IGCSE Biology Revision - Core

Key topics!

MRS GREN
Movement = moving from one place to another Respire = release of energy from food Sensitivity = response to stimuli Growth = increase in cell number Reproduction = production of offspring Excretion = removal of waste (urine, CO2) Nutrition = taking in/making food

Plants
Multicellular Contain chloroplasts photosynthesis Cellulose cell walls Store carbs as starch/sucrose Eg: peas, beans, maize, rose etc

Animals
Multicellular Do NOT contain chloroplasts no photo No cell walls Usually have a NS Move from one place to another Store carb as glycogen

Fungi
No photo Organised into mycelium made from hyphae Hyphae contain many nuclei Some are single celled (eg: yeast) Cell wall made of chitin Feed by extracellular digestion release enzymes. Known as saprotrophic nutrition Store carbs as glycogen

Bacteria
Microscopic; single celled Have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids Lack nucleus but have a circular chromosome made of DNA Most are decomposers; some can photo Eg: Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Pneumonococcus

Protoctists
Microscopic single celled Amoeba live in water have features of animal cells; Chlorella have chloroplasts and are more like plants; Plasmodium causes malaria.

Viruses
Small particles smaller than bacteria Parasitic and live inside cells Wide variety to shapes and sizes No cell structure protein coat Contain DNA or RNA Eg: TMV (causes discolouration of tobacco leaves stops chloroplasts forming), HIV (causes AIDS)

Pathogenic?
Some bacteria, all viruses, some fungi, some protoctists.

Cells

Organisation
Organelles cells tissue organ system

Diffusion, Osmosis, Active Transport

Diffusion HL conc, down the gradient, seen in lungs Osmosis H L through PPM, seen in collecting duct. Water only. AT LH against/up conc gradient. Requires energy. Seen in roots (minerals) and in PCT (glucose)

Factors affecting rate of movement of substances into/out of cells

SA:Volume ratio Temp Conc gradient

Balanced diet
Carbs Fats Protein Energy Insulation Growth and repair

Vitamin A/C
Iron/calcium Water Fibre

Night vision/prevent scurvy

Prevent anaemia/strong bones Cell hydration Keep intestines healthy

Chemical elements present in carbs, fats and proteins???

Biochemical tests for glucose and starch???

Digestive system
Enzymes Emulsification Neutralisation Adaptations of SI

Digestion the 3 main food groups all

Digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble ones. ENZYMES are needed to break down large molecules (above) into smaller ones. Lipids fatty acids + glycerol Starch maltose glucose Proteins amino acids Absorption takes place in the small intestine Food is transported in the plasma of the blood.

Enzymes
Are biological catalysts Speed up biochemical reactions in cells Affected by temp (increase in KE up to optimum, then denatured)

Breathing system
Inhale diaphragm contracts, IC muscles contract
volume of thorax increases; pressure decreases

Adaptations of lungs

Smoking
Effects on heart Nicotine increases heart rate Higher BP Narrows coronary arteries More likely to have a heart attack Effects on lungs
Reduces SA of alveoli breathlessness Development of emphysema Bronchitis narrowing of bronchioles Lung cancer RBCs carry CO reduced efficiency of transport of O2

Aerobic Respiration
The release of energy from food. It is not breathing! Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Anaerobic respiration
The word equation is: Glucose lactic acid + some energy

Anaerobic respiration usually happens during vigorous exercise. It is only useful for a short time ie: during a sprint. During anaerobic respiration lactic acid builds Up in muscles this is what causes cramp. It must be oxidised: Lactic acid + oxygen carbon dioxide + water This is called OXYGEN DEBT.

Heart
Semi-lunar valves

RA
Tricuspid valve

LA
Bicuspid valve

RV

LV

Coronary arteries

Circulation be able to name blood vessels

Blood vessels

Blood Is composed of 4 things: (a) Red blood cells carry oxygen (haemoglobin, biconcave, large SA, no nucleus) (b) White blood cells phagocytes (engulf, digest) and lymphocytes (produce antibodies) (c) Platelets form scabs (d) Plasma yellow liquid which carries blood cells and dissolved products such as urea, CO2, food, temp.

Kidney
Nephrons Ultrafiltration Selective reabsorption High water in blood = LESS ADH = LESS permeability of CD = LESS reabsorption = MORE urine

Nervous System
Reflexes Synapses Stimulus receptors Neurotransmitter diffuses across gap SRM effectors response Fast, doesnt involve brain

The eye
Key labels

Hormones
Adrenaline Oestrogen ovaries adrenal glands repairs increases HR Progesterone Insulin pancreas ovaries maintains lowers sugar Testosterone levels on blood. testis secondary Stored as glycogen in sexual liver characteristics
ADH pituitary gland water reg (H)

Reproduction
Male Female

TIME FOR A BREAK!!! !!!!!!!

Plants - leaves
Palisade where photo takes place Spongy air spaces for diffusion Xylem water Phloem sucrose/amino acids Guard cells allow CO2 and O2 in/out of leaf

Leaf adaptations
Broad more SA Thin faster diffusion Palisade layer near surface Stomata gases in

Key word equations balance them as well!

Photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water oxygen + glucose

Respiration
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

Factors affecting photo

Temp Light CO2

Transpiration
Is the loss of water from a plant (evaporation) Measured using a potometer Factors affecting:
Humidity (the more moisture the less transpiration occurs think diffusion) Wind Temperature Light (opens stomata)

Auxins
Phototropism = auxin accumulates on the shady side; stimulates cell elongation on that side; shoot bends towards light; more photo Geotropism (TA) auxin accumulates on lower side, growth is retarded; roots curve down; anchorage, more minerals and water

Plant repro
Pollination transfer of pollen from anther to stigma Fertilisation when male and female gametes fuse

Insect pollinated
Dull No scent Anthers hang outside of plant Pollen is lighter

TIME FOR A BREAK!!! !!!!!!!

Inheritance and Genetics

Genetic terminology
Word
Chromosome DNA Gene Allele Genotype Phenotype Homozygous Heterozygous Dominant Recessive

Meaning
Structures found in nucleus of cell (46 in humans diploid; 23 in eggs and sperm haploid) Sequences of bases. Chromosomes are made of DNA A short section of DNA that codes (makes) a protein A different form of the same gene Eg: Aa- two alleles which together determine the phenotype (features an individual has) The physical characteristics seen Both alleles are the same. Eg: AA/aa Both alleles are different. Eg: Aa Only one allele needed for gene to be expressed. Eg Huntingtons Both alleles needed for gene to be expressed. Eg CF

Structure of DNA
Double helix two strands twisted round each other Adenine pairs with Thymine (AT) Cytosine pairs with Guanine (CG)

Genetic crosses will come up!

Start with parental phenotype (identify who is who as well) Give parental genotype underneath corresponding phenotypes Show gametes Put into punnet square Calculate ratios of phenotypes

Types of reproduction
Sexual 2 parents required Offspring will be genetically different Leads to variation and increased alleles in a population Asexual 1 parent required Offspring will be genetically identical to parent (clones) Decreased frequency of variation and decreased alleles

Mitosis
Asexual reproduction Leads to all daughter cells being genetically identical to parent Same number of chromosomes as parent in resulting cells Happens in all cells in the human body except the sex cells 2 cells at end

Meiosis
Sexual reproduction Results in variation Halves the number of chromosomes at end Happens in sex cells (gametes) only 4 cells at end

Egg and Sperm

Eggs are always X Sperm can be X or Y Make sure you can set out a genetic diagram to show that there is a 50/50 chance of a couple having a boy/girl

Mutations
Occur in DNA They are rare and random Some can be beneficial (natural selection) Some can be neutral (ie: a change doesnt affect the organism) Some can be harmful (eg: genetic disorders) Mutations can be inherited

Natural Selection
If a mutation is beneficial and offspring inherit it they are more likely to survive compared to other offspring They reproduce and pass on the favorable mutation The characteristic increases within a population Takes many generations.

Genetic Engineering

Cut Restriction enzymes Identify vector Cut with same restriction enzyme Stick gene into vector using DNA ligase Insert into bacteria = recombinant bacteria Fermenter

Cloning - plants
Micropropagation (or tissue culture) Explants are removed from parent plant Sterilise to remove bacteria Put explants into agar which contains minerals, hormones Grow (plantlets form) and then transfer to compost All are genetically identical to parent plant

Cloning - animals
Dolly! Empty egg cell (enucleated) Take skin cell nucleus (must be diploid) Fuse and allow to divide into a ball of cells Implant into uterus of surrogate Will be genetically identical to the organism the diploid cell was taken from.

Selective breeding
Select desirable characteristics from male and female Mate/breed Female gives birth Best offspring are chosen and the process is repeated for many generations.

TIME FOR A BREAK!!! !!!!!!!

Food Chains
Green plant Greenfly Ladybird Bird Can you name the producer? Carnivore? Herbivore? What would happen if all the greenfly died out? What would happen if all the Ladybirds died out?

Factors affecting population size

Amount of nutrients available Competition for food Competition for light (if a plant) Predation Disease

Pyramids of number
Shows the number of living things at each stage in the food chain. The producers are usually the biggest, with less and less living things at each level.

Pyramids of biomass
Shows the MASS of living organisms at each level. This is useful because sometimes a pyramid of number can be inverted.
Pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of number

Pyramids of energy
Always pyramid shaped as energy is lost at each trophic level Why?
Excretion Movement Egestion

Carbon cycle

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

CO2 taken in via photosynthesis Animals eat plants C is passed on this way Animals and plants respire putting CO2 back Micro-organisms that are involved in decay respire Combustion also has an effect on CO2 levels

Eutrophication

Air pollution
Air CO2 from combustion of fossil fuels global warming; Carbon dioxide is known as a GREENHOUSE GAS. Sulphur dioxide - SO2 and oxides of nitrogen NO2 from car fumes acid rain. Methane comes from increased cattle and rice farming global warming. Methane is also a GREENHOUSE GAS.

Water pollution
Sewage, fertiliser and toxic chemicals First two can lead to eutrophication

Land pollution
Land is being used up for FARMING. Why? More people = more food. Trees are being cut down. This is known as DEFORESTATION. Why? More people = more space for houses. Deforestation leads to increased carbon dioxide levels and decreased O2. Why? Less photosynthesis!

TIME FOR A BREAK!!! !!!!!!!

Glasshouses
Higher temp (increases enzyme activity) Higher CO2 (increases photo) Higher light intensity (increases photo) Leads to a higher yield

Fertilisers
Contain minerals
Mg chloropyll NO3 nitrates for protein and therefore growth

Biological control v pesticides

Advantages of Bio Specific to pest Only one application needed Doesnt harm the ecosystem Disadvantages of pesticides Bioaccumulation Pest resistance (not immunity!) Needs reapplication May harm other pests, disrupts food chains

Fish farming
Feed regularly Put antibiotics in the water Remove nitrogenous waste (filter) Keep predators out (cage)

Fermentation
Is an anaerobic reaction
Glucose CO2 + alcohol

Used to make bread

Mmmm beer and wine

Yeast + sugar added to flour Optimum temp for enzymes CO2 produced and bread rises

Starch in barley grains broken down Fermentation occurs Hops added for flavour

Fermenters
Features triple only: Water cooling jacket Paddles Air in Nutrients in Gas outlet Probes attached to Computer to monitor pH, temp, O2 etc

AND ONE FINAL THING.

GOOD LUCK!!!!!

IGCSE Biology - Extension

Enzymes and pH
Enzymes work within a specific pH range. If removed from this = denatured. Not all enzymes work in neutral conditions!

Vaccination
Dead/weakened version of the pathogen Stimulates production of cells that produce antibodies. Also memory cells. Memory cells mean a faster secondary immune response more antibodies faster second time around.

Blood clotting
Involves cells called platelets BC is important as prevents loss of blood; Stops pathogens entering wound.

The Eye
Accommodation: Distant = SL tight, ciliary muscles relaxed; Light intensity: BCCRR!!!

Thermoregulation
Hot Sweating - removes heat from the body as sweat evaporates Vasodilation more blood flows near the surface of the skin; more heat lost via radiation Cold Shivering repeated muscle contraction releases heat Vasoconstriction less blood flows near the surface of the skin Hairs stand up

Respiration and photo

Respiration happens ALL the time!

Germination
Water needed activates enzymes Warm temps increases KE of enzymes Water into seed by osmosis; enzymes activated and starch broken down into glucose; glucose used for respiration

Co-dominance
Use different capital letters The offspring will be a mixture of the two parents There will be more than two phenotypes when heterozygous parents are crossed. Eg: RW x RW (parents are pink) Offspring are RR, RW, WW

Mutations
Occur in DNA They are rare and random Some can be beneficial (natural selection) Some can be neutral Some can be harmful (eg: genetic disorders) Mutations can be inherited

Triple only: Mutations can increase when DNA is exposed to a mutagen (eg: ionising radiation)

Transgenics (triple only)

Means moving genes from one species to another If we cloned transgenic animals we could:
Have animals that produce lots of human antibodies Have organs that could be used for transplantation But is this ethically right? Should we do this?

Nitrogen cycle

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

N taken in via NPK fertilisers or from dead material. Become proteins in plants. Animals eat plants so N is passed on this way Decay (decomposing bacteria) and excretion lead to ammonia being formed Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into nitrates can be taken up by plants Nitrogen fixing bacteria on leguminous plants turn N has into nitrates. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas

Making food
Yoghurt Starter culture of bacteria added to milk Bacteria convert lactose lactic acid Lactic acid causes milk to clot and solidify. Asceptic techniques