Counterexamples in Topology Lynn A. Steen 4. Arthur Seebach, Jr. Saint Olaf College Hott, Rinehart and New York Chicago Si Dallas “Montreal Por SudneyConyriht © 1970 by Hay, Rinbart sod Wieson, Ie, Al ight eee {ubeary of Congres Catalog Cad Narber: 77131504 San: o3.079405-4 AMS 1968 Sujet Gif tine 5450 ‘Printed inthe United State of Arron 0128 22 1aeerae Preface ‘The creative proces of mathematics, bath historically and indviduly, ‘may be described asa counterpoint between theorons and examples A, ‘though it would be hazardous to claim that the creation of spnticent examples is los desacing than the development of theory, we have di vere that focusing on example is & particulary expeditious mesa of ‘involving undergraduate matheratis studenten acta recarch, Not only are examples more conerete than theorem and thus more seco be, ‘they cut across individu theore and make it both appropriate end neces sary for the stodent to explore the entre literature in Jouraals ts well ao ‘ests, Indeed, much of the untent of this book was et outindby waders ‘grduate rear teams working with the authors at Saint Ola’ Collogs ding the sumer of 1967 and 1968, In compiting and wilting material for the book, both the authors and ‘oir undergraduate asistants realized a sbetaatia increment in topcloge {at insight sa direct esl of chasing through details of each example. We ope out readers will havea ximilr experience. Hac the 149 examples fn tis book provides innumerable eanerete istration of diiuous thon rein, and general methods of proof. There iso better way, fo nutans, vo lear what the definition of metacompactnes relly means Chan to tr to Drove that Niemytaki’stangeot dise topology is ot metacumpace ‘The seach for counterexamples i as ively and exeative at activity as ‘an bo found in mathematics resarch. Topology partcuanly i replete pith unreported oF unsolved problems (do. you know an example of Hausdorff topalogical space which i separable and locally compact, but ‘04 ecompact!), andthe proces of modifying old examples or erating ‘new ones rare will and uninhibited geometsc imagination, Fas hoc, roving al! relevant examples, this book provide & etnteat in wie tosak tw questions aud seck new answers. We hope that eich reader will share (and wot just vicariously) in Ue excitement of the heat Counerezomple in Tepolgy wo crignlly designed, nt a text, but ‘9 course supplement snd reference work for undergradvate wa profuse Sent of gnarl tpg swells for tr leachon: Por nchton ag ‘wader should sean the book aid stop occasionally for pd tour othe 19 standard textbook and fosad it to be a valuable oat ‘Ther ae however, two rather diferent cireumstancey under which this ‘moungriph could most appropriately be ued athe earns roscoe instrastor the Reibility to design his oe our, and the student a wealth of history and suaentealy oe nifieast example, A counterexample, iis mist restvicte sense, sn example which di Provo: funows coneetre. We chose to interpret the word trae boa rly since all exampes of general toplogy, eer viene beginning stents, stand in contrat tothe canon ofthe seat hee eo ty example which in sume respect stands oppaie tthe ee is uly 6 Gegenenpe. Having mid that we shuld fer sone rere for cur ineasons and omissvns. Tn gonral we oped for eeangica hay Metjtecensy to ditngsich deity, and for fanny, wel ks a iors wnusual exanples ven hy exhibited mone properties Ofenee, iit is well known to other misy be uiktown to uso we sche aioe of Makoto neways Wi ae ee properties forall opll pres ade susdorT spaces, Peleg secs ad {sen give only bit eine hint a pret this item, ot alin ede sist infringe Ute ta ats, in mast ie we bine ths onl bes weg ec ‘Hck could be de, sing the hint nm rensmalie pee of ae See of the nore dial are dtu ine Noe a ce Te emp at ood Yay ropy by Ua aneqea ea “lini asset frth the in svt Tn va alee ohne reliable eumsequence is that the munca onder bso cose ith the difesty ofthe example. To aid an inseuctr in remmerding cxamples for sty, me solnt the fallovng informal clasieton bb sophistication 1-25, 27-28, 30-84, 88, 40-47, 49-80, 52-50, 62-64, 78-74, 81, 86-80, G7, 104, 109, 115123, 182135, 15%, 10, Intermediate: 26, 29, 5-87, 99, 48, 51, 65-72, 75-60, 82-85, 9001, 5906, 98-102, 105-108, 118-114, 14, 126-127, 10,136 13s, 141 0-01, £2, 108, 16 112,125, 128-90, 131,149, 148 Elementary Advan ‘The discussion of each example s gated to it general evel: what ia proved in detail in an lementary example may be aesuned withou comment ‘more advanend example “In many ways the most useful part ofthis book fr reference may be the appendices. We have gathered there in tabular form's eomposte pitine of the most signifennt eounterexampls, 90 person who i seating for ausdorfnonregulse spaces can eually discovers few. Notas are povided hich ination to serving as a guide to the Hiiogrphy, provide ald atail for many results assumed inthe fit two sections, A olloton of Dobems rata to the examples shoul prove most help the book i ed aya text. Many of the problems ask for justfeaton of entries inthe ‘aious tables where these entries are nn explicitly dietsed inthe example Many easy probleme of the form "justify the ssertion that” have nat ‘own liste, ince these ean rudy be invented by Ue instructor aesonding to his own taste ost instances, the index includes only the initial (or defining) use of 8 term. For obvious resons, no atempt hts been ide to inlet the index all oceurrences of w proparty troughout the hed, ut the Gener Reference Chart (pp. 170-179) provides a complete ersetabulation of ‘xamples with properties an sould faritate the quick location uf exene les of ny specie type."The chart was prepared by an IBM 1190 ung & ‘rogram which enables the computer to derive, fra the theorems dite ‘wowed fn Part 1, the propertis for each example which fallow lgiealy from those dscsed jn Part I ‘Bumples are numbers consecutively ad refer to by ther nunbrs ‘inal chars. In thse fe cates where a minor but inelegane mediation of fan example fs need to produce the desired concatenation of propery ‘we tse a desinal to indente a particular point within an easple. 23.17 ‘mans the 17th pint in Example 28‘Tho roar for this book was bgun in the eum of 1907 by an wer fzadunte research group working with Uhesuthoryuider a gran fromthe National Science Foundation. This work was continual by the authors with support from a grant by the Research Corporation, an agit in the ‘summer of 1968 with the asistance ofan N.S F ponsored undergraduate research group. The students who participated ia the undergrafate re ‘search groupe were John Feroe, Gary Gruenkage, Thomas Ll, Mary Maleoin, Susan Martens, Linda Now, Neil Onvedt, Karen Sout, and Gail Tverberg. We acknowledge tht thers wat a twofold contribution: not only did they explore and develop many examples, bus they proved by Leis own example the efficacy of exsoples forthe undergraduate sty of tology. Finaly, we thank Rebecca Langhle who with presse forbearance. and ‘nfalling good humor typad in two sears thee complete preliminary, ed ‘tons of this mantseip. Northfield, Minnesota Jeseary iano Lyon A. Steen J. Arthur Seabed, Contents Preface» Port | BASIC DEFINITIONS 1. General Introduction 3 Timit Pointe 5 Coaures and Interiors 6 Countabilty Proportion 7 Functions 7 Flew 9 2, Separation Axioms 11 Regular und Normal Spices 12 Completely Hausdorf Spaces 13 Corapotely Regulae Spaces “13 unetions, Products, and Subepaces 14 ‘Adiitional Sparation Propetin 16 3, Compactness 18 Global Compactness Properties 18 Localized Compactness Properties 20 Countbiity Axioms and Separbiity 21 Parcompacinest 22 Compactnes Properties and, Axioms 24 Invariance Properties 26 4. Conneceedness "28 Functions and Products 3t Disconnectadness 2 ionneetaines sad Continaa 58Metric Spaces 34 Complete Metre Spaces 96 Metrizsbilty a7 Unitornitie 37 Metsie Uiformitice 38 ‘COUNTEREXAMPLES Fite Dsrete Topology 41 Countable Direte Towogy 41 neountale Dirt Top At Indrete Topogy 2 Parton Topiogy 42 Oa8ven Topology Delt Tate Tecogy 38 Fhite Parts Pont Topsegy 44 Countabe Petar Pest Topo 44 neoonibl Parla Point Topo at Servite Space at Chesed Extension Topcogy Finite Eschded Pine Topology 47 Countable Exclude Pint Tepsogy 47 Ucountble Exsided Punt Pop 47 pen Extension Topology 47 Either Or Topley 8 Fite Complement Topelogy on «Countble Space 49 Fate Cnlement Tpoigy onan UsountaeSpac49 Countable Complement Tung 50 Double Pointed Countable Complement Topology 60 Compact Complement Topaogy 5 Countable Per Space 52 ‘Uncountable Fort pece 52 Fartinino Space rene Fort Space Moliel Fort Space 55 Pactden Topology 26 ‘The Car Se ST The Rata Number 60 ‘he ational Numbers 50 2. Special Subsets ofthe Real Line 00 ‘Special Subsets ofthe Pane 61 ‘One Point Compactintion Topology €3 85, One Point Compactfraton of the Rationale 63 36, Hilbert Space 64 31, Fréchet Space 64 38, Hilbert Cube" 65, 180. Onder Topoogy 66 40. Open Ordinal Space (0) (P <0) 08 41, Clos Ordinal Soe [00] (P . Right Onder Topology 74 50. Right Order Topology on R74 51, Right Hal-Open Interval Topology 75 52, Nested Interval Topology | 76 55. Overlapping Interval Topology 7 S54, Interlocking Interval Topology 77 5, Hjalmar Bkdel Topology 78 ‘56. Prime Ideal Topology “72 S57. Divisoe Topology 79 58. Brenly Spaced Tntager Topogy 80 50, The p-uie Topology on ZS 0, Relatively Prime Intgee Topology 82 81, Prime Integer Topology §2 62, Double Pointed Reals 84 8. Countable Complement Extension Topology (64, Smiroov’s Deleted Sequence Topology 86 5, Rational Sequance Topology 8 68. Indnerote Rational Extension of R88 67. IndisereteIratonal Extension of 8S 68. Pointad Rational Extension of 88 0, Pointed Trational xenon of 8S 70. Diserete Rational Extension of Ti, Diserete rational Extension of 80 72, Rational Extention in the Plane 92 73, Telophase Topology #2 74, Double Origin Toptony 92 15, Tratona Sipe Popeiogy "08 76. Deletal Diameter Topology 94 Comat aCoutts 71, Delete Rains Topology 94 7B Hal-Dise Topology 9% 170, Treglar Lattice Topology 97 50. Arens Square 98 8, Simplfad Arens Square 100 2, Niemptei’s Tangent Dise Topology 100 Bh. Motrizable Tangeat Dise Topology 108 St, Sorgenfrey's Hal-Open Square Topology 108 5. Michael's Produet Topology 105 86, Tychonof Plank 106 ST. Deleted Tychonoff Plank 100 {88 Alexandrof Plank 107 0, Dieudonne Plank 108 (90, Tychonolf Corkscrew 108 D1, Deletad Tyehonoff Corkscrew 300 92. Hewit’s Condensed Corkscrew 111 98. Thomas’ Plank 118 94 Thomas’ Corkscrew 118 ‘95, Weak Pall Line Topology 114 ‘96, Strong Parallel Live Topology 114 a 98 %. . Coneentie Cirle 116 Appert Space 117 ‘Maximal Compsct Topology 118 100, Minisal Hassdort Topology 110 101 Alexandroff Square 120 102, 2* 121 08. Uncountable Products of 2+. 128, 104. Bare Product Metric on fie 124 105. 1 15 106.00) x 126 102. Helly Space 127 40s. cjo,) 128 100, Boleap Product Topology on R128 110, Stone-Cech Compactifiation 129, 11, Stone-Cech Compactifation ofthe Integers 192 112. Novak Space 134 1. Strong Uitte Topology 185 114. Single Ultenfltee Topology 136, 115. Nested Rectang 137 116, Topologies Sine Curve 187 17, Clad Topologist's Sine Curve 197 418. Extended Topologint's Sine Curve 137 Contents xiii ‘The Infinite Broom 130 | The Closed Tafinite Broom 139 ‘The Integer Broom 140 Nested Angles 140 ‘The Infinite Cage 141 |. Rerten's Commer Sete 142 5. Gustin's Sequence Space 142 Roy's Lattice Space 143, ‘oy'e Late Subepace 143 Cantor's Leaky Tent 145, Cantor's Toopoe 145 ‘A Pacido-Are 147 . Miller's Biconnected Set 148 Wheel without Tis Hub 150 |. Tangora’s Connacted Space 150 ‘owed Metres 151 Siepinkie Metie Space 182 Duncan's Space 158, Cauchy Completion 18 Hausdors Metic Topology 154 ‘The Post Ofice Metric 158 ‘The Radial Metic 155 Radial Interval Topology 156 ‘Bing’ Diserete Fxtension Space 1ST Michael's Closed Subspace "157 APPENDICES Special Reference Charts 161 Separation Aviom Chart 163 CCompuctoess Chart 164 Paracompurtaes Chart 168 Connectedness Chart 167 Digoonncetadness Chact_ 168, Motriabiity Chart 169 General Reference Chart 171 Problems 181 Notes 130 Bibliography 202 Inder 205PART I Basic DefinitionsSECTION 1 General Introduction A topological space is x pair (Xy) consatng of set X and a collec. Won + of subsets of X, called open sets, satisfying the following nani Or: ‘The union of open sets ie an open set. Os) ‘The finite intereetion of open setae open set Os; X and the empty st are open sc, ‘The collection +i alle topology for X. The topological pace (X) is sometimes referred to as the space X when iti clear which vopolgy and nar topologies fora set X, tid tobe coarse (or weaker ‘or amaller) than rif every open stoi a of set of 9 thew ead to befiner (or stronger or larger than, aad the rating is expres sor S re Of cour, as sete of sts, ry Gy On ast X, the coat tore ‘ony isthe indiserte topology (Example 4), andthe feast topology cho screte topology (Example 1) The ordering < is oly paral erring since tno topologies may not be comparable (Fxample 88). 1s topologi! space (Xs), we define a subset of to be closed its sompoment isan open st of, that i itis eomplement isan ements ‘The De Morgan laus imply that ele sets, being complamants of apes sets, have the following proper Gi: The interestion of else sot is closed set Gx: "The Fnite union of closed set itu closed so Ce: X and the empty set 2 are Both land 11.8 posible that subset be both open and else (Example 1), or that a subwet be neither open nor closed (Examples 4 ad 35), ‘An Fyeset io ct which can be written a the unio of « countable colJeetion of ela ste & Grset ita sot which ean be written as the inter seetion of» countable cllection af open aetx. The conplement of every eset aGrott and eouveraly. Since a single wet i eval, w countable callection of sets clowd sels ae Feet, but not convenely (Example 19). Furthermore closed eets neo not bedsets (Example 1). By eemplemen tation analogous statements bold concerning open see. Cecly related wo the concept of an open set stat of « neighborhood. ‘vspace (Xp), neighborhood N's of a set A, where A may bea se c= Siting of single ping, any subset of X which eotains an open set con taining A. @ome authors rir Uhat Nite be open; we ell sich sets open neighborhoods.) A set which a neghborhoa ofeach oft pints is open sine it ean be expres atthe union of pen seta contin each of spits A collection 8 of subces of X may be sed asa subbasls (or subbase) to generate a topology for X. This is done by taking an open sts of yall sets which can be formed by the uni of Bit interes of seta ih 5, together with ani X. If Uh urdon of subsets in aeubbasis fis the et X tnd if each point eoatained inthe intrsetion af tw subbasis elements ko contained in a subbasi element contained in the intercetion, 8 «alle u basis (or base) foro this se, the collection of al sets which can be writen as union af elements of Visite itersertios tad wl be taken fit, sine each nite intereetion be alteady union of eletents of 8 1 tv bass (or subbases) generate the same topology, they ate wi to be ‘equivalent (Fxample 25) local basis a the point 2 © Xs sullen ‘of open neighborhoods of «wth tho property that every ope oct eon ing contains some set in the election Given a topolgial space (Xn), a topology rr can be defined for any subset ¥ of X hy taking as open aes in ry every st rich Ue ntrece- Gon of ¥ and an open set ins. The pair (Yr) i called a subspace uf (Xr), and ry in called the induced (or relative, ar subspace) topology for V, Aect U CY in aid to havea particular property relative to. (ets apen relative wo ¥) 8 U has the propety in the subypace (Y) A set ¥ is nid to have a property whieh has boon defined only for top logical spaces fi has the property when considered 4 subepace If for 8 puticlar property, every subspace has the property whenever a space ‘ds, the property isan to be hereditary. If every clawed wubset he comida as subspace lia a property whenever the spare has that propert, that property it sid toe weakly hereditary. A important sxaple of a weakly hereditary property eonipaetoess A sj iv si to be Compact i fon every open cover, that is, a culletion of upon sets whice union contains X, one can select fnte subvulection whose union also euntaing X, Every clad stbaet of a General Introduction 5 ‘compact space is compact, singe if 10.) is an open cover for Y, (0x) U (X— ¥) isan open eavr for X-From [04] U (X-— 1), one can choose 5 fitesubcalection covering X, and from this ave ean chocse an peo Date cover for Y containing oly elements of [Oct simply by oonking X'~ Y. Acompactsubsetof «compact space nced nat be clase (Examples 418). were Pons A point is timit point of a st If every open se containing p con {wins at leat ne point of distinc fom p.(F the pent of i notre ‘ir tbe distinet from, pis called an adherent point) Particular nds of tint ints age waccumutation points, for which every open set containing p mst contain ifitly many point of A, and eondensae ton points, for which every open set contaling p must contain angen sly mao pnts of. Examples 8 al &2 distinguish these definitions ‘The conept of hinit point may ah be define for sequences of tat Decesarily distinct points. A point iad to be a mit point of a sequence |24},» =I, 2,3, if evry open st containing p sontinn al but finitely many tem a the sequence"The sequence is then sad to fonverge to the point p. A weaker edition on p is that every open set tang p vntainsinftely man ern of the sequence I thi ae, is called an accumulation point of the sequence It is pouible that sequen as uncountable many Fait points (Eesmple 4), both «lit ‘ent std a acranuulation pit chat em init point (Example $3), fea single secu tat is nota lit point (Example 28). Shorea sequence may be thought of a x apecil typo of ordered ae, each sequete Is asc with it it natal wa, the set eon slenents. On the other hand, very’ countably nite set bas avi with it many sequences whse ters are pointe ofthe art, There litle ration between the init pints af «sequente aa the Knit points ofits ‘ovate set. \ point may be Limit point of «sequence, but nly a adherent point of the asorinted st (Faample 1) I the punts of the eatene are distinct, any arcslation pant ond Uerefore any” Lint point of the maqucuce is an waevunsistion peint of the amelatl set. Fakes, nus eareumnlation point = contably fit set isso a ucansation int (but ob necessity Fit point) of any segue ‘comming to Ue set. Nov to psn 4 pokat maybe aim pn ‘i 4 comntoblyfnnte se, hut a eneresponing sestence may haves it ue arena pnt (sane 8) Wl sa suse af a topogial spice X, the derived set ofthe et ie the clleton of al nit pints of. Cer thi inches some pats‘fA and some points ofits complement. Any point of 4 notin dhe derived ‘set i called an isolated poine since it mst be coutainal in at open at containing no other point of A. IFA eontains no loltad point elle dense-in-itself. If in addition A is lowed, itis sid to be perfect. A lose et A contain all of its init points since for every 2 € CX — A), X — A is anopen set containing and no points of Also, et containing ite iit points is che since X'— A contains x neighborhood teach of points, 20 is open, Therefore we ace that et is pefet if and aly fit ‘als ite derived ot, Consumes so Treons ‘The closure of «sot A is the act together with its tmit points, denoted by 4 (or A>. Since set which containn it Hint points is elise, the is calle regular open, and a chaed ret for which A = Av is called regular closed The union ofthe closures of fitely many sete always equals the clare oftheir union; fr infinite collections it need only be contained it the ‘losure of the union (Bxarple 20). Similarly, the Intereetion uf he in terior alays contains the interior of ehe intersection, though they are ‘eval only for Finite interctions (Beane 324), The intersection of iitely macy regular open sete ie regula open and the union of fiely ny regular clad ets regular elosad, ut the intereetion uf rege lose seta need not be reqular ded (Example 32.8), and by complemen. tation, the union of regular open sets wae nt he ela opens The ect ofall points which are inthe closure of Ant notin the interior of A is the Boundary (or frontier) of, donoted by 4 4 is lao el to A(X ~ Ay singe db = A> de = A(X — AY A at lose if and only iti contains te boundary, adi open if and ely ee Aisin from its boundary. Therefore a sets both open a elas I and only i te boundary i empty A boundary ie always close sine i ie the General Introduction 7 intersoton of two clad sts. The boundary ofthe boundary of set, A, ead not equal ®, although AM is always contained in A (eampe ‘The exterior A* of a set A isthe complement of the danure of oF ‘uivalently, the interior ofthe complement of A. In gonerl, Af Com, fained in A, but they need not be equal (Example 1), The exterior of the union of sete is arayecontsned i the intrwetion ofthe exierions td simile, the exterior ofthe intersection is contained ia the union of the exteriors; equality hols ony for finite unions and inereation I two sat A and B have the property that A 7\ B= AB ©, they arc called separated. A set A ina topological space X is connected if ‘etnnot be written a8 the union of two separated ses Courrantury Prormines [A set A is sid vo be dense ina spce_X if every point of i a point oF 8 tint point of A, tht i if X'~ dL A subset A of anid be ‘nowhere dense in X if no nouempty open aetof X is coataine in fT other words, the interior of th closure of «nowhere deme set empty. A set sald to bo of frst category (or meager) in X if itis the union of countable clletion of nowhere dense subsets of X. Any other set aud te be of second eategory A spuce is said to be separable if it has a countable dense subse. 1s ‘sid w be second countable (or completely separable. or perfectly ‘Separable) if it has a countable basis. A space is fret coumtable' a ‘ach pot p ofthe space, there i countable local bas shat in count able collection of open neighborhoods of p sich tht each open set ore {siningp contains. a member ofthe clletion. Every ec countable space 's both frst countable and separable. The frst countality is obvious, while the separability follows from the obsrration thatthe Union af ong int fom each buss element forms a countable dene subset A sopanole space need not be even fst countable (Beample 9) ‘The property of being fist countable andthe proparty of bing second foantable are both hereditary, but the property of being separable not sven weakly hereditary (Example 10) A subspace 4 of « nt enuntable ‘nce sist countable since the intention of ith the countable lal ‘ba for the space provides a countable local basi for A; snl, every subspace of «second countable space is second eountable Foworions Funetins on spaces rw mportant too fr sting proper of spaces ‘nd for constructing new spaces fom previously exiting one, A feion f {rom a space (Xz) to a pace (Ya) i said w be continuous if the inverse mage of every open sot is open. This equivalent to requcing thattheine ag cn tsb chao ht ir ch san af 1 CFG. Anotber qian codons had eee yi carved of fo), tne ee nant Xan eh {00 C'N A diatom he ae apetene ae In te continuous a theese “he comping heats Guts eX Yay Yt sith cons siete ives nae dey tan ae ‘open et sate irene mage eran tn Sagoo ‘tino (Xo (sal be open te nage ft ‘what pes at aed age ea eas ea Sine or biative (eto wa ano) ano a ego af cel me ene ein wt oat (ane 3), Iwona ee es Wit fancton i ad oli incor e “bite ftir in wis Nome i conto ety a mers [0a tra Kn at tt ey homomerphi: Sach wasn tina Be point of eis pois Duh ta oe ee Lies and ware t mye hones cree ing is wit ene or even campie eae 93 ae Yet none damd 4 Ce chs a ble pe mn Be upiialy cue wun bt tn ‘onto B (Example 32.7). " " ret ied \ ty ad 1 be topolgelinvctnt (or epoca! ye one ‘clone iran ay cas "aac pening ee ability unl ompactness ae tenon For sve clio of page spaces (Xr), whee # € Ayan inka he proach al acca ‘ith th lof the waite ponn neces He ee {sl cll the Tycho anda mest on pj opened the Tee ne es of than), 1 Fl manly fo ieee ‘ine hat 2 1X, Rentini) Sonics 1060) Bondage ac Fat and ke ae Gasca Inratction 9 fs thw finest polo» for ¥ relative to which is continuous. We may slows «explicitly by noting that VC Y is a element of open in F) E90) is in . This topology, which depend on f. X-—0 Pandy ‘olled the Mdentifiation topology on ¥ with renpet to fand (Xe), Now if Wisan cquivaenee relation on X, if: X— X/R isthe sual projection fuetion which maps each 2 © Xv ite eguvaletce elas [ein Xe and ite is the dentieation topology on X/R with repent to p then (X/Ree) is called the quotient space of (V7) by the seaton Au important pial ease arbes whenever 4 ia subopace of X. One may then deine at ‘equivalence relation Mon X by declaring 2~ y iz ~'y or and y ae both nA this ease X/R i sally written X/t ad it called the ques int of 3 hy It GX) and (Ve) axe two topological ces, the topological sum 9) at X aul Vis defined taking forthe set Z Ue disjoint on of the sete X ad, that the union of and ¥ where X end Y are deeood to have on edmmon elements. The topology ¢ i dtied as the topalgy senerated by the union ofr and 4. yi charuterized by beng the fie topology on Z in which the ielason functions from (X09) and (Pe atin, Fares A filter on net X iv a election Ff subsats of X wit the falling properties: Vic Rvery suet of which contains a set of # belongs to a: Rvery finite ntemeetin of sete af F belongs to P. By: The empty st ut in ‘Thoset with the teri allel wet filtered by Fo just filtered set 16 isa nonempty st of subsets of X which docs not contain then he collection ofall subsets of X which contain seme member of isa filter if ud only ifthe inversion of any’ bro ets i dcontains ein Suchet pall s base of Une iter Pd Fiscal the filter generate by @. Bauivalently, a subset of a Ber isn base of P if and only if every set off eontaionaset of Tw filer Bases aid tn be eqdralent fey woserate the sane titer. Conditions Fad Fs imply that the fay feta mitivis the finite intersection property, thats, that the inter seein of any tite nar of ste of the faa i nonempty. Conwersely, ‘ny fal of wes satin he Hate intersection property a Subbase or ter Fine the family together with the Hite intersections of i mcs iter base 4, Fare two flees on the se set X, Fs aid be finer than F