gaming, data storage or running enterprise applications. The primary function of a web server is to deliver web pages on the request to clients using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). This means delivery of HTML documents and any additional content that may be included by a document, such as images, style sheets and scripts.

A user agent, commonly a web browser or web crawler, initiates communication by making a request for a specific resource using HTTP and the server responds with the content of that resource or an error message if unable to do so. The resource is typically a real file on the server's secondary memory, but this is not necessarily the case and depends on how the web server is implemented.

While the primary function is to serve content, a full implementation of HTTP also includes ways of receiving content from clients. This feature is used for submitting web forms, including uploading of files. Many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using Active Server Pages (ASP), PHP, or other scripting languages. This means that the behaviour of the web server can be scripted in separate files, while the actual server software remains unchanged. Usually, this function is used to create HTML documents dynamically ("on-the-fly") as opposed to returning static documents. The former is primarily used for retrieving and/or modifying information from databases. The latter is typically much faster and more easily cached.

Web servers are not always used for serving the World Wide Web. They can also be found embedded in devices such as printers, routers, webcams and serving only a local network. The web server may then be used as a part of a system for monitoring and/or administering the device in question. This usually means that no additional software has to be installed on the client computer, since only a web browser is required (which now is included with most operating systems). In 1989 Tim Berners-Lee proposed a new project with the goal of easing the exchange of information between scientists by using a hypertext system to his employer CERN. The project resulted in Berners-Lee writing two programs in 1990: A browser called WorldWideWeb

The world's first web server, later known as CERN httpd, which ran on NeXTSTEP Between 1991 and 1994, the simplicity and effectiveness of early technologies used to surf and exchange data through the World Wide Web helped to port them to many different operating systems and spread their use among scientific organizations and universities, and then to industry. In 1994 Tim Berners-Lee decided to constitute the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) to regulate the further development of the many technologies involved (HTTP, HTML, etc.) through a

COMMON FEATURES
Virtual hosting to serve many Web sites using one IP address Large file support to be able to serve files whose size is greater than 2 GB on 32 bit OS Bandwidth throttling to limit the speed of responses in order to not saturate the network and to be able to serve more clients Server-side scripting to generate dynamic Web pages, still keeping web server and website implementations sepa

PATH TRANSLATION
Web servers are able to map the path component of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) into: A local file system resource (for static requests) An internal or external program name (for dynamic requests) For a static request the URL path specified by the client is relative to the web server's root directory. Consider the following URL as it would be requested by a

WEB PAGE

A web page or webpage is a document or information resource that is suitable for the World Wide Web and can be accessed through a web browser and displayed on a monitor or mobile device. This information is usually in HTML or XHTML format, and may provide navigation to other web pages via hypertext links. Web pages frequently subsume other resources such as style sheets, scripts and images into their final presentation. Web pages may be retrieved from a local computer or from a remote web server. The web server may restrict access only to a private network, e.g. a corporate intranet, or it may publish pages on the World Wide Web. Web pages are requested and served from web servers using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Web pages may consist of files of static text and other content stored within the web server's file system (static web pages), or may be constructed by server-side software when they are requested (dynamic web pages). Client-side scripting can make web pages more responsive to user input once on the client browser.

COLOUR, TYPOGRAPHY, ILLUSTRATION, AND INTERACTION

Web pages usually include information as to the colours of text and backgrounds and very often also contain links to images and sometimes other types of media to be included in the final view. Layout, typographic and color-scheme information is provided by Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) instructions, which can either be embedded in the HTML or can be provided by a separate file, which is referenced from within the HTML. The latter case is especially relevant where one lengthy stylesheet is relevant to a whole website: due to the way HTTP works, the browser will only download it once from the web server and use the cached copy for the whole site. Images are stored on the web server as separate files, but again HTTP allows for the fact that once a web page is downloaded to a browser, it is quite likely that related files such as images and stylesheets will be requested as it is processed. An HTTP 1.1 web server will maintain a connection with the browser until all related resources have been requested and provided. Web browsers usually render images along with the text and other material on the displayed web page.

DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR
Main article: dynamic web page Client-side computer code such as JavaScript or code implementing Ajax techniques can be provided either embedded in the HTML of a web page or, like CSS stylesheets, as separate, linked downloads specified in the HTML. These scripts may run on the client computer, if the user allows.

BROWSERS

A web browser can have a Graphical User Interface, like Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Chrome and Opera, or can be textbased, like Lynx or Links.

Web users with disabilities often use assistive technologies and adaptive strategies to access web pages.[1] Users may be color blind, may or may not want to use a mouse perhaps due to repetitive stress injury or motor-neurone problems, may be deaf and require audio to be captioned, may be blind and using a screen reader or braille display, may need screen magnification, etc. Disabled and able-bodied users may disable the download and viewing of images and other media, to save time, network bandwidth or merely to simplify their browsing experience. Users of mobile devices often have restricted displays and bandwidth. Anyone may prefer not to use the fonts, font sizes, styles and color schemes selected by the web page designer and may apply their own CSS styling to the page. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) recommend that all web pages should be designed with all of these options in mind.

ELEMENTS

A web page, as an information set, can contain numerous types of information, which is able to be seen, heard or interact by the end user: Perceived (rendered) information: Textual information: with diverse render variations. Non-textual information:

Static images may be raster graphics, typically GIF, JPEG or PNG; or vector formats such as SVG or Flash. Animated images typically Animated GIF and SVG, but also may be Flash, Shockwave, or Java applet. Audio, typically MP3, ogg or various proprietary formats. Video, WMV (Windows), RM (Real Media), FLV (Flash Video), MPG, MOV (QuickTime)

Interactive information: see interactive media.

Interactive information: see interactive media.

For "on page" interaction:

Interactive text: see DHTML. Interactive illustrations: ranging from "click to play" images to games, typically using script orchestration, Flash, Java applets, SVG, or Shockwave. Buttons: forms providing alternative interface, typically for use with script orchestration and DHTML. Hyperlinks: standard "change page" reactivity. Forms: providing more interaction with the server and server-side databases.

For "between pages" interaction:

Internal (hidden) information: Comments Linked Files through Hyperlink (Like DOC,XLS,PDF,etc). Metadata with semantic meta-information, Charset information, Document Type Definition (DTD), etc. Diagramation and style information: information about rendered items (like image size attributes) and visual specifications, as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). Scripts, usually JavaScript, complement interactivity and functionality. Note: on server-side the web page may also have "Processing Instruction Information Items". The web page can also contain dynamically adapted information elements, dependent upon the rendering browser or end-user location (through the use of IP address tracking and/or "cookie" information). From a more general/wide point of view, some information (grouped) elements, like a navigation bar, are uniform for all website pages, like a standard. These kind of "website standard information" are supplied by technologies like web template systems.

RENDERING

Web pages will often require more screen space than is available for a particular display resolution. Most modern browsers will place a scrollbar (a sliding tool at the side of the screen that allows the user to move the page up or down, or side-to-side) in the window to allow the user to see all content. Scrolling horizontally is less prevalent than vertical scrolling, not only because such pages often do not print properly, but because it inconveniences the user more so than vertical scrolling would (because lines are horizontal; scrolling back and forth for every line is much more inconvenient than scrolling after reading a whole screen; also most computer keyboards have page up and down keys, and many computer mice have vertical scroll wheels, but the horizontal scrolling equivalents are rare). When web pages are stored in a common directory of a web server, they become a website. A website will typically contain a group of web pages that are linked together, or have some other coherent method of navigation. The most important web page to have on a website is the index page. Depending on the web server settings, this index page can have many different names, but the most common is index.html. When a browser visits the homepage for a website, or any URL pointing to a directory rather than a specific file, the web server will serve the index page to the requesting browser. If no index page is defined in the configuration, or no such file exists on the server, either an error or directory listing will be served to the browser.

A web page can either be a single HTML file, or made up of several HTML files using frames or Server Side Includes (SSIs). Frames have been known to cause problems with web accessibility, copyright,[2] navigation, printing and search engine rankings[3], and are now less often used than they were in the 1990s.[4][5] Both frames and SSIs allow certain content which appears on many pages, such as page navigation or page headers, to be repeated without duplicating the HTML in many files. Frames and the W3C recommended alternative of 2000, the <object> tag,[4] also allow some content to remain in one place while other content can be scrolled using conventional scrollbars. Modern CSS and JavaScript client-side techniques can also achieve all of these goals and more. When creating a web page, it is important to ensure it conforms to the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) standards for HTML, CSS, XML and other standards. The W3C standards are in place to ensure all browsers which conform to their standards can display identical content without any special consideration for proprietary rendering techniques. A properly coded web page is going to be accessible to many different browsers old and new alike, display resolutions, as well as those users with audio or visual impairments.

URL

Main article: Uniform Resource Locator Typically, web pages today are becoming more dynamic. A dynamic web page is one that is created server-side when it is requested, and then served to the end-user. These types of web pages typically do not have a permalink, or a static URL, associated with them. Today, this can be seen in many popular forums, online shopping, and even on Wikipedia. This practice is intended to reduce the amount of static pages in lieu of storing the relevant web page information in a database. Some search engines may have a hard time indexing a web page that is dynamic, so static web pages can be provided in those instances.

VIEWING

In order to graphically display a web page, a web browser is needed. This is a type of software that can retrieve web pages from the Internet. Most current web browsers include the ability to view the source code. Viewing a web page in a text editor will also display the source code.

CREATION

To create a web page, a text editor or a specialized HTML editor is needed. In order to upload the created web page to a web server, traditionally an FTP client is needed. The design of a web page is highly personal. A design can be made according to one's own preference, or a premade web template can be used. Web templates let web page designers edit the content of a web page without having to worry about the overall aesthetics. Many people publish their own web pages using products like Tripod, or Angelfire. These web publishing tools offer free page creation and hosting up to a certain size limit. Other ways of making a web page is to download specialized software, like a Wiki, CMS, or forum. These options allow for quick and easy creation of a web page which is typically dynamic.

SAVING

While one is viewing a web page, a copy of it is saved locally; this is what is being viewed. Depending on the browser settings, this copy may be deleted at any time, or stored indefinitely, sometimes without the user realizing it. Most GUI browsers provide options for saving a web page more permanently. These may include: Save the rendered text without formatting or images, with hyperlinks reduced to plain text Save the HTML as it was served Overall structure preserved, but some links may be broken Save the HTML with relative links changed to absolute ones so that hyperlinks are preserved Save the entire web page All images and other resources including stylesheets and scripts are downloaded and saved in a new folder alongside the HTML, with links to them altered to refer to the local copies. Other relative links changed to absolute

Save the HTML as well as all images and other resources into a single MHTML file. This is supported by Internet Explorer and Opera.[6] Other browsers may support this if a suitable plugin has been installed. Most operating systems allow applications such as web browsers not only to print the currently viewed web page to a printer, but optionally to "print" to a file that can be viewed or printed later. Some web pages are designed, for example by use of CSS, so that hyperlinks, menus and other navigation items, which will be useless on paper, are rendered into print with this in mind. Sometimes, the destination addresses of hyperlinks may be shown explicitly, either within the body of the page or listed at the end of the printed version. Web page designers may specify in CSS that non-functional menus, navigational blocks and other items may simply be absent from the printed version.

WEBSITE

A website, also written as Web site,[1] web site, or simply site,[2] is a set of related web pages containing content (media) such as text, image, video, audio, etc. A website is hosted on at least one web server, accessible via a network such as the Internet or a private local area network through an Internet address known as a Uniform Resource Locator. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web. A webpage is a document, typically written in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML, XHTML). A webpage may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors.

Webpages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which may optionally employ encryption (HTTP Secure, HTTPS) to provide security and privacy for the user of the webpage content. The user's application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal. The pages of a website can usually be accessed from a simple Uniform Resource Locator (URL) called the web address. The URLs of the pages organize them into a hierarchy, although hyperlinking between them conveys the reader's perceived site structure and guides the reader's navigation of the site which generally includes a home page with most of the links to the site's web content, and a supplementary about, contact and link page.

Some websites require a subscription to access some or all of their content. Examples of subscription websites include many business sites, parts of news websites, academic journal websites, gaming websites, file-sharing websites, message boards, webbased email, social networking websites, websites providing real-time stock market data, and websites providing various other services (e.g., websites offering storing and/or sharing of images, files and so forth).

WEB CLIENTS AND COMPONENTS

When a Web client such as a browser communicates with a J2EE application, it does so through server-side objects called Web components. There are two types of Web components: Java Servlets and JavaServer Pages (JSP) pages. Servlets are Java programming language classes that dynamically process requests and construct responses. JSP pages are text-based documents that execute as servlets but allow a more natural approach to creating static content. Although servlets and JSP pages can be used interchangeably, each has its own strengths. Servlets are best suited to managing the control functions of an application, such as dispatching requests and handling nontextual data. JSP pages are more appropriate for generating text-based markup such as HTML, SVG, WML, and XML. This chapter describes the packaging, configuration, and deployment procedures for Web clients. Chapters 10 and 11 cover how to develop the Web components. Many features of JSP technology are determined by Java Servlet technology, so you should familiarize yourself with that material even if you do not intend to write servlets. Most J2EE Web clients use the HTTP protocol, and support for HTTP is a major aspect of Web components. For a brief summary of HTTP protocol features, see Appendix A.

COMPONENTS

Web Client Life Cycle Web Application Archives Creating a WAR File Adding a WAR File to an EAR File Adding a Web Component to a WAR File Configuring Web Clients Application-Level Configuration WAR-Level Configuration Component-Level Configuration Deploying Web Clients Running Web Clients Updating Web Clients Internationalizing Web Clients

PRESENTED BY, JATTINGARAY G J ROLL NO 081 CLASS 10 SEC B

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