C&T13.

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The History
of High-Speed
Machining
A História da Usinagem com Altíssima Velocidade de Corte

HERBERT SCHULZ
Prof. Dr.-Ing., Institute of Production
Engineering and Machine Tools (PTW)
Darmstadt University of Technology, Germany
schulz@ptw.tu-darmstadt.de

ABSTRACT – The paper analyzes the introduction of High Speed Cutting technology since 1931 by C. Salomon; the con-
version of the fundamental knowledge into industrial products and its great future potential. The advantage and disad-
vantage of this relatively new conception of removal of material, the obstacles to be reached, the state of art that have
already been reached by the machine toll industry and centers of research and also the application field, holistic develop-
ment of process, the benefits introduced even for standard CNC machines due to development of this new technology,
will be described.
Keywords: high speed cutting – milling CNC – CNC madrine tools.

RESUMO – Este artigo analisa a introdução da usinagem com altíssima velocidade de corte, desde 1931, por C. Salomon,
a transformação da pesquisa básica em produtos industriais e o grande potencial dessa tecnologia para o futuro. Serão
abordados também as vantagens e desvantagens desse conceito relativamente novo de remoção de cavaco, os obstáculos
a serem superados, o estado da arte alcançado pela indústria de máquinas ferramentas e centros de pesquisa, a visão holís-
tica desse processo, os benefícios introduzidos mesmos para máquinas ferramentas CNC standards através do desenvol-
vimento dessa tecnologia.
Palavras-chave: usinagem com altíssima velocidade de corte – fresamento CNC – máquinas-ferramentos CNC.

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Introduction

H igh-speed machining is an advanced production technology with great future potential. However, as
has been the case in many other realisations of technological progress, the conversion of the funda-
mental knowledge into industrial products took a relatively long time. In this particular case, the
period of approximately 60 years was not only due to a cautious attitude of the industry, but also to the fact
that the existing production facilities corresponding to the state of the art at the time when the first findings
became available from research did not meet the requirements of high-speed machining.

Fundamentals
On April 27, 1931, Friedrich Krupp A.G. was granted the German Patent no 523.594 referring to a
“method of machining metal or of materials behaving similarly when being machined with cutting tools”
(Deutsche). Based on metal cutting studies made by the inventor, C. Salomon, on steel, non-ferrous and light
metals at cutting speeds of 440 m/min (1.444 ft/min) (steel), 1,600 m/min (5,250 ft/min) (bronze), 2,840 m/min
(9,318 ft/min) (copper) and up to 16,500 m/min (54,133 ft/min) (aluminium), the essential result described was
the fact that from a certain cutting speed upward machining temperatures start dropping again (fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Machining temperature in milling at high cutting speeds.

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Salomon performed his fundamental rese-
arch on circular saw blades, and because high spe-
eds of rotation were not available he was able to
reach the high cutting speeds only by means of big
diameters.
π•d•n
Vc = –————— [m/min]
1.000
However, for machining the majority of
workpieces, tools with very big diameters can be
rarely used. This means that in practical applica-
tion high cutting speeds have primarily to be
achieved by means of high speeds of rotation.
These, however, were not possible at that time.
Salomon’s fundamental research showed
that there is a certain range of cutting speeds
where machining cannot be made due to excessi-
vely high temperatures (in US literature this is cal-
led “the death valley”). For this reason, high-speed
Fig. 2. Historic mile-stones of HSC.
A formula for specific cutting pressure and for
dynamic cutting force was established (Kronenberg
1962). For the first time, also scientific proof was
found that cutting force initially increases with
increasing cutting speed and then drops sharply to
REVISTA DE CIÊNCIA & TECNOLOGIA • 13
machining can also be termed as cutting speeds
beyond that limit. In compliance with modern
knowledge, the PTW Institute defines high-speed
machining as being such that conventional cutting
speeds are exceeded by a factor of 5 to 10.
Ballistic tests
Almost 20 years later, i.e. in the early 50s,
intensified research was initiated again worldwide
for making use of high cutting speeds. Since at that
machines with elevated speeds of rotation were not
available, the period of ballistic tests began (fig. 2).
These were performed either by passing the tool
over the specimen workpiece by means of a rocket
slide or by shooting a projectile-shaped specimen
workpiece along a stationary cutting edge. From
these tests the new findings were derived that at
high cutting speeds the chip formation conditions
are different than in conventional metal cutting.
rise again later. Moreover, the studies showed that
with increasing cutting speed the flowing chip gra-
dually turns into a discontinuous chip (Kronenberg
1961-1962). When using a gun to shoot the work-
piece along a stationary cutting edge (Vaughn 1958-
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1960), it was found that at extremely high cutting
speeds the range of plastic material behaviour is
exceeded and that chip formation is due to brittle
break (Vaughn 1958-1960, Krueck 1960).
Various American studies (Vaughn & Peterson
1958, Recht 1964) made in the early 60s show that
productivity increases dramatically and product cost
reductions may be anticipated if the problems of
heavy tool wear and of machine vibrations can be
overcome. In a research project (Mc Gee 1978) it
was found that cutting speeds above 6500m/min
opened new interesting aspects for machining alu-
minium. Most intensive studies were conducted
into the theories of chip formation – also in Japan
(Tanaka, Tsuwa & Kitano 1967) – and into the
active mechanism (Shaw 1967, Recht 1964, Turko-
vich 1972, Rogers 1979).
It was only after the development of high-
speed spindles for application in machine tools in
the early 80s that it became possible not only to
continue the fundamental studies but also to realise
a defined form generation (Schulz 1979).
Application of high-speed
main spindles
In 1977, for the first time, it became possible
in the USA (King 1977-1981) to verify the results
both of the ballistic studies and of theoretical consi-
derations about milling machines providing cutting
speeds up to 1980 m/min (King 1977-1981). The
tests also showed that surface qualities improved
considerably with increasing cutting speeds.
Another important result of these tests was that
at high cutting speeds the heat generated during the
machining process was largely dissipated with chip
removal.
In 1979, the Air Force started in the USA a
comprehensive research program in co-operation
with General Electric for investigating the basic effec-
tive relationships and for examining the opportunities
of integrating high-speed machining into industrial
applications. It was found that the optimum cutting
speed range in machining aluminium alloys was com-
prised between 1500 and 4.500 m/min. A catalogue
of specifications for high-speed machine tools was
established.
All tests were primarily concentrated on light
metal alloys and in a few cases only on steel and cast
iron. Other materials such as low-machinability ste-
12
els, fibre-reinforced plastics and the like were stu-
died only to a small extent. Comprehensive and
systematic scientific studies about fundamentals and
investigations about the technical relationships
between causes and effects as well as intensive consi-
deration of the repercussions of this new metal-cut-
ting technology on the components involved in the
metal-cutting process as a whole were not available
until the late seventies.
European situation
In 1979, the Institute of Production Enginee-
ring and Machine Tools (PTW) at the Darmstadt
University of Technology was the first research cen-
tre in Europe to start a joint research project called
“research of process characteristics in high-speed
milling” focused on the development of a high-
speed spindle supported in active magnetic bearings
as well as on testing this in a machine tool.
By application of this spindle on active mag-
netic bearings, the decisive advance into the range of
applicable higher cutting speeds was successfully
achieved in 1980. This allowed the earlier funda-
mental knowledge derived from ballistic tests to be
confirmed and new knowledge to be added, in par-
ticular with respect to the required developments in
the fields of tools and machine components.
Today, due to its continuous research activi-
ties, PTW has comprehensive fundamental and
application knowledge as it exists nowhere else to
such an extent. Still in 1981, “experts” affirmed
that the new high-speed machining technology
had no future at all, basing their opinion on the
assumption that the potentially increased metal
removal volume in time was compensated by
immensely increased tool wear which would make
the economic efficiency of the process doubtful.
Today it can be observed that these “experts” who
at that time held a negative attitude have all
become emulators and meanwhile figures among
the most zealous advocates of the high-speed
machining technology!
However, an essential contribution to propa-
gating the knowledge about high-speed machining
was made by the great joint research project “high-
speed milling of metallic and non-metallic materi-
als” initiated in 1984 and promoted by the Federal
Ministry for Research and Technology in which 41
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industrial partners co-operated very closely under

the leadership of PTW.
The results of this four-year research project
created the most important basics of modern-day
knowledge about high-speed milling (Schulz 1989).
Decisive factors for the success of the PTW
research activities were the holistic development of
process and machines with respect to their rapid
industrial application which can be used directly
from the beginning and the fact that process safety
as well as the reduction of process chains were per-
manently observed.

Holistic development of
process and machine
From the beginning, PTW concentrated its
research programs so as to maintain close links
between the technological process and the develop-
ment of machines and their components. There-
fore, it was possible to evolve the first machines
specifically appropriate for high-speed machining
applications from the repercussions and interactions
between process and machine tool developments.
Process development also included the develop-
ment of cutting materials and tools as well as the
elaboration of new machining strategies and of the
interplay with CAD/CAM systems (fig. 3). This
means that, to the research objectives a certain
direction was always given which at the end allowed
to obtain the successful result of having mot only a
profounder understanding of this new machining
technology but also machines ready to be used and
tools required for them to be also available.
Fig. 3. Holistic consideration of high-speed machining.
It was only this holistic consideration that allo-
wed recognising quite a number of additional bene-
fits which opened completely new markets for HSC
applications. For instance, not only the cutting forces
decrease with increasing cutting speed, but also pro-
cess heat is completely removed with the chip, better
surface qualities can be produced, and machining can
be made in a range not subject to critical vibrations.
However, tool life decreases with increasing
cutting speed (fig. 4), and so there is still today a subs-
tantial demand for further developments to minimise
this shortcoming.

Fig. 4. General properties of high-speed machining.

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The focal points of high-speed machining industries (fig. 5). Although high-speed machining is
applications orient themselves at the benefits of this not necessarily a method for producing high-accu-
new technology. Applications to be mentioned in racy components, it still allows advances far into the
particular are die and mould manufacturing, aeros- field of high-precision machining. Ra values of
pace technology, optics and precision mechanics as 0.2µm and Rz values as low as 3µm are not uncom-
well as the automotive and household appliances mon.
CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATION EXAMPLES
Light metals Aerospace
High metal removal volume in time Steel and cast iron Die and mould making
Die and mould making
Precision machining
High surface quality Components of optics and precision
Special components mechanics
Aerospace
Low cutting forces Machining of thin-walled components Automotive industry
Household appliances
Vibration-free machining of difficult Precision components,
High exciting frequencies components optical industry
Distortion-free machining Precision components
Heat dissipation through chips Colder workpieces Magnesium alloys
Fig. 5. Fields of HSC application.

Safe processes logy is required. Indispensable elements, for ins-

It is regrettable that even today the process-
related hazard potential involved with high-speed
machining is still underestimated. This hazard con-
sists in high kinetic energies being released in the
form of flying chips, tool breakage, tool clamping
systems coming loose, but also in axis dynamics
during the machining operation. This means that a
high standard of active and passive safety techno-
tance, are appropriately energy-absorbing encap-
sulations of the work area as well as electronic
monitoring systems.
Furthermore, specifications, test guidelines and
design recommendations for fast-rotating tools must
be prepared as quickly as possible to constitute safety
standards. Under PTW leadership, work is currently
being performed also on this subject matter (fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Standard proposal for operational safety of tools rotating at high speeds (DIN 6589-1).

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Reduced Process Chains
Holistic consideration of the product gene-
ration chain shows that owing to the high surface
qualities it is possible in many cases to eliminate
subsequent finish machining entirely or in part.
An example to be mentioned is turbine manufac-
turing where blades are already machined by
milling alone and no longer by grinding. Another
Fig. 7. Surface quality as achieved by high-speed machining.
If for generating a surface it should still be
required to apply a finish grinding operation, impro-
ved preparation of the surface to be ground will
reduce the grinding time most substantially.
All previous research in the field of high-speed
machining was focused on milling. By expanding
PTW’s range of research continuously, additional
important knowledge has meanwhile been obtained
also for such high-speed machining processes as dri-
lling, reaming, turning and turn-milling (Schulz
1996).
Machines and components
Although the most relevant results regarding
machining technology, tools and machine compo-
nents were already presented to the public in the
mid-80s, practical implementation incomprehensi-
REVISTA DE CIÊNCIA & TECNOLOGIA • 13
typical example is die and mould manufacturing
where surfaces can be generated which come very
close to the demanded final accuracy both in
dimensional and shape deviations as well as in sur-
face quality. This reduces manual rework times
considerably (fig. 7). Time savings on manual
work up to 80% and cost reductions up to 30%
are quite realistic.
bly took relatively long. It was only the recession
during the early 90s that compelled companies to
take innovative actions, thus favouring the develop-
ment in the machine sector.
Today, a wide spectrum of HSC machines is
commercially available. Since in general the trend
for higher speeds is continuing, also standard
machine tools have become faster in the wake of
HSC machines. Spindle speeds of up to 12,000
min-1 and feed rates of up to 25 m/min have
meanwhile become state of the art, i.e. it is already
possible, in particular in machining steel or cast iron,
to penetrate into the HSC range with the present
standard. The profile of requirements as to a HSC
milling machine orients itself at the workpiece spec-
trum and at the HSC milling technology required
(fig. 8).
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Fig. 8. Feed rate speed profile of milling machines.
This is why two market segments become
distinct: High-Velocity Machining (HVM) in the
lower HSC range where high metal removal capa-
cities are important, and actual High-Speed Machi-
ning (HSM) with moderate metal removal capabilities
but very high cutting speeds. Therefore, HSC machi-
nes are used on light metals, copper, graphite, and
plastics for roughing and finishing, but in machi-
Fig. 9. HSC milling machine with linear drives.
16
ning steel and cast iron their use only makes sense
for finishing and pre-finishing operations.
Owing to high feed rates up to 100 m/min
and accelerations up to 30 m/s2, it is only a recent
innovation leap to machines with direct linear dri-
ves (fig. 9) that consequently permits the implemen-
tation of the HSC milling technology especially in
machining light metals.
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Conclusion tool life will contribute substantially to growing

As can be seen from figure 2, HSC research is
meanwhile made by many research institutes world-
wide. PTW maintains numerous international con-
tacts and corporations. On April 1998, DFG
(Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) has initiated a
new program focused on further research of funda-
mental conditions in the zone of metal removal.
However, today there is no longer any doubt
concerning the economic efficiency of high-speed
machining. Further developments for improving
application of the HSC technology. Also conventio-
nal machine tool engineering already benefits from
this trend. For instance, due to the many advantages
of motor spindles which originally had been exclusi-
vely developed as components for HSC machines,
they are also used in standard machine tools run-
ning at lower speeds. Also, the faster CNC control
systems and the highly dynamic drive systems avai-
lable now bring substantial benefits even for stan-
dard CNC machines.

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