SAS No.

39 defines audit sampling as

the application of an audit procedure to
less than 100 percent of the items
within an account balance or class of
transactions for the purpose of
evaluating some characteristic of the
balance or class (AU 350.01).
Design efficient samples
Measure sufficiency of evidence
Objectively evaluate sample results
When planning the sample consider:
The relationship of the sample to the relevant audit
objective
Materiality or the maximum tolerable misstatement or
deviation rate
Allowable sampling risk
Characteristics of the population
Select sample items in such a manner that they can be
expected to be representative of the population
Sample results should be projected to the population
Items that cannot be audited should be treated as
misstatements or deviations in evaluating the sample
results
Nature and cause of misstatements or deviations
should be evaluated
Random number tables
Random number generators
Systematic selection
Haphazard Selection

Note that these methods are often used in
conjunction with a stratification process.
Sampling risk
Risk of assessing CR too high / Risk of
incorrect rejection
Risk of assessing CR too low / Risk of
incorrect acceptance

Precision (allowance for sampling risk)

Attributes sampling
Discovery sampling
Classical variables sampling
Probability-proportional-to-size
sampling
Attribute sampling is a statistical
method used to estimate the proportion
of a characteristic in a population.
The auditor is normally attempting to
determine the operating effectiveness of
a control procedure in terms of
deviations from the prescribed internal
control.

True State of Population
Deviation Rate Deviation Rate
Exceeds Is Less
Than
Auditors Conclusion Tolerable Rate Tolerable Rate
From the Sample Is:

Deviation Rate
Exceeds
Tolerable Rate


Deviation Rate
Is Less Than
Tolerable Rate
Correct
Decision
Incorrect
Decision
(Risk of Assessing
Control Risk
Too High)
Incorrect
Decision
(Risk of Assessing
Control Risk
Too Low)
Correct
Decision
Determine the objective of the test
Define the attributes and deviation conditions
Define the population to be sampled
Specify:
The risk of assessing control risk too low
The tolerable deviation rate
The estimated population deviation rate
Determine the sample size
Select the sample
Test the sample items
Evaluate the sample results
Document the sampling procedure
Planning
Performance
Evaluation
Documentation
A modified case of attributes sampling
Purpose is to detect at least one deviation
(i.e. critical deviations)
Useful in fraud detection
Auditor risk and deviation assessments:
Risk of assessing control risk too low (i.e. 5%)
Tolerable rate (normally set very low, i.e. < 2%)
Expected deviation rate is generally set at 0
Determination of required sample size
Must consider risk of assessing control risk too
low and tolerable deviation rate
Need not quantify the risks
Evaluation of results
Compare tolerable deviation rate to sample
deviation rate. Assuming appropriate n:
If SDR somewhat less than TDR, then conclude that risk
of assessing control risk too low is set appropriately.
If SDR approaches TDR it becomes less likely that PDR
< TDR
Must use professional judgment

Determine the objective of the test
Define the population and sampling
unit
Choose an audit sampling technique
Determine the sample size
Select the sample
Test the sample items
Evaluate the sample results
Document the sampling procedure
Planning
Performance
Evaluation
Documentation
True State of Population
Misstatement in Misstatement in
Account Exceeds Account Is
Less
Auditors Conclusion Tolerable Amount Than Tolerable
From the Sample Is: Amount

Misstatement in
Account Exceeds
Tolerable Amount


Misstatement in
Account Is Less
Than Tolerable
Amount
Correct
Decision
Incorrect
Decision
(Risk of Incorrect
Rejection)
Incorrect
Decision
(Risk of Incorrect
Acceptance)
Correct
Decision
Modification of audit risk model:
AR = IR x CR x DR
DR comprised of two types of substantive
procedures, each with an associated type of risk:
Risk associated with AP and other procedures that do not
involve audit sampling (AP)
Risk associated with procedures involving audit sampling
(RIA)
AR = IR x CR x AP x RIA
RIA = AR /(IR x CR x AP)

Mean per-unit estimation
Difference and Ratio Estimation
Appropriate when differences between audited
and book values are frequent
Difference estimation is most appropriate when
the size of the misstatements does not vary
significantly in comparison to book value
Ratio estimation is most appropriate when the
size of misstatements is nearly proportional to
the book values of the items.
N = population size
U
r
= incorrect rejection coefficient (Table 9-
8)
SD
E
= estimated population standard
deviation
A = planned allowance for sampling risk
2
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=
A
SD U N
n
E r
N
) X x (
2

= o
1
) (
2

=

n
X x
s
Standard deviation
Population SD
Sample SD
Calculation of planned allowance for
sampling risk (A):


r
a
U
U
TM
A
+
=
1
TM = tolerable misstatement
U
a
= Incorrect acceptance coefficient (Table 9-8)
U
r
= incorrect rejection coefficient (Table 9-8)
Calculation of adjusted allowance for
sampling risk (A):




TM = Tolerable misstatement
U
a
= Incorrect acceptance coefficient (Table 9-8)
SD
C
= Sample (calculated) standard deviation
n = sample size
n
SD U N
TM A
C a

=
'
Estimated total audited value
= Mean audited value x Number of accounts

Acceptance interval
= Estimated total audited value +/- Adjusted
allowance for sampling risk

Projected misstatement
= Estimated total audited value Book value of
population
Determination of required sample size
Must consider IR, CR and AP risk

Evaluation of results
Compare projected misstatement to tolerable
misstatement.
As PM approaches TM then likelihood of
material misstatement increasing.
Rule-of-thumb: if PM exceeds 1/3 of TM, PM
becoming too high

Applies the theory of attributes sampling to
estimate the total dollar amount of misstatement
in a population.
Population is defined by the individual dollars
comprising the populations book value ($1 = 1
item).
Relatively easy to use and often results in smaller
sample sizes than classical variables approaches.
Assumptions underlying PPS sampling:
Expected misstatement rate in the population is small.
Amount of misstatement in physical unit should not
exceed recorded BV of the item.
PPS focuses on overstatements.
) (
0
EF EM TM
RF PBV
n


=
PBV = population book value
RF = reliability factor (Table 9-14)
TM = tolerable misstatement
EM = expected misstatement
EF = expansion factor (Table 9-15)
Systematic selection is generally used with PPS
sampling:
n
PBV
SI =
SI = sampling interval
PBV = population book value
n = sample size
IA BP PM ULM + + =
ULM = upper limit on misstatement
PM = projected misstatement
BP = basic precision
IA = incremental allowance
Allowance for sampling risk
Projected misstatement (PM)
If BV < SI, PM = TF x SI
TF = tainting factor = (BV AV) / BV
BV = book value
AV = audit value
If BV > SI, PM = actual misstatement


Allowance for sampling risk
Basic precision = SI x RF
0

Incremental allowance
If no misstatements in sample found, IA = 0
If misstatements found:
For misstatements in which BV < SI, rank
order projected misstatements from largest
to smallest, multiply by corresponding
incremental factor (from Table 9-14) and
sum to calculate IA.

Compare ULM to TM:
If ULM < TM, conclude that population is
not misstated by more than TM at the
specified level of sampling risk.
If ULM > TM, conclude that the sample
results do not provide enough assurance
that the population misstatement is less
than the TM and balance adjustment may
be warranted.