Antennas

A transmitting antenna is used as a mechanism to

convert electrical energy traveling along a
transmission line into electromagnetic waves and
launch them into space.
A receiving antenna will have a current induced in
its elements(conductors) from the electric and
magnetic fields in space.

Half Wave Dipole
The ideal isotropioc radiator will radiate equally well in all
directions, however is theoretical in nature and could not
be built.
The fundamental practical antenna is the half wave dipole.
Dipole implies two parts or elements however does not
have to be wavelength long however it is more suitable
for impedance matching.

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L 5 . 0 95 . 0
0.95 accounts for end capacitance
Visualizing the action of the Half Wave Dipole
Consider a parallel wire transmision line terminated with
an open circuit.
There will be a voltage maximum at the open end and
wavelength from the end a current maximum exists with a
high SWR.
Now visualize the two conductors separating as they pivot
out from a point wavelength from the end.
The result is the stretching away of the electric field from
the wires until some of the field detaches and develops
electromagnetic waves.
Radiation Resistance
Recall that an open circuited lossless line presents itself as
a short circuit wavelength from the open end.
Points on either side of this location will appear reactive.
In terms of FEEDPOINT impedance there will never be a
non-zero resistive component because an open circuited
line can not DISSISPATE power.
However power for the most part is RADIATED from the
antenna and causes the input impedance to have a resistive
component. (1/2 wave dipole is about 70 ohms)

Efficiency
The portion of the antennas power delivered into
space is called Radiation Resistance.
There is a portion consumed by Ohmic losses in
the conductors (elements) and therefore cause the
antenna to have an EFFICIENCY of less than one.

= q
antenna to applied to power total P
power radiated P where
R
R
P
P
T
r
T
r
t
r
=
=
= =
:
q
Radiation Patterns
Antenna geometry and resulting field pattern will be
referenced to the 3 dimensional coordinate system.
The x-y axis is horizontal and angles referenced by phi
while the z axis is vertical and referenced to the horizontal
in terms of angle by theta toward the zenith.
Zenith represents the angle of elevation.
Azimuth would be the angular displacement about the
horizontal plane.
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Polar Plots
Antenna radiation patterns can be presented as x-y
presentations or in polar format.
Polar plots are scaled either as linear or logarithmic.
Because it is two dimensional two plots are required.
One for the vertical plane (elevation to zenith) and the
other in the horizontal plane (azimuth) to illustrate the
antenna E and H field patterns.

Dipole Polarization
dBi/dBd
The gain of a lossless dipole in the direction of
maximum radiation is 2.14 dBi with respect to an
isotropic radiator.
The gain of any antenna in dBd is 2.14 dB less
than when it is expressed in dBi.
EIRP and ERP
EIRP is the product of the actual power going into
the antenna and its gain with respect to an
isotropic radiator.

ERP(Effective Radiated Power) is the product of
the applied power to the antenna and its gain with
respect to a dipole.
T T
G P EIRP =
Field Regions
Reactive Near Field
Near Field or Fresnel Field
Far Field or Fraunhofer Field
Rayleigh Distance
Reactive Near Field
Region close to the antenna where mutual coupling exists
with a reactive field dominating over a radiating field.
In this region mutual impedances will be observed with
test antennas and field strength meters.
Due to reactive nature it will tend to store energy rather
than propagate it.
Field strength decreases at a complicated rate.
Distance from source defined by:
/ 62 . 0
3
L
Reactive and Radiating Field Regions
Near Field Region
The RADIATING NEAR FIELD: the radiation
fields dominate.
Falls between a boundary that defines the Reactive
near field and the Radiating Far Field.
The boundary between the Near Field and the Far
Field is defined by the Rayleigh distance as:

2
2
L
D =
Where L is longest dimension of
physical antenna
Radiating Far Field
Region beyond the Near field occupying the
space from the boundary to
infinity. .
Far field is dominated by the radiating field
and the radiation pattern is independent of
distance.
Power Density varies as the inverse square
of the radial distance.
/ 2
2
L
Gain and Directivity
Directivity is the calculated Gain of a lossless
antenna.
Real antennas have losses. Gain is the product of
directivity and antenna efficiency.

ef f iciency antenna
antenna to power P
power radiated total P where
P P
T
X
T X
=
=
=
=
q
q
:
q D G =
Impedance
Radiation resistance of a wave dipole in free space is
approximately 70 ohms.
Impedance is completely resistive at resonance, that is at
the frequency that the physical elements are cut to.
If frequency is above resonance the feedpoint impedance
will have an INDUCTIVE component.
If the frequency is below resonance then the feedpoint
impedance will have a capacitive component.
Effects of Ground
Interactions between Antenna and Ground:Waves radiate from the
antenna directly downward and reflect vertically from the ground and
induce a voltage in passing the antenna elements.
Magnitude and Phase of the resulting current depends on the height of
the antenna above ground.
There are two current components: the power of the transmitter with
the free space impedance and the induced current from reflections of
the ground surface.
Therefore feedpoint resistance is affected by antenna height above
ground due to this MUTUAL COUPLING.
Effects of Ground
Reactive Near Field: antenna acts as lumped-constant component
inductor or capacitor where energy is stored and a minimal amount
radiated. Interaction with ground reflections develop mutual
impedance altering feedpoint Z and therefore could increase losses.
Radiating Far Field: In this region ground reflections influence the
radiation pattern. HORIZONTALLY polarized antennas have their
pattern SHAPE affected in the elevation plane depending on height
above ground. VERTICALLY polarized antennas have SHAPE and
STRENGTH affected.
Other than height above ground the dielectric constant and the
conductivity of the ground composition can have a significant effect on
the behavior of the antenna.