Chapter 7

Communicating Effectively

The Importance of Communication

Communication affects virtually every area of work. Communication with employees about plant closings, performance appraisals, organizational goals, probable salary increases, and job changes, and even the date of the company picnic are essential to the proper functioning of the firm. Organizations also must communicate effectively with parties outside the firm. Much of managers time is spent communicating. Henry Mintzberg found 78% of CEOs time to be spent on communication-related activities involving direct contact with others.

Functions of Communication

Information Function. Communication provides

information to be used for decision making. Motivational Function. Communication encourages commitment to organizational objectives, thus enhancing motivation. Control Function. Communication clarifies duties, authority, and responsibilities, thereby permitting control. Emotive Function. Communication permits the expression of feelings and the satisfaction of social needs.

Focus on Management: Communicating After the Oklahoma City Bombing

The communication complex for Kerr-McGee Corp. is two blocks from the site of the April 1995 bombing of the Murrah Federal Building. After the initial bomb, it was thought that a second bomb was about to explode; Kerr-McGee was designated as part of the crime scene. The designation brought many questions from employees. Within minutes after the bombing, Kerr-McGees executive management group was transformed into a corporate communications team. About a dozen top executives combined with three members from the corporate communications staff to develop and implement strategic plans to let employees know what was going on. They used e-mails, public address announcements, a calling tree, a command center, and other methods to facilitate communication.

The Communication Process (Fig. 7-1)

Message Barriers
Sender Receiver

Steps:
1 2 3
Develop Encode Transmit Idea

Bridge of Meaning

Steps: 4 5 6 7
Receive Decode Accept Use

Feedback for Two-Way Communication

Communication Channel Dimensions

Capacity. The amount of information that can be

sent through a channel in a given period of time without significant distortion. Modifiability. The degree to which the rate of transmission can be varied. Duplication. The use of subchannels to reiterate or elaborate on a message. Immediacy. The speed at which a message can be transmitted.

Communication Channel Dimensions (Cont.)

One-way vs. two-way flow. One-way communication gives a message without the opportunity for immediate feedback, while two-way communication
allows the message recipient to ask questions and provide feedback. Number of linkages. The degree to which the channel provides direct contact between a sender and the ultimate recipient, or involves intermediate linkages. Appropriateness. To degree to which the channel matches the needs and characteristics of the message. Richness. The potential information-carrying capacity of data.

One-Way Vs. Two-Way Communication Flow

One-way communication is faster than two-way. Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way. Receivers are more sure of themselves and make more correct judgments of how right or wrong they are with twoway communication. The sender feels less secure in two-way communication. The message recipients can point out errors, interrupt the stream of thought, disagree, or otherwise challenge the sender. Two-way communication is relatively noisy and disorderly. One-way communication appears neat and efficient to an outside observer, but the communication is often less accurate.

Selecting Channels

When sending messages, consider the characteristics we have just presented. How much information must be transmitted? How fast must information be transmitted? Is feedback necessary? Are certain channels unsuited to the nature of the message? You may decide after weighing these factors that available channels must be somehow modified or that multiple channels are needed.

Communication Networks

Communication channels may be linked in a variety of ways to form communication networks. These networks are used to structure the information flows among network members. This involves decisions such as who should be in the loop to receive certain types of messages, and to whom they should be instructed to respond. In making such decisions, you will determine who has direct and speedy access to information, who is most central in communication networks, who will be able to get information only after others have received it, and so on. Communication networks influence decision quality, member satisfaction, and other outcomes.

Communication Networks (Figure 7-2)

Chain

Wheel

Circle

Star

ComCon

Communication Network Dimensions

With networks such as the chain and the circle, it may be necessary for a message to pass through multiple links to reach its destination. With the star and com-con networks, one link is sufficient. The circle and star networks are decentralized -- everyone is as central as everyone else. The wheel and the com-con network have central members. Relative centrality is the degree of centrality of an individual in a network. Network members with higher relative centrality tend to be more satisfied. Centralization is a measure of the variability in member relative centralities. Centralized networks permit rapid decision making, but average member satisfaction is low. Centralized networks may be efficient for simple tasks, but decentralization is needed as task complexity and need for creativity increase.

Communication Barriers
Perceptual Factors
Barriers to Effective Communication Information Retention Misrepresentation Semantics

Distraction

Communication Barriers: Semantics

Semantics, or code noise, occurs when the meaning of

a message to the sender differs from its meaning to the recipient. Too often, this may be the result of jargon, involving pretentious terminology or language specific to a particular profession or group. Here are some examples of jargon relating to computers and the modern workplace:

Blamestorming: Discussing a project failure with coworkers. PEBCAK: Problem exists between chair and keyboard. That is,
an operator error. Cube Farm: Rows of cubicles instead of private offices. RTM: Read the manual.

Communication Barriers: Distraction, Misrepresentation, and Information Retention

Distraction, or psychological noise, occurs when a

recipient does not understand the senders message because he or she is simply thinking about something else. Misrepresentation may involve actual lying or subtly distorting information to the senders benefit. Information retention often occurs because information is a valuable resource; those who control it are in positions of power. Some people may retain specific sorts of information to make themselves more necessary, may be in positions to decide how to channel information, or may have the ability to process information, sending only some of it along.

Communication Barriers: Perceptual Factors

Many perceptual errors are directly relevant to communication. Stereotyping may cause us to ignore or distort the messages of people we have classified in certain ways. Selective perception may cause us to ignore communication that conflicts with our beliefs and expectations. Halo error may cause us to bias our evaluation of a message because of some unrelated characteristic of the sender. Projection may lead us to infer information in a message we receive based on our own feelings. Primacy and recency effects may cause us to give differing weights to various communications, depending on when we receive them.

Overcoming Communication Barriers

Feedback, repetition of messages, use of multiple channels, and simplified language may reduce problems due to semantics, selective perception and distraction. Communication overload may be reduced by careful review of the material needed by the recipient and by use of the exception principle. Short-circuiting may be reduced through careful consideration of who has a need to know. Electronic data-processing techniques that automatically route messages to certain people may also help. Information retention and misrepresentation may require tightened formal controls or organizational audit groups, or they may require the opposite -- fewer controls and more trust. Things that lessen one problem are likely to worsen another.

Written Communications

Written communication is required when the action called for is complex and must be done in a precise way. It also provides a permanent form of record keeping and can reach a large number of people easily. Written communication may be used for communicating downward or upward in the organization.

Downward Communication

Downward communication involves messages from

senders relatively high in the organizational structure to receivers in lower positions. Downward communication may be used:

to give instructions to provide information about policies and procedures to give feedback about performance for indoctrinating or motivating

Upward Communication

Upward communication involves communication

from sources in lower-level positions to receivers in higher positions. Upward communication is often used:

to to to to

give information on achievement or progress point out problems that are being encountered pass on ideas for improvement of activities provide feelings on work and nonwork activities

Some Forms of Upward and Downward Communications

Downward Communication
Letters and Memos Manuals Handbooks Company Newsletters

Suggestion System

Grievances

Attitude Surveys

Upward Communication

Focus on Management: Pathfinders at Lloyds TSB

A merger of Lloyds and TSB created a single British bank with 77,000 members and 15 million customers. The new bank won a Marketing Society Award for the care it took to launch and explain the merged organization to its employees. It ran a comprehensive and sustained internal program, highlighted by a live event called Your Life. Your bank. Staff nominated 5,000 colleagues to act as brand ambassadors, called pathfinders, whose role was to attend the event, absorb the key messages, and pass them on to 15 of their colleagues in structured cascade sessions. For the cascade sessions, pathfinders were supplied with a pack containing bullet-point summaries, visual support on overhead transparencies, a computer disk, and a video summary.

Guides for Readable Writing (Figure 7-3)

Use simple words and phrases, such as improve instead of ameliorate and like instead of in a manner similar to that of. Use short and familiar words, such as darken instead of obfuscate. Use personal pronouns, such as you and them, if the style permits. Use illustrations, examples, and charts. Use short sentences and paragraphs. The communicators job is to inform people, not to impress them. Use active verb forms, such as The manager said rather than passive verb forms, such as It was said by the manager that Dont use unnecessary words.

Guidelines for Effective Speaking

Determine the purpose of your communication. Is it to

explain ideas to others? To entertain? Tailor your speech to facilitate the desired purpose of your communication. Consider issues of time and space. Determine the best time and location for delivering your message. Adapt to your listeners. Consider the size of the audience as well as factors such as audience age, gender, interests, level of knowledge about the subject, and values. Consider also audience expectations about the nature of the speech. Use appropriate vocabulary. Speak at the proper level, and with appropriate terminology, for the particular audience.

Guidelines for Effective Speaking (Cont.)

Practice voice control. Consider proper speech volume,

pitch, and speaking rate. Avoid mumbling and awkward pauses. Use appropriate gestures. Properly used, gestures can make a presentation more engaging, and they may help disguise anxiety. Avoid short, jerky movements that may appear as nervousness, and use a variety of gestures to reinforce spoken points or even as substitutes. Organize your presentation. Any oral presentation can be divided into three parts: gaining attention, presenting the information, and closing effectively. Each is critical.

The Bottom Line: Developing Effective Speaking Skills

Identify the Objective(s) for the Speech or Presentation Develop an Outline to Achieve Objectives in View of Audience Characteristics Practice Making the Speech or Presentation Individually or With a Mock Audience Develop the Content of the Speech or Presentation

Select Appropriate Methods for Delivery of the Speech or Presentation During the Speech or Presentation, Maintain Good Eye Contact with All Members

At the Beginning of the Actual Speech or Presentation, Make a Good First Impression Finish the Speech or Presentation Strongly by Reinforcing Key Points

During the Speech or Presentation, Use Appropriate Hand Gestures and Voice Variations

Guidelines for Active Listening

Control the physical environment. Try to minimize noise

and other distractions, Be alert. Give your full attention, and allot the necessary time to listen. Be mentally prepared. Do your homework in advance of the presentation. Anticipate the encounter by learning new terminology and background information about the persons, organization, or issues. Be emotionally prepared. Keep an open mind about what is being said, even if it is unpleasant. Give the speaker the opportunity to complete his or her message before raising questions.

Guidelines for Active Listening (Continued)

Be attentive. Continually review the speakers message,

and tie the various segments of the message together. Take notes if necessary, but record only main points. Read nonverbal cues. Pay attention to the speakers tone of voice, expressions, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.

Distinguish among facts, inferences, and value judgments. Try to sort out whether what is being said is a

fact that can be verified, an inference, or a personal judgment. Offer and solicit feedback. The best sort of feedback in a listening situation is to paraphrase the speakers message.

Bottom Line: Developing Active Listening Skills

Capture the Meaning of the Message Based on its Content and the Senders Nonverbal Cues

Receive the Message From the Sender

Reality Test the Understanding of the Message by Reflecting It Back to the Sender

The Sender Confirms or Disconfirms the Accuracy of Message Interpretation

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is communication that

uses no words or uses words in ways that conveys meaning beyond their strict definition. It may take place through such channels as the body, the face, the tone of voice, and interpersonal distance. The meaning of nonverbal communication often varies markedly across cultures. Studies suggest that a substantial amount of information transmitted during a conversation -perhaps 80 or 90 percent -- is nonverbal.

Functions of Nonverbal Communication

Accenting is adding emphasis to a verbal message. Contradicting is signaling the opposite of the
verbal message. Substituting is replacing the verbal message with a nonverbal message. Complementing involves sending the same message nonverbally that is sent verbally. Regulating is using nonverbal communication to control the flow of the verbal message.

Forms of Nonverbal Communication (Figure 7-4)

Proxemics Dress Nonverbal Communication Paralanguage Hand Movements

Touch

Posture Eye Contact

Facial Expressions

Paralanguage

Paralanguage concerns how something is said rather than what is

said. It involves all vocal aspects of speech other than words. For example, voice qualities -- such as pitch, rhythm, tempo, and volume -- influence interpretation of a verbal message. A soft, low-pitched voice and a slow rate indicate liking, while a highpitched voice indicates anger. Moderate rate, pitch, and volume indicate boredom. Vocal characterizers, such as coughing, clearing the throat, and grunting, generally are distracting and annoying. Vocal qualifiers are variations in tone or intensity of speech. For instance, increases in rate or volume may indicate impatience or anger, respectively. Vocal segregates are pauses between utterances. In situations such as interviews, prolonged pauses suggest a lack of confidence and organization.

Hand Movements

Some hand movements have a specific meaning that is understood in a particular culture or occupation, such as a thumbs-up gesture. Others, such as touching oneself or others, may be associated with anxiety, guilt, hostility, or suspicion. For example, interviewers are sometimes taught that a hand-to-face movement is a sign of deception.

Facial Expressions

By one estimate, the human face can make 250,000 different expressions. The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder wrote more than 2,000 years ago that The face of man is the index to joy and mirth, to severity and sadness. Facial expressions are generally understood to have a particular meaning. For example, facial expressions communicating six emotions -- happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust -- are recognized worldwide. Even when people try to suppress facial expressions, they make very short expressions lasting a fraction of a second that will reveal true meaning.

Global Perspectives: The Smile Trainers

The Japanese are too serious, says Yoshido Kadokawa, author of the book Power of the Laughing Face and president of the Smile Amenity Institute. At a seminar for managers, his students bite on a chopstick or pen. Kodokawa then instructs them to lift the edge of your mouth higher than the edge of the chopstick. Hold your cheeks and count: idi, ni, san. This is how you form your mouth shape. Job applicants for McDonalds in Japan are asked to describe their most pleasant experience, and then managers evaluate whether their faces reflect the pleasure they are discussing. Applicants who dont have genuine smiles are banished to making burgers rather than greeting customers.

Eye Contact

Eye contact is a major regulator of conversation. Generally, eye contact suggests understanding and interest. Seeking eye contact connotes the desire to open a conversation. Conversely, someone hoping to avoid communication will avoid eye contact. Some characteristic eye-contact patterns have specific meanings. For instance, the slow blink -- a pattern in which an individual closes his or her eyes for two to four seconds and then slowly opens them -- indicates doubt or suspicion.

Posture

Posture is the way people position their bodies with respect to others. For example, if a customers arms are relaxed and open and she leans forward as she talks to a salesperson, her posture reflects approval and acceptance of the salespersons message. If she leans back with arms tightly crossed, her posture suggests rejection or disagreement.

Touch

Touch can convey warmth, understanding, and intimacy. Touch may also enhance positive feelings about the touching person and the situation. Studies show that when a store assistant, server in a restaurant, or product demonstrator lightly touched a customer on the arm, the customer saw the touching person more positively, had a more positive attitude toward the situation, and was more likely to comply with the touchers suggestions. This research involved casual touching of the arm. Many other forms of touching may be resented, and unwanted touching can be a form of sexual harassment.

Dress
Dress can convey characteristics such as image, mood, identity, power, wealth, and authority. People who are dressed formally are better able to command respect. People in positions of authority often wear distinctive uniforms to reinforce their status. We all wear our own uniforms, that is, the particular way we choose to dress to communicate something about ourselves. Many companies are experimenting with their dress codes, including instituting dress-down days.

Proxemics

Proxemics is the use of interpersonal space (that is,

proximity) to convey status or degree of intimacy. Sitting at the head of a table conveys status. Standing close to another conveys intimacy. Sitting behind a desk (as opposed to alongside it) indicates a superior-subordinate relationship. Two elements of proxemics -- personal space and seating arrangements -- are especially relevant in organizational settings. They will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 11.

Lighten Up: Smileys

E-mail takes away much of the opportunity for nonverbal communication. Emoticons, or smileys, are series of little faces that, when read sideways, resemble little faces and convey emotions. Here is a sampling of smileys: :-( Im sad :-o Im bored (yawn) :-# My lips are sealed C=>:*)) Im a drunk demonic chef with a cold and a double chin

Some Issues in Electronic Communication

E-commerce

E-mail

Use of Computers in Communication Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing The Internet and the World Wide Web

Guidelines for Using E-Mail

Be careful. Both sending and receiving e-mail demands

caution. Dont send sloppy or hastily reasoned messages, and avoid a slip of the finger that could misdirect a message. Be careful when opening attachments since they main contain viruses. Recognize privacy issues. Dont write anything in e-mail messages that you would not want to be widely read. Keep messages clear, simple, and short. Use a subject line that conveys the content of the message. Avoid lengthy attachments and fancy formatting. Reply only to appropriate persons. Ask yourself who really needs the message.

Guidelines for Using E-Mail (Continued)

used to convey feelings and add a personal touch. These shouldnt be overused, and they may be inappropriate in some formal e-mails. Be considerate. Avoid using e-mail to vent frustration and anger through hostile messages. Such flaming can create a climate of distrust, fear, and anger. Practice netiquette. Check e-mail at least once a day. Respond promptly. If your message will be delayed, let the sender know you received the message and when you will respond. Manage your e-mail with folders and filters. Set up folders to organize e-mails and filters to eliminate junk mail and to transfer low-priority mail to appropriate folders.

Personalize your e-mail as appropriate. Smileys can be

The Internet and the World Wide Web

The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks permitting access to libraries, news sources, and groups with special interests. Perhaps the most interesting part of the Internet is the World Wide Web. The Web is a collection of standards used to access the information available on the Internet. Since the development of Web browsers, growth of the Web has been dramatic. Corporate portals provide access to internal company information via a Web browser.

Web Wise: Enquire Within Upon Everything

The World Wide Web was invented by Tim BernersLee in 1989. Berners-Lees idea for the Web came from a Victorian book entitled Enquire Within Upon Anything, a volume full of all sorts of useful advice about a wide range of topics. To read Berners Lees views on the Web and the Internet, and to learn more about their histories, visit: http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-LeeBio.html/FAQ.html

Web Wise: The New Marketplace of Ideas

When the Supreme Court struck down the so-called Communications Decency Act, which would have regulated the content of material on the Internet, Justice John Paul Stevens wrote: Through the use of chat rooms, any person with a phone line can become a town crier with a voice that resonates farther than it could from any soapbox. Through the use of Web pages, mail exploders, and newsgroups, the same individual can become a pamphleteer.

Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing

Teleconferencing permits a group of people to confer

simultaneously via telephone or electronic mail. Teleconferencing that also has the capability to let participants see each other over video screens is called videoconferencing. Such technologies offer businesses tremendous savings in time, energy, and money. Many companies conduct sales meetings, editorial conferences, and job interviews via teleconference. The systems enable companies to form work teams able to overcome the barriers of time and space.

E-Commerce

E-commerce is defined as the sharing of business

information, maintaining business relationships, and conducting business transactions by means of telecommunications networks. E-commerce involves using network communications technology to engage in a wide range of activities up and down the value-added chain, both within and outside the organization. E-commerce can be initiated by business, consumers, or government, and aimed at each of these groups.

E-Commerce: On-Line Retail Sales

Internet retailers (called e-tailers) are among the most visible players in the Internet economy.

Some e-tailers are Internet based (and known as dotcoms). Others are traditional firms that have developed a Web presence (these firms are known as click-and-mortar retailers). In the latter case, an emerging question is how to coordinate the efforts of the Web business and of the traditional retail element (known as the legacy business). Collections of retailers sometimes operate out of a common Web site in electronic malls, or cybermalls.

Global Perspectives:DoCoMo

E-commerce in Japan is growing less rapidly than in the United States and Europe, because many fewer people own computers. NTT DoCoMo may be Japans last, best hope in the global Internet race. The firms I-mode cell phones provide cheap and continuous wireless access to the Internet as well as voice-recognition technology. Users dont have to make new dial-up connections to get on the Internet; they are always connected as long as they have a signal and a charged battery.

E-Commerce: Other Applications

Online recruiting.

There are now dozens of major job sites on the Web. Businesses can place job ads on the Web and start receiving resumes in minutes. A 30-day classified ad in a major newspaper costs an average of about 20 times that of a 30-day posting on a major job board. They can also use the Web to offer job prospects information about the company and its culture.

Collaborative planning. An extranet is a Web-based

platform that controls the exchange of data with outside parties.

Heinekens Extranet

Heineken, with its headquarters in Europe, faced delays between order placement in the U.S. and delivery of 10-12 weeks. To reduce that time, Heineken implemented an extranet to connect with its suppliers and customers. Called HOPS (Heineken Operational Planning System), the system allows for real-time forecasting and ordering interaction with distributors. HOPS has helped Heineken cut delivery times to distributors in half while reducing inventories and cutting costs. It also provides a calendar permitting Heineken to notify distributors of events and e-mail to broadcast new products, newsletters, or problems.

Informal Communication

While formal communication channels are important, much information flows in other, officially unrecognized ways. Informal communication is information shared without formally imposed obligations or restrictions. In organizational settings, information that is communicated informally among employees is referred to as the grapevine. Over three-fourths of the information sent on the grapevine is accurate, but one error may change the whole meaning of a message. People see the grapevine as a primary source of information, but rank it very low as a preferred source. Grapevines carry messages that formal systems do not, they are fast and flexible, and they can reach people in the need to know. Employees tend to view grapevine information as accurate.

Focus on Management: Rumors of Satanism

Procter & Gamble co. has struggled for more than 20 years to fight rumors that its moonand-stars trademark is linked to Satanism. Lawsuits, changes in the P&G trademark, and responses to up to 200 concerned callers a day have not halted the persistent rumors. Now P&G is using the Web to fight back, with a website specifically designed to fight the rumors. http://www.pg.com/about_pg/overview_facts/ trademark_facts.jhtml

Global Perspectives: The Role of the Grapevine

The importance of the grapevine varies with national culture. For example, the grapevine and associated rumors are especially important in Mexico. In the office in Mexico, the grapevine is often the most important source for employees to find out about new changes, especially those affecting personnel. Rumors tend to be formed when uncertainty is high and formal channels of communication fail to provide good information; these conditions prevail in Mexico. In addition, Mexico has a strong oral tradition, and Mexicans have developed a suspicious attitude toward official information.

Guidelines for Effective Coaching

Create a situation where you are prepared to coach and the employee is open to coaching. Develop a

climate of trust and mutual respect. Use reflective listening -- focus both on words and their emotional content. Facilitate self-discovery by letting employees think for themselves and present their options. Talk to your employees, not at them. Avoid phrases such as You should and I want Value different perspectives. Try to understand the differing motivations, work values, goals, and capabilities of individual employees.

Guidelines for Effective Coaching (Continued)

Mutually identify goals. Focus on behaviors rather

than attitudes; behaviors can be changed, while attitudes tend to be inflexible. Ask questions. Use questions to open new possibilities, explore perceptions and assumptions, and provide new ways of examining the same information. Give useful feedback. Focus both on outcome feedback and on how behavior change can lead to improved outcomes.

Track, follow through on your promises, and reward improved behavior.

The Bottom Line: Developing Coaching Skills

Use Active Listening to Assess the Employees Performance Issue

Work with the Employee to Identify Mutually Acceptable Behavior-Based Performance Goals

Demonstrate the Appropriate Behaviors for the Employee

Provide Positive Outcomes for Employees Based on the Achievement of Performance Goals

Provide Developmental Feedback to the Employee to Facilitate Achieving Performance Goals

Observe Employee Job Performance

Guidelines for Cross-Cultural Communication

Learn all you can about the other partys culture. Many

differences across cultures affect communications, including whether the culture is high-context or low-context. Try to speak the language. By speaking the language -- even haltingly -- we are more likely to recognize subtle nuances of meaning, to avoid gaffes, and to show a sense of caring and commitment. Challenge your stereotypes and assumptions. The goal is to replace your original assumptions and beliefs about the society in question with information received from actual members of that society. Withhold evaluation. Try to gather facts while avoiding evaluation. Put on the other persons hat and try to understand the situation from his or her position.

The Bottom Line: Cross-Cultural Communication Skills

Study the Communication Style, Customs, Norms, and Taboos of Employees Cultures Build Additional Checks into the Communication Process to Ensure Mutual Understanding Across Employees Attempt to Develop Some Proficiency in the Languages Spoken by Employees Consider CrossCultural Communication Differences When Formulating and Transmitting Messages to Employees