Geographic Information Systems

What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?

A GIS is a particular form of Information System applied to geographical data. An Information System is a set of processes, executed on raw data to produce information which will be useful when making decisions. A system is a group of connected entities and activities which interact for a common purpose.
This discussion is derived from a seminar by Dr. David Waits

What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?

An information system has a full range of functions to:
process observations process measurements provide descriptions explain data make forecasts make decisions

What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?

In a geographic information system, information is characterized spatially. In a GIS the common purpose is decision making to manage:
land resources transportation retailing OR any other spatially distributed activity

What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?

A GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced information. A GIS integrates spatial and other kinds of information within a single system to provide a consistent framework for analyzing geographic (spatial) data.

What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?

A GIS makes connections between activities based on geographic proximity. The digital data structure can be conceptualized as a set of floating electronic maps with a common registration allowing the used to look down (drill down) and across the stack of maps. The spatial relationships can be summarized (data base inquiries)

What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?

The spatial relationships can be summarized (data base inquiries) or manipulated (analytical processing).
Another definition of GIS - An internally referenced, automated, spatial information system for data mapping, management, and analysis

GIS Process
Capture Data Register Map Base Store Data in Computer Interpret Data Convert Data to Digital

Process
Data Display Results

Format

Images Image Processing System Maps

Statistical Reports Statistical Analysis System

Map Digitizing System

Spatial Attribute Data Data Base Base Geographic Analysis System Cartographic Display System

Database Management System Statistics Tabular Data

GIS System

Maps

GIS - Map Stacking

NDVI From Aerial Image Nitrogen Availability Estimate from Aerial Photo

pH Layer

Geographic Information System

Courtesy of PPI

Drilling Down Through The Data Layers

Courtesy of PPI

GIS Data Formats

There are two formats used by GIS systems to store and retrieve geographical data:

Raster Vector

Raster Format
Data are divided into cell, pixels, or elements Cells are organized in arrays Each cell has a single value Row and Column Numbers are used to identify the location of the cell within the array. Perhaps the most common example of raster data is a digital image.

Vector Format
Data are associated with points, lines, or boundaries enclosing areas Points are located by coordinates Lines are described by a series of connecting vectors (line segments described by the coordinates of the start of the vector, its direction, and magnitude or length). Areas or polygons are described by a series of vectors enclosing the area.

Vector Format
Any number of factors or attributes can be associated with a point line or polygon. Data are stored in two files:
a file containing location information a file containing information on the attributes

A third file contains information needed to link positional data with their attributes.

Vector and Raster Representation of Point Map Features

Map Feature GIS Vector Format GIS Raster Format

(X,Y) Coordinate in space

Cell Located in an Array

Vector and Raster Representation of Line Map Features

Map Feature GIS Vector Format GIS Raster Format

Vector and Raster Representation of Area Map Features

Map Feature GIS Vector Format GIS Raster Format

Vector and Raster Formats

Most GIS software can display both vector and raster data. Raster formats are efficient when comparing information among arrays with the same cell size. Raster files are generally very large because each cell occupies a separate line of data. Vector formats are efficient when comparing information whose geographical dimensions are different.

Comparison of Raster and Vector Formats

Raster
Raster formats are efficient when comparing information among arrays with the same cell size. Raster files are generally very large because each cell occupies a separate line of data, only one attribute can be assigned to each cell, and cell sizes are relatively small.

Vector
Vector formats are efficient when comparing information whose geographical shapes and sizes are different. Vector files are much smaller because a relatively small number of vectors can precisely describe large areas and a many attributes can be ascribed to these areas.

Comparison of Raster and Vector Formats

Raster
Raster representations are relatively coarse and imprecise

Vector
Vector representations of shapes can be very precise.

Most GIS software can display both raster and vector data. Only a limited number of programs can analyze both types of data or make raster type analyses in vector formats.

Coordinate Systems
Spatial data are generally recorded as latitude and longitude, frequently as decimal degrees. Other systems commonly used are the Universal Transverse Mercatur - UTM and State Plane Coordinates. These systems are projections of the curved surface of the globe on to a plane surface.

Coordinate Systems
UTM, the preferred system, distance unit is the meter. The unit of the state plane system is the foot. There is generally a different coordinate system for each state in the state plane system. In the UTM system projections are made in zones of approximately 6 degrees of longitude.

Coordinate Systems
There are two datums (reference planes) commonly used to make projections: North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) and the World Geographic Reference System of 1984 (WGS84). The WGS84 datum can be used world wide. The default datum of many GPS receivers is the WGS84 datum.

UTM Zones
Longitude Range 78-84 84-90 90-96 96-102 102-108 108-114 114-120 Zone 17 N 16 N 15 N 14 N 13 N 12 N 11 N

Tulsa Stillwater

UTM Specifications
UTM position is specified by:
Number of the Zone North (or South) of the equator East of the western boundary of the zone Distances are in meters

Coordinates are referred to as Northings and Eastings

N xxxxxx, E yyyyyy

Interpolation to Predict Missing Data

Frequently, data are collect at discrete points located a significant distance apart or some of the data are missing. Interpolation is used to predict the values of the missing data. There a number of interpolation algorithms available in SST Toolbox and other software.

Interpolation Algorithms
Nearest neighbor Local Averaging Inverse distance to a power Radial bias functions Shepards Method Kriging AND Simple Contouring

What is the effect of the interpolation algorithm on the estimate of missing data?
Efaw 1x1 Phosphorus
Selected Missing Data
6
60-70 ppm 50-60 40-50 30-40 20-30 10-20 0-10

11

16

21

26

31

36

41

46

51

56

61

Distance, ft

66

Nearest Neighbor
Missing Data

Value of the nearest measurement to the missing data. In the case of values at the same distance, the average of those values

Nearest Neighbor

Local Average
Missing Data

Average of all values within a predetermined distance.

Averaged Values

Inverse (Weighted) Distance

Search Radius < 3 ft

Values are weighted by the inverse of their distance from the missing value. The weights can be raised to a power. The interpolated value is equal to the sum of the weighted values divided by the sum of the weights.
Missing Data

Inverse (Weighted) Distance

Missing Data

W=1 W = 0.707 W = 0.5 W = 0.447 W = 0.354

Missing Values and Predicted Values Phosphorus at Efaw

60
Missing Value Nearest Neighbor Average Inverse Dist.

Phophorus, ppm

50 40 30 20 10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 Missing Element Location, ft

Error In Predicting Missing Data

Absolute Error, %

100 80 60 40 20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Nearest Neighbor Average Inverse Distance

Element Location

Comparison on Interpolation Algorithms

Nearest Neighbor Average of Adjacent Elements Inverse Distance Radius<3ft

______________________________

% Error ____________________________

17.3

23.1

19.5

Prediction by Linear interpolation Between Every Fifth Data Point Efaw 1 by Experiment
Phosphorus, ppm
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40

Trans 4 Fifth Data Point

60

80

Distance, ft