Cuapter III GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION BETWEEN BODIES OF FINITE DIMENSIONS 1, Introduction. The law of gravitational attraction is valid for two material particles, not for bodies of finite dimensions and with arbitrary distribution of mass. It will be shown, however, that spherical bodies with a distribution of mass such that layers of equal density are concentric spheres, attract each other as if the mass were concentrated in their centers. Moreover, it will be shown that if the distance between two bodies is large compared with their dimensions, the attraction between them is sensibly as if their mass were concentrated in their centers of mass. These results make it possible in many cases to disregard the dimensions and the distribution of mass, and to treat the gravitational attraction between two bodies as if they were material particles. Nevertheless, there are cases in the solar system and in systems of binary stars in which deviations from sphericity have important effects. Hence it is necessary to examine the case of gravitational attraction between two finite bodies each having an arbitrary distribution of mass. This problem presents considerable complications. It is much easier to treat the attraction between a body of finite dimensions and a material particle. This simplified problem applies to many cases that present themselves in astronomy, and will be treated first. 2. Attraction of a particle by a body of finite dimensions and arbitrary distribution of mass. In a Cartesian coordinate system, fixed in the sense of Newtonian mechanics, let Xj, Yp, Zy be the coordinates of the center of mass E of a body M, and let X, Y, Z be the coordinates of a particle at P with mass m. Consider at Q an element of mass dM of the body M, and let £, 7, ¢ be the coordinates of Q in a coordinate system with axes parallel to those of the fixed system but with its origin at E. Put e=X-X, yHY¥-¥, 2=2-Zy So that x,y,z are the coordinates of m relative to the center of mass of M. The distance A between P and Q is obtained by APs (we — EF + (9 — oP + (2 — (ly 11516 [ODIES OF FINITE DIMNSTONS “The force acting upon the particle m, due to the attraction by the clement of mass dif, ws fd} mn the direction FQ The components ofthe fore along the three coordimate axes are obtained by multiplying the force by the direction cosines of the direction FO Since the coordinates of O relative to P are £— x, 73, £—5, 1 appears, wth the aud of (1), that the direction cosines are £ ay rr] a Hence the three components of the force due tothe attraction by dM ate jmaw mast” Jndat F Bo 7 Integration over the entire body M yrelds the components ofthe force fe mf “These integrals may be put in x more prea form by unroducing the density, x, which must be considered a fiste function of the coordinates, Bent Then a gol een, of Ean aM = aE dt dna, and the components of the force are expressed as tiple antegrals, the integration 0 be extended over the whole mass AT ‘The components then become ® In this form three triple mtegratons are req ‘obtain expressions im which only ane triple sntegral occurs. ‘This form 's obtained by considering the partial dervatives of 4 with respect to 451942 It fellows from (1) that Aid me = Bde Wey +e DsATTRACTION BY FINITE BODY M17 The left-hand member may be written as d(4~4), Hence 1 é— al _ a;1 t- z(a)- re i cae x(a) = e Substitution of (3) into (2) gives for the components of the force @ Re msm [ff bind () aba at, =m LL (Gin) 5 (a dna @ F, =f f ce lst) & (4) ab aya, In these integrals x, y, 2 are to be regarded as parameters that must be treated as constants in the integrations. Also, the limits of integration are independent of these parameters. It is permissible, in this case, to interchange the order of differentiation with respect to a parameter and integration, provided that everywhere within the range of integration 40. This condition merely states that the particle m should not be a part of the mass MM; it should be either exterior to M or within a cavity in it. The case that the particle is a part of M would require special investigation. Now define the potential U by (3) vas {ff SEP abaya 65) an which, for brevity, will usually be written dM v=s[F- ©) It follows from (4) that the components of the force acting upon m may be written ge Oe eet OU ct tiaa nig. Frama Fama Frama. (7) Similarly, the forces acting upon the different clements of M may be transferred to the center of mass of , and the resultant force will be equal and opposite to the force acting upon m. Hence the components may be written FO 20 a au au mag? R= ma EP mma. 8)us BODIES OF FINITE DIMIEASIONS For later applications st 18 desirable to return to the onginal fixed Carcatan coordinate system ‘Then U must be considered a function of the diferences A —Xy, ¥— Vg, Z—Z, and the components ofthe force on m become o “The components of the force that determines the motion of the center of mass of A are a Hem 0) ‘The problem of finding the mutual attraction between M and m has ‘been reduced ta that of obtaining U, defined by (5) a8 a furcuon of 352 General properties of U ate studied 1n the theory of the Nevstonsan potential ‘Phe most fundamental ofthese is that forall points not belonging to the mass Mf, U satisfies the partiat diferenta! equation of the second order #U 5 ‘The equation was frst gen by Laplace It as obtained smmedately by partial effrenuaton of 3) With the and of ths equation 1 may be Shown that the potental for a body AY with spherieal symmetry becomes ont where ros defined by Resta “The methods used an the theor ofthe potenti ae of great mportance sn the theory of equlibrum of rotsung fds Tis appleston t0 the figure of eelestal bodies 1s propery a province of dynamical astronomy ‘Thus subject, however, les eutide the spe of this book 3. Legendre polynomials. Tor the subjects treated in this soluime it tuictent to obtain a method of expressing U as a function ‘of x, 5, = that 1s generally applicable when the distance between m and the center of mass of Af large compared with the dimensions of the bbody On this assumption 4 development in series te available that wall be presented in the following sectionsLEGENDRE POLYNOMIALS 119 Let p be the distance of an element of mass dM from the center of mass of the body M. Then S++ C= pr qu) It is then understood that for any point of the body M, p/r< 1. The expression (1) for 4? may now be written a ® — Ax + yn + 20) + p® =e [2th (By). For brevity, put a =a, (12) bt t to cos 5, (13) 7p so that AP = 72 (1 — 2g + 02), (14) It is evident from (13) that S is the angle POQ and that, therefore, ll <1. The integrand of dM vel { Hi — 2ge Fa (15) will now be developed as a power series in « with the aid of the poly- nomials of Legendre, P,(q), defined by 1 Crm Fae Py + Pyoe + Poo® +... + Pro one (16) in which P, are polynomials in q of degree n, The general expression for P,(g) is obtained by the binomial develop- ment of the left-hand member of (16) as = Gee — a =H 1" (4m, 7 where the usual notation is employed for the binomial coefficients (t) =2@=DeG@=ke120 [BODIES OF FINITE DIMENSIONS Since the right hand members of (16) and (17) should be sdentes), the {general expression for P,(q) 1s obtained by finding the coefficient of a tthe nightchand member of (17) ‘This 1 2 double seres in = and g, and an the right-hand member of (16) this double senes is arranged a3 a single series an a with coefficents that are functions, polynomaals in ths case, of ¢ Collection of the coefficients of a* sn the right-hand member of (17) ves for the general expression of Py(g) rg = SOD ip From this expression st appears that P, 1s a polynomial of degree 7 with only odd powers of gif m is odd and with only even powers fm as even Subsutution of parucular values of ghes the following polynomals of Legendre of order 0 through 6 PA) = RO=9 (A — 315 + 1057" 9) ‘These polynomusls will be of frequent usefulnest ‘Another form of devclepment 1s obtained by putting on Ee, then, in view of (13), Qeeter Also, Deer aS = ot bo 1 = 2pe tat = (1 09) (1 — ae) (pe bot = (1 a) (1 — aor) = Ecu(ee Zen (er oPOTENTIAL—PRINCIPAL PARTS 121 The two series are multiplied, and the coefficient of a” yields: 1.3 ... (22 — 4... 2n Dr cosns +4. tier — 9 P,(cos 8) = Ta. (u—2) + 2cos(u — 2) 8 (20) 1.31.3... Qn—5). +9929 Ona) 2cos (nm — 4) S +... The two binomial series of which the product is formed in the right- hand member of (19) are absolutely convergent for |o| < 1 since |o] = 1. Hence the double series obtained is absolutely convergent for |a| < 1. The following properties of P,, will be useful for our immediate needs: (a) PAtiy= +1, Py(—1) =(— 1". (21) This property follows at once by putting g = + 1 in (14) which then reduces to the special cases el Ta (b) IP) <1 if -1 r (43) u, =4{f Paar as ff GE ane ane =0, since féam=0, fe dM’=0, Uy =iff Ge i oo dM aM’ 2 r ~5 ff Be-er—jue—e ta + C—O ara =F ff te boe-dey + ee dt 20288" + on’ + aan. The product terms yield nothing on account of the choice of origins. Hence U, may be written =f [p+e+e—dotso]aw +t [lettateee—Zer+ c9] a.132 BODIES OF FINITE DIMENSIONS Regardless of the onentation of the coordinate systems, J@ ses Oa At B+), SQM yA UNAM = Ha 4B EO), if A,B,C, A',BY, C! arethe moments of inertia about the prinepalaves Moreoter, Sot + oan, Pa fore cyan, are the moments of snerua of the to bodies about the line OO" Hence, Tm At + DB + Ce, Va Aat ROTH Ces, 10,8, are the direction cones of OO" relative to the principal aver fof Af, and a',8',¢ those relate to the principal axes of Mf” The resulting expression for Ui wn AE ase 3a + 26 +60) o + Abba eo ec)— just tants), which may be compared with (31), (32) “Thus expression for Uy is not jet definite, since the motion of the ‘center of mats of A/ will be determined by the components of the force wp we ao, nod, and that of AI" by the components w ou nok 7a, where X, 157 are the coordinates of AT and", Y", 2" those of AI" ana fixed coordinate system Hence the coordinates of O relative to One X =X, Y= V2 ~ Z, and Pe (XH Apa (Pye eZ “The direction cosines that appear sn (64) must non be expressed in terms ofthese courdinates Let the principal axes of M have the directionNOTES AND REFERENCES 133 cosines Ayy #1» Y1y Ass Hay Ye» Agr Hg» Ya relative to this fixed coordinate system. Then A(X — ¥') tilY = YY) + n% — ZY r a pe a DAL AX) + el PY + 2 — ZIP od , ea PAX =A) tol ¥ — ¥) + v2 — ZF r Similar expressions may be written for a’, 6’, c’® by introducing A's py’, 44’, etc., for the direction cosines of the principal axes of M’. There is no difficulty in principle concerning the development of the higher portions in the expression (42) for U. The procedure is the same as that followed for the attraction of a finite body upon a material particle. In the most general case these higher portions soon consist of so numerous terms that the development becomes difficult. For most astronomical problems, the developments given in this chapter suffice. If additional terms are needed for any particular problem they may readily be obtained by extending the procedure followed. In all such cases it is desirable to take advantage of all the simplifications due to symmetry and particular orientation that each individual problem may present. NOTES AND REFERENCES F. Tisserand’s Traité de Mécanique Céleste, Vol. 2, contains an exhaustive treatment of the subject covered in this chapter. A useful additional reference is ‘Thomson and Tait’s Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Part II, new edition, espe- cially Chapter VI, Cambridge Univ. Press, London and New York, 1883.