BIOLOGY

B1 B2 B3

B1: You and Your Genes

NUCLEUS Contains CHROMOSOMES

Made of long strands of DNA BASE PAIRS (G=C) (A=T)

DNA MOLECULES

A GENE = A section of DNA that has the genetic code for making a particular protein.
These proteins can be: a) STRUCTURAL muscles/hair etc b) ENZYMES digestive/proteases etc

3 Base pairs in a DNA molecule are code for an AMINO ACID. Base pairs: G=C A=T

A human body has 23 PAIRS of chromosomes. The sex cells of both males and females carry half of the information, 23 individual chromosomes.

MOTHER
23 CHROMOSOMES

ZYGOTE
46 CHROMOSOMES 23 PAIRS

EMBRYO
46 CHROMOSOMES 23 PAIRS

FATHER
23 CHROMOSOMES

Gender
A female carries XX A male carries XY
The SRY (sex determining region Y) is carried on the Y gene. The SRY makes an XY embryo male, through the production of male hormones (ANDROGENS).

Alleles
Each chromosome has genes in the same places. But different versions of the genes called alleles. Genes can be either RECESSIVE or DOMINANT alleles. R + R -> R R + D -> D D + D -> D

Variation
Variation are differences. Identical twins are not the same even though they carry the same genetic information, this is because of ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. Examples of these factors are: Climate, diet, physical accidents, lifestyle and culture.

Genetic Testing
Tests are carried out to see if an individual carries certain alleles. Following are types of testing...

Antenatal: Analysing the babies DNA before birth. This cant detect all disorders. Prenatal: Testing for couples with an increased risk. Prenatal for Downs Syndrome is offered to all women. Neonatal: Testing the baby just after birth for disorders which can be treated early. All babies are screened for 3 (heel prick test).

Carrier Testing: Offered to individuals with a family history of a disorder such as cystic fibrosis which is caused by a recessive allele. If a couple are both carriers they have an increased risk of a baby with the disorder.
Predictive Testing: Looks for progressive disorders which develop later on in life. Again this is offered to those with relations that suffer from one.

Limits of Genetic Testing

Currently tests are not available for all genetic disorders. The testing is not completely safe. These tests are not completely reliable and if the results are taken as the definite then there may be serious consequences.. E.g: false negative abortion false positive reassurance & continuation of pregnancy.

Gene Therapy
What this involves: 1. A normal allele is taken and cut out. 2. Copies are made of it. 3. They are inserted into the chromosomes of the patients cells. Stage 3 causes difficulty because the information/cells may not work. The cells may naturally be replaced. In this case nose sprays, injections and viruses can be used to get it into the body.

 Gene therapy does not remove the faulty allele and so, it may be passed on to offspring. It is currently illegal to use gene therapy to alter sex cells.

Asexual Reproduction
This requires only one parent. There is no fusion of cells or mixing of genetic information, which means that a clone of the parent is produced. Plants do this by producing side branches, runners or underground food storage organs which develop into the next generation. This is unusual in animals, but starfish and anemones reproduce this way.

Cloning
Clones are genetically identical individuals. Twins are natural clones. Embryo transplants and fusion cell cloning produce clones. These processes allow the good features of an individual to be selected & duplicated in offspring.

Embryo Transplants
ANIMAL A EMBRYO EMBRYO is taken before the cells become specialised. EMBRYO

SEPARATED

GROWN HOST MOTHER HOST MOTHER

COPY OF ANIMAL A COPY OF ANIMAL A COPY OF ANIMAL A

HOST MOTHER

Fusion Cell Cloning

ANIMAL A

ANIMAL B

BODY CELL

OVARY

DNA

NUCLEUS REMOVED

FUSED AND GROWN ANIMAL C CLONE OF ANIMAL A -ALL THE GENETIC INFO HAS COME FROM ANIMAL A.

Stem Cells
These are unspecialised cells that are taken from embryos. THERAPEUTIC CLONING: The cells that are needed are grown from stem cells, but if they do not contain the patients genetic information then their body will reject them. So a clone is made of the patients own cell. This is used to produce an embryo, the growth of which is stimulated in a lab. Stem cells can then be taken from the embryo to treat many diseases.

B2: Keeping Healthy

Circulatory System
VEINS
ARTERIES

DEOXYGENATED

OXYGENATED

CAPILLARIES
(BLOOD VESSELS)

VEINS

ARTERIES

Under Low Pressure Thin Walls Thin Layers of Muscle & Elastic Fibres

Under High Pressure Thick Walls Thick Layers of Muscle & Elastic Fibres

+ One Way Valves

 Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with blood. When these get blocked by fatty deposits, this causes a heart attack.

Hormonal System
What are hormones? They are chemicals which are produced by glands to be transported to the organs via the bloodstream. The glands are: Brain, Pituitary gland, Thyroid, Adrenal gland, Kidney, Pancreas, Testis, Ovary

Nervous System
The nervous and the hormonal systems were developed because cells need to communicate. Cells communicate with electrical impulses. The nervous system is made up of: The brain, spinal cord and also neurones.

 Neurones are nerve cells.

NUCLEUS ENDING NERVE

AXON

DENDRITE (These are like branches)

Nervous System
RECEPTORS are groups of specialised cells. They detect environmental changes called STIMULI. These are then turned into electrical impulses. The EFFECTORS produce the response.

 The receptors are in the SENSE ORGANS. There are position, light, sound, chemical, touch, pressure, pain and temperature receptors.
The brain co-ordinates some of the responses, but REFLEX ACTIONS are instant and do not need the brain.

DETECTION OF STIMULUS

SENSORY NERVE

RELAY NERVE

MOTOR NEURONE

EFFECTOR

RESPONSE PRODUCED

Homeostasis
This is how the body maintains constant internal conditions.

1. Water Content Water is lost through urine, exhaling, sweat. 2. Temperature Controlled by blood flow to skin, sweating and shivering. 3. Salts Lost through sweat and urine. 4. Sugar Levels Glucose can be released and stored. This is controlled by the hormone INSULIN, as it removes glucose from the blood.

Disease
Pathogens cause disease. Bacteria and viruses are pathogens.

Immune System
PASSIVE IMMUNITY (The first line of defence) Natural Barriers: Skin, Tears, Sweat, Stomach Acid. ACTIVE IMMUNITY (The second line of defence) White Blood Cells

 The white blood cells recognise the foreign markers on the pathogen cells. Antibodies are produced. They stick to the markers on the microorganisms.

Other white blood cells engulf and ingest the marked cells.

Vaccinations
Vaccines establish antibodies before the disease is present. The memory cells can then remember which antibodies need to be produced and this can be done so quickly if the disease does attack in the future. This makes the immune system stronger when fighting the disease.

VACCINATIONS

Small amount of inactive form of pathogens injected

Stimulates white blood cells

Antibodies produced

Type of antibody is stored in the memory cells

Antibiotics
Overuse and misuse can lead to resistant strains of the disease. Resistance can be caused by random mutations. The course must be completed or the remaining bacteria may multiply again.

Drug Testing
1. Tests on laboratory grown cells or computer models. 2. Tests on animals. 3. Clinical Trials: Firstly healthy volunteers & then patients.

Clinical Trials: BLIND TRIALS Volunteers dont know what they are receiving but the doctors/researchers do. May give unreliable results due to observer bias. DOUBLE BLIND Volunteers & researchers/doctors dont know. This will give more reliable results but is more complex in setting it up. PLACEBO- FAKE DRUG WITHOUT EFFECT

B3: Life On Earth

Evolution
The Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old. Life has been present for the last 3.5 billion years. There are no records of when life began We can only have theories. No one will ever be certain

The Theories
Life developed from molecules that like DNA, could copy themselves. Earth could have been very different and these molecules could have only been present on the planet then. Or these starter molecules many have been in rock from another planet. As the molecules joined they became more complex organisms.

Darwins Theory of Evolution

19th century, Darwins explanation was very controversial as it conflicted with religious beliefs. He noticed that finches on the Galapagos islands had different beaks that differed with their food sources.

Darwins Natural Selection

This is the process of the best adapted individuals in a species surviving. The offspring inherit the successful characteristics.

Survival of the fittest

 The poorly adapted individuals will eventually die out and become extinct. They will not survive to reproduce. This means that only the successful genes are kept in the gene pool.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES E.G. CHANGE IN CLIMATE

NEW DISEASES

EXTINCTION
NEW PREDATORS NEW COMPETITION ON THE FOOD CHAIN NOT SUCCESSFULLY ADAPTED SO DO NOT SURVIVE TO REPRODUCE

EXAMPLE: THE DODO

Flightless Hunted Caught easily Humans arrived in and upset their environment Imported animals like rats, pigs and cats ate their eggs.
CONCLUSION: 1. The dodo was poorly adapted because it could not escape predators. 2. Humans were new predators. 3. Humans introduced animals from abroad which upset food chain.

Evidence Of Variation
He saw that individuals in a species show a wide range of variation. Variation is due to differences in genes. The variation is for survival and suits different environments.

Evidence of Evolution
FOSSILS- although some have not yet been discovered.

Human Evolution
Humans DID NOT evolve from apes. They shared a common ancestor.

Humans had a better chance of survival because: 1. They could stand upright- improving visibility of prey and predators. 2. They had a larger brain- allowing the abilities of planning, speaking & working together.