Apostila Matemática Cálculo CEFET Capítulo 02 - Funções

!
% & ' +() * , -/.
"$#
)0)
132 4 568;79 :=< > : 2 ? @ A=@CB;DF@GE A :IH B : @ H

LJ KNM > O PRQS T 6 U 7 O+VWO :3XYO[Z \^] U V
_ `badce`gfihkjml conqpsrt`badconquvhkwe`bxyrzanqxyhLuvh{a[|qr~f{} rz `banq|quvh{xy`b|ch{sa[uvhhkco`bxhkl cofih~rfrz|qfb`bceruq`
nq|f{} h{ rq xhnq|f{} h{ ruq`+nqxh{hkweihkl `bpwoìh{p` l nqxhwe`b{wh0nq`+uq`baefwo``+fbrzxyr0nqxh!nvh{|cesuvh{uq`
`l uq`ce`woxy|vh{uvhjr{w rzncewohynvh{|cosuvh{uq`{uq`0xh{|q`bwohqln |qsfihqadco`bx hkl weh{a h{pco`wo|vhkco{h{ajhkwh
uq`v|qwr{woxh{pxy`b|co`+nqxhgnq|fk} h{ rqadfbrzpsq`bxrzahae`bznq|co`k
[+k ; `dh{x0vG xhLnq|f{} h{ ruq`v|quvhY`bx/`gfbrzxGkh{psr{we`ba`bx/ ` l
nqxh0wo`b{whgnq`[h{aeaerfhhfih{uvhg`ps`bxy`|corYInqx + ~
a|qr{chf{} rz `banqaenvh{saabh{ rqzI `
|nql xy`wor `l fvh{xh{uqr {hkweihkl `bp!s|quq`j`b|quq`b|coùvh+nq|f{} h{ r` {hkweihkl `bp!uq`j`b|quq`|coùvh nq|f{} h{ rq

b ae`bznq|ce`chk`bph!nq`xyrzacewh+h+kh{{h{ rae`bxh{|vh{pquq`h{l znvh[uq`nqxhwo`jqwe`baoh!we`jqwo`bae`|ch[nqxh
nq|f{} h{ rq
+h
z
zz

{
{

+`hkcorqkhchk`bph wo`jqwoàe`b|ch nqxhnq|fk} h{ rq{jrzsafih{uvhuqshco`xIh{aeadrfbsh{uvhnqxhqln |qsfih!nvh{|cesuvh{uq`

uq`kh{{h{ rq_ r{co`nq`{jrzaeae`bpsx`b|ce`{|~h{ r`sadco`nqxhyNr{l woxnqphxyhkco`bxhkl cofihjhkwohy`jqwoàeaohkwh
nq|f{} h{ ryuqr`q`bxgjvpsrqqxh{abvhuq`v|qdfk} h{ ryuq`[nq|fk} h{ r`[l aohkcesae`bch
rz`bchLnqxhLj`bae!nqsaohuq`jqwo`fb} rzauq`gjqwor!uqncorzauvhf`badchth{l adsfih`x;cewi`b aaenj`woxy`wofih{uqrza
uq`nqxuq`ce`woxy|vh{uqrgh{wdworqvr{qco`b|quqrkad`0hgae`znqs|co`[chk`bph
"
de
[ +

wor!uqncor
nj

{

nj

nj
z

z

achchk`phY|~h{ rwo`jqwoàe`b|chnqxyhYnq|f{} h{ rqjrzsahfbh{uvhjqworuqncorfbr{wdwo`badjrz|quq`

jqwo`f} rq
k hkl woìhuq`nvh{pnq`wfzml wofbnqpsr`[l nq|f{} h{ ruqàe`bntwh{srq
+`hkcorq ae`rwh{ruqrf{ml wofbnqprY`l uq`b|qr{ch{uqrjr{w z`b|cbh{ rq{ z "
! $#k x f{l wofbnqpruq`wh{rsznvh{ph
zco`bx hkl wo`bh[ z !&% (' nqx f{ml wofbnqpr[uq` wh{r[znvh{pqh zz {co`x hkl weìhm zz zzz !)% ('
% (' nq|qsuvh{uq`bauq` hkl woìh$
x coh{|qnq`0jhkwh `badcor!fih{z`bx uq`griqv`b |qsrLp ml nquqrL|nqx qrzadjvcoh{puq``gco`wh r{woxh uq`nqx
fbpss|quwergfbwofbnqpshkwwo`corguq` C x`ceworzauq`[h{pconwohqfbrzx nqxq`bxysadb`l wosrg`bx fih{uvh`cewe`bxy
uvh{uq`{ rzpsnqxyùqrgch{|q!nq``l uq`baefwecorg`bx nq|fk} h{ ryuqrwh{*r !
r
rzpnqxy` uqrgfsps|quwor ` l
`{l
$# !
`+rguqrza uqrzaq`xysae`l wosrzay` l ! t +qpsrzzrqrrzpnqxy`cor{ch{p
z +# . - ! t
r{w`q`bxgjvpsrqqae`[rgwh{rgr{w/ vrgrzpsnqx``0
l , ! t{
+rzsaaohkc`l psce`bahkwdcovfbsh{sa`badcih{ rtfbwefbnqph{|quqrh{rtwo`buqr{wuqrt!nvh{uqr{w`bx;nqxhr{l wevchLuq`gwh{r
sznvh{ph 21435 fbrzxjqwoxy`b|cor !nqàd`jhkwh rzaLaehkc`bl psco`babae``bpsà ce`wo`x nqxh
ae`jhkwohf{} h{ rh{|qznqphkwuq`76t`bxwh{uqsh{|qrza`l 6qrz|quq0` `[l rgwh{srq
,

!
"
rzzrqvjruq`bxrzauqàefwo``w rfbrzxgjqwosxy`|cor`bxnq|f{} h{ ruvhae`jhkwhf{} h{ ryh{|qznqphkwi

6 1R 3 6
k `buq7` r p` rzpsnqxyùq`nqxyhxh{adaohgh{aerzaeh `l s|`woaoh{xy`|co`jqwor{jr{wefbsrz|vh{ph jqwe`baeabh{ r
h!nq``bpshg`badcvhl aenvxy`cesuvhsadcor `{l rgjqwor!uqncoryuvhgjqwoàeabh{ ryj`psrrzpnqxy``l fbrz|qadcoh{|co`kae`hgco`bxg
j`whkconwhuqr[h{l a`l fbrz|qadch{|co`{+`b|qr{ch{xyrzah+jqwo`baeabh{ rjr{ w g!rrzpsnqxy` jr{w , `hco`bxgj`whkcenwh
fbrz|qadcoh{|co`jr{w
*v`b|cih{ rq 1 ,
ruq`xyrza `baefwo``w+hjqwe`baeabh{ ry`x nq|fk} h{ ryuqrrzpsnqx`{
,0
, rznYrgrzpnqxy`+`bxnq|f{} h{ ryuvhgjqwe`baeabh{ rq ,

`bquqrvnqr[ph{xy|vhkwuq` rzae`bnqspps`$ psnr[aoh{|qzn~l |q`br0hkcewoh `bl auq`nqx=kh{aerq!frzxyrhkwec`l wosh{a
rzn `bh{a2
rzxyrh{anvh{|couvh{uq`ba`b|rzpuvh{aabh{ rYj`m nq`b|vh{abjr!uq`bxyrzafrz|qaesuq`wohkwnq`ykh{aerza
co`bxr{woxyhkcorgfsp ml |quwosfr|~h{ r`pih{l adcofbrq

+`b|qr{co`bxrzayjr{w ;r woh{sr ` r fbrzxjqwesxy`b|corq3+`suqr h wosff{} h{ r |vh{a jhkwe`buq`ba uqr {h{aerqh
`bprfbuvh{uq`Luqryaoh{|qznq`^`l xyh{sr{wh{rypsrz|qzryuqr`bryfb`b|cewh{puqr{h{adrùq`bfwe`baefbàe`0hguqsadckh{ |qfh
uqr`q
r h jhkwoùq`fwoàefb```[l `wory|vhjhkwo`buq`{ wo`bpshf{} h{ r`|cewe`h`psrfsuvh{uqùvhfbwefbnqphf{} h{ rg`
`
l uvh{uvhjr{wi
7# #b

rz|quq` `0l hgaefbr!fbsuvh{uqùqraeh{|qznq`` hguqs`wo`|fi} h`b|cdwo`hgjqwo`badabh{ r uq``b|cewh{uvhy`0huvhyaehqml uvh
uqrYaoh{|qznq`|qrY{h{aerqj`woxy`b|ch{psxy`|co`kjhkwhtrYaoh{|qznq`ynqxh{|qr|nqxhL`bsh z

1R ` 1R vpsrzzrq
"
de
[ +

z ^1 R1

#
zN
k `bxyrza zz xy`cewerzauq` hkwh{xy`jhkwohh{`wnqxfbnwewoh{puq`r{woxhkcorYwe`ch{|qznqphkwbruq`bxrza

`baefwo``wh hkl weìhuqrYfbnwdwh{p `x/nq|f{} h{ ruq`ynqxGuqrzapsh{uqrzab+`yhkcorqad` ` abh{ rYrzapsh{uqrzauqr
fbnwewoh{p vae`bnj`wml xy`cewor ` l - zz `hhkl wo`bhguqrgwe`ckh{ |qznqpsr `l qprzzrq
z ^~ z yR
aesrzprzzsadcoh{auq`bae`b|rzp`woh{x nqxhNr{l woxnqph0jhkwhuq`co`woxs|vhkwhadnj`woml fbs`[fbr{wejr{wh{puq`h{|q

xh{a`x nq|f{} h{ ruqàe`bntj`baerq ùq`|qr{ch{xyrza jr{whgaenj`wo ml fs`fbr{wdjr{wh{pq`b|cbh{ rq

5 #
zr |quq` `l rj`baer`x !nqsprzatuqr h{|qxh{p` 5 `l nqxhfrz|qadch{|co`^!nq`ûq`j`b|quq`Ruqr h{|q

xh{pj`woxy`b|ch{psx`b|ce`{ `l fbrz|qq`bfsuqr!nq` 5 z jhkwh !nqxyh{|qrzat` 5 z jhkwh
jqwoxhkch{ab r{w`$q`bxjvprqqnqx qrzx`bxuq` { !nqsprzaco`x nqxhaenj`wo ml fb`fbr{wdjr{wh{phkjqworiqsxyh{uvh
uq` { z 1 { # zz # nqxhfwoh{|fi} hRuq` nqpsrzaco`bx nqxhâenj`wo ml fs`
fbr{wejr{wh{phkjqworiqsxyh{uvhuq` z 1 # # v`cofk

{
z

z 1 #
z 1 #
z 1 { #
z 1 z #
z 1 #
z 1 #

z&1 #
#
z #
zzz #
N #

#

{ #

k `dh 8`LhYwo`b{whnq` h{adaerfbshhYfih{uvh| qln xy`worwo`bh{p 0rae`nfbnrqsadcor`kl

r{wg`q`bxgjvpsrq h{r^| qln xy`wer h{aeaer!fbh{xrzar| qln xy`wer
h{r| qln xy`wer

h{aeaer!fbh{xrzarg|nql xy`wory vh{r| qln xy`wer h{aeadrfbsh{xyrzarg|nql x`wor

h{r|nql x`wor - h{adaerfbsh{xyrza r|nql xy`wor - - v`cof{

!
"
~
d

-

#
-

-

-
zb `dh -
`+th[wo`b{wh!nq`h{aeadrfbsh0hfih{uvh| qln xy`werwoìh{p aenvhwh{nvh{uwoh{uvh
sacor `{l
r{w`q`xjvpsrqqh{r| qln xy`wer h{aeaerfh{xyrzar| qln xy`wor vh{rg|nql x`wor h{aeaer!fbh{xrza
r | qln xy`wort # `h{r | qln xy`wor |~h{ rjruq`bxyrza+h{adaerfbshkw+|q`b|qnqx;|nql x`wor woìh{p
jrzab |~h{ r`l nqx | qln xy`worwoìh{p

-

-

s|quq`v|qsuqr
#
-

-
` dh `hae`bznqs|co`[nq|f{} h{ r
#
ae`
ea `

r | qln xy`wor h{aeadrfbsh{xyrzar | qln xy`wor # h{r |nql x`wor {h aeadrfbsh{xyrzayr

| qln xy`wer h{rg| qln xy`wor h{aeaerfh{xyrza r|nql x`wor # v`cef{

de
[ +

#
#
d
d
#
k ` dh `hae`bznqs|co`[nq|f{} h{ r
adad``
r{w+``bxjvpsrqh{r | qln xy`wor h{adaerfbsh{xyrzar | qln xy`wer h{r| qln xy`wer h{aeadrfbsh{xyrzar
| qln xy`wer h{ry| qln xy`wer h{adaerfbsh{xyrzary| qln xy`wor jrzsa `[l wewh{fsrz|vh{p
!
_ rza`$q`bxjvprza k k k k zb ` h{anq|fk} rz `baabh{ ruq`v|qsuvh{ajr{w`b!nvhf{} rz `ba
!nq`r{wo|q`bfb`x !nvh{|quqr0abh{ r0hkcewovnqsuqrzakh{psr{we`bah_ r0`q`xjvpsr !hnq|f{} h{ r|~h{ rR`l uvh{uvh
jr{wnqxh0`b!nvhf{} h{ rqvxh{abqhuq`v|qdf{} h{ ruq`[nq|f{} h{ r`[l aohkcesae`bchxz`wh{pq|q`bx coruvh{ah{anq|f{} rz `ba
abh{ rg|q`bfb`baeaehkwoh{xy`|co`k uq`v|quvh{auq`xyh{|q`bwh`jvp ml fch r{w`q`bxgjvpsrq
`{uqnwh{|ce`r`wih{ ruq` zz !|q
r sruq` h{|q`bworq!we`bzsadcdwh{l aeae`bxrzah[co`xj`wohkconwhxh l sxh
rfr{wewosuvht`bx/fih{uvhYuqshr{qco`wiml h{xyrzanqxhnq|f{} h{ rqL+`yhkcorqhtfih{uvhYuqhàdchYl h{aeadrfbsh{uqrnqxh
qln |qsfbhco`bxgj`whkcenwhx h l qsxyhsadcor`{l hco`xj`wohkconwh`tl nq|f{} h{ rûqruqsh x0r{wh|~h{ r^`$qsach
nqxhYNr{l woxnqpshY`jvp ml fbchjhkwh`jqwe`baeaohkwghnq|f{} h{ ruqr`$q`bxjvpr huq`v|qdf{} h{ ruq` nq|f{} h{ r ` l
aohkcoae`bch

x z`wh{p0h xh{sr{wehuvh{anq|f{} rz `banqaoh{uvh{a|vh{ahkjvpsfihfk} rz `baabh{ ruvh{uvh{ajr{wNr{l woxnqph{arzn
`b!nvhf{} rz `bab
s l jqwo`bfbaer[co`w nqx=jrznqfbruq`fbnqsuvh{uqrqzjrzsa|q`bx=coruvh+`bnvhfk} h{ r[uqùqnvh{akhkwobhkl `bsauq`v|q`nqxh
nq|f{} h{ rq r{w`$q`bxjvprqh`bnvhfk} h{ r # L|~h{ ruq`v|q`nqxhnq|f{} h{ rqjrzsa jhkwoh co`xyrza uqrza
kh{psr{wo`ba jhkwh hgaohk`wi g
xyh{a # uhl r{woz`bx hguqnvh{anq|fk} rz `bab g `
#
ruq`xyrza+sxh{z|vhkw+nqxhLnq|fk} h{
rfbrzxyrLnqxh xh{l nq|vhnq`ncospsih nqxhfb`wecohtxhkc`l wohyjqwoxh
|jvnc$jhkwh`bpshkr{whkw+h{pznqx jqwor!uqncoryv|vh{p rzncdjvnc$`r fbrz| nq|cor uqrza | qln xy`worzaweìh{safrzxyr
nqx uq`jrzl aecor uq`xhkc`l wosh{ajqwoxh{ab sfih `suq`b|co`nq`3`l nq|quvh{xy`|ch{p uq`co`woxy|vhkwi`vhkch
xy`b|co`{|q`bacoùq`jrzl aecorqnvh{pxhkc`l wohLjqwosxhYh{ nq|qfbrz|vhkw|qrzaeaohxh{l nq|vh fih{aerfbrz|cdwhkl wosrq
fbrzxfb`wdco`bih hg`bacewh{hkwo`bxrza q`badchgh{|vh{psrzzsh|qrzaps`kh h{ aae`bznq|coàuq`v|qdfk} rz `bab

!
x
f(x)
[+k

fbrz| nq|coruq`coruqrzarzanqàohkcoaeh{b`bxhuq`v|qdf{} h{ r+uq`nq|f{} h{ r`l fvh{xh{uqr +

L ``[l uq`b|qr{coh{uqrjr{
w ^ ~
s frz| nq|cor uq`coruqrzarza t coh{sanq` ~Nrz|quq` ^ ~` l fvh{xh{uqr
``[l uq`b|qr{coh{uqrjr{w
!^ ~
L
l fphkwor!nq` ^ ~ R ~` !nq` ^ ~`l rfbrz| nq|corguqrza {h{pr{wo`bauvhkhkwoihkl `p |quq`
j`|quq`b|ce`jhkwh+rzanvh{a` l uq`v|quvh R ~` l r+fbrz| nq|coruqrzakh{psr{wo`bauvhkhkwoihkl `bpuq`j`b|quq`|co`
fih{pfbnqph{uqrzahjhkwecowuqrza`bp`bxy`b|corzauqryuqrzxml |qrq
+nvh{anq|fk} rz `ba ` abh{ rguqch{a v ad`[co`bx rgxy`baexr0uqrzxml |qr `~ ~~$jhkwh
cor!uqrL 2jr{w[`q`xjvpsrth{a[nq|fk} rz `ba0 # q `~ # e abh{ ruq`wo`b|co`ba
jrzaad`bnqauqrzxml |qsrza abh{ ruq`wo`b|co`ba
|co`bauq` `w h{pznq|qa`q`bxgjvpsrzabrzpch{xyrzahs|qaeadcow nq`jhkwh`baconquvhkwnvh{ps!nq`wnq|f{} h{ rqquq``
xyrza ae`bxgjqwoùq`ce`woxy|vhkwrzafbrz| nq|corza ^ ~` ^ ~

b hkl woìhuq`nqx fzml wofnqpsruq`wh{s*r `[l { "
! +# ad`b|quqryrgwoh{srqco`bxrzab vprzzrq
^ ^ -

rz|qaeuq`wo`yh nq|f{} h{ r Y ~ # `l fbphkworLnq`|~h{ r`$qsaco`bx wo`bacewodfk} rz `ba[jhkwhLrt|nql x`wor
woìh{p~ vpsrzzrqco`bxrza!nq`{
NR ~
` # jhkwh coruqrt `b|cih{ r R ~ -
fbrzxyrLcoruqrt| qln xy`wortwoìh{p
jrzadaenqwoh{snvh{uwh{uvhv`b|cih{ rq
^ ~ -

k
rz|qaesuq`wo`+hnq|f{} h{ r xhwoh{s!nvh{uwh{uvh`sadceàerzxy`|coàe` !`b|cbh{ rq
^ ~ -
|qrNkh{xy`b|co`{vfbrzxyr`bx co`bxyrza
!^ ~ -

"
de
[ +

rz|qaeuq`wo`Rh nq|f{} h{ r ~ #
rzxyr |qrfih{aer h{|co`wor{wi # `$qsaco`
aerzxy`|coàe` # qwoàerzp`b|quqryhgs|q`nvhf{} h{ rco`bxyrzab
^ ~
i b R -
k` |qrkh{xy`b|co`{qco`bxyrza
!^ ~ -

rz|qaesuq`wo`0hnq|f{} h{ r g `l fbpshkworynq` ` l uq`v|qsuvhyae`[àerzxy`b|coàe` przzr
co`bxrza!nq`{

NR ~
-

jr{wrznceworgph{uqrqvnqxhwhf{} h{ r`l |nqphae`àdrzxy`b|co`[ad`r|nqxy`woh{uqr{wt`l |!nqpr `|cih{ r
R ~

k
rz|qaesuq`we` hnq|f{} h{ r # frzxyr|qr0fih{aerh{|co`wosr{wr0uq`|qrzxys|vh{uqr{wuvhwhf{} h{ r
|~h{ rgjruq`[ae`w|nqpsr vprzzr # v`b|cih{ rqq
`{

NR ~

^ ~

rz|qaeuq`wo`thnq|f{} h{ r
|q`bhkcor `+l jrzaecokhrznY|q`bhkco{h
fbrzxrhwh{s fnl vfihûq`Lnqx | qln xy`worjrzaecorrzn
^ ~ !^ ~
k
rz|qaeuq`wo`h+nq|f{} h{ r ~ - # nq|f{} h{ r`l uq`v|quvhae` ` #
aexnqpch{|qìh{xy`|co`k `baerzp`b|quqrh{a|q`bnvhfk} rz `babvr{qco`bxyrza qpsrzzrq

^ ~ -
`
!^ ~ -

z r{wh nqùq`co`wexys|vh{xyrza~|qrza``bxjvpsrzarzauqrzxml |qrza` xh{z`b|qauvh{anq|fk} rz `babkjruq`bxyrzahi{h{phkwi

ae`bxj`woszrqq`bach{anq|f{} rz àb

b `t~ `b|cbh{ rR ! ! `L # - # - jrzsa #/- ` l
ae`bxgjqwo`jrzaecerq

!

`+~ vfih{psfnqph{xyrza $ad` `~ - -
l ch{x0`bl x fbrzxnqx |qrzagco`cerzaguq`
th{l pfbnqpsrRuq`|qr{chkwh{agnq|f{} rz `bayfbrzxr IC rz|quq`k
NR ~
V O 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V
JLKJ E P TU
we`jqwo`bae`|chfk} h{ rz`brzx`l cewesfihuq`nqxhnq|f{} h{ ruq`nqxyhkhkwoihkl `pweìh{p `l uvh{uvhgjr{wae`n ~
|qrgjvpsh{|qryfbr!r{wouq`b|vh{uqrg
[+k {whkl vfryuq`[nqxyhgnq|f{} h{ r ~y`[l rgae`bznq|co`[aenfrz| nq|coruqrgjvph{|qrq
~ ! $~de ^ ~

+`brzxy`cdwosfih{x`b|ce` ~t`{l `bx z`woh{p ~nqxh fbnwekhL|qr jvph{|qrq_ rza`$q`bxjvprza b k `

uvhgad`f{} h{ r ~|~h{ r `l nqxhfbnwekh_ rzafih{aerza`bx !nq` ~y`[l nqxhfbnwekhs|conqco{h{x`b|ce`
jr!uq`bxyrzaj`b|qaohkwgnq` rzafbrz| nq|cerza ^ ~`!^ ~[wo`jqwo`bae`b|ch{x hdphkwoznwh èh{pcenwh
xh l sxhuvhfnwe{hqwoàdj`bfcokh{xy`b|co`{
|qsfh{psx`b|ce`{hLfrz|qadcewonf{} h{ rtuqrza[{wvhkl vfbrza[ad`whl woìh{psih{uvh h{b`b|quqrYnqxhychk`bphrz|quq`gh{a+`b|
cewh{uvh{a0uvhYchk`bphYah{ rrza0`bps`bx`b|cerza0uqruqrzxYml |qsr` h{a0aohqml uvh{abh{awoàdj`bfcokh{a0sxh{z`|qabYaco`
jqwor!fb`baeaer^`l uq`bxyr{wh{uqr[`s|q`vfs`b|co` àd`wh0l hkh{|quqrz|vh{uqr0|qrzafihkjml conqpsrza ae`bznq|coàbnvh{|quqr0ad`wih{ r
uvh{uvh{a c`bl fb|qfih{axh{sa `vfs`b|co`ba+jhkwh h{b`w[rL{wvhkl vfbrq l xjr{wecoh{|co`|~h{ rtfbrz|qnq|quqwh nq|f{} h{ r
fbrzxae`bn{whkl vfbrqqjrzar{wvhkl vfbr `l nqx adnfbrz| nq|coruqrjvpsh{|qrq

b adrfb`r{whkl vfbr uvhynq|f{} h{ rLuvh{uvhj`bpsh ad`bznqs|co`chk`bph nq`xyrzacewhhkh{{h{ rae`bxh{|vh{puq`
h{l znvhguq`[nqxh0wo`jqwo`baeh

+h
z
zz

{
{

{whkl vfrguq`bachgnq|f{} h{ r|~h{ rwo`jqwo`bad`b|cohnqxh0fbnwekh jqwoxy`bwh0fbrzpsnq|vhuvhcohk`bpsh0we`jqwo`bae`|ch

hgr{weuq`b|vh{uvh`hae`bznq|quvhfrzpsnq|vhh{awo`badj`bfco{h{ahkvaefbaeaoh{a psrzzrqqr{qco`xyrzab
de
[ +

1000
800
600
400
200
adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhnq|f{} h{ r #k NR ~ ` ^ ~

h{b`b|quqrhchk`bpsh
~ #

# jhkwh coruqr rza+jrz|corzauq`hkvaefbaeaoh{a[ `L ce`bx;htxy`badxhr{wouq`b|vh{uvh Y #N
rzzrqr{whkl vfbr uq`vfbh adconvh{uqr|qrjqwoxy`bweryàe`bznq|quqrLnvh{uwoh{|co`k vad`wekh{|quqrhchk`bph
fbrz|qfbpnq ae`!nqàe`r[kh{psr{wuq` Nh{nqx`b|coh!rza{h{pr{wo`bauvh[fbr{wdwo`badjrz|quq`b|ce` r{wouq`b|vh{uvhh{nqx`b|coh{x
xh{awhkjvuvh{xy`b|co`{ `yrza[{h{pr{wo`bauq` hkjqwersxh{xg ae`ghb`worqrza[kh{psr{wo`ba[fbr{wewoàdjrz|quq`b|co`ba
uvhgr{weuq`b|vh{uvhyhkjqworiqxh{xgad`xyh{sawhkjvsuvh{x`b|ce`[uq`[b`worq {whkl vfbruq``{l
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-1
-0.5
0.5

!
#
k adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhnq|f{} h{ r NR ~ R ~
h{b`b|quqrhchk`bpsh

` `b|cih{ r àe` `b|cih{ r rzzrq ry{whkl vfbràdchyl aeconvh{uqry|qryjqwoxy`bwery`
co`wefb`bwerynvh{uwh{|co`ba vae`wd{h{|quqrLhchk`bphq`bxyrzanq`[nvh{|quqry `fwo`baef`{rzakh{psr{we`ba
fbr{wewe`badjrz|quq`|coàyuvhr{weuq`b|vh{uvh coh{x`l xCfwo`baef`bx `txh{awhkjvsuvh{x`b|ce`{ nvh{|quqr `
uq`bfwoàefb`{rza[kh{psr{we`bafbr{wewe`badjrz|quq`|coàuvhtr{wouq`b|vh{uvh uq`bfwo`badfb`bx`yxyh{sa+whkjvsuvh{xy`|co`k
{whkl vfbrguq`0`{l
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.25
-0.5
-0.75
adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhnq|f{} h{ r NR ~ R ~

h{b`b|quqrhchk`bpsh
~
z
z

-1
de
[ +

` 3 `b|cih{ r àe` `b|cih{ r rzzrq ry{whkl vfbràdchyl aeconvh{uqry|qryjqwoxy`bwery`
co`wefb`bwerynvh{uwh{|co`ba vae`wd{h{|quqrLhchk`bphq`bxyrzanq`[nvh{|quqry `fwo`baef`{rzakh{psr{we`ba
fbr{wewe`badjrz|quq`|coàguvhr{wouq`b|vh{uvh hkjqwersxh{xg aeùq``wor` hxy`buqsuvhY!nq`y hkjqworiqxh adùq`
b`werqrzakh{psr{we`bafbr{wewoàdjrz|quq`b|co`bauvh r{wouq`b|vh{uvh h{nqxy`b|ch{x xnqcorq nvh{|quqr `fwo`baef`{
rzakh{psr{wo`ba fbr{wdwo`badjrz|quq`b|ce`bauvhr{wouq`b|vh{uvh uq`bfwo`baefb`x ` h0 xy`buquvh0nq`Yuq`fwo`baef`{ rzakh{psr{we`ba
fbr{wewe`badjrz|quq`|coà uvhgr{wouq`b|vh{uvh hkjqwersxh{xg ae` uq``worq {wvhkl vfbruq``{l
3
2
1
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhae`bznq|co`[nq|f{} h{ rY

ae`
ea `
# - ae`
R
0.4
0.2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.2
-0.4
k +`ce`woxy|q`hnq|f{} h{ rLfn ry{whkl vfbr`kl
1.5

!
2
-1
phkwh{xy`|co`k~ ae`[ `[ +`co`woxys|q`xyrza rzaae`bzx`b|cerzauq`[we`chg!nq`psh{xrza

jrz|corza ` $ `y wo`baj`bfcekh{xy`b|co`{
`nvhf{} h{ rguvhwo`cohgnq`jh{aeaohjr{w ` ` l
s `b!nvhf{} h{ ruvhgwe`chg!nq`jh{adaohgjr{w ` ` l q`b|cih{ rq
ae`
~ aeae``
ae`
ay{wvhkl vfbrzauq`~ - - `Y t Ljr!uq`bx ae`w

r{qcouqrzauqwo`ch{xy`|coùqry{whkl vfruq`0~+`hkcorq
{whkl vfbrtuq`~ - jruqàe`w[r{qcosuqrthLjhkwecewuqr{whkl vfruq` cewoh{|qaeph{uvh{|quqrk rYh{r
psrz|qzr uqr `b qruqrza R`bx nq|qsuvh{uq`ba+jhkwh h`bae!nq`wouvh ae` rzncewh{|qaepsh{uvh{|quqrkrth{rLprz|qzr
uqr`qrguqrza`bx nq|qsuvh{uq`bajhkwhhuqwo`chae`
{wvhkl vfbruq`~ ~ - jruqàd`wr{qcosuqruqr{wvhkl vfbruq`Lcewh{|qaepsh{uvh{|quqrkrh{r
psrz|qzrguqr`b qrguqrza `bx nq|qsuvh{uq`bajhkwhfbxhad` rzn nq|quvh{uq`bajhkwhh{rgae`
{whkl vfbruq`~ ~$ jr!uq` ae`wr{qcouqr z`bacosfih{|quqrk ae` r{whkl vfbruq``wecofih{psx`b|ce`
j`psrhkcer{w
{whkl vfbrLuq`0 ~ jruqàe`wr{qcosuqr zfbrzxjqwesxy|quqrkae` rL{whkl vfbrLuq`y qr{wo
brz|ch{psx`b|ce`j`bpsrghkcor{w
{whkl vfbrYuq`g~ ~$ jruq`gae`w0r{qcesuqr zfbrzxgjqwosxy|quqrkae` rY{whkl vfruq`
`wecesfih{pxy`b|co` j`bprhkcor{w

de
[ +

{whkl vfruq`Y~~ jr!uqàe`wtr{qcosuqr z`badcesfih{|quqrk ae` r {whkl vfruq`
qr{wobrz|coh{psxy`b|co`+j`bprhkcor{w
{whkl vfbrguq`+~ jruqàe`wr{qcosuqrj`bpshwo`v`~h{ rguqr{whkl vfbrguq`0`bxcor{wo|qruqry`br
uqrza
{whkl vfbrguq`+~ jruqàe`wr{qcosuqrj`bpshwo` v`~h{ rguqr{whkl vfbrguq`0`bxcor{wo|qruqry`br
uqrza
xfih{uvhfih{aer`l fbrz|`b|qs`|co``badj`fbvfihkwrzauqrzxYml |qsrza `xh{z`b|qab

b _+hy`bae!nq`wouvh~rza{whkl vfrza uq` h{bnqp uq` ~ `woxy`bpqr`
- - `wouqì
_+huqwo`bchvrza{whkl vfrzauq` g #h{bnqpvuq` - - #`woxy`bpqr
` g y #`wouq`
1
2
-2
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-1
k aY{whkl vfbrzatuq`
h{bnqp$ uq` - - `wox`bpsqr`
`wouq`
1
-2
-1
-1
ea `znqwuvhkwe`bxyrza+ hkl worza[``bxjvprzauq`nq|fk} rz `babfbrzx;ae`bnqawe`badj`fcorzauqrzxml |qrzabxh{z`b|qa`

{whkl vfbrza su`l h`l r{woxyhkwnqx zfbhkch{l psrzzr +uvh{anq|f{} rz `baxyh{sanqaoh{uvh{ab!h{anvh{saae`wbh{ r[ncopsih{uvh{a
|qrza`$q`bxjvprza ```wofzml fbsrzab
-2

!
JLK :XO[Z \^] U V O 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V

e
achgnq|f{} h{ r`l uq`v|quvhgjr{wi

rzxyr[r{h{pr{w hkvaerzpsncor[uq`nqx | qln xy`worwoìh{p`l ae`bxjqwo`|~h{ r|q`bhkcerqzco`bxyrza!nq` ^ ~
R ~ -
àd`bn {whkl vfbr `
l fbrz|qadcoconqsuqruq`+uqnvh{aae`bx we`ch{auq` fbr!`vfbs`|coàh{|qznqpshkwo`ba
` vwo`badj`bfco{h{x`b|ce`{vnqàe`|co`woae`bfcoh{x `bx/
-2
-1
vae`we`nq` rza{whkl vfbrzauq` ~ b` uq` jruq`bx ae`w r{qcouqrzauqr{whkl vfbruq`~$+`hkcorq

~~ ~ `[l r{qcosuqrgwo` v`co|quqrhkcewhi `l auqry`b qrguqrza |qrjqwesxy`bworàe`bznq|quqr!nvh{uwh{|co`ba
hjr{wzf{} h{ ruqr{whkl vfruq`nq``badce`dhg|qrco`wofb`worg`[!nvhkwecornvh{uwh{|co`bab
rzxr`$q`wof{ml fbrqquqsh
fbrzxyrjr!uqàe`wr{qcouqrrg{whkl vfbryuq`
adrfb`rza{wvhkl vfbrzauq`+ y - ùq`~
`dh (przzrq~ - `|cih{ rqr0{whkl vfbr0uq``l r{qcouqrhjhkwecowuqr0{whkl vfbr
vu h nq|f{} h{ rgcewh{|qaepsh{uvh{|quqrkr[h{r psrz|qzr uqr+`br+uqrzay`bx nq|quvh{uq` jhkwohhuqwo`bch ` nq|quvh{uq`ba
jhkwhyfbxh {whkl vfbr`0l fbrz|qacoconquqruq`0uqrzsaad`bzxy`b|corza uq`wo`coh{auq`0fbr`vfbs`b|co`bah{|qznqpshkwo`ba
` jh{adaoh{|quqryjr{w0 ` qwo`badj`bfco{h{x`b|ce`{r{wrznceweryph{uqr~ whkl vfbrza
uq`` wo`baj`bfcekh{xy`b|co`{
de
[ +

5
0.2
-2
-1
0.15
0.1
0.05
-1
-0.5
V U ]iSiQ U Z S SV
JLKLKJ 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+
1 Q T 6 07 U U ]iSiQ U Z S ] O SiZ [O S U U @ P Z
~ *-
0.5
rz|quq`
^ ~ R ~
aoh{|quqr hyuq`v|qf{} h{ r uq`0uqsadc h{ |qfbhy`b|cewo`jrz|cerzauqryjvph{|qr|~h{ r`l uq l fbpjqworkhkw+nqùvh{uqrzacewi`b a
jrz|corza |qr{whkl vfruq``badce`ba abh{ rfbrzps|qìhkwoà r{whkl vfbr uq` `0l hwe`m chyuq`0fbr!`vfbs`|co`h{|qznqpshkw
jh{adaoh{|quqrjr{wL Lwo`bfbjqworfih{x`b|ce`{uvh{uqrza0uqrzsajrz|cerza0nq`yuq`ce`woxy|q`bxnqxhtwe`ch
|~h{ rg`wecosfbh{p`$qsaco`[nqxyhnq|f{} h{ ryhkvx fbn r{whkl vfbr `l hwo`ch `wov!nq
`

jhkwhgceruqr
s+ -N - - `bx z`wh{p 5 - 5 -
jhkwhcoruqr 5 rzzrq $v v $ r{woxh{x nqxhjqwerz{wo`baeabh{ rhkwocex`l cofihuq`
wh{{h{ rg
s jqwor{jqwo`buvh{uq`nq`fihkwh{fco`wosih h{anq|qf{rz `bajrzps|qrzxysh{sauq`jqwoxy`bwer{wh{n^`{l - q
uq`j`b|quq`hkj`b|vh{auq` sadcorR`+l hh{fw`l aefbsxrzasznvh{sauvh{uqrzahfbr{wewoàdjrz|quq`bx h{fw`bl aefbxyrzasznvh{a
jhkwh l `badcohgfihkwh{fco`wml adcosfbhgnqùq``[ae`wncespsih{uvhg|vh{ahkjvpsfihf{} rz `ba
q +nvh{|quqrg hnq|f{} h{ r`+l fvh{xh{uvh ~ àe`bnt{whkl vfbr `+l nqxh0wo`cohjhkwh{p`bphh{r
`b qruqrza nq`jh{aeaohgj`bpsrjrz|cor b

!

co pssbh{|quqrYhr{vae` we{hfk} h{ rYuvhjh{l zs|vh `bae!nq`wouvhrza[{whkl vfbrzauq`y - h{bnqp
` ~ - `wexy`bpsqr` ~ - pspih{l ao woàdj`bfcokh{xy`b|co`{ uqew `bch rza
{whkl vfbrza[uq` - h{bnqp` - `woxy`bpqr ` psspbh{l a
wo`baj`bfcekh{xy`b|co`{
2
2
1
-1
-2
-1
-1
-1
v nvh{|quqr r{qco`bxyrza0nqxGcojrxjr{wdch{|ce`yuq` nq|f{} h{ rq fvh{xh{uvh d

r{wech{|corqvhnq|f{} h{ rps|qìhkwL`l uq`v|quvhjr{wi

``l xyruq`bpr xhkco`bx hkl cosfbrjhkwh we`baerzp`wLjqwer{vps`bxh{a!nq``b|rzp`bx jqwor{jr{wofbsrz|vh{psuvh{uq`{ `bn
{whkl vfbr`[l nqxh0wo`cohguq`fr`vfb`b|co`0h{|qznqphkw jh{aeaoh{|quqryj`bphr{wosz`xY

hkwhcoruqr q # t - # - #
s -3 `bxz`woh{p +~ jhkwhYcoruqrYF`

s nvh{|quqry co`bxyrzab

nq``[l fvh{xh{uvhnq|f{} h{ r q `bn{whkl vfr `l nqxhwo`chguq`[fbr`vfs`b|co`h{|qznqpshkw

b njrz|qvhy!nq`rzaad`bznqs|co`ba uvh{uqrzar{woh{xWfbrzp`ch{uqrza|nqx `j`wesxy`b|corq `0hco`br{woshaendh
fb`b|co` hg `j`wo `b |qfbshgs|quqfihg!nq`[rzauvh{uqrzace`bx nqxhgfr{wewo`bpshf{} h{ rgps|qìhkwb h{fq`+ch{pnq|f{} h{ ryps|qìhkwi
"
de
[ +

z

z

`dh ~ ' - N `ph{a jqwor{jqwosùvh{uq`bauvh{anq|fk} rz `baps|qìhkwo`ba

' -
'
àerzp`b|quqrraeadco`bxhqr{qce`bxyrzab ' ` vpsrzzrq~

100
75
50
25
-10
10
20
30
40
-25
-50
_ r{co`nq`+j`bpsh{ajqwer{jqwos`buvh{uqàuvh{anq|fk} rz `baps|qìhkwo`bavjruq`bxrzacorzxyhkw nvh{ps!nq`wjhkwuq`jrz|corza

`r{qco`bxyrzarxyàexyrwo`baenqpch{uqr qjr{w`q`bxgjvpsrq
z

'
' -
hk`bxyrza!nq`hjqwoàeabh{ ruvhh{l znvh0uqrxhkw`+l nq|f{} h{ rguvh0jqworznq|ququvh{uq`{+`b|qr{co`bxrzajr{w =h

jqwo`badabh{ rg`Ghjqworznq|ququvh{uq`wo`phkco{h0h{r|ml `puqrxhkwij`wesxy`b|ch{pxy`b|co``wevfih ae`+nq`+h
jqwo`badabh{ ruvhh{l znvhgh{r|ml `p~uqrgxhkw`+l uq` ' ' hkcoxrzae`wh`nq`h{fw`l aefbsxrzaznvh{sa |vh
jqworznq|ququvh{uq`0fbr{wewo`bajrz|quq`bxWhyh{fw`bl adfbsxyrzasznvh{a|vhjqwo`baeabh{ rq rzzrqh{rgjh{aeaehkw uq`nqxjrz|cor
uqrxhkwjhkwhrznceweradconvh{uqrh xy`cdwor[uq`jqworznq|quqsuvh{uq`k vhi`whl nqxCh{nqxy`b|coruvh
jqwo`badabh{ rûq`thkjqworiqsxyh{uvh{xy`b|co` ' h{aeaeh{|quqrûqr^|~ml `bpuqrxhkwghnqxhjqworznq|ququvh{uqùq`

!
Ihjqwo`baeabh{ rh{nqx`b|cohkwh l 1g jqwo`badabh{ ruvh h{l znvh`bxFhkcoxyrzae`wh{ab`l uvh{uvhj`bpshnq|f{} h{ r
jrzps|qrzxysh{puqrgjqwesxy`bwor{wh{n~

&1
-
10
20
40
60
80
100
qj we`baeabh{ ryuvhh{l znvhhgnqxyhjqworznq|ququvh{uq`0uq` z ` l z 1Rz - z '

`hjqwo`baeah{ ryuvhh{l znvh `l uq` ' vhjqworznq|ququvh{uq`` l &1 - przzrq
k hkàd`Ynq` z {wh{xh{aouqàerkdh^fbrz|co`bx uq`tjqwer{co`zml |vh{ag` z uq`tps`b|cospvh{a
fbrz|co`bx uq`tjqwor{co`{ml |vh{ab x h{uqnqpcor^x`bl uqsr|!nqx fbpsxhxyruq`woh{uqr^|q`bfbàeaecohRuq` { uq`
jqwor{co`{ml |vh{auqbhkl woh{a[`bx;aenvhh{psxy`b|chf{} h{ rq xyh j`baeaerhYuq`bad`dhYjqworN`w`badcoh{a { uq`jqwor{co`{ml |vh{a
aerzxy`|co`fbrzx aerkdh` rznps`|copsvh{ab ``l hnvh{|couvh{uqùqàerkdh` h!nvh{|cesuvh{uqùq`ps`b|cospvh{a
uqihkl weh{a` xyùqsuvh{a`bxnq|qsuvh{uq`bauq` z q!nvh{p`l hwo`bphfk} h{ r`b|cewo``
!nvh{|cesuvh{uqùq`jqwor{co`{ml |vh|vh[adr{dh` l `hnvh{|cosuvh{uqùq`jqwor{co`{ml |vh|vh{a ps`b|cospvh{a` l jr{w
uqh h{x0h{a xy`buquvhL`x {wh{xh{a cor{coh{puq`0jqwor{co`zml |v h{a[uqbhkl wo{sr ` l { psrzzrqco`bxrza+hL`b!nvhf{} h{ r
uq`[jqwesxy`bwor{wh{n~ - { `{ ~ -
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0.5
1.5
ajrz|cerzauqr {whkl vfbrabh{ r h{ajrzaeaiml `bsafrzxv|vhf{} rz `bauqàerkdh`p`b|cospvh{ajhkwhr{wo|q`fb`w

{ {woh{xh{a uq`[jqwor{co`{ml |vh{auqihkl wosh{ab
de
[ +

`buq` rr`$ `[nqx j`baerguq`[nq|quvh{uq`bar{wj`b|quqnwoh{uqr`bxnqxhxrzph0`badchae`h{prz|qh
`bx nqx kh{psr{w !nq``l uqwo`ch{xy`|co`jqwor{jr{wefbsrz|vh{phg adcor`{l y 5 frz|qadch{|co` 5
uq`j`b|quqùvhgwozsuq`buvhgxrzphtnvh{|corxyh{sawml zuvhr{whgxyrzpshxy`b|qr{wae`wvhgl rgkh{psr{wuq` 5 $
1 Q T 6 07 U U ]iSiQ U Z S ] O <O Q U U E S T
~ '
# -

-
rz|quq` ' '

^ ~
s hkwhcor!uqr L - q `l nqxhnq|f{} h{ rhkvx`bx
s !^ ~`+r{whkl vfbruq`[uq`j`|quq`bx àeae`b|qfbsh{psxy`|coùqruqsaefwesxy|vh{|co`
Fuvh`bnvhf{} h{ ruqr
{wh{n ' # - - `[uqrfbr!`vfbs`|co` ' uqrco`woxrjqwo|qfbjh{p
q_0h{ r `tl uqs ml fbsp`wovfbhkwynq`rR{whkl vfbr uvhRnq|f{} h{ r ~ ' # `l nqxhjhkwhkl rzphûq`Yr!fbr
`guqwo`cewos h{b`b|quqrnqxh cewh{|qaepshf{} h{ rYh{uq`nvh{uvhuqrza`qrzafbr!r{wouq`b|vh{uqrza

'
'
`wovfih ad`!nq`r+{whkl vfbr uvh nq|f{} h{ r~ ' # - - `l nqxhjhkwhkl rzphfbn r`b qr uqàexy`cewosh
`+l jhkwh{ps`bpryh{rg`bruqrza co`bx rfr ' ' - ' # ùqwe`cewo ' ' #
v `l wecesfbùvhjhkwhkl rzpsh y ' # - - `l rjrz|corrz|quq`0hjhkwhkl rzpshg|co`woae`bfcohyae`bn`br
``l uvh{uqrjr{w ' i '
` ' ~`b|cih{ r `0l rjrz|cor uvh jhkwhkl rzphyuq`xy`b|qr{wh{pconwhjrzsa rjrz|cor xh{ajqwrkl qxyruvh
uqwe`cewo`[l rg `l wecosf`{ ` ' v`b|cbh{ r `l rjrz|coruvhjhkwhkl rzpshguq`[xh{sr{wh{pconwh
_0h{ r `l uqsml fbsp~`wnq`[ae` `[l hhkvaefsaeaohguqr `l wdcosfbùvhjhkwvhkl rzph q`b|cih{ rq
- ^jhkwohcor!uqrg
s aoh{|quqryfbrzxjvp`ch{xy`|coruqrzanvh{uwh{uqrzab ' y # - vrz|quq`
~ ` ' rz
n vrza{whkl vfbrzawo`badj`bfcorzaabh{ rq

!
`
'

rzn

qrza{whkl vfbrza wo`badj`bfcorzaabh{ rq

b hkl woìhuq`nqxh`bae`wh `[l nq|f{} h{ r!nvh{uwhkl cofihuq`[ae`bnwoh{srq`hkcorq z ! +#k
`bquqrvnqr[ph{xy|vhkwuq` rzae`bnqspps`$ psnr[aoh{|qzn~ml |q`br0hkcewoh `bl auq`nqx=kh{aerq!frzxyrhkwec`l wosh{a
rznt`h{ab l nqxhgnq|f{} h{ rnvh{uwhkl cofih`bx
7# #b

hkwhraoh{|qznq`[!nqxh{|qrg|!nqxyh`bsh z
* 1^ ` 1R przzrq
z 1^ 1R # zN
k cewohk`cr{l woh[uq` nqxFfbr{wejr0ph{|fi} h{uqr0r{vps!nvh{xy`b|co`{uq`badjqwo`bbh{|quqrh[we`baeci`b |qfbh0uqrhkwi`l uvh{uvh
jr{wnqxh0nq|f{} h{ rgjrzps|qrzxyh{puqrad`bznq|quqr{wh{n~ jhkwecowuqàe`bntuq`baeprfih{xy`|corqr{wobrz|coh{p h{r
psrz|qzruqr`qruqrza~ r{qco`bxyrzaaenvhh{pcenwh r{w ``bxjvpsrqnqxWr{`cer `l ph{|fi} h{uqr|qr hkwi `
aenvhLh{pconwoh`bx xy`cdworzab ae`bznq|quqrza[hkjrzl a+rLpsh{|fi} h{xy`b|cor`0l uvh{uvhjr{w t d #N
nvh{p`[l hh{pconwhgx h l qsxyh0hkcos|qzuvhj`bpsrgr{q`cory``bx !nq`[|qadch{|co``ps`[hhkco|qz`

de
[ +

+`co`wexys|q`bxrzar `l wecofb`yuvhjhkwhkl rzph # z ' `
rzzrqhh{pconwhxh l sxh `L
l uq` hkco|qzsuvh ae`bznq|quqrRhkjrzl agrph{|fi} h{xy`|corq
+`bae`b|qqr h `bae!nq`wouvh
`bphhr{vad`wekhf{} h{ ruvhjh{l zs|vh zk a{wvhkl vfbrzauq` # h{bnqp`
# `wexy`bpsvh` # y psspbh{l awe`badj`fcokh{xy`b|co`{
2
10
-1
1 Q T 6 07 U U ]iSiQ U Z S ] O Q
' - ' - - '
|quq` ' ' ' ' ^ ~ xh{ah
R ~~`r{wvhkl vfbruqùq`j`b|quq`bx
`baead`b|qfbh{pxy`b|coùqrg{wh{nYuqrjrzps|rz xysr`[uq` '
achnq|f{} h{ r `{l fbpshkwh{xy`b|co`{hz`b|q`wh{psihf{} h{ r|vhkconwoh{puvh{anq|f{} rz `bah{|co`wor{wo`bab
rzxyr``bxjvpsrq
`dh{xyrzah{anq|f{} rz `ba~ `g~ - !^ ~ F` ^v -

`bnqawo`badj`bfcorza{whkl vfbrzaabh{ rq
0.5
-1
1
1
-0.5
-1

!
V O+V O D E Z \ O+V
LJ KLK 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+
xh0nq|f{} h{ rL`[l uqch ea `{qjhkwhceruqrg ^ ~ `|cih{ rt NR ~ `{

s xhnq|fk} h{ r `[l uqch ae`{vjhkwhcor!uqr ^ ~ `|cih{ r NR ~ `

`bpsh{auq`v|qdf{} rz
`bauq`nq|f{} h{ rtjhkwùq`nq|f{} h{ rRml xjhkw`l Nh{l fbsp`w[!nq`rt{whkl vfrtuq`nqxhnq|f{} h{ r
jhkwY`0l aex`l cewofbry`bx wo`bphfk} h{ r h{r`bruqrza `0r{whkl vfbr uq`0nqxhynq|fk} h{ rml xjhkw`l adsx`l cdwosfbr`x
wo`bpshf{} h{ r h r{wosz`xY

b `dh L #- # ~fbrzxyr ^ ~ hyjqwoxy`bwohgjhkweco`0uvh{a uq`v|qf{} rz `ba` l
`wovfih{uvh` ~ ~ # - ~ # # - # vprzzrq`l nq|f{} h{ rjhkwi
`dh ~ y fbrzxr NR ~ hjqwoxy`bwhjhkweceùvh{a uq`v|qdf{} rz ày`l `wovfih{uvh
` - psrzzrq `l nq|f{} h{ rml xjhkwi awo`baj`bfcerza
{whkl vfbrzaabh{ rq
6
5
4
3
-1
2
1
-2
-1
k `dh ch{p!nq` I nq|f{} h{ r`l jhkw+ae` `l jhkw+`R` l ml xjhkwae` =` l
lm xgjhkwi
hkwh ${co`bxg ae`{ # Nsadcor`{l nvh{|corxh{sr{wr{h{pr{w
uq` x`b|qr{wrYkh{psr{wuvhYnq|f{} h{ rq
rz|qae`b!nq`b|co`bxy`b|co`{rY{wvhkl vfbruq` àdchl hkh{rYuqr
{whkl vfbruq` y !nq`ch{x0`bl xWàdchl hkh{ryuqr{whkl vfbr uq` y `0h{aeadsxWadnqfb`baeae{h{x`b|ce`{
hkwh^kh{psr{woàuq`jqwrkl sxyrzayuq``worqh{ayjr{ci`b |qfh{axy`b|qr{we`bauqrzxys|vh{x
`nvh{|cor xh{r{wyr
`jr`|co` qrza{whkl vfrzavfih{x fih{uvh`bxh{a jvph{|qrza Ynvh{ae`+jhkwh{p`bpsrzah{r`b qrguqrza
de
[ +

s hkwhL3 -
~co`xgae`k+ # rznâe` dhtjhkwhLkh{psr{we`ba
{wh{|quq`bauq`[h{ajr{c`b |qfbsh{auq`xyh{sr{w {wh{ntuqrzxys|vh{x h{auq`xy`b|qr{w{wh{n~
+`bae`b|qqrzajhkwh ` we`badj`fcokh{xy`b|co`{
-1
-1
sp znqxyh{a`bb`babjhkwhL`badr~fb} hkwrL{whkl vfbrtuq`gnqxhnq|f{} h{ r `gl fbrz|`b|q`b|ce`g`wovfihkw[ae`h nq|f{} h{ r

`l jhkwrznml xjhkwbjrzsahtadsxy`cdwohyjqwo`bad`b|ce`y|qrza[{wvhkl vfbrza[uqàdch{anq|f{} rz `bah{fbpschkwhl ruq`bad`b|qqrq
_ r{co`nq``qadco`bxxnqcoh{anq|f{} rz ànq`|~h{ rabh{ rjhkwo`ba`|q`bxGml xjhkwe`bab
r{w``bxjvprqz #$-0 fbrzxyr ^ ~ hjqwoxy`bwhjhkwecoùvh{auq`v|qdf{} rz
à0` l `wovfbh{uvh
~ # psrzzrq +`y ~ ~ `b|cih{ rq|~h{ r `l nq|f{} h{ rYjhkw|q`bx
ml xgjhkwi

fvhkw0rza[ coh{sa!nq` `l `b!nqkh{ps`b|co`yhLuq`co`wexys|vhkwrza`bp`bxy`b|corzauq r ^ ~+ch{p
nq`rzajrz|cerzauqry{wvhkl vfbruq`q`badcih{ rh{fbsxhuvhgwo`ch N
s fvhkwrza+Rch{a!nq`y~ ^`l `b!nqkh{ps`b|co`ghLuq`ce`woxy|vhkw[rza+`bp`bxy`b|corzauqr NR ~ ch{p
nq`rzajrz|cerzauqry{wvhkl vfbruq`q`badcih{ rhkh{qrguvhwo`ch N

b `~ # `b|cbh{ rq~ `[l `bnq{h{p`b|ce`0huq`co`woxys|vhkwrza`bp`bxy`b|corzauqr ^ ~ ch{p
nq`rzajrz|cerzauqry{wvhkl vfbruq`q`badcih{ rh{fbsxhuvhgwo`ch +`bae`b|qqr h `bae!nq`wouvh
~ # q`|cih{ rq~ `+l `bnq{h{p`b|ce`[huq`co`woxys|vhkw rza `bp`bxy`b|corza uqr ^ ~
ch{p~!nq`rza jrz|corzauqrg{whkl vfbruq`v`badcih{ rhkh{qruvhwe`ch g +`bae`b|qqr h uqwo`ch
-1
-1
-1

!
sruq`bxyrzahkqwoxhkw!nq` r0{whkl vfbr0uq` nqxhnq|fk} h{ r `{l !`bxz`woh{p nqxyhfbnwekh|qrjvpsh{|qr0fbrr{weuq`
|vh{uqr h wo`fzml jqwor!fih |q`bx ae`bxjqwe` `0l `wouvh{uq`whsacor `{l |q`bx coruvh fbnwekh |qrLjvpsh{|qrtfbr!r{wouq`b|vh{uqr
rznfbrz| nq|cer uqr^jvph{|qrR`l r{whkl vfbrRuq`h{psznqxhnq|f{} h{ rq +`brzxy`cewesfih{xy`|co` nqxhfbnwekh^|qr
jvph{|qrgfbrr{weuq`b|vh{uqr`l rg{whkl vfruq`nqxyhnq|f{} h{ rae`ceruvhwe`ch0jhkwh{ps`bpshh{r`bruqrza s|co`woad`bfch
hfbnwd{hy|qrxh l sxyr|nqx jrz|corjr{w!nq` r{w``bxjvprqhad`bznqs|co`fbnwd{hy|~h{ rwe`jqwo`bae`|ch
nqxhnq|f{} h{ rq
fbrz| nq|cer ! t# #- #

|~h{ r `[l rg{whkl vfbryuq`nqxhnq|f{} h{ rq
+` hkcerq R # psrzzrqijhkwh coruqr `sadco`xxh{sauq`nqx ch{p{nq` Y0
`dhgrjqwrkl qxyrguqàe`b|qqrq
1
-1
JLK D Q O VO T 6 07 U O E P TU V

`dh{x g ~` g ~coh{sanqàd`bnqa{whkl vfbrzaae`|ce`woae`bfch{x |qrgjrz|cor * `b|cih{ rqh{afrk
r{wouq`b|vh{uvh{auq` abh{ rq $ e d eqpsrzzry ~ v`b!nqkh{ps`b|co`bxy`|co`k
`l aerzpsnf{} h{ ruqraeadco`bxh
g

g ~

b fvhkwrzajrz|corzauq`|co`woae`f{} h{ ruqrza{whkl vfrzauq`0~ ` #N
-1
#
de
[ +

àerzp`bxrzargaesadce`bxh

#
uq`rz|quq`[ # ^ g qprzzr `|cih{ r rzn a jrz|corzaabh{ r
`
1
fvhkwrzajrz|corzauq`|co`woae`f{} h{ ruqrza{whkl vfrzauq`0~ R`+~ -

àerzp`bxrzargaesadce`bxh
^

-
uq` rz|quq` - psrzzr - - `b|cih{ r0 rzny ajrz|corza
abh{ rY `y
-1

!
JLK @ E ] O O 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V
`dh{x ` ~nq|f{} rz `ba
[+k
k L
vb~ ~~
d v[ ~
vb~ ~~
x jhkwecesfbnqpshkwivae` 5
5 N ~b 5 N~
d ~ L
~ ~ ae`+

~
|co`bauq`hkjqwo`bae`|chkw`q`xjvpsrzauq`badch{auq`v|qdfk} rz `babuq`co`woxs|q`bxyrza rzawo`badj`bfcorzauqrzxml |qsrzab

^ q ^
$v ^ ~ NRq
^ ~ NRqei ^vdN

`rzxy`cewofih{xy`b|co`Yr {wvhkl vfbr uvh aerzxyhuqs`wo`|fi} hjqwor!uqncor rzn!nqrfb`b|co`
uq` ` co`bxY `bx fih{uvhjrz|cer^nqxhr{wouq`b|vh{uvh^!nq`` l wo`baj`bfcekh{xy`b|co`{haerzxhuqs`wo`|fi} h
jqwor!uqncorrzn nqr!fbs`|co` uvh{ar{wouq`b|vh{uvh{auq` `yR|qrzajrz|cerzagfbr{wdwo`badjrz|quq`b|ce`bab hkjvpsfihf{} h{ r
uq`badcoh{auq`v|qf{} rz `bat`{l v`bx z`wh{pqxnqcoraesxgjvps`babvfbrzxrgr{vae`we{hkwe`bxyrza|qrza``bxjvpsrza

b h{uqdf{} h{ rg`haenqcewhf{} h{ rguq`nq|f{} rz à hkv|qaabh{ rgnq|f{} rz `ba hkv|qa
+`hkcorqqad`0 - ` # - # v`b|cbh{ rq
v~ # - #

$# "
de
[ +

r{w`q`bxgjvpsrqqae`~ - v`b|cih{
rq - v~ ^` y^vb~
+wvhkl vfbrza`xWh{bnqpq`wouq``+`wox`bpsqrqqwo`baj`bfcekh{xy`b|co`{
10
10
-6
-6
-10
-10
h{uqf{} h{ r `h da nqcewhf{} h{ r uq`nq|f{} rz `batjrzps|qrzxyh{anvh{uwvhkl cosfih{aah{ rnq|f{} rz àLjrzpss|qrzxh{sa
nvh{uwvhkl cosfih{a
+`hkcorqqad`0 ' # - - ` ~~ ' # # - # # v`b|cih{ rq
v b~ '

'
#
# -3

#

#
r{w`q`bxgjvpsrqae` # - # - q`b|cih{ rq - qb #^

` vb~ # - whkl vfbrza`x h{ nqp q`wouq`[`[`wox`bpsqrqwoàdj`bfcokh{xy`b|co`{

20
40
10
30
20
-4
10
-4
-2
-2
-10
k ` dh{x # `+~ -
0 qb ~ ~ # uqrzxml |qsrza abh{ r NR q
i bR -
-20
~`t
qb # - rza
NR
q

!
#
~ # - vrguqrzxml |qr `l
i ^ -

JLK K M 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V B 0T S U Q SV
`dh{x y ` ~ jrzps|rz xysrzauq`fbr!`vfbs`|coàwoìh{sa r!uq`bxyrzauq`v|qwhae`bznq|ce`nq|f{} h{ rq
fvh{xh{uvh
y ~
hRjhkweco`suvh uq`v|qdf{} h{ rq co`bxyrzanq` ^ ~ i ~ `bx rzncdwh{a
jh{phiwoh{abr uqrzxYml |qsr uq`nqxh nq|f{} h{ r wh{fbsrz|vh{pt`l r fbrz| nq|coruqrzaL|nql x`worzawoìh{aLx`b|qrza h{a
whqml b`bauqr0jrzps|rz xyr!nq` hkjhkwo`bfb` |qr0uq`|qrzxys|vh{uqr{wi_ r{co`nq`+h{anq|fk} rz `bajrzps|qrzxyh{a ah{ r0nqx
fih{aerjhkwecofbnqphkwuvh{anq|f{} rz àwh{fbrz|vh{sa qh{adchfbrz|qaeuq`whkw ~ jhkwhcor!uqrg

b nq|f{} h{ rY~ 5 5 /`l xyruq`bpr xhkco`bxhkl cesfbruq`jqwor{vps`xh{a+nq``b|rzp`bx nvh{|co
uvh{uq`bas|`woaoh{xy`|co`jqwor{jr{wefbsrz|vh{ab r{w``bxjvpsrqvhps`buq`0 rp`{ h{l z|vh k
` dh g ~ - - # - # ^
hkcor{wh{|quqr - - # # b #.- - co`bxae`{ ~ ae`

przzrq ^ ~
k ` dh g ~ - R # -
hkcor{wh{|quqr # - b # ce`bxgad`{ ae`+
rznt vpsrzzrq NR ~

` dh g ~ - - # -
hkcor{wh{|quqr ~ - # - # - b # - vco`bxg ae`{ |~h{ ryjrzaeaenqwohqml b`bawoìh{sa
psrzzr ^ ~
JLK 5 U Z \ U V O 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V
`dh{x ` ~uqnvh{anq|fk} rz `bach{a!nq`{
!^ ~ ^q
`l uq`b|qr{ch{uvhjr{wLùq`v|qsuvhjr{wb
~

[+k

de
[ +

~ ~e
vae`we`!nq`huq`v|qdfk} h{ ryh{ae`|couqrjrza~ NRq
^ ~ i ^ ~ez~
NRv ` ^ ~ b ~ed NR ~
achyuq`v|qdfk} h{ ryjqworuqnq{hjhkwecowuq`nq|f{} rz `ba+fbrz|qq`bfsuvh{ab~|qr{h{anq|f{} rz `bab~fbrzxr`wo`bxrzaxh{a
h{uqh{|co`{ uq`v|qdfk} h{ r uq`fbrzxjrzadchuq`nq|f{} rz `ba`l uq`Nh{l fbspxh{|q`rq{frzxyr`we`bxyrza|qrza`q`xjvpsrzab

b fbrzxjrzadchuq`nq|f{} rz `bahkv|qa`[l nqxyhnq|f{} h{ ryhkvxY
+`hkcorq!ae`+ - ` # - # `b|cih{ rq~ ~~ # - # - #
` qb # - # - r{w0``bxjvpsrqae`L `g~ -
`b|cih{ rq ~b 7 - `y v~ z whkl vfbrza`bxh{bnqpv`wouq`[` `wexy`bpsqrq
-6
4
-6
` dh{xW~ # ` ~~ - qfih{pfbnqps` y`
R ~ -
+` ^v +~b~ ~ e # # -
rzzrq
^ ~
i b ^ -

s !^q 3` ^ ~
i b -
!psrzzrq|~h{ rjr!uq`bxyrzafih{pfbnqphkw hx`b|qrza
nq`fbrz|qaeuq`wo`bxrzanqx uqrzxml |qrgxy`|qr{wjhkwohLuq`xruqrnq` !^q ^ ~
+`hkcorq vb~ ~e - - # # - `xyrzab
^ q
i ^ -

s+ ~b ~d # # # # rzzrq

!
#$#
NR ~
i = -

q+ v~ ~~~~de ~~ - e - -
NR q
v ~b~ ~dee #
NR ~
i R -

+rza`$q`bxjvprzah{|co`wesr{wo`bajr!uq`bxyrza fbrz|qfbpnqw!nq`{v`bx z`wh{p

qb ~b
k njrz|qvh nq`nqxhyxh{|qfvhuq`0jrzpsnq`|co`nq`0frz|ch{xs|vhnqxhyph{zrhyco`x hr{woxhuq`nqx
uqsadfbruq` wh{sr g`bx àenvh^hkl woìh+=`x #N[`l nq|f{} h{ ruqrwh{srq `r[woh{srfwo`baef``bx nq|f{} h{ r
uqryco`bxgjr`x j`bphp`b q d - uq`co`wexys|q`h hkl woìhyuvhxyh{|qf$vhy`x
nq|f{} h{ ryuqrgco`bxjrq
hkl woìh`0l { ! # uq``bxyrzafih{pfbnqphkw+ e$ jr{wrzncewor ph{uqr d {b d de
psrzzrqq e de - ! - # #
nq|f{} h{ r ~~ - # - jruqàe`w`baefwech fbrzxyrh fbrzxjrzadch uq`ûqnvh{arzncdwh{a
nq|f{} rz `ba+`hkcorq ~brz|quq`L~ - # - `~ Y+`bae`b|qqrza
`b ae!nq`wouvh{whkl vfbrzauq`0 h{bnqp$^`woxy`psqr`
adrfb`Lr{wvhkl vfbruq` #+ nq|f{} h{ r # jruq` ae`wg`baefwechfbrzxyrh
fbrzxjrzadchYuvh{a0nq|f{} rz à~ #+ `~ (psrzzrq [`phr{vae`wekhf{} h{ ruvh
jh{l zs|vh qr{whkl vfbrguq` ~ ~ `l rguq`bae`b|qqruvhuqwo`bchY`woxy`bpqr
2
-1
-2
-1
#
de
[ +

+`ce`woxy|q` ~$ad`{
~ R `
s # `
` R v`b|cbh{ rq
~ b e R
# ~ b R
R
~ # b
vae`wekh{|quqr h{a`$jqwo`badabrz `ba h{|co`wor{wo`bajruq`xyrzahkqwoxhkwnq`{
*- - -+
s `0 #N`|cih{ rq
~
# ~
~
~
R

R

b #
e {
# e
e #
_ r{co`nq`{ # # `
vae`wekh{|quqr h{a`$jqwo`badabrz `ba h{|co`wor{wo`bajruq`xyrzahkqwoxhkwnq`{ #

!
JLK D QO V O Z 1 Q T 6 07 U
vae`we`0h{aae`bznq|ce`bachk`bph{ab
'
t '
z
z
'
#
' g
qj wosxy`whchk`bph+rzqr{qcosuvh+|nqx àdconquqradr{qwo`h jr{jvnqpshf{} h{ ruq` h{ps`h{afbr{wofbnq|quvh{a |!nqx fb`wecor

ae`cer{wfbrzaco`bwerncopssbh{uqrfbrzxyr0jrz|coruq`wo`jqworuqnf{} h{ rgj`bpshg`badj`l fbs`{ ch{xh{|qqruvhjr{jvnqpshf{} h{ r
uq`[h{p`bh{aL`[l x`buqsuqrh{|!nvh{pxy`b|co`{vuqnwh{|co` h{|qrza | qln xy`worFuq`[h{p`bh{aL`[l nq|fk} h{ ryuqrh{|qr
l wo`bh{pssbh{uvhh x`buqdf{} h{ rq L ' $ njrz|qvh nq`k`bx fb`wecor s|qadcoh{|co`krzavsrzpbrzl zrza
' `x nq`^`
xnquvh{xr0jrz|coruq`+sadcoh`+vfbh{x s|co`wo`badaoh{uqrza|qr0co`xjr0`bacosxh{uqr0jhkwh0!nq`[hjr{jvnqphf{} h{ ruq`
h{ps`h{ahkco| dhnqxFf`wecor0|nql xy`woruq` s|quq~ml uqnqrzarznae` dhuq`bae`dh{xFr{qco`w ' `bxFnq|fk} h{ r0uq`+
r`[l fvh{xh{uvhuq`|`weaohuq`[ L `dhhae`bznq|quvhgcohk`bpsh
' ' g$ h{pnq|fk} h{
+wvhkl vfbryuvhjqwesxy`bwhàeznq|quvhgcohk`bpshwo`badj`bfco{h{xy` |co`k '
50
6
40
5
4
30
20
2
10
10
20
30
40
[+k nq|f{} h{ r`[l uqchnq|f{} h{ rs|`woaehguq`0ae`{

Rq ^ ~` R ~ NRv
s hkwhcor!uqrg NRv qb `+jhkwhcoruqr ^ ~ ~b~
x ch{p~fbh{aer `l uqcohgs|`weciml `bp
~ `~ - ~ abh{ r|`weaoh{abvjrzsa
^ ~ Rq b NRq !^ ~ i k `{
s+ qb ~e - ~b ~ e ~
#
de
[ +

`dhnqxhnq|f{} h{ rys|`weciml `bp +`b|qr{co`xyrzajr{w+ aenvhs|`woaeh
s+sb`w+nq` `l h nq|fk} h{ rt|`weaohuqÌ`0l `nqkh{ps`|co`0uqb`w+!nq` ` âbh{ rLh
nq|f{} h{ rsuq`b|couvh{uq`{ xFrzncewoh{ajh{phiwh{ab` l ! l uqsb`wihnq|fk} h{ ry` l |`weaiml `bp ae`
àerzxy`b|coàd`jhkwhcoruqr q # ^ ~ qco`bxyrza # `b|cbh{ r #
s {whkl vfbrguq`0 `l aesx`l cewosfrh{rg{whkl vfbruq``bx wo`phf{} h{ r h wo`coh
q `0`l s|`weciml `bp`b|cih{ r `[l s|`weciml `bp~`
v ~d
_ rad`bznqs|coùqàe`b|qqrqrg{whkl vfbrjrz|cospvh{uqrfbr{wewe`badjrz|quq`h

LJ KK M ? O E U U \ > O O Z SiQ D QgO V

adfwo`khh`bnvhf{} h{ r ~!nq`[uq`v|q`hgnq|f{} h{ r
s àerzpkhh`nvhf{} h{ ruqrco`xjhkwhY`bxFnq|f{} h{ rguq` jhkwh0r{qco`w `kqh0ae`bznqwb
j`woxnco`jr{w `bnvhfk} h{ rr{qcouvhguq`v|q`
_ r{co`nq`kh weszr{wih nq|fk} h{ r corzxyh kh{psr{we`ba |qrza R ~$ l jrzadaiml `bp uq`co`woxy|vhkw
z`brzxy`cewosfbh{xy`b|coàd`nqxhnq|f{} h{ r0jrzaeaenqrzny|~h{ rnq|fk} h{ r0s|`woaohhkwhadcorquq`bae`b|qq` !nvh{ps!nq`w
wo`cohjhkwh{ps`bpshh{r0`b qruqrza ae`+hwe`chs|co`weae`bfchr0{wvhkl vfbr0uvhnq|f{} h{ r|qr0xh l qxyr|!nqxFjrz|cerq
`b|cih{ ryhnq|f{} h{ ryjrzadaenqs|`woaoh

!
#

b nq|qfbsrz|vh{x`b|ceruq`nqx co`woxrz xy`ceworq rzpsnqxyùq`nqxhnvh{|cosuvh{uqùq`xy`wefln wosr`l nq|f{} h{ r
uvhtadnvhtco`bxj`whkwecenwhg aeh{|quqrYhnq|f{} h{ rs|`woaohuq`co`woxs|vh{xyrzahLce`bxj`whkconwhLhkcewhi `bl auq`
ae`bntrzpsnqxy`{
s|`woaohguq`nqxhnq|f{} h{ rhkvx |~h{ rfbrz|qach{|ce``l hkvx
+`hkcerq ae` ~ - [`b|cbh{ rq b `wexncoh{|quqrjr{w
~
k ` dh ^
hk`xyrza[!nq`gad` `l jhkwhLnq|f{} h{ r`l jhkw`gae` `l l xjhkw[htnq|f{} h{ r`tl l xjhkwb rzzrRjrzadaenq
s|`woaehtjhkwhL ae` `l jhkw`jhkwhLcor!uqrt m ae` `Yl ml xjhkwi m |`weaohtjhkwhYh{x0h{a` l
`woxnch{|quqrgjr{w

+`bae`b|qqrzajhkwh ml xjhkw`[jhkwbvwe`badj`fcokh{xy`b|co`{
` dhR ' - - ' h{b`b|quqr

wo`bpshf{} h{ ryhqco`xyrzab ' vpsrzzr '
1
- ` wo`badrzp`b|quqr^h`b!nvhf{} h{ r^`x

ae ` - ' zr n~v`bnq{h{p`b|ce`bxy`b|co`{
'
de
[ +

~ ' y
ae` ' v!nq``[l hgs|`woaehuq`

xyh+rzph+uq`r{wdwh{fvh`badchl ae`b|quqr| h{uvhàe`bnrzpnqxy` ,;`l nq|fk} h{ ruqr[co`xjr `bx
ae`b|quq*r , d - +nvh{|corco`xjr[uq`bxyr{whhrzphhkc` l hkco|qzw rrzpsnqxyùq`
+``bxyrzatuq`co`wexys|vhkwhnq|fk} h{ r s|`woaoh uq` ,y
rzxyr , .- `b|cih{ r , `
,
, ,0
` ,
k l fbrzxnqxY`bx;uqs`wo`|coà
`b |qfbh{a[uvh_+hkconwoìhncopsihkwuqnvh{a`baefih{psh{a[jhkwhx`buqwco`bxg
j`whkconwh{ab h{wo`b|qq`bc7`
`bpaesnqa
+`co`woxys|q`[hnq|f{} h{ r nq`+wo`bph{fsrz|vhh0co`bxgj`whkcenwh `x {woh{nqa
`bpsadsnqa h0 co`bxgj`whkcenwh
`bx {wh{nqa h{wo`|qq`bcivaohk`b|quqrnqàe`bn{whkl vfbr`l nqxh0wo`ch
s`co`woxy|q`
`rg{whkl vfbr`l nqxyhwo`cohhnq|f{} h{ ruq`àe`wuqrcojrq g * - N r{wrzncdworyph{uqrq
aohk`bxyrza!nq`{ vjrzahh{l znvhae`fbrz|qz`phyh {wh{nq)a
`bpsadsnqab z
jrzahh{l znvhg`wd`h z {wh{nq/a
`bpaesnqa r{wech{|corq
`
z psrzzrq

s ` dh `|cih{ rqq - `
-
rzzrqq`badch{a abh{ rgh{awe`b{wh{a uq`[frz|`weabh{ rg`|cewe`co`xj`wohkconwh{a uvh{uvh{a`x {wh{nqa
`bpaesnqa `{wh{nqa
h{wo`b|qq`bci

!
100
-100
-40
100
-100

h{psfnqps`hs|`woaohuq`nqxhnq|f{} h{ rjrzpss|qrzxh{puqàe`bznq|quqr{wh{n~
`dh ' # - - ' r{vae`wekh{|quqrry{whkl vfbruq`0co`bxyrzanq`h{b`w0 + ' rzn
+ ' jhkwhr{qco`whs|`woaeh `baerzp`b|quqr L ' # - - rzn ' # - -
co`bxrza!nq`{ # + ' ' - ' |cih{ rq
- # + ' ' - ' ae` '
# # + ' ' - ' ae` '
|vh{psrzh{x`b|ceàd` + '
"
de
[ +

1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V :I]O[Z OQ OV
JLK 1 Q T 6 07 U :X\ U QOQ T S ]
nq|f{} h{ r`$jrz|q`|qfbh{p`badchl h{adaerfbsh{uvhyh`b|rz x`b|qrzauq`fwo`baefbxy`b|corrznYuq`bfwo`baefbxy`b|corqfrzxyr
jr{w``bxjvpsrqqfwo`baefbxy`b|corjr{jvnqph{fbrz|vh{p~ùq`bae|ce`b{whf{} h{ rwoh{uqsrhkco{h
njrz|qvh nq`hkjrzl a xy`baeàuq`0r{vad`wekhf{} h{ rtr{woh{x r{qcosuqrza rza ad`bznqs|co`ba+uvh{uqrza
uq`nqxyhjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rguq`r{woxyh{ab

zzz
{ zz
zz
z

N{z z z

z{z zz
zz z
`yl rYxY`b a `l hY!nvh{|cesuvh{uq`yuq`r{woxsh{a`x/fih{uvhYxY` auvhYr{vae`wekhf{} h{ r` `l hkhkwoshf{} h{ r
xy`b|qaeh{puvhjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rq +suqs|quqryhnvh{|cosuvh{uqùq`r{woxyh{auq`nqx x`b a`x wo`bpshf{} h{ rh{ryxY`b a
h{|co`wor{wi r{qco`bxyrzaynqx hkcor{wfbrz|qach{|ce` z r nq`Yxrzadcewh^!nq`h^jr{jvnqpshf{} h{ r uq`r{woxyh{a
fwoàefb`{ hkjqworiqsxyh{uvh{xy`b|co`{ h{rxY`b a `xyrzab
ae`[ v`b|cih{ r zzz zzz 1 z
ae`[ v`b|cih{ r { zz zzz 1 z
ae`[ v`b|cih{ r z zzz 1 z #
ae`[ v`b|cih{ r N{z z zzz 1 z
xFz`wh{p uq`bfbr{wewouqrzaxy`baeàhkjrzl a h0jqwoxy`bwohr{vae`wekhf{} h{ rqvhjr{jvnqpshf{} h{ rguq`+r{woxsh{ag`+l uvh{uvh
jr{w zzz 1 z ! whkl vfbryuq`
200000
150000
100000
50000

!
[+k ` dh ' 3coh{pnq` ' nq|f{} h{ rg`jrz|q`b|qfbh{p~uq`+h{ae` ' ` l uq`b|qr{ch{uvh`
uq`v|quvhgjr{wi
^ ~ R ~ '

` ^ `b|cbh{ rq
s ` ^
` `|cih{ rq
'
$ ' àe`bn{whkl vfbruq`j`b|quqùq`[ae`w ' rzn
'
'
1
'
'
'
|`b`ba
'
s `[Y `b|cih{ rg rz|quq` ` ^

' '
q Ì sacor `{l nqxG| qln xy`worwewh{fsrz|vh{pfbrzxyr ! nqàe`b|cosuqrYco`xh`jqwo`babh{ r '
` ' woàdjrzadcohwozr{worzaohhàdchj`woznq|chad`whl wo`badjrz|quqsuvh`x |~ml `bsauq`L`badconquqrzaxh{a
`bp`{h{uqrzanq`ruq`bach|qr{ch{as|cewor!uqncr{l woh{a r{w`b|qnvh{|corqq`dh{xyrzanqxhsu`bl shg|conqcokh

rz|qaesuq`we` vry| qln xy`worgwewoh{fbsrz|vh{p `

l hkjqworiqxh{uvh{xy`b|coN` { N { zz z zr{ w
rzncewor psh{uqrqrzaae`znqs|co`ba | qln xy`worzaah{ r wh{fsrz|vh{sa { z { z
{ zzz `cof{ rzzrq j`bphr{vae`wd{hf{} h{ rLh{|co`wor{w aohk`bxyrzafih{pfbnqphkw
3
3
3 #

3 # `+jr!uq`bxyrzar{qco`wnqx kh{psr{whkjqworiqxh{uqrjhkwoh vae`we`0hcohk`bpsh
'

{
{
{

z
N {
zz
z

de
[ +

- # v # adcor` l ' ' ' jhkwhgceruqr q #
s ~ b adcor ` l ' ' ' qvjhkwohcor!uqrg t
s
rz|qaeuq`wo`+hjqworz{woàeabh{ rhkwocox`l cofihuq`wh{kh{ r v - - e - v)-
`b|cih{ rqv) - v ' ~$q - q d) - q - q ' - v ' # `bxFz`wh{p
- q ' qprzzrgr{qco`xyrzanqxyhjqworz{woàeabh{ ryz`brzx`l cewofihuq`wh{{h{ r ' _+h`wouvh{uq`
cor!uv*h `[l nqxyhgnq|f{} h{ ry`$jrz|q`|qfbh{pnvh{|quqrg
`bpshjqwor{jqwes`buvh{uq`th{|ce`wosr{wb fih{uvh`b nq`Lhhkvaefbaeaoh^h{nqx`b|cohnqxyhnq|quvh{uq`hr{wouq`b|vh{uvh ` l
xnqpco jvpsfih{uvhjr{w ' ` fih{uvh `bnq`hhkvaefsaeaohuqsxy|!nqznqxyhnq|quvh{uq`h r{wouq`b|vh{uvhL`l xnqpcojvpsfih{uvh
jr{w ' ` ' z`b|cih{ rqhuqsackh{ |qfbh uvh fbnwekhh{r `br uqrzagfwoàefb`nvh{|quqr yfwe`baefb` ùq`bfwe`baefb`
nvh{|quqruq`bfwo`badfb`{ ` ' rfr{wewo`rfbrz|cewhkl worq
xFfbh{aer0jhkwecosfnqphkw` xjr{wecoh{|coùq` nq|f{} h{ r`jrz|q`b|qfbsh{p` l nvh{|quqr ' `l hfbrz |qadch{|co`+uq` nqp` w
`dhYrfihkjml conqpsr +whkl vfrzajhkwh ' `wouq` ' h{bnqp[` '
`wexy`bpsqr$q` ' `wouq` ' h{nqp` ' `woxy`bpqrwoàdj`bfcokh{xy`b|co`{
@ ^\ ]iS T T 6 U 7 OV
anq|f{} rz `ba`jrz|q`b|qfbsh{sarzn fbrzxjrzach{aYuq` `jrz|q`b|qfbsh{saco`bx nqx xjr{wdch{|ce`^jhkj`bp0`x
hkco`bxhkl cesfih jvpsfih{uvh ae`bznqwi hkjqwo`bae`b|ch{xyrzah{psznqxyh{auqàdch{ahkjvpsfihfk} rz `bab
: TU Q U Z S 5 E ] T ] U
O U V TU Z \ U V U V
`nqxhnvh{|coh[s|qsfh{pv `bx uqs|qq`bwor0r{w|`bacosuvhh[nqxhch qh[uq`nwerzafbrzxjrzadcorzauq/`
`bb`bah{ryh{|qrqvrxrz|ch{|co`+uqry|`bacosxy`|corqvhkjrzl a h{|qrzaae`whl uvh{uqrjr{wi

!
-
r{w[`q`bxgjvpsrq~ae` zz wo`bh{saabh{
rt|àdcosuqrzahLnqxyh ch qhLuq`nworza[fbrzxjrzacorza+uq` h{rth{|qrq
r xyrz|ch{|co`Rh{fbnq x nqpsh{uqr hkjrzl a h{|qrzabae`Rrzanwerzar{wo`bx fbhkjvch{psih{uqrzaYad`bxy`badcdwh{psxy`|co` ` l
zz - { wo`bh{sab
JLKLK M 5 O+V T SiZ O[Q U O >CO T OV T SiZ O[Q U :3XY\ U QO[Q T S ]
xh^!nvh{|cesuvh{uq`nq`fwo`baefbùq`h{fbr{weuqr frzx h ps`b d 5 `l uqchR!nq`
`j`woxy`b|chnqx fwo`baefbxy`b|cor`jrz|q`b|qfbh{p fbrzxkh{psr{w|qsfbsh{p adco` xyruq`psrae`
hkjvpsfihg`x uq`woaoh{aaecenvhf{} rz `bab

b wer{`ch ae`nq``bx h{|qrzabh[jr{jvnqphf{} h{ r0uq` nqx8`badch{uqr0ad`whl uq` y d # xyps~rz `bauq`
vhkvcoh{|coàb nvh{p+`[l hjr{jvnqpshf{} h{ ryhkconvh{p +nvh{pae`whl hjr{jvnqphfk} h{ rg`bx h{|qrzabqae`[hjr{jvnqpshf{} h{ r
fbrz|cos|nvhkwfwo`baefb`|quqr|q`badchgjqwer{jr{wzf{} h{ r
jr{jvnqphf{} h{ rhkcenvh{p` l xsps~rz à[` xsps~rz àb +wvhkl vfbrYuq`
d`bx`wouq`{
irzl przzrzauq`ce`woxy|vhkwh{xnq``bx fbrz|quqdfk} rz `basuq`bh{sanqxhfbrzprz |qshuq`h{fc`l woh{afwo`baef`0`jrk
|q`b|qfbsh{psxy`|co`k `{|qsfbsh{psxy`|co``sadce`bx zzz h{fc`l wosh{a[`hkjrzl a z xy|!ncerzaàdcih{ rtjqwe`bae`b|co`ba
zz qnvh{|ch{ah{fc`l wosh{aàdchkwih{ rjqwo`bae`b|co`bahkjrzl anqxhqr{wh
d zzz
~jrza zzz ~jr{w[rzncdwortpsh{uqr zz z zzz y`
rzzrq
z zzz zzz # zzz 1 {zz h{fc`l weh{ab whkl vfbr uq` y d
`bx h{bnqp
50
30000
40
25000
30
20000
15000
20
10000
10
-20
5000
20
40
60
10
20
30
40
50
60
xhnvh{|couvh{uq`g!nq`guq`bfwo`baefb`guq`yh{fbr{weuqrtfbrzx;h ps`b d 5 `gl uqchL!nq`

`j`woxy`b|chgnqxuq`bfwo`baefbxy`b|cory`jrz|q`b|qfh{pfbrzx {h{pr{w|qsfbsh{p
x hkwoxh{fbrzprzzhqaohkàd`0nq`0hfrz|qfb`b|cewhf{} h{ r uq`j`b|qsfbps|vh`rzncewh{auworzh{a
co`bx nqx uq`bfwe`baefbxy`b|cor`jrz|q`b|qfh{p `bx=wo`bpshf{} h{ r[h{r[co`bxgjr+uvhhkjvpsfihf{} h{ ruvh[uwerzh xyruq`bpr
de
[ +

ncopssbh{uqr` l d rz|quq` 5 `l nqxhLfbrz|qadch{|co`gnqùq`j`b|quqùvhuwerzh ncewh{a
hkjvpsfihf{} rz `baae`wbh{ radch{a|qrzajqwrkl sxyrzajhkwh{l {woh{rzab
JLKLKJ 1 Q T 6 07 U H U E V S T
xyr!uq`bpsr+`jrz|q`b|qfbsh{p`l |co`wo`baeaoh{|co`{jrza` l aexjvps`baàe`we`fbrzxyr h{ae`jhkwhrzncdworza xruq`bprza
xh{a fbrzxgjvps`rza !nq``badcenquvh{xFaeconvhf{} rz `ba xh{saz`wh{ab r{wrzncewor[ph{uqrqfwo`badfbsxy`|corza`jrz|q`b|
fbsh{sa|~h{ rYh{fbrz|ce`bfb`bxG|vh|vhkconwo`bbhj`bprYxy`b|qrzajr{w[co`bxjrspsxych{uqrq_ r`b|ch{|corquqnwh{|co`
qwo`à|ce`wekh{psrza uq`co`bxjr0jr{jvnqphfk} rz `ba fwo`baef`bx fbrzx `badce`xruq`bprq vae`we{h ae`nq`+rza|ml `ba
uq` |vhkch{psuvh{uqùq` nqxhjr{jvnqphfk} h{ ruqxys|nq!nvh{|quqr[hjr{jvnqphf{} h{ r[h{nqxy`b|ch axyr{corzajruq`x
ae`w{hkwosh{uqrzabfrzxyrhkcor{we`baaer!fbh{ab`fbrz|rz xysfrza[rzn aenjqwesxy`b|corYpsxych{uqr uq`h{psxy`b|corzaùq`
`badjhf} rq jr{jvnqphf{} h{ r``b|convh{psx`b|ceàe`L`badchkvpsihkwoh|!nqx |ml `pfrzxjhkcml `pfbrzx r^nq`Lr
xy`brh{x0v`b|ce`jruqàdnqadco`b|chkwi!ae`bx h[`cos|fk} h{ ruvh[àdj`bl fb`{ x r{l coxyr+xyruq`psr+jhkwh[r[`badconquqr
uq`badce`[cojruq`[aecenvhf{} h{ r `[l hgnq|f{} h{ rpsrzvml acosfihquq`v|qsuvhgjr{wi

e
-
rz|quq`0 `
ah{ r frz|qadch{|co`ba jrzaecokh{ab adco`xyr!uq`bpsrRcoh{x`l x `l nqaoh{uqr|qr `badcenquqruvh
jqwor{jh{hf{} h{ r[uq``jvsuq`bxysh{abuvhjqwor{jh{hfk} h{ ruqùqr`b|fi} h{a s|q`bffbsrzaoh{a `|vh+jqwor{jh{hf{} h{ r[uq`rhkcorza
rzn|qr{ciml fbsh{ab

b xyhjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rguq`xyrzaefbh{auworzaqr{l vph{a|nqx h{xv`b|co`[psxych{uqr `[l uvh{uvhjr{wi
z
d
-
rz|quq` uq`|qr{ch r |nql xy`wor uqùqsh{aycewh{|qaefr{wewosuqrza nvh{p`l hRjr{jvnqpshf{} h{ r|qsfbsh{p nvh{p`l h
jr{jvnqpshf{} h{ r|qr uqsh
xyrzaefbh{a z z vhkjqworsxh{uvh{x`b|ce` z xyrzaefbh{ab
nwoh{|co`Lnqxh`jvuq`bxyhuq` uq`b|qznq`{r| qln xy`weruq`jàeaerh{anq`Lh{uqr`bf`wh{x hkjrzl a uqh{a
|nqx fb`wecorh{weworq`l uvh{uvhjr{wi
zzz
# d
- z #
nvh{|ch{a[j`baeadrh{a[vfihkwh{x;uqr`|coà0hkjrzl arjqwesxy`bworLuqh nvh{|ch{a[j`baeaerh{avfbhkwh{xGuqr!`b|co`ba
hkjrzl a z uqh{a
# qhkjqworiqxh{uvh{xy`b|co` uqr!`b|co`ba
` # z {z qhkjqworiqxh{uvh{xy`b|co` {z
uqr`|coàb whkl vfbrzauq` ` # wo`badj`bfco{h{xy`|co`k

!
400
10000
8000
300
6000
200
4000
100
2000
LJ K 1 Q T 6 07 U H U E Z S T
rzxyr!nvh{ps!nq`wwo`chjhkwh{p`bphh{r`b qruqrzag|ce`woae`bfchr{whkl vfruvhnq|f{} h{

r `jrz|q`b|qfh{p '
|qrx h l qsxr|nqxjrz|corqv`bphjrzaeaenqnqxhs|`woaohguq`b|qrzxys|vh{uvhnq|f{} h{ ryprzhkwml coxsfih0uq`[h{ad` '
nq``[l uq`|qr{ch{uvhgjr{wb
i ~
ùq`v|qsuvhjr{w ad`[`[aerzxy`b|coàe` ' vrz|quq` ' Y `+l ch{pnq` '
^ ~ -
R ~ ' àe`bn{whkl vfbruq`j`b|quqùq`[ae`w ' rzn
' r{w``bxjvprqjhkwh ' `wouq`$ ' bnqp` ' `wexy`bpsqrrzauq`bae`b|qqrza
hg àenq`weuvh`[jhkwh ' ' ` ' rzauq`bad`b|qqrza hg uqwo`bch
5
10
15
20
25
30
10
20
30
40
50
aoh{|quqr |qr{h{xy`|co`0r hkcor uq` L ae`why|`woaoh uvh `$jrz|q`|qfbh{pce`bxyrza h{a ae`znqs|co`ba

suq`|couvh{uq`bab
i! ' jhkwhgcor!uqr
s '
qjhkwhcoruqr -

# - # qjhkwhceruqr q # -
qadcor `{l
de
[ +

i b # i - # jhkwohcor!uqr # -

s i~
s i #
#
q '
q '
'

x fih{aerjhkwecofbnqphkw `sxgjr{wech{|coùq`nq|f{} h{ rgpsrzhkwml coxysfbh`+l nvh{|quqr ' `[l hfbrz|qadcoh{|co`+uq`nqp`w
x ch{pfih{aer hR|qr{chf{} h{ r nqadnvh{p` l i ~ fvh{xh{uqr
psrzhkwecoxyr|vhkconwoh{puq`+ `dhgrgfihkjml cenqpsr {whkl vfbrguq`0 ~g`{l

wo`bphfk} h{ r`b|cewo` ' ` `{l

'

rz|quq` 5 '

b +`ce`woxy|q`[rguqrzxml |qrguvhnq|fk} h{ r e
% `
l uq`v|qsuqrae` % vpsrzzrqqjhkwhgnq`0~ e`badce`dhyuq`v|qsuqr`[l |q`bfb`badavhkl wosr!nq`
~ qprzzrg
` ^ ~ -
+whkl vfbrguq`0

!
0.5
2
10
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
+`ce`woxy|q`hs|`woaohuvhnq|f{} h{ rL 01

h{b`b|quqr 3 1 `hkjvpsfih{|quqrprzhkwocoxr uq`h{ad` h h{x0rza rza
ph{uqrza i - ` rzn~ i nq{h{p`b|co`bxy`b|co`{
i ~ nq``[l hg|`woaohuvhnq|f{} h{ ryuvh{uvh
ad`bznqwhkjqwo`bae`b|chkwo`xyrzah{pznqxh{ahkjvpsfihf{} rz `bab
JLK LK M >CO+VSiQ O T 6 07 U B ^S U S
rz|qaesuq`we`nqxhh{xrzadcewhuq`xhkco`woh{p~!nq`fbrz|c`bl x nqxhgfb`wech!nvh{|couvh{uqùqàvr{l cor{jrgwh{uqrh

corq rz`j`wosx`b|coh{psxy`b|co`r{vad`wekh{uqr[!nq`nqxyh+wohf{} h{ r+fbrz|qadch{|coùq`baeae`xhkco`weh{pwh{uqsrhkcor
uq`bfih{whl `badjrz|ch{|qìh{x`b|ce`^`bxrzncewor`bp`bxy`b|corrzn `bxCrznceworsaqr{l cor{jruqrxy`baexr`bps`bx`b|cer
uqnwh{|co`nqxyhnq|qsuvh{uq` uq` co`xjrq xy`bsh suvh uq`nqx savr{l cer{jrwoh{uqsrhkcor `l rco`bxgjr|q`bfb`baeaqhkl wosr
jhkwhghgxy`coh{uqùq`psùq`bfih{wb r{w`q`xjvpsrqvhxy`bh uvhuqr
hkwdrz|qrk `[l uq` {z h{|qrzabhguqr
r{l wosrk `
l uq` uqsh{abhkjqworiqsxyh{uvh{xy`b|co`{ adch`l h fvhùqr+x`l coruqrjhkwh h uq`ce`woxy|vhf{} h{ r
uvh suvh{uqùq`gr{`corza+r{woh{ |qfbrza+ncospsih{|quqr
hkwerz|qrk adceàvr{l cor{jr`l h{fbnqxnqph{uqrLuqnwh{|co`
cor!uvhyhuvh`fbrzxy`fi} hhuq`bfih{w fbrzxWhyxyr{weco`{
rzxyrhyx`bh suvhuqr
hkwdrz|qrk `l uq` {z
h{|qrzaghkjqworsxh{uvh{x`b|ce`{nvh{|cosuvh{uqàgxy`|qaenwhkl `baguq`
hkwdrz|qrk `badcbh{ rjqwoàe`b|co`bayxnqcerza
h{|qrzaghkjrzl ahxyr{weco` uqrr{q`corr{weh{ |qsfbrq r{wg`q`xjvpsrqnqx rzaeaer^hkjrzl a {z h{|qrzajrzaeaenqh
xy`coh{uq`tuvh^!nvh{|cesuvh{uqùq2`
hkwerz|qrk nq``$qsacohnvh{|quqrR`bachkhr hkjrzl a zzz h{|qrza
jrzadaenq nqxh!nvhkwechjhkweco`Luvh!nvh{|couvh{uq`tuq`
hkwerz|qrk nq`L`sadcosh!nvh{|quqr^`bachkhr
hkjrzl a zzz h{|qrza+jrzadaenqnqxhLrzchi{hyjhkwecoùq`
hkwerz|qrk nq``qadcosh !nvh{|quqr`bachkhrq
hkwhuq`co`woxs|vhkwhnq|f{} h{
r !nq` wo`jqwe`bae`b|chr`$q`bxjvprq frz|qaesuq`woh{xyrza {z h{|qrzafbrzxrnq|quvh{uq`{
`dh
hynvh{|cosuvh{uq`0|qsfbsh{puq*`
hkwerz|qrk `b|cih{ rLhynvh{|cosuvh{uq`
8uq`
hkwerz|qrk hkjrzl a
nq|qsuvh{uq àuq`ce`bxjr `[l fbh{psfbnqpsh{uvhjr{wb

d

x z`wh{p!ad`h[x`bh suvhuq`nqx savr{l cer{jr[woh{uqsrhkcor` l h{|qrzab`b|cih{ r0h!nvh{|cesuvh{uqùq`savr{l cor{jr
hkjrzl a nq|quvh{uq`bauq`co`bxjr `l uq`co`wexys|vh{uvhjr{wi

de
[ +

d

rz|quq` `[l hgnvh{|couvh{uq`s|qfbh{p

adfwo`kh{xyrza hnq|f{} h{ r nq`we`jqwo`bae`|chLruq`bfih{xy`b|corwh{uqsrhkcoryuqr
hkwerz|qrk n cespsih{|quqr h
nq|f{} h{ ry`$jrz|q`|qfbh{pd +``bxrzauq`co`bxy|vhkw 5 ch{pnq`

jvpsfih{|quqrprzhkwocexyrhh{x0rza rzapsh{uqrzab
{z 5 psrzzrq 5 { z zz
`{

#
5000
10000
15000

b `gnqxh h{xyrzacewhyuq`fihkweh{ r`bz`ch{ph{fvh{uvhLfbrz|co`bx z uq`
hkwerz|qrk ~`bx wo`phf{} h{ rLh
nqxhh{xyrzadcewohghkconvh{puq`[sznvh{p~xh{aeaehquq`co`woxs|q`[hgsuvh{uq`[uvhh{xyrzacewhh{f$vh{uvh
1 z
d
# hkjvpsfih{|quqrprzhkwocexyrhh{x0rza rzaph{uqrzab

z

zz z z
nq``[l znvh{p vhkjqworiqxh{uvh{xy`b|co`{h zzz h{|qrza
`bp`bxy`b|corywh{uqrhkcoryjrzprz |qsrk co`bxWnqxhxy`bh uvhuq` uqh{a+hkjqworiqxh{uvh{xy`b|co`{
hk`|quqrnq`nqxh h{xyrzadcewh jàoh xysps{wh{xyh{ays|qfbh{pxy`b|co`{!nvh{|cerwo`bachkwhl hkjrzl aLuqnvh{a
ae`bxyh{|vh{a
d frzxyryhxy`bh uvhuqrjrzprz
|qrk `[l uq` uqsh{abv`b|cih{ rq vpsrzzrq

` 5 z jr{wech{|corq

!
d
` z xysps{wh{xyh{ab
k jr{jvnqphf{} h{ ruq`nqxyhfbsuvh{uq``l uq` zzz vhkvch{|ce`babuq`h{fbr{wouqrfbrzx nqxWfb`b|qadrywoìh{psih{uqr
`bx z ` z zz vhkvch{|co`bauq`h{fr{wouqruq` nqx fb`b|qadrwoìh{psih{uqr`bx z hk`b|quqrnq`Lh
jr{jvnqpshf{} h{ rgce`bxnqx fwe`baefbxy`b|cory`jrz|q`b|qfbsh{p qj`woznq|coh ae`{
nvh{p~`whyhjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rg|qryh{|qrguq` z
snvh{|quqrhfbsuvh{uq`hkcos|qzwhl nqxyhjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rguq` zzz vhkvch{|co`ba
d zzz !jr{wrznceworpsh{uqrq z zz zzz ` 5 z
psrzzrq
d zzz #
` zz vhkvch{|co`ba
s ` e zzz `b|cih{ r hkjqworsxh{uvh{x`b|ce` h{|qrzab `dh r{whkl vfruvh
`rzpnf{} h{ ruvhjrzpsnqpshf{} h{ rq
40000
30000
20000
10000
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
` hjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rguq`nqxhfb`wech`badj`bl fsùq`j`b q`ba|!nqx h{x0vs`b|co`psxych{uqrR`[l uvh{uvhjr{wb

zzz
d
- z
rz|quq` +uq`b|qr{cohYrY| qln xy`woruq`yae`bxh{|vh{acewh{|qaefr{wewosuvh{anvh{|corYco`bxgjrad`whl |q`bf`baeavhkl worjhkwhYh
jr{jvnqpshf{} h{ ryhkces|qzw zzz j`b q`ba
z hkwh Y zzz co`bxrza
~rz|quq` e przzrq
zzz

z ae`xh{|vh{ab `dhrzauq`bad`b|qqrzauq` ` woàdj`bfcokh{xy`b|co`{
"
de
[ +

8
50000
30000
4
10000
10
12
14
10000
40000
JLKNM 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V S U Q U Z O E S T V

`b|rz xy`b|qrzauq`|vhkconwo`bihf{ml fbpsfihrznj`wobrzl uqsfbrzaah{ r+h{aeaerfh{uqrza h{ anq|f{} rz `bacewozrz|qrzx`l cewofih{ab r{w
``bxjvpsrq ryhkcosx`b|ceryfihkwouml h{fbrq~h{arz|quvh{a uq`wh{l uqrqrwocoxyrrzadfbspshkcr{l wosruqrzaqwhfb} rza uqnwh{|co`
nqxhfbr{wewouvhvrxyrxy`b|cor0j`wobrzl uqsfbrguqrzajvpsh{|q`ch{a`[hqwhfk} h{ ruq` hkl cerzxyrza`bx fwosach{sab
[+k ; xh0nq|f{} h{ ry`l j`woirzl uqfihuq` j`wml r!uqr $ qae` jhkwhcoruqr NR ~$
`b|cih{ rqq - NR ~` - e$ {wvhkl vfbruq`nqxhnq|f{} h{ rgj`woirzl uqfihguq`+j`wml r!uqr
ae`wo`j`co``bxfih{uvhgs|co`wekh{psrguq`[fbrzxgjqwosxy`|cor $ `dhrza``wofzml fbsrzab
JLKNM KNM 1 Q T 6 07 U <O[Q U O 1 Q T 6 07 U 5 U VO[Q U
anq|f{} rz `bacewozrz|qrzx`l cewofih{ajruq`bxCae`wgàdco`b|ququvh{agjhkwhYcor!uqrzarza0|nql x`worza0woìh{auq` xyr!uqr
nqàe`dh{xjqwo`bad`wekh{uvh{acoruvh{ah{aadnvh{ajqwor{jqwo`buvh{uq`bah{l aesfih{a `dhjh{l z|vh
r{woxhuq``badce`b|quq`w` l hae`znqs|co`{yfbrz|qadsuq`wo`LnqxCfzl wofbnqpsrfb`|cewoh{uqr|vhr{wosz`xuq`wh{sr `
q`xyrza rjrz|cort `bx coh{pfzml wofbnqpsr fbrz|qadsuq`wmh{xrzafrzxyrae`b|cosuqr jrzadcorqr ae`b|cosuqr
h{|co qr{whkl wosr vh{|vh{przh{xy`b|co`{qrgae`b|cosuqry|q`hkcor `[l rgae`b|cosuqryqr{wvhkl wosrq
hkwhfih{uvh h{adaerzaeh{xrzanqx jrz|cor uq`[xyruqrnq`k
hae` ! jhkwecoxyrzauq`+ ` j`wofbr{wewe`bxyrza rgf{ml wofbnqprg|qrae`b|couqrgjrzadcorghkc` l r{qco`wnqx
hkwofbrgfbn ryfbrzxgjqwosxy`|corae`dh jrz|corrz|quq`[ryhkwofbrco`woxs|vh `l
`y ! jhkwecosxrzauq`=`[j`wofr{wewo`bxyrzarfzml wefbnqpsry|qrad`b|cesuqr|q`bhkcorhkc`l r{qce`w
nqx hkwofbrfn ryfbrzxjqwoxy`b|corae`dh jrz|corgrz|quq`rhkwofbrgce`woxy|vh ` l
aeaex hgfih{uvh|nql x`worgweìh{pfbr{wewo`bajrz|quq`nqx jrz|cor
` ! ae`wvhl |q`bf`baeaohkworuvhkwxh{anqxhrzpch0|qrfzml wefbnqpsrqq|qrae`b|cosuqrjrzadcorqjhkwhhkcos|qzw
h`cewo`bxsuvh{uq` uqr hkwofbrq uq`bx jhkwhg ! adaesx hfih{uvhy|nql xy`woryuvhyr{woxh* - 5 !
5 fbr{wdwo`badjrz|quq`whyl nqx jrz|coruqrfzml wofnqpsrq

!
[+k

~ `[l hgr{weuq`b|vh{uvhuq`g
r{w`q`bxgjvpsrN zz s|quqfihg!nq``bach{xyrza fih{psfnqph{|quqryrgae`b|qryuq` zz wh{uqsh{|qrzab
s { `l hghkvaefbaeaohuq`
nq`|df{h} h{ jrYh{l lzxs|vjh hkw ` fbrk_+ aeh{`ba|qruqnv`[l h{nqaxnqh|f{} nqrz |à f{} h{ cer`bxyjrzhkwa!h{nqx0` h{a âh{ rg~ j`woirzl uq` fih{Rauq ~`+ j `wil r uq r b !ad`b|qr `l nqxh
m
m !
!
vae`we` !nqàe`+~ ~`b|cih{ r / - k! !psrzzrqr{whkl vfbruqr0frkae`b|qr^`l nqxh
cewh{|qadphf{} h{ rguq` ! uqry{whkl vfbrguqrae`b|qrq aae`bnqawo`badj`bfcorza{whkl vfbrzaabh{ rq
1
-1
-1
LJ KNMKJ 1 Q T 6 0 7 U Q gOQ O O 1 Q T 6 07 U t< O T Q O

[+k
~ N {~
s {
`dhjh{l z|vh k _+h{auqnvh{anq|f{} rz `baco`xyrza!nq` NR ~ it !
-
s|co`bwor
!
de
[ +

-
~ch{|qz`b|co` `l nqxh nq|f{} h{ r ml xjhkw`gae`fih{|ce`` l
Rq ` R
i b
nqxhnq|f{} h{ ryjhkw h{xh{aabh{ rj`wobrzl uqsfih{auq`j`wiml ruqrza ! ` ! qwo`baj`bfcekh{xy`b|co`{ `bnqa {wvhkl vfbrza
abh{ rq
4
-4
-2
-2
-4
4
3
2
1
-4
-2
-1
-2
-3
-4
LJ KNMK 1 Q T 6 0 7 U 5 U Q gOQ O O 1 Q T 6 07 U 5 U VO T Q O

[+k
k!~
s { ~
R`dh jh{ql z s|vh F k` R_+ h{ ag{uq nv h{ aynq| f{} rz
`bai co`bbx rzag ! nq-`
^fbrk ~ch{|q z`b|ico` `fbrk ad `bfi h{|co ` ! ab h{ [r|nqce`b|f{}worzr `b a
m{l xgwhkljvhkfbworz`baa abh{ h{rqx h{aLabh{ r j`wobrzl uqsfih{atuq`j`wml r!uqrza ! ` ! wo`baj`bfcekh{xy`b|co`{ `nqatwo`baj`bfcerza

!
-6
-4
-2
-2
-4
4
3
2
1
-6
-4
-2
-1
-2
-3
-4
vae`we`rza{whkl vfbrzauq`[ad`b|qry`frkae`bfbh{|co`k fbrk ae`b|qràe`bfih{|co`{vch{|qz`b|co`[`fbrk ch{|qz`b|co`{

2
-1
-1
-2
-2
de
[ +

2
0.5
1.5
2.5
-1
-2

b vnqr uq`hkwLhkcewhi `l aLuvhRcewoh{n`bl sh`l nqxyhRnq|f{} h{ rj`woirzl uqfih uqr co`bxjr àeùh l `x
h{x0rzarzaae`b|cosuqrzauqrzajvnqpsxrz `ba |qadjvwhfk} h{ r``jvwhf{} h{ r vnqrYjruqàe`w0we`jqwo`bae`|ch{uqr
j`ph0nq|f{} h{ rg ^ ~!rz|quq` ` l rvnqrxh l qxyruqnwoh{|co`+h0`jvwhfk} h{ r0` s|qadjvwhf{} h{ r
` `Yl rRj`wml ruqrRwo`bajvwhkcr{l wesr ! ` `Yl rRco`bxjrRnq`r s|quqml uqnqr p`{h^jhkwohRh{b`w
nqx fbsfbprfbrzxjvp`corq nq|f{} h{ r`kl f`wech{xy`|co`k nqxhhkjqworiqxhf{} h{ rqjrzsa khkwoshuq`
s|quq~ml uqnqr0h[|quqml uqnqrqh{a `badconquqrza`j`wos x`b|coh{saxyrzadcewh{x !nq`L`l nqxyh {rh hkjqworsxhfk} h{ r
uvhweìh{psuvh{uq`{+`bae`|qqrzajhkwhg ` ` vwe`badj`fcokh{xy`b|co`{
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-1
-2
wocoxyrrzaefbphkcr{l woruqrzaqwhfb} rzauqnwh{|co`nqxhfbr{wewouvhjruqàe`wwe`jqwo`bae`|ch{uqryjr{wi

~ ! N ! qy

! N !
rz|quq` `l r^h{ |qznqpsrfbrzxjqwe`b`b|quqsuqr`|ce we`hjrzaef{} h{ ruqrqwhfb} r`r`b qry`wdcosfih{p` ` l ryco`bxjr
xy`buquqrt`x ae`bznq|quqrzab j`wml r!uqr` l ae`bznq|quqrzajr{wfbsfpsrqsadcer`{l nqxh rzaefbphf{} h{ r bf rzxgjvps`ch
r{qcouvhnvh{|quqrr[qwhfb} ruq`badfwo`` rfsfbprjhkwhwo`|co``jhkwh[cdwh{l ab`l fbrz|qfbpnqsuvh`bx ea `znq|quqrzab
+`bae`b|qqryjhkwoh

!
0.3
-0.3
k xyrxy`b|coryvhkwoxrz |qsfbraexjvpsàuq`baefwe``hjrzaedfk} h{ rLuvh{a rzadfbspshf{} rz `bawo`bznqpshkwo`ba `bx cor{wo|qr

uq`nqxhjrzaef{} h{ ruq``b!nqsp l qwosr`nq`{hkwosh{x adnvh`bx`b|ce`{fbrzxyrgnqx j`b |quqnqpr nq`rzaefsphgfbrz|
co|!nvh{xy`|co`|vh`wecofih{paem `x;|q`!nqx cojr uq`we`badcewof{} h{ rq~fbrzxyrjr{w[`$q`bxjvprq~h wosffk} h{ rqach{a
jrzaddf{} rz `baabh{ rxnqcor`bx uq`baefwech{aj`bph{anq|f{} rz `ba d 5 N - brzn d 5 k! - b$
rz|quq` 5 + ` j`wml r!uqr`l rco`xjr ! |q`bfb`baeaqhkl wosrjhkwhnqxyhgrzaefbphf{} h{ rfbrzxjvps`ch
`[hwo`b!n`b |qfbh ! `[l rg| qln xy`worguq`rzaefsphfk} rz `bajr{wnq|quvh{uqùq`[ce`bxjrq+`bae`|qqr hg `badnq`wouvh
xyrsx`b|cerLvhkwexrz |qsfbrh{xyr{weco`fbsuqrLuq`baefwe``y`b|rz xy`|qrzauq`rzadfbspshf{} h{ rrz|quq`gabh{ rxjrzadcoh{a
wo`bacewodfk} rz `babfbrzxyrgjr{w``bx jvprqqnqx j`b |quqnqprynq`[rzaefbspshfbrzx wosff{} h{ rq h{p~cojruq`[xyrsx`b|cer
`l uq`baefwocorjr{w ~~ ' +`bae`b|qqr h uqwo`ch
2
0.8
0.4
-0.4
-2
`` l nqxh nq|f{} h{ r[j`woirzl uqfih+uq`j`wml r!uqr `b|cih{ rh+nq|f{} h{ r[uq`v|qsuvh+jr{w~ 5 -
`+l j`wobrzl uqsfihguq`[j`wml r!uqr 5 vae` 5 +`[hkcorq

-

5
5
5 *-
-
5 *- Y ~
r{w`q`bxgjvpsrqvh{anq|f{} rz `ba+ N 5 `+~ { 5 ~abh{ rgj`wobrzl uqsfih{auq`[j`wml r!uqr 5 !

+`co`wexys|q`bxrzarj`wml ruqruvhnq|fk} h{ r ~ N - ! aefwo``b|quqr - ! - !
`dh~ nq``l j`woirzl uqfihguq`j`wiml ruqr ! - ! - !
psrzzrqvhnq|f{} h{ rg `+l j`weirzl uqsfbhguq`[j`wml ruqr ! +wvhkl vfbryuq` h{bnqp`{wvhkl vfbruq``woxy`bpqr

de
[ +

1
-4
-2
adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguq`0 ~
phkwh{xy`|co` ^ ~ !^ ~ b `
l nqxhnq|f{} h{ rjhkw `j`wobrzl uqsfihyuq`j`wl r!uqr
`b|cih{ rqqh{adch`badconquvhkw ~|qrgjqwesxy`bwornvh{uwh{|co`{N ae` ! m
-1
!
k adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguq`0 e

q`|cih{ rqR ~ `[l nqxhnq|f{} h{ r
phkwh{xy`|co` NR ~ frzxyr N
j`woirzl uqfihguq`j`wiml ruqr ! qpsrzzrqh{achg`baconquvhkw+|qrjqwoxy`bwerg!nvh{uwh{|ce`{
!
2
-10
-5
10
adr!fb`rza{whkl vfbrzauq`{
- ~
s ~

phkwoh{xy`b|co` ^ ~ !^ ~ Y|~h{ r `+l nqxh0nq|f{} h{ rj`wobrzl uqsfih`l ml xjhkw v
! ! `0 ! ! /`phyr{vae`wd{hf{} h{ r uvhjh{l z|vh co`bxyrzanq`0rza{wvhkl vfbrza uq`
h{xhkwe`bpsr N [`wouq`` -N [`woxy`bpqrabh{ rq

!
s ^ ~ R ~ =|~h{ r` l nqxhnq|f{} h{ rj`wobrzl uqsfihC` l jhkwi 5 ! `

5 - ! 5 - ! 5 `bph r{vae`wd{hf{} h{ ruvh jh{l z|vh k co`bxyrza!nq`
rza{whkl vfbrzauq` h{xhkwo`psr [`wouq`` ~+`woxy`bpqrah{ rq
4
-6
-4
-2
-2
-4
`bpshr{vae`wd{hf{} h{ ruvh jh{l z|vh k co`xyrza nq`rzat{whkl vfrzatuvh{atnq|f{} rz `ba h{bnqp
+`wouq` ` `woxy`psqrabh{ rq

-6
-1
de
[ +

JLKNMgM 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V S U Q U Z O E S T V D QO V V

l fbphkwer[!nq`hnq|f{} h{ r ~|~h{ r[jrzaeaenqnqxh+s|`woaohjrzajhkwhfih{uvh `$qsaco`bx s|v|qcorza
!nq`0aohkcosadh{b`bx;hywo`bphfk} h{ r t ~ `rzxy`cewofih{xy`b|co`{nvh{ps!nq`w+wo`chyjhkwh{p`bph h{rL`br
uqrzatuq``b!nvhf{} h{ r frzx b |co`woae`bfcohr{whkl vfbr0uvhnq|f{} h{ rs|v|qch{a`b`babhkwh
`chkw`bach aeconvhfk} h{ rqwe`badcewo|qzsxyrzar[uqrzxYml |qsr uq` ~jhkwh+r{qco`wnqxh |qr{h+nq|f{} h{ rnq` |~h{ r
hkjqwo`bad`b|cohkwhl `badce`gjqwor{vp`bxh weszr{w`badch{a[uqnvh{anq|f{} rz àabh{ rtuqs`wo`|coàbjrzace`bx uqrzxml |qrza
uqs`wo`b|co`bab adcerae`wvhl `bcergjhkwhfih{uvhgnq|f{} h{ rycdwoszrz|qrzx`l cewosfbh
JLKNMgMgKNM 1 Q T 6 07 U @ TU VO[Q U
+`v|vh{xyrzahnq|f{} h{ r^ ! ! b ch{p!nq`~ N adcohL|qr{h nq|f{} h{ r
jrzadaenqs|`woaeh fvh{xh{uvhynq|fk} h{ r ~ b ! ! `0l uq`b|qr{coh{uvhjr{w
~ ' ùq`v|quvhjr{wi
' ad`àerzxy`b|coàe` N
hkwh[we`jqwo`bae`|chkw{whkvfih{xy`b|co`h[nq|f{} h{
r ' N nqaoh{xyrzah[aexy`cewosh[uq`L`+
`bxwo`bpshf{} h{ rh g {whkl vfbr`kl
1.5
-1
-1.5
uqrzxml |qrnqaoh{uqr0jhkwhuq`v |qwh nq|f{} h{ rhkwofrkae`b|qrq!jruq`wohad`waenvadceconquqrjr{w!nvh{psnq`wuqrza

s |co`wd{h{prza ae`bznqs|co`ba ! ! ! ! `cof{ ~`badch r{vae`wekhf{} h{ rch{x0`bl x ad`whl h{l psuvhjhkwh
h{arzncewh{anq|fk} rz `bacewozrz|qrzx`l cewesfih{ab

b
h{psfnqps` ' 0+``bxyrza+wo`baerzp`w[ht`b!nvhf{} h{ r ' N !nq` `l `b!nqkh
ps`|co`h+fih{psfbnqpshkw aerzpsnf{} h{ r[uq`badch`bnvhfk} h{ r` l ! !`|cih{ r ' !

!

h{pfbnqps` ' N vN ! vae`wd`!nq` ! ! ! z`b|cbh{ rqz|~h{ r+jruq`bxrza`baefwe``w
! ! h{a ! ! - ! N ! ` ! ! !
'

`b|cih{ rq ' vN ! ' ! ! qjrza ^` ' abh{ r|`woaoh{ab

k `wovnq`[nq` { ' e R #
` ' ~`b|cih{ rN ! ! uq`N #{ - { #z ae`bznq`
nq` { # I # # psrzzrq k! R # jrza ! ! `
k! ' N e R #
JLKNMgMgKJ 1 Q T 6 07 U @ TU TU VO[Q U
rzxyr|qrtfbh{aerh{|co`wesr{wi~uq`v|vh{xrza[h nq|f{} h{
r+ ! b ch{p!nq`g~ k!~
`badcohg|qr{hnq|fk} h{ rjrzaeadnq|`weaohgfvh{xh{uvhnq|f{} h{ r ~ ~ k
b ! `l uq`|qr{ch{uvhjr{w ' {ùq`v|quvhgjr{wi
g ' k!~ ae``[aerzxy`b|coàe` {
hkwhwo`jqwo`bae`b|chkw{whkvfih{x`b|ce` hnq|f{} h{
r ~ ' {nqaoh{xrzahaexy`cewoshuq`t`

1.5
-1
uqrzxYml |qsrnqaeh{uqr jhkwohyuq`v|qw[hnq|f{} h{ rLhkwofbr fbrk ae`b|qr jruq`wohyae`w+aenvadcoconqsuqr jr{w !nvh{ps!nq`w
uqrza|ce`wekh{psrzaae`bznqs|co`ba ! ! ! ! q`cof{

b
h{pfbnqps` ' k! ``bxyrzawoàerzp`why`nvhf{} h{ r ' { !nq`R`l `b!nqkh{ps`b|co`h
fih{pfbnqphkw k! aerzpnf{} h{ ruqàdch`b!nvhf{} h{ r ` l "! qpsrzzr ' { "!
"

h{psfbnqp` ' k
hgfbh{psfbnqpshkw {
de
[ +

b
`
y
x
z
r
a
o
w
b
`
e
a
z
r
h
b
`
!
v
n

h
{
f
}
{
h

r
' {

znq`g`l `bnq{h{p`b|co`

!
!
e
a
z
r
s
p
n
{
f
}
{
h

g
r
q
u
b
`
d
a
c
g
h
b
`
v
n

h
{
f
}
{
h

r
`
l
vprzzrq ' k

k +`ce`woxy|q`[rguqrzxml |qrguvhnq|fk} h{ r ' { -
l uq`v|qsuqr0ae` % b przzr[jhkwhnq` ' k - `badco` dhuq`v|qsuqr^`l |q`bfbàeavh l
' { % `
wor!nq` - b ^|cih{ rq * - wo`baerzp`b|quqrRh{as|q`nvhf{} rz `baco`bxrza!nq`
`+ vpsrzzrq ^ ~

`wovnq`[nq` ' N - ' {~ !
!
rzzrq { ! ' ~ ' N psrzzrq
rzxyr {
!
' ~ q`b|cbh{ rq ' N - ' {~ !
' {~
JLKNMgMgK 1 Q T 6 07 U @ TU Q O[Q O
rzxyr[|qrzafih{aerzah{|co`wesr{wo`bauq`v|vh{xyrzah[nq|f{} h{
r ! ! coh{p!nq`
achg|qr{hnq|f{} h{ ry! jrz! adaenqs|`woaohfvh{xh{uvhnq|f{} h{ r ~
{ `[l uq`b|qr{coh{uvhgjr{w ~ ' ~~ùq`v|quvhjr{wi
' ~~ ad`àerzxy`b|coàe`
hkwhgwe`jqwo`bae`|chkw+{wohkvfih{xy`b|co`hgnq|f{} h{ rL ~

'
~qnqaoh{xyrzahaexy`cewehguq`0`
1.5
0.5
-4
-2

!
uqrzxml |qrnqaoh{uqr[jhkwhuq`v|qw hnq|f{} h{ rhk wefbrk ch{|qz`|co`k!jr!uq`wosh[ae`waenvadcoconqsuqrjr{w!nvh{ps!nq`w
uqrza|ce`wekh{psrzaae`bznqs|co`ba ! ! ! ! q`cof{

b
h{pfbnqps` ' ``bxyrzawoàerzp`wh`nvhf{} h{ r ! ' ~ !nq``l `b!nqkh{! ps`b|co`+h
fih{pfbnqphkw aerzpsnfk} h{ ruq`badcoh`bnvhfk} h{ r ` l vpsrzzrq ' ~

h{pfbnqps` ' woxy`bwoh{xy`b|coùq``bxyrza~woàerzp`wh `bnvhfk} h{ r '
nqÌ` l `b!nqkh{ps`b|co` h fih{pfbnqphkw ~ aerzpsnfk} h{ ruqàdch `bnvhfk} h{ r` l ! psrzzrq
' N !
k ` ' ~`wevnq`nq`g~ - R-
`dh{x R- ' R- ~` j`bph{auq`v|qdfk} rz `baco`bxrzab
-

R ~ ~
~ - ~
rzzrq ~
~ - `|cih{ rq -
JLKNMgMgK 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V @ TU TU Q gOQ O @ TU VO T Q O O @ TU
TU VO T Q O
|vh{psrzh{x`b|ce`[h{rzafih{aerzah{|ce`wosr{we`babh{arzncewoh{a|`weaoh{aabh{ rguq`b|qr{ch{uvh{aùq`v|quvh{ajr{wb
h wofbrfrk ch{|qz`b|co`{ ~ ' ~

~ !
'
^ ' q `!^ ' q !

wofbrad`bfih{|co`{ ' N ~
~
'
~

'

k
'
!
^ '
i b^ -
`R ' N
!
de
[ +

f wofbrgfbrkae`fih{|ce`{ ~ ' {

kN ~
'
'

^ ' {
i b ^ -
`!^ ' { ! !
_ r{h{xy`|co`jhkwohwo`jqwo`bae`b|chkw{whkvfih{xy`b|co`+hnq|f{} h{ r qnqaoh{xrzah0aexy`ceweh0uq`[`[
wo`bpshf{} h{ ryh awo`baj`bfcerza{wvhkl vfbrzaah{ rq

b
-4
`x
'

-2
-4
-2
-4
-2
-1

b
h{psfnqps` ' ~
+``bxyrzawo`baerzp`wh `b! nvhf{} h{ r ' ~! nq``l `b!nqkh{!ps`b|co` ! h fih{ps! fnqphkw ~ aerzpnf{} h{ r
uq`badcoh`bnvhfk} h{ r ` l ' ~ '

h{psfnqps` ' N
vuq``bxyrzawo`baerzp`whg`bnvhf{} h{ r g ' { nq``[l `b!nq
rzxyr ' N ' {

h{ps`|co`hgfih{pfbnqphkw k! aerzpnf{} h{ ruqàdch`b!nvhf{} h{ r ` l ! vpsrzzrq ' !

!
{
' N uq``xyrza wo`baerzp`wh `b!nvhf{} h{ r ' N
rzxyr ' kN

nq``l `bnq{h{p`b|ce`Rh fih{psfbnqpshkw adrzpsnf{} h{ ruq`badch`nvhf{} h{ r ` l ! psrzzrq
!
' {

k
h{psfnqps`
'
JLKNMJ 1 Q T 6 U 7 +O V S\O EU i] S T V

anq|fk} rz `baqj`werzl psfih{aah{ ruq`v|quvh{a0fbrzxyrLfbrzx0vs|vhf{} rz `bauq`nq|f{} rz `ba0`$jrz|q`|qfbh{a`àdcih{ r
wo`bpsh{fbsrz|vh{uvh{afbrzx hRqj`l werzp`{ uvhRxy`baexhxh{|q`bwoh^nq`h{anq|fk} rz `bacewoszrz|qrzx`l cewofih{agàdcih{ r
wo`bpsh{fbsrz|vh{uvh{afbrzx rf{ml wofbnqprq
anq|f{} rz `baae`|qry`[frkae`b|qrqj`wdrzl pssfrabh{ rguq`b|qr{ch{uvh{aùq`v|quvh{awo`badj`bfco{h{x`b|ce`fbrzxyrq
N ~~
~ k ~ -
^ v NR { v R N q =` ! ^ { v -
~ad`bnqa[{wvhkl vfbrzawe`badj`f
corzaabh{ rq

2
3
-3
-2
-1
-2
1
-4
-6
-2
-1
aoh{|quqrh{auq`v|qf{} rz `bab`l Nh{l fbsp`wovfbhkwnq` { # ~YN # ~ eh{|h{l psrzh h uq`b|cesuvh{uq`

cewozrz|qrzx`l cewesfih k #z -=N #z uqs`wo`b|fi} hF`Rl !nq`âe`^v`woxyrza %8 k ~t`
co`bxyrza % # # !nq` `
l ht`b!nvhf{} h{ rYuq`ynqxhLqj`l wdrzps`g|qrjvph{|qr % rY!nq`
nqadcovfih qvuq`h{pznqxhr{wexhqr|qrzxyùq`qj`wdrzl pssfrq
de
[ +

s arzncewh{anq|f{} rz `baqj`werzl psfih{aah{ ruq`b|qr{ch{uvh{aùq`v|quvh{abvwo`badj`bfco{h{xy`|co`k fbrzxrq
h ~ ~ [ -
~ / -
f ~ -
u { ~
^ v ^ v NR v ^ kN v !^ kN v
R v
!^ v b ` !^ q
i
ae`bnqa wo`baj`bfcerza
{whkl vfbrzaabh{ rq
1
3
2
0.5
1
-2
-1
-3
-2
-1
-1
-0.5
'
-2
-1
-3
3
2
1
0.5
-3
-2
-1
-1
anq|f{} h{ ryqj`werzl psfih{aco`bxsxjr{wech{|co`bahkjvpsfihf{} rz `bab

b `bpsr!fbsuvh{uq` uq`tnqxhrz|quvhxhkwo|qvhuq`Lfbrzxjqwoxy`b|cor rz|quq`Lrâdrzpsrxhkwos|qqr`badcvh^l h
nqxhgjqwerznq|quqsuvh{uqùq` Yx`ceworzat`l uq`baefwochjr{wb/ , v 5
q$ rz|quq``l hyfbrz|qadch{|co`
-2
-3
-2
-1
-3

!
{which{fbsrz|vh{p 5 ! ` ! uq`bae`|qqrYuq`baefwe``yh`bpsr!fbsuvh{uqùq`nqxhrz|quvhtuq` z
xy`cdworzauq`[frzxjqwosx`b|cer |qr{co`+nq`h0`bpsr!fbsuvh{uq`h{nqxy`b|chnvh{|quqrh0jqwerznq|quqsuvh{uq`0h{nqxy`|ch
12
10
8
6
4
2
20
40
60
80
100
120
_ r0`badcenquqruvh{aps|qvh{auq`cewoh{|qaexysadabh{ ruq` `b|q`wezh0`bp$`l cewosfbhhfbrz|vznwhfk} h{ ruq` `nqsp l qworuq`

nqx fihkrgqrzxyrzv`b |q`brg` v`~ml `bpaer{hghf{} h{ ruq`[ae`bnYj`baery`[aenqadj`|qaeryjr{wuqrzsajrz|corzacom `xjr{w
`jqwo`baeabh{ rq
' {
'
zr |quq` ' ` l nq xhtfbrz|qach{|ce`g jrzadco{h {whkl vfbrYuq`bachfbnwekh`l fvh{xh{uqrYfihkco`|hkl woh+`bae`b|qqrza

jhkwh ' ' ' ` '
3
-2
-1
de
[ +

JLKNM :3XYO T E T S U V
b jqwoxhfbrzxyrnq|f{} h{ ryuq`[
h hhkl woìhuq`nqx cewo h{ |qznqpsrguq`[h{aeàeàenvhgh{pconwoh `l ruqr{qworyuq`[aenvhh{ad`{
rgrzpsnqxùq`[nqxhgàe`whuq`wh{sr
frgrzpnqxy`+uq`nqx fbrz|q`fbwofbnqpshkwwo`coruq`wh{srae`[adnvhyh{pconwoh `l rgcewojvpsrguqrgwh{ruvhh{ad`{
urrzpnqxy`+`hhkl wo`bhuq`nqxfbsps|quworfbwefbnqphkw wo`cerguq`+wh{srae`|quqraenvhgh{pconwh0znvh{ph uqr
wh{ruvhh{ad`{
+`ce`woxy|q`[rguqrzxml |qrg`hgsxyh{z`bx uvh{aad`bznqs|co`banq|fk} rz `bab
h~
~ ^
f~
u~ -
`~ # -
o
~ y
~ # -
-
e~ N
v #
p b -
|~ ^ #
x y -
r~
j ~ # -- #
k ` dh vuq`co`woxs|q` ^ ~ vfih{psfnqps` ``wov!nq`[!nq`
' '
+`ce`woxy|q`[rguqrzxml |qrguq`~ - `[fbh{psfbnqp`0 ` ~
xjvpsvnq`[hgae`znqs|co``jqwo`baeah{ rq ~ ' ' q ' qad`{
h~ # '
~ '
f~ # - '
u~ '
`~ - '
o # '

!
~ - '
~ '
- '
e~ '
k `jvcohr``wof{ml fbsrh{|ce`wosr{wjhkwhnqx ' nvh{pnq`w`fbrzxjhkwo`rzawe`baenqpcoh{uqrzar{qcouqrzab
h{b`b|quqrnqxhchk`bphqàdr!fb`rza{whkl vfbrzauvh{aae`bznq|ce`banq|f{} rz àb
h # -
#
f - #
u #
ì
e
R #
- R m -
p -
e g y - q R
g #+ae`+ ` y #+ad`
# ae` ` ae`
k `wovnq`[ae`h{aae`bznq|coànq|f{} rz `baabh{ rfbrz|qach{|ce`bab
~ -
'
adr!fb`rza{whkl vfbrza|qrxyàexyruq`bae`b|qqrq
'
-
b

k!~ { ~ k!

g N
k +`ce`woxy|q` - ^ `0~Nae`{
h~ # -
~ ~ -
f~ - ~ #
u~ - ~ -
`~ ~~
o ~ #
~ - # ~ #
~ # ~ #
zb ` dh
h{psfnqps` ad`{
h~ # - -
~ - ' ~ - '
de
[ +

f~ # - u~ ~$ ~~
` dh ' - hkwhg!nq`kh{psr{we`bauq` ' ` kh{ps`{ ~~ y
k `y~ `~~ uq`co`woxys|q`gruqrzxYml |qsrtuq` ``barf`rY{whkl vfruq`

`wovnq`nq` !^ ~ ^q`[uq`co`wexys|q` ae`k
h~ - -
~ #- ~
u~ y # - -
f~ # - ~ * -
`~ - ~
o - ~ y-
aefwo`{h ~ frzxyrgfrzxjrzadcohuq`[uqnvh{arzncewh{anq|f{} rz `ba
h ~ # -
~ # #
f ~~ -
e ~ #
u ~ ~ ~d
` ~
k +`ce`woxy|q` ad`0 ~ - `0
N adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvh{aae`bznq|ce`banq|f{} rz àb
h - R #
-y
f -
u
`
e ~
k fq`[ruqrzxml |qsruvh{aae`bznq|ce`banq|f{} rz àb
h~
~
f N #
u~ N #
`~
e ' #
~ ' { * - ' ~ # - ~ '
e~ ' ~
v
p~ # b # e
+`ce`woxy|q`hs|`woaohuvh{aae`bznq|coànq|f{} rz `ba
h~
--
f q
u~ # `~ - -
e # -
~ # -
-
~ # - # v

!
v -
p~ -
`g~~ - `wevnq`nq`{gàbh{ rh{a|`woaoh{a0uq`L`
e~ -
k `dh{x ~
b `wovnq`{
h `0` abh{ rgnq|f{} rz `baml xjhkwo`ba`b|cih{ rL` ah{ rnq|f{} rz `bajhkwo`bab
`0` Labh{ rgnq|f{} rz `ba0ml xjhkwo`ba `b|cih{ r abh{ rnq|f{} rz `ba0ml xjhkwo`bab
f ~ - `l nq|f{} h{ ryjhkw` ~ `l nq|f{} h{ rml xgjhkwjhkwohcor!uvhgnq|f{} h{ r
|cih{ rcor!uvhnq|f{} h{ r0jr!uqàe`w àefwochfbrzxyr[aerzxhuq` nqxh[nq|f{} h{ r0jhkwùq`nqxhnq|fk} h{ r ml xjhkwi
z ` dh{x ' - ' `~~ ' ' ' ' `wov!nq`!nq`{
h - v - ~~!~
~ - ~ - ~
f |vh{pssad`[rgfih{aer ' z
k adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvh{aae`bznq|ce`banq|f{} rz à`jrz|q`b|qfbsh{sab
h~ ' ' '
' ' '
f~ ' q ' z '
u ' # ' '
h `0~ -R q`wovnq`!nq`{ ' - b ' - - '
`0 qv`wov!nq`[!nq`{ - y y
z adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvh{aae`bznq|ce`banq|f{} rz àpsrzhkwiml coxyfih{ab
'
~$

N W~ #
k `wovnq`nq`{ ' ~~ ' ' ' ~~$
` ' { eqfbh{psfbnqp`{
h ' ae` ' ` ' z
q z qae` ' z
k `wov!nq`nq` ~ ~ ~` { ~ abh{ r
nq|f{} rz `baml xjhkwoà` { ~~$ N abh{ rnq|f{} rz àjhkwo`bab
{ as|`woaeh{auvh{anq|fk} rz `baqj`werzpssfbh{aabh{ ruq`v|qsuvh{ajr{wi
h ' Nq ~ae`{`[adrzxy`b|coàe`k
"
de
[ +

' N k ~ae`{`[aerzx`b|ce`[ae`k {
f ' ae`{àerzxy`b|coàe`{ ~
u ' N ~~ad`{v`[aerzx`b|ceàe`{ ~
` ' v ~~ae`k àerzxy`b|coàe`{N
o ' { ~~ae`{vàerzxy`b|co`[ae`{ kN ~
d `wovnq`nq`{
h ' NqN ~ - # -
' N { ~~ - # q
f ' N ~ ^-
u ' N ~ -
` ' Nq ~ - R # q b o ' N ~ - # - v
dadrfb`r{whkl vfryuq`[fbh{uvhnqxhuq`badch{anq|f{} rz `bab
zk ` - vuq`co`wexys|q` ^ ~`fih{pfbnqps`{
~b # - b ~e - #b ~ R
'

~
+`co`wexys|q``bxfih{uvhfih{adryh{afrz|quqdf{} rz `bajhkwhh{afbrzxjrzadch{ab
b +nvh{|quqr[nqxhnq|f{} h{ r+jrzps|qrzxysh{p!uqr+jqwosx`bwor {woh{n`wovfih -g # - #
achjqwor{jqwes`buvh{uq`{h{p`[rznY|~h{ rjhkwh
~ # b ~ ~ -
'
` dh{x ' N ` ch{a!nq` ' ` ' - - uq`co`woxy|q`
zk `wovnq`{
h ~ ~ ~ ~~
k ~ - k ~
f ' Nq ~ # ' { ad` u ' { # - ' NqN ~

s
s s
+ `v|vh h^nq|qfkh{ rq~ rz|quq` uq`|qr{chRrRxh{r{wg|nql x`worR|co`wor ch{p!nq`
s `y~ ad`g $
h{pfbnqps` ^ ~ !^ ~`
r{w[`q`bxgjvpsr s !
`badrfb`[r{whkl vfruq`0
adr!fb`rza{whkl vfbrzauq`{
~ s s - bs ~ y b
'

!
zk aefwo`{huq`[r{woxhxh{sa aexjvpsàh{aae`bznq|coànq|f{} rz `bab
~ e ~ ~ ~ - k ~
'
+`ce`woxy|q`[rza `l wdcosfbàuvh{aae`bznqs|co`bajhkwhkl rzpsh{ab
h # - y # - f # R
zk +`co`wexys|q`hynq|f{} h{ r hkvx ch{pnq`0 ` `0hnq|f{} h{ r nvh{uwvhkl cosfihch{p!nq`
~ ~ `0
`wovnq`nq`N ' {e R #
k `wovnq`nq` ' k! "
! ' {~$
b +`ce`woxy|q`[rguqrzxml |qrguvhnq|f{} h{ rL ' N - $
` dh i - e$+`co`wexys|q` ^ ~`fih{pfbnqps`
k ` i ' b ` i ! b uq`co`woxy|q`
z `wovnq`nq`hgnq|f{} h{ r ~ s `+l j`wobrzl uqsfihuq`[j`wml r!uqr
`wovnq`nqàd`0`[l nqxhgnq|fk} h{ rj`weirzl uqsfbhuq`[j`woirzl uqr v`b|cih{ rcoh{x`l x `l j`weirzl uqsfbhguq`
j`wml r!uqr
k nq|f{} h{ r aeae`` `l j`wobrzl uqsfihjhkwhh{pznqxj`wml ruqr
wor`[!nq`hgnq|fk} h{ rhkvx co`bx fbrzxyr{whkl vfbrnqxyhwo`cohg|~h{ rg`wecosfbh{p
k wor`!nq`hLnq|f{} h{ rjrzpss|qrzxh{puq` {wh{nco`x fbrzxyrL{whkl vfbrnqxyh jhkwhkl rzph fbrzx `br
jhkwh{p`bpsrh{rg`b qrguqrza
wor`[!nqàe`3`[l nqxhnq|fk} h{ rj`weirzl uqsfbhuq`j`wobrzl uqr $`|cih{ rq
h - ' y`+l j`weirzl uqsfbhguq`[j`wobrzl uqr $qjhkwhcor!uqr '
' ~g`+l j`weirzl uqsfbhguq`[j`wobrzl uqr ' vjhkwohcor!uqr '

k hkwohj`nq`b|vh{a{hkwoshf{} rz `bauq`[co`xj`wohkconwhqrxruq`bprjhkwhghguqphkchf{} h{ ruq`nqxyhhkwewohguq`
xy`coh{pqrzxyrzq`b |qìh0aenvx`cosuvh h xnquvh{|fb} h{auq`+co`bxj`whkconwohR` l ' qrz|quq`
`+l rgfrzxjqwosx`b|ceruvh0hkwewhnvh{|quqrgh0co`bxj`whkconwh^` l $ `+l rgfrzxjqwosx`b|cer|qsfbsh{puvh0hkwewh
|vhce`bxj`whkconwh ` ' `l nqxhgfrz|qadch{|co`!nq`[uq`j`b|quq`0uqrgcejrguq`[x`ch{p
h `wevnqàe` `l nq|f{} h{ ryps|qìhkwuq` $
njrz|quqr0nq`hhkwewoh!|qsfbsh{psxy`b|co` xy`buq` z hnqxh co`bxgj`whkcenwh[uq` z
`nq`jhkwh
rxy`ch{p fbrzx nq` rz~`ch ' q`badr!fb`+r{whkl vfbrnq` `jqwo`baeae`rfbrzxjqwoxy`b|cor0uvh0hkwewh
`bx nq|f{} h{ ryuvhco`bxj`whkconwh
b fbnqadcer`bx % nq|qsuvh{uq`baxyrz|q`chkl wosh{ajhkwhgwo`bxrN`w uqrzauq`cewocorzacrkl sfbrzauq`badj`
dh{uqrza|nqx hkco`wewor `[l uvh{uqrgjr{w z ^ qjhkwh z
de
[ +

h+`co`woxys|q`rfnqadcor wo`b`we`b|ce` h we`bxyr~f{} h{ r uq` z ` uqrzauq`cewocorzabarf`r {whkl vfbr
uq`
+nq`jr{wofb`b|convh{puqùq`cewocerzajruqàd`wwo`xyrNsuqrjr{w zz %
z hkwhfih{psfbnqpshkw[h uqrzaeh{z`bx uq`x`buqsfih{x`b|cerza nq`0jr!uqàd`w+jqwo`baefwech jhkwhfwoh{|fb} h{a[uq`
h h{|qrza `[l ncopsih{uvhghnq|f{} h{ r8d - vrz|quq`[^`l hguqrzae`+jhkwhh{uqnqpcorza `bx L` g`[l h
suvh{uq``bx h{|qrzab+`co`woxs|q`hyuqrzad`0nq`jruqàe`w s|quqfih{uvhjhkwhynqxhfwoh{|fi} hyuq` h{|qrzaae`0h
uqrzae`h{uqnqpch `[l uq` z
k _ nqxFabml cor0hkwonq`rzpirzl zsfrr{wh{xF`|qfbrz|cdwh{uqrzarzaeaerza!nq`fbrz|co`bx uvhnvh{|cosuvh{uq` r{wesz
|vh{puq`
hfb} hgnqxh`badcoxhkcokh0uvhguvh{uqùqrzarzadaerzab
xy`bsh uvhLuqrNrzl aer{work `gl uq` uqh{ab hk`b|quqrY!nq` z uq`bachaenvadc h{ |qfbhàdcih{ r
jqwo`bad`b|ce`bag|qr|ml fbrqr{qco`b|qvhnqxhYNr{l woxnqpshjhkwhhYnvh{|cosuvh{uq`yjqwoàe`b|co`hkjrzl a [h{|qrzab nq`
nvh{|couvh{uqùq`Nrzl adr{work wo`badchkwvhl hkjrzl a uqh{a
z x fb `b |qfbh{a|vhkconwh{saxy`bsh uvh`l r[co`bxjr|q`bfb`badavhkl wosr0jhkwh[nq`nqxh[nvh{|cosuvh{uq` hkces| dh
h^xy`ch{uq`tuqàe`bnkh{psr{wy|qsfbsh{p jqwor!fb`baeadr uq`Y`bpsxys|vhfk} h{ ruq`Ynqxyhaenvadc h{ |qfbh^j`bpsrRr{weh
|qsadxyruqrza xh{xml `worzat`l h{|h{l przzr h{ruqùq`fih{sxy`|corywoh{uqsrhkcor psrzzrq ncospsih ae`0r xyruq`bpryuq`
uq`bfwe`baefbxy`b|cor`jrz|q`b|qfbh{p ` z uq` nqxhuwerzh0hkjvpssfbh{uvh|!nqxFjh{fs`b|co``l `bpsxy|vh{uvhhkjrzl a
qr{woh{abvnvh{p `l hxy`bsh uvhuvhuworzh
k hk`b|quqr[nq`h+jr{jvnqphf{} h{ ruq`nqx=f`wecor+jhqml arzq`badcoxh{uvh `bx xysp~rz `ba`bx z ùq`
xyps~rz `ba`bx z q`+aenjrz|quqrynq`h0jr{jvnqphfk} h{ rgco`bx nqxfwe`baefbxy`b|cor`jrz|q`b|qfh{p quq`co`woxy|q`
nvh{|quqrhjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rhkces|qzwvh l xysp~rz `bab
njrz|qvhnq` zzz % abh{ r|`bacosuqrzahnqxhch vhuq`nworza fbrzxjrzadcorzauq` h{rh{|qrq
+`co`wexys|q`rxyrz|coh{|co`h{fbnqxnqph{uqr+hkjrzl a h{|qrzaad`rzanworzar{wo`xIfihkjvch{psih{uqrzaxy`b|qaeh{psxy`b|co`{
ae`bx`badcewh{pxy`b|co``[xy`|qaoh{psxy`|co`k
k _ nqxh`jvsuq`bxyshuq`0{woj`{ r| qln xy`woruq`j`baeaerh{a |nqxWh{wewornq`[j`bhkwh{x {woj`0hkjrzl a
uqh{aL`[l uvh{uqrjr{w d - zz z z
h +nvh{|ch{aj`baeaerh{ar{wh{xs|q`bfch{uvh{a hkjrzl a uqhhkjrzl a uqsh{a
xnvh{|corzauqsh{a zzz jàeaerh{avfbhkwh{x frzx {wej`
{ cospsih{|quqr ``bxjvprzauq`co`woxs|q`r fbrzxjr{wdch{xy`b|cor uqr {whkl vfbr uvh nq|fk} h{ rpsrzqml adcofihRae`
khkwoh{xyrza 0vF`
g
zk xyh{z|qconquq`0uq`nqx co`wdwo`bxyr{cor |vh `baefih{psh sfco`w`l uvh{uvh jr{w i
rz|quq` `l h`b|q`wozshps`woh{uvhj`bprco`wewe`bxyr{cor`bx znqp`ba` _ r{co`nq`
rz|quq` `+l jhkwhgrgxh{sr{w co`wewo`bxyr{cerwo`zsadcewoh{uqrq
h co`wewo`bxyr{ceruq` h{ r wh{|qfbaefbr|qrza uq` z ps`worzn0hkjqwersxh{uvh{xy`|co` 1+
nvh{przaenvhxh{z|qconquq`
` rco`wewo`bxyr{ceruq`
[r!`` |qr hkjh{ rco``nqxhxh{z|qcenquqùq` nvh{|ch0`b|q`wozshps`worzn

Apostila Matemática Cálculo CEFET Capítulo 02 - Funções

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Apostila Matemática Cálculo CEFET Capítulo 02 - Funções

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis



% & ' +() * , -/.

132 4 568;79 :=< > : 2 ? @ A=@CB;DF@GE A :IH B : @ H

+`hkcorqkhchk`bph wo`jqwo`ae`b|ch nqxhnq|fk} h{ rq{jrzsafih{uvhuqshco`xIh{aeadrfbsh{uvhnqxhqln |qsfih!nvh{|cesuvh{uq`

achchk`phY|~h{ rwo`jqwo`ae`b|chnqxyhYnq|f{} h{ rqjrzsahfbh{uvhjqworuqncorfbr{wdwo`badjrz|quq`

`+rguqrza uqrzaq`xysae`l wosrzay` l  ! t +qpsrzzrqrrzpnqxy`cor{ch{p

rzzrqvjruq`bxrzauq`aefwo``w rfbrzxgjqwosxy`|cor`bxnq|f{} h{ ruvhae`jhkwhf{} h{ ryh{|qznqphkwi

k `bxyrza zz xy`cewerzauq` hkwh{xy`jhkwohh{`wnqxfbnwewoh{puq`r{woxhkcorYwe`ch{|qznqphkwbruq`bxrza

 aesrzprzzsadcoh{auq`bae`b|rzp`woh{x nqxhNr{l woxnqph0jhkwhuq`co`woxs|vhkwhadnj`woml fbs`[fbr{wejr{wh{puq`h{|q

zr |quq` `l rj`baer`x !nqsprzatuqr h{|qxh{p` 5 `l nqxhfrz|qadch{|co`^!nq`^uq`j`b|quq`Ruqr h{|q

k `dh 8`LhYwo`b{whnq` h{adaerfbshhYfih{uvh| qln xy`worwo`bh{p 0rae`nfbnrqsadcor`kl

h{aeaer!fbh{xrzarg|nql xy`wory vh{r| qln xy`wer h{aeadrfbsh{xyrzarg|nql x`wor  

r | qln xy`wor h{aeadrfbsh{xyrzar | qln xy`wor  # h{r |nql x`wor {h aeadrfbsh{xyrzayr

 fbrzxrhwh{s fnl vfih^uq`Lnqx | qln xy`worjrzaecorrzn

z r{wh nq`uq`co`wexys|vh{xyrza~|qrza``bxjvpsrzarzauqrzxml |qrza` xh{z`b|qauvh{anq|fk} rz `babkjruq`bxyrzahi{h{phkwi

+`brzxy`cdwosfih{x`b|ce`  ~t`{l `bx z`woh{p ~nqxh fbnwekhL|qr jvph{|qrq_ rza`$q`bxjvprza b k `

{whkl vfrguq`bachgnq|f{} h{ r|~h{ rwo`jqwo`bad`b|cohnqxh0fbnwekh jqwoxy`bwh0fbrzpsnq|vhuvhcohk`bpsh0we`jqwo`bae`|ch

adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhnq|f{} h{ r  #k NR ~ ` ^ ~

adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhnq|f{} h{ r   NR ~  R ~ 

adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhae`bznq|co`[nq|f{} h{ rY

k +`ce`woxy|q`hnq|f{} h{ rLfn ry{whkl vfbr`kl

phkwh{xy`|co`k~ ae`[ `[  +`co`woxys|q`xyrza rzaae`bzx`b|cerzauq`[we`chg!nq`psh{xrza

 ay{wvhkl vfbrzauq`~ -  - `Y t Ljr!uq`bx ae`w

ea `znqwuvhkwe`bxyrza+ hkl worza[``bxjvprzauq`nq|fk} rz `babfbrzx;ae`bnqawe`badj`fcorzauqrzxml |qrzabxh{z`b|qa`

vae`we`nq` rza{whkl vfbrzauq` ~ b` uq`  jruq`bx ae`w r{qcouqrzauqr{whkl vfbruq`~$+`hkcorq

v nvh{|quqr r{qco`bxyrza0nqxGcojrxjr{wdch{|ce`yuq` nq|f{} h{ rq fvh{xh{uvh  d 

`dh ~ ' - N  `ph{a jqwor{jqwos`uvh{uq`bauvh{anq|fk} rz `baps|q`ihkwo`ba

`aerzp`b|quqrraeadco`bxhqr{qce`bxyrzab ' ` vpsrzzrq~

_ r{co`nq`+j`bpsh{ajqwer{jqwos`buvh{uq`auvh{anq|fk} rz `baps|q`ihkwo`bavjruq`bxrzacorzxyhkw nvh{ps!nq`wjhkwuq`jrz|corza

hk`bxyrza!nq`hjqwo`aeabh{ ruvhh{l znvh0uqrxhkw`+l nq|f{} h{ rguvh0jqworznq|ququvh{uq`{+`b|qr{co`bxrzajr{w =h

qj we`baeabh{ ryuvhh{l znvhhgnqxyhjqworznq|ququvh{uq`0uq` z ` l  z 1Rz - z ' 

ajrz|cerzauqr {whkl vfbrabh{ r h{ajrzaeaiml `bsafrzxv|vhf{} rz `bauq`aerkdh`p`b|cospvh{ajhkwhr{wo|q`fb`w

rz|quq` '   '

qrza{whkl vfbrza wo`badj`bfcorzaabh{ rq

sp znqxyh{a`bb`babjhkwhL`badr~fb} hkwrL{whkl vfbrtuq`gnqxhnq|f{} h{ r `gl fbrz|`b|q`b|ce`g`wovfihkw[ae`h nq|f{} h{ r

 fbrz| nq|cer ! t# #- #

JLK D Q  O VO T 6 07 U O E P TU V

fvhkwrzajrz|corzauq`|co`woae`f{} h{ ruqrza{whkl vfrzauq`0~ R`+~ -

r{w`q`bxgjvpsrqae` # -  # - q`b|cih{ rq - qb #^

+rza`$q`bxjvprzah{|co`wesr{wo`bajr!uq`bxyrza fbrz|qfbpnqw!nq`{v`bx z`wh{p

qj wosxy`whchk`bph+rzqr{qcosuvh+|nqx `adconquqradr{qwo`h jr{jvnqpshf{} h{ ruq` h{ps`h{afbr{wofbnq|quvh{a |!nqx fb`wecor

[+k nq|f{} h{ r`[l uqchnq|f{} h{ rs|`woaehguq`0ae`{

LJ KK M ? O E U U \ > O  O Z SiQ D QgO V

` dhR ' - -  '  h{b`b|quqr

- ` wo`badrzp`b|quqr^h`b!nvhf{} h{ r^`x

ae` ' v!nq``[l hgs|`woaehuq`

s `[Y `b|cih{ rg rz|quq`  ` ^  

rz|qaesuq`we`  vry| qln xy`worgwewoh{fbsrz|vh{p  `

xhnvh{|couvh{uq`g!nq`guq`bfwo`baefb`guq`yh{fbr{weuqrtfbrzx;h ps`b d     5  `gl uqchL!nq`

rzxyr!nvh{ps!nq`wwo`chjhkwh{p`bphh{r`b qruqrzag|ce`woae`bfchr{whkl vfruvhnq|f{} h{

aoh{|quqr |qr{h{xy`|co`0r hkcor uq` L  ae`why|`woaoh uvh `$jrz|q`|qfbh{pce`bxyrza h{a ae`znqs|co`ba

 wo`bphfk} h{ r`b|cewo` ' ` `{l

rz|quq` 5  '

+`ce`woxy|q`hs|`woaohuvhnq|f{} h{ rL 01

rz|qaesuq`we`nqxhh{xrzadcewhuq`xhkco`woh{p~!nq`fbrz|c`bl x nqxhgfb`wech!nvh{|couvh{uq`uq`avr{l cor{jrgwh{uqrh

rz|quq`  `[l hgnvh{|couvh{uq`s|qfbh{p

` hjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rguq`nqxhfb`wech`badj`bl fs`uq`j`b q`ba|!nqx h{x0vs`b|co`psxych{uqrR`[l uvh{uvhjr{wb

JLKNM 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V S U Q U Z O E  S T V

LJ KNMKJ 1  Q T 6 0 7 U Q gOQ  O O 1 Q T 6 07 U t< O T Q  O

LJ KNMK 1 Q T 6 0 7 U 5 U  Q gOQ  O O 1 Q T 6 07 U 5 U VO T Q  O

vae`we`rza{whkl vfbrzauq`[ad`b|qry`frkae`bfbh{|co`k fbrk ae`b|qr`ae`bfih{|co`{vch{|qz`b|co`[`fbrk ch{|qz`b|co`{

wocoxyrrzaefbphkcr{l woruqrzaqwhfb} rzauqnwh{|co`nqxhfbr{wewouvhjruq`ae`wwe`jqwo`bae`|ch{uqryjr{wi

k xyrxy`b|coryvhkwoxrz |qsfbraexjvps`auq`baefwe``hjrzaedfk} h{ rLuvh{a rzadfbspshf{} rz `bawo`bznqpshkwo`ba `bx cor{wo|qr

r{w`q`bxgjvpsrqvh{anq|f{} rz `ba+ N  5  `+~ { 5 ~abh{ rgj`wobrzl uqsfih{auq`[j`wml r!uqr 5 !

132 4 568;79 :=< > : 2 ? @ A=@CB;DF@GE A :IH B : @ H

+`hkcorqkhchk`bph wo`jqwo`ae`b|ch nqxhnq|fk} h{ rq{jrzsafih{uvhuqshco`xIh{aeadrfbsh{uvhnqxhqln |qsfih!nvh{|cesuvh{uq`

achchk`phY|~h{ rwo`jqwo`ae`b|chnqxyhYnq|f{} h{ rqjrzsahfbh{uvhjqworuqncorfbr{wdwo`badjrz|quq`

`+rguqrza uqrzaq`xysae`l wosrzay` l ! t +qpsrzzrqrrzpnqxy`cor{ch{p

rzzrqvjruq`bxrzauq`aefwo``w rfbrzxgjqwosxy`|cor`bxnq|f{} h{ ruvhae`jhkwhf{} h{ ryh{|qznqphkwi

k `bxyrza zz xy`cewerzauq` hkwh{xy`jhkwohh{`wnqxfbnwewoh{puq`r{woxhkcorYwe`ch{|qznqphkwbruq`bxrza

aesrzprzzsadcoh{auq`bae`b|rzp`woh{x nqxhNr{l woxnqph0jhkwhuq`co`woxs|vhkwhadnj`woml fbs`[fbr{wejr{wh{puq`h{|q

zr |quq` `l rj`baer`x !nqsprzatuqr h{|qxh{p` 5 `l nqxhfrz|qadch{|co`^!nq`^uq`j`b|quq`Ruqr h{|q

k `dh 8`LhYwo`b{whnq` h{adaerfbshhYfih{uvh| qln xy`worwo`bh{p 0rae`nfbnrqsadcor`kl

h{aeaer!fbh{xrzarg|nql xy`wory vh{r| qln xy`wer h{aeadrfbsh{xyrzarg|nql x`wor

r | qln xy`wor h{aeadrfbsh{xyrzar | qln xy`wor # h{r |nql x`wor {h aeadrfbsh{xyrzayr

fbrzxrhwh{s fnl vfih^uq`Lnqx | qln xy`worjrzaecorrzn

z r{wh nq`uq`co`wexys|vh{xyrza~|qrza``bxjvpsrzarzauqrzxml |qrza` xh{z`b|qauvh{anq|fk} rz `babkjruq`bxyrzahi{h{phkwi

+`brzxy`cdwosfih{x`b|ce` ~t`{l `bx z`woh{p ~nqxh fbnwekhL|qr jvph{|qrq_ rza`$q`bxjvprza b k `

{whkl vfrguq`bachgnq|f{} h{ r|~h{ rwo`jqwo`bad`b|cohnqxh0fbnwekh jqwoxy`bwh0fbrzpsnq|vhuvhcohk`bpsh0we`jqwo`bae`|ch

adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhnq|f{} h{ r #k NR ~ ` ^ ~

adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhnq|f{} h{ r NR ~ R ~

adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguvhae`bznq|co`[nq|f{} h{ rY

k +`ce`woxy|q`hnq|f{} h{ rLfn ry{whkl vfbr`kl

phkwh{xy`|co`k~ ae`[ `[ +`co`woxys|q`xyrza rzaae`bzx`b|cerzauq`[we`chg!nq`psh{xrza

ay{wvhkl vfbrzauq`~ - - `Y t Ljr!uq`bx ae`w

ea `znqwuvhkwe`bxyrza+ hkl worza[``bxjvprzauq`nq|fk} rz `babfbrzx;ae`bnqawe`badj`fcorzauqrzxml |qrzabxh{z`b|qa`

vae`we`nq` rza{whkl vfbrzauq` ~ b` uq` jruq`bx ae`w r{qcouqrzauqr{whkl vfbruq`~$+`hkcorq

v nvh{|quqr r{qco`bxyrza0nqxGcojrxjr{wdch{|ce`yuq` nq|f{} h{ rq fvh{xh{uvh d

`dh ~ ' - N `ph{a jqwor{jqwos`uvh{uq`bauvh{anq|fk} rz `baps|q`ihkwo`ba

`aerzp`b|quqrraeadco`bxhqr{qce`bxyrzab ' ` vpsrzzrq~

_ r{co`nq`+j`bpsh{ajqwer{jqwos`buvh{uq`auvh{anq|fk} rz `baps|q`ihkwo`bavjruq`bxrzacorzxyhkw nvh{ps!nq`wjhkwuq`jrz|corza

hk`bxyrza!nq`hjqwo`aeabh{ ruvhh{l znvh0uqrxhkw`+l nq|f{} h{ rguvh0jqworznq|ququvh{uq`{+`b|qr{co`bxrzajr{w =h

qj we`baeabh{ ryuvhh{l znvhhgnqxyhjqworznq|ququvh{uq`0uq` z ` l z 1Rz - z '

ajrz|cerzauqr {whkl vfbrabh{ r h{ajrzaeaiml `bsafrzxv|vhf{} rz `bauq`aerkdh`p`b|cospvh{ajhkwhr{wo|q`fb`w

rz|quq` ' '

qrza{whkl vfbrza wo`badj`bfcorzaabh{ rq

sp znqxyh{a`bb`babjhkwhL`badr~fb} hkwrL{whkl vfbrtuq`gnqxhnq|f{} h{ r `gl fbrz|`b|q`b|ce`g`wovfihkw[ae`h nq|f{} h{ r

fbrz| nq|cer ! t# #- #

JLK D Q O VO T 6 07 U O E P TU V

fvhkwrzajrz|corzauq`|co`woae`f{} h{ ruqrza{whkl vfrzauq`0~ R`+~ -

r{w`q`bxgjvpsrqae` # - # - q`b|cih{ rq - qb #^

+rza`$q`bxjvprzah{|co`wesr{wo`bajr!uq`bxyrza fbrz|qfbpnqw!nq`{v`bx z`wh{p

qj wosxy`whchk`bph+rzqr{qcosuvh+|nqx `adconquqradr{qwo`h jr{jvnqpshf{} h{ ruq` h{ps`h{afbr{wofbnq|quvh{a |!nqx fb`wecor

[+k nq|f{} h{ r`[l uqchnq|f{} h{ rs|`woaehguq`0ae`{

LJ KK M ? O E U U \ > O O Z SiQ D QgO V

` dhR ' - - ' h{b`b|quqr

- ` wo`badrzp`b|quqr^h`b!nvhf{} h{ r^`x

ae` ' v!nq``[l hgs|`woaehuq`

s `[Y `b|cih{ rg rz|quq` ` ^

rz|qaesuq`we` vry| qln xy`worgwewoh{fbsrz|vh{p `

xhnvh{|couvh{uq`g!nq`guq`bfwo`baefb`guq`yh{fbr{weuqrtfbrzx;h ps`b d 5 `gl uqchL!nq`

rzxyr!nvh{ps!nq`wwo`chjhkwh{p`bphh{r`b qruqrzag|ce`woae`bfchr{whkl vfruvhnq|f{} h{

aoh{|quqr |qr{h{xy`|co`0r hkcor uq` L ae`why|`woaoh uvh `$jrz|q`|qfbh{pce`bxyrza h{a ae`znqs|co`ba

wo`bphfk} h{ r`b|cewo` ' ` `{l

rz|quq` 5 '

+`ce`woxy|q`hs|`woaohuvhnq|f{} h{ rL 01

rz|qaesuq`we`nqxhh{xrzadcewhuq`xhkco`woh{p~!nq`fbrz|c`bl x nqxhgfb`wech!nvh{|couvh{uq`uq`avr{l cor{jrgwh{uqrh

rz|quq` `[l hgnvh{|couvh{uq`s|qfbh{p

` hjr{jvnqphf{} h{ rguq`nqxhfb`wech`badj`bl fs`uq`j`b q`ba|!nqx h{x0vs`b|co`psxych{uqrR`[l uvh{uvhjr{wb

JLKNM 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V S U Q U Z O E S T V

LJ KNMKJ 1 Q T 6 0 7 U Q gOQ O O 1 Q T 6 07 U t< O T Q O

LJ KNMK 1 Q T 6 0 7 U 5 U Q gOQ O O 1 Q T 6 07 U 5 U VO T Q O

vae`we`rza{whkl vfbrzauq`[ad`b|qry`frkae`bfbh{|co`k fbrk ae`b|qr`ae`bfih{|co`{vch{|qz`b|co`[`fbrk ch{|qz`b|co`{

wocoxyrrzaefbphkcr{l woruqrzaqwhfb} rzauqnwh{|co`nqxhfbr{wewouvhjruq`ae`wwe`jqwo`bae`|ch{uqryjr{wi

k xyrxy`b|coryvhkwoxrz |qsfbraexjvps`auq`baefwe``hjrzaedfk} h{ rLuvh{a rzadfbspshf{} rz `bawo`bznqpshkwo`ba `bx cor{wo|qr

r{w`q`bxgjvpsrqvh{anq|f{} rz `ba+ N 5 `+~ { 5 ~abh{ rgj`wobrzl uqsfih{auq`[j`wml r!uqr 5 !

k adr!fb`rg{whkl vfbrguq`0 e

s ^ ~ R ~ =|~h{ r` l nqxhnq|f{} h{ rj`wobrzl uqsfihC` l jhkwi 5 ! `

JLKNMgM 1 Q T 6 U 7 O+V S U Q U Z O E S T V D QO V V

uqrzxml |qrnqaoh{uqr0jhkwhuq`v |qwh nq|f{} h{ rhkwofrkae`b|qrq!jruq`wohad`waenvadceconquqrjr{w!nvh{psnq`wuqrza

`b|cih{ rq ' vN ! ' ! ! qjrza ^` ' abh{ r|`woaoh{ab

^ ' q `!^ ' q !

rzxyr ' N ' {

h{ps`|co`hgfih{pfbnqphkw k! aerzpnf{} h{ ruq`adch`b!nvhf{} h{ r ` l ! vpsrzzrq ' !

JLKNMJ 1 Q T 6 U 7 +O V S\O EU i] S T V

aoh{|quqrh{auq`v|qf{} rz `bab`l Nh{l fbsp`wovfbhkwnq` { # ~YN # ~ eh{|h{l psrzh h uq`b|cesuvh{uq`

anq|f{} h{ ryqj`werzl psfih{aco`bxsxjr{wech{|co`bahkjvpsfihf{} rz `bab

_ r0`badcenquqruvh{aps|qvh{auq`cewoh{|qaexysadabh{ ruq` `b|q`wezh0`bp$`l cewosfbhhfbrz|vznwhfk} h{ ruq` `nqsp l qworuq`

zr |quq` ' ` l nq xhtfbrz|qach{|ce`g jrzadco{h {whkl vfbrYuq`bachfbnwekh`l fvh{xh{uqrYfihkco`|hkl woh+`bae`b|qqrza