Intro to Psychology

Neurophysiology, Neuroanatomy

The Brain
The brain is a combination of two types of cells, glial cells and neurons The brain consists of 100 billion neurons and 1012 total cells

Neurons
Cells in the brain that communicate with each other Neurons are born early in life Do not regenerate

 Provide support for neurons

Structure support Metabolic and nutritional support

Glial Cells

Can replace themselves Serve to clean up the brain, removes dead tissue and foreign objects Play a large role in neural development May even be communicating with neurons Role is expanding with new research

Glia and Neurons

Many different types of neurons

Pyramidal neuron

Purkinje neuron

Parts of the Neuron

Neurons communicate in two ways Electrical signal: within a neuron Chemical signal: between neurons Electrical signal is sent from one part of the neuron to the other: The signal travels from the dendrite through the cell body to the axon
Dendrites receive the signal from another neuron Axons send the signal to other neurons

Chemical signal is sent from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of another neuron

Properties of the Neuron

Neurons contain many ions and are charged A- are large protein ions that always stay inside the cell K+ is potassium. At rest it is mostly inside the cell Cl- is chloride. It exists both inside and outside the cell Na+ is sodium. It exists primarily outside the cell

 When the cell is at rest (i.e., not doing anything), it has a charge of -70 mV. This is called the resting potential. Because of the cell properties, many forces are acting on the cell. 1. Diffusion - substances tend to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. 2. Like charges repel each other and opposite charges attract Charges stay the way they are because of the cell membrane. It is selectively permeable. It does this by ion channels.

 Normally the membrane closes Na+ channels However, if the membrane is given an electrical charge, it causes the membrane to lose some permeability This opens the sodium channels If this electrical charge is large enough, the flood gates will open Change in charge is potentiated down the length of the neuron This wave of charge is called the action potential

Sodium / Potassium Pump

Once sodium has rushed in, the cell quickly regains its composure Active process in which sodium is removed from the cell Sodium is exchanged for potassium Requires metabolic activity Returns charge inside cell to -70 mV Refractory period

Communication Between Neurons

When the action potential reaches the terminal button, it causes a release of chemicals called neurotransmitters These neurotransmitters are dumped into the synapse, the space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another

 Neurotransmitters come into contact with membrane of the other neuron Receptors on the dendrite detect the neurotransmitter NT binds to the receptor This causes a temporary change in the membrane, allowing a little sodium inside the cell This small charge is called the graded potential This is passed on to the axon and it summates

When the sum of the potentials reaches the base of the axon, a sufficient charge may be present to cause an action potential.

 Myelin a layer of proteins that are wrapped around the axon. Two functions: to protect the axon, and to speed up transmission Without myelin, neural transmission is inefficient Multiple Sclerosis an autoimmune disorder in which the myelin is destroyed.
Fatigue, pain, motor disorders, cognitive disorders, etc.

Removal of Neurotransmitter
After the NT is initially released, the chemical must be removed This is done in a couple of different ways
Biochemical breakdown of the NT Reuptake: NT is pulled back into the presynaptic button and packaged to be released again

Types of Neurotransmitters
Excitatory
Glutamate Acetylcholine

Inhibitory What does this mean?

GABA Norepinephrine

Both
Dopamine Serotonin

Effects of Drugs Psychopharmacology- the study of how drugs affect behavior Nearly all drugs work by affecting neurotransmitter release

Effect of Prozac

Prozac is an example of a SSRI a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

 Alcohol
Activates GABA receptors

Nicotine
Activates acetylcholine receptors Changes overall number of ACH receptors

Cocaine
Blocks reuptake of dopamine Stimulates release of dopamine Anesthetic effect on cells

Amphetamine / Methamphetamine
Similar to cocaine with no anesthetic effect

 Crack
Exactly like cocaine, just more efficient

Heroin
Activates opiate receptors

Marijuana
Activates cannabinoid receptors (similar to opiate)

Ecstasy (MDMA)
Selectively destroys neurons that release serotonin Serotonin is dumped out when the cell dies

Divisions of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System: Includes Brain and Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System: All other neural tissue. Specifically, the periphery. This includes muscles, the skin, and even the organs PNS broken down into two parts 1. Somatic nervous system: nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system AND motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle.

2. Autonomic nervous system Controls the "insides" (the "viscera") of our body, like the heart, stomach and intestines - functions in an involuntary, reflexive manner - does things like constrict blood vessels, dilate pupils, and even makes our heart beat fast on a roller coaster, etc. -Has two components - A. Sympathetic nervous system: - B. Parasympathetic nervous system

 Sympathetic NS- Regulates Fight or Flight

Prepares the body during stressful situations Increases heart beat, blood pressure, speeds breathing, slows digestive function

Parasympathetic NS Regulates "rest and digest"

Keeps the body running calmly Shuts down the sympathetic NS when the situation becomes less stressful

Parts of the CNS

Spinal Cord: Two types of material, white matter (Axons) and grey matter (cell bodies)

 Spinal cord relays sensory and motor information to and from the brain Controls reflexes
Ex. Knee jerk reflex, pain reflex

 Afferent neurons: neurons that send their signal TOWARDS the spinal cord Efferent neurons: neurons that send their signal AWAY from the spinal cord Reflex involves two neurons, one afferent and one efferent Reflexive action takes place before it is sent to the brain Allows for extremely efficient processing

Parts of the Brain

3 major divisions
1. Hindbrain: Cerebellum; Pons; Medulla 2. Forebrain: Cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus 3. Midbrain

Hindbrain Cerebellum: Extremely large area, millions of neurons

Responsible for coordination of movement Plays a role in learning

Pons
Important for sleep and especially dreaming

Medulla
Controls all vital functions of the body including breathing and heart rate

Forebrain Thalamus
Primary relay station of the brain Almost all sensory information passes through before going elsewhere

Hypothalamus
Regulates autonomic nervous system Regulates hormones, 4 Fs; Feeding, Fighting, Fleeing, and sexual behavior

Amygdala
Responsible for many aspects of emotion Emotional learning

 Hippocampus Especially important for learning and memory Resolving conflict Cerebral Cortex Does just about everything Many think that the cortex is what makes humans the way they are Cortex is broken up into 4 lobes:
Frontal lobe: the front of the brain Temporal lobe: side, the temples Parietal lobe: kinda middle portion Occipital Lobe: very back

 Frontal lobe
Important for planning Thinking / decision making Primary motor cortex: Generation of movement Brocas area: Production of Speech

Temporal lobe
Audition Wernickes area: Language comprehension

 Parietal lobe
Somatosensory function (touch, vibration, pain) Combination of all senses with vision

Occipital lobe
Vision: Primary visual cortex

Two Halves of the Brain

Brain is actually two different halves. It is split down the middle, with the right and left side being very similar to the other The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum: a bunch of axons

 Each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.
Ex. Moving right arm controlled by the left side of the brain.

Systematic differences in right vs. left. Most language and music on the left.
Somewhat different for left-handed people

The right hemisphere more involved with visual imagery and creativity.

Split-brain Patients
Sometimes the corpus callosum of a person is cut. It is often surgically cut in patients with severe epilepsy. Allows for the study of the role of each hemisphere Experiments have found crazy strange results

Studying the Brain with Animals Many techniques can be used to study the brain of animals Lesioning of the brain
Electrical lesions- electricity is passed through an electrode until neurons die Chemical lesions- inject chemicals like acid to kill neurons

Injection of drugs

 In Vitro analysis: In the Lab brain tissue is removed, isolated, and studied on its own. Individual neurons can be studied In Vivo analysis: In the Living the brain is studied in an intact animal

Studying the Brain of Humans EEG: electroencephalogram electrodes are placed on the scalp.
It records the electrical activity of neurons. Problem: It records from thousands of neurons at a time; not very precise

EEG printout

 CAT scan: Computerized tomography

Computer enhanced 3-D X-Rays Not much resolution, still life

 MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging uses magnetic fields to get brain scans
Just get a picture

 PET scan: Positron Emission Tomography

patients are injected with radioactive glucose. The scanner tracks where the glucose moves to. This is used as an indicator of neural activity. - Has problems: very expensive, resolution is fairly low.

 Functional MRI (fMRI) Registers changes in the metabolism of cells

Get 3-D picture of real time brain activity Very expensive