QUANTUM FIELD THEORY F. Mandl and G. Shaw A Wiley-tnterscience Publication John Wiley & Sons CHICHESTER. NEW YORK BRISBANE TORONTO: SINGAPORE[Constight © 1984 by John Wey an Son Lid Reprinted Ape 1958 All igh reserve No part ofthis ook may be reproduced by any men, or rented, or waited nt achine nguage ‘Stout the wren permistion ofthe pubber trary of Cones Catling I Pbliton Dates Mandl, F (Fase 1923 ‘Quanta bel bor. 7 Wiley-Inenenctpubeton, Indtade ingen Quantum Sl thor Shaw, Gata 1902. Tie, OCITRISNET ia oT ges ISBN 647110509 (cx) ISBN 047150806 (pape) ris Libary Cataloging a Pabcton Dates Mandl F ‘Quantum Bel hor. TP Guantam fel hry E Tie Isham, sare "gees 1SBN 0.471 105090 (cot) ISBN 0 471 501506 pape) Primed aod bod in Gret tin Contents Pretace 1 PHOTONS AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. YI Particles and fields 12. The electromagnetic fl in the absence of charges 21 The sasial fel 122. Harmonic osilator 123. The quantized radiation fd 13. The elec dipole interaction 1 The electromagnetic Hed inthe presence of charges LA Classical electrodynamics 142 Quantum electrodynamics 143 Radiative transitions in atoms 44 Thomson satering 1S Appendie: The Schrodinger, Heienberp and interation etures Problems YX LAGRANGIAN FIELD THEORY 21. Relativistic notation 22. Clana Lagrangian Geld theory 23 Quantzed Lagrangian eld theory 24 1s 6 9 2 2% 2 23 THE KLEIN-GORDON FIELD DAL The real Klein- Gordon felt 32. The compler Klein. Gordon feld 33. ovarian commutation tlations AA The meson propagator Problems 4 THE DIRAC FIELD 4.1 The number representation fr fermions 42 The Direc equation 43 Second quantization 444 The fermion propagator 45 The electromagnatic interaction and gauge invatance Probleme 5 PHOTONS: COVARIANT THEORY The ssc elds 52 Covariant quantization 53. The photon propagator Problems <6 THE SMATRIX EXPANSION 6.1 Natural dimensions and unis 62 The Smatrix expansion R63 Wick’ thoorem 7 FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS AND RULES IN QED {ATL Feynman diagrams in configuration space 372_ Feynman diagrams in momentum space < 731 The fistonder tems $™ 722. Compton scattering 123 Eetron electron satring 2124 Chved loons 273 "Feynman rules for QED 274 Leptons Problems 8 QED PROCESSES IN LOWEST ORDER BA The crossecton 82 Spin sums “ “ a so s 6 6 6 cn esses 9s o% 02 17 108 9 rt i as ra ir br Bs a be 1 as as 86 a7 88 rr) Photon poatzation sums Lepton pair preduction in (ee) eolisions Bhabha seateing. ‘Compton seatering Seatering by an external td Bremsstshlong 9. RADIATIVE CORRECTIONS on 92 93 38 95 36 “The second-order radiative cosections of QED. ‘The photon saoneray “The let slenerey Enter line renormalization ‘The vertex modifcaion Applications StI The anomalous enagnetic moments 962 The Lamb shit “The infrared divergence Higher-order radiative corrections: renormalizabil Problems 10 REGULARIZATION int 02 103, 104 105 Mathematical peliminaris IOL.C Some standard integrals 10.2. Feynman parameterization ‘Cutof segularization: the eetron mass shit Dimensional regularization 1031 Inroduetion 1032 General results Yacoum polarization The anomalous magnetic moment Problems 11 WEAK INTERACTIONS sul xu M3 xia ns Inrodution Leptonic weak interactions. “The fre vector boson eld ‘The Feynman rules forthe 1VB theory Desay rates 4 M6 19 153 159 16s 16s mm vs 16 12 187 192 196 21 29 221 2 m a ns 225 2s an x9 a a 23s ns be 22 aa bas11.6 Applications ofthe 1VB theory 246 The Muon decay ar 1162. Neutrino scatering 253 1.63 The leptons decay of the W boson ass 117 _Dificlis with the IV theory 25s Problems 29 12 A GAUGE THEORY OF WEAK INTERACTIONS 261 121 The simplest gauge theory: QED 262 2. Global phase transformation and comerved weak curents 263 123. The gnugevavarant elecso-weak interaction 268 124 Properties ofthe eauge bosons m 123. Lepton and gauge boson masses ns 126 Appendix: Two gauge ansformation results 2s 261" The tansformaton law (12326) 26 1262. The SUG) gauge invariance of Bq (1257) am 13. SPONTANBOUS SYMMETRY BREAKING 79 131 The Goldstone model 280 132. The Higes model 28 133, The standard eletro-weak theory 29 14 THE STANDARD ELECTRO-WEAK THEORY 14. The Lagrangian densy in the snitary gauge 142. Feynman rules 143 Elastic neutrine-elecron scattering 144. Elecson positon ansilation 143 The Higgs boson Problems APPENDIX 4 THE DIRAC EQUATION, mr Ad The Dirac equation ar A2 Contraction identities Ey 3 Traces cr) ‘AA. Plane wave solutions a [AS Energy projection operators aa [AG Helicty and spin projection operators a AT. Relativistic properties Eo AB. Particular representations ofthe matrices. x6 Problems 39 APPENDIX B_ FEYNMAN RULES AND FORMULAE FOR PERTURBATION THEORY INDEX Mt ssiPreface ‘Our aim in writing this book hes been to produce a short introduction to ‘quantum field theory, suitable for beginning research stodents in theoretical {ind experimental physics. The main objectives are: (to explain the base physics and foram of quantum fld theory, (i) co make the read ly Droficent in perturbation theory calculations sing Feynman diagrams, and {io intoduee the reader to gauge theories which replaying such ental role in elementary parte physics, “The theory hasbeen applied to two areas. The Beginning parts ofthe Book ei! with quantum lectrodynamice (QED) where quantum eld theory had Insert triumph The st four chapters on Weak interactions introduce non- ‘Aten gauge groupe spontaneous symmetry breaking and the Higgs tmechanism, culminating it the. Weinberg Salam standard electro-neak theory, For reasons of space, we have ined ourselves to purely leptonic processes, but this theory i equally successful when extended to include Fadsons. The recent observations of the W= and Z° bosons with the predicted masses, nd further suppor otis theory, and there is very hope ‘hati the fundamental theory of electro-weak interactions. “The introductory nature ofthis Book and the dese to Keep it easonably short have influenced both the lve of eaten and the selection of materi We have formulated quantum field theory in terms of noacommuting ‘operator, as this approach should be familar to the reader from non ‘Slatvsie quantum meshanies and brings Out ost clearly the physical meaning ofthe formalism stems of patie creation and annihilation tperators, We have ony developed the formals tothe level we require Ueuppcations, Thee concentrate primi on eacultions i lowest ordernh Pete of perturbation theory. The techniques for obisining cross-sections, decay ‘tee and spin-and polaation sume have Been developed in detail and Sppled tow variety of proceses, many of them of itrest i current research ‘nletro-nenk interttons Alter studying this material, the ead shoukd te able to tackle confidently an} proces in lowest order. ‘Our treatment of renormalization and radiative coretions is much less ‘complete. We have explained the general concepts of regularization and fenormalization. For QED we have shown in some detail how to calculate {he lowest-order rditive corrections using dimensional repularization 38 tell a the older cutoff techniques. The infred divergence and its ‘Connection with radiative corretions have smiley been discussed in lowest ‘order only. The scope of tis book prcliesa erous study of igheronder ovrectons in QED snd of the renormalization ofthe elstro-weak theory. For the later, the Feyaman path integral formulation of quantum fel theory seems almost ental Regretful, we were not able 10 provide 8 shot and simple treatment ofthis topic. “Ths book aroue out of lectures which both of us ave given over many years We have greatly benefited from discussions with students and Colleagues, some of whom have read parts ofthe manuscript. We would ike {o then all of them for their help nd particulty Sandy Donnachie who rcouraged us to embatk on this collaboration. January 1986 Franz Mav Graton Sia _ SN AO A NpIn this book we have always taken e>0 so that the charge of the electron is (~e). ee we CHAPTER 1 Photons and the electromagnetic field 14 [PARTICLES AND FIELDS “The concep of photons asthe quanta of the electromagnetic eld dates back {orth beginning of ths century. In order fo explain the spectrum of Back: body radiation Planck, in 190, postulated thatthe process of emission and bsoeplion of radiation by fom oovurs discontinuously in quant Einstein by 1905 had arived at a more drasc interpretation. From statistical nalysis of the, Planck radiation law and from the energetics of the photoelectric fleet he conchided that it was not merely the atomic ‘rechanism ofemision and absogption of radiation Which is quantized, but that eletromagnetc radiation self consists of photons. The Compton eet ‘confirmed thi iterpretation. "The foundations of a spsematic quantum theory of fields were laid by Dita in 1927 in his famous paper on The Quantum Theory ofthe Emission and Absorption of Radiation From the quantization of the electromagnetic Feld one is naturally ed to the quantization of any classical i the quanta Of the feld being paricles with welhdefined properties The interactions between these partis is brought bout by other feds whose quanta are ther particles For example, we can thik of the interaction between Cetiuly charged particles such as clectrons and positrons, 3s being ‘brought about by the electromagnetic eld or as due to an exchange of ‘Photons, The eleetons and posttons themselves can be thought of 38 the (Gouna ofan electvon positon field. An important reason for quantizing2 Photos and the electromagnetic elt Chap. ‘sich partic lds iso allow forthe possibility that the numberof particles ‘changes as fr example, the creation or anntiation of eletron-positron pairs “These and other processes of course only oocur through the interactions, of fels. The solution ofthe equations ofthe quantized interacting felds txtremely diffcult If the interaction is sufciently weak, one can employ Petturbation theory, This has been outstandingly sucesfal in quantum ketcodynamics, where complete agreement ensts between theory and ‘experiment to. an incredibly high degree of accuraey. More reveal, Perturbation theory has azo very successfully been applied to weak "The most important modern pertrbaton-theoretic technique employs Feynman dingraos which ate also extremely useflin many afeas other than ‘elatvstic quantum Geld theory. We shall later develop the Feynman iagram technique and apply ito electromagnetic and weak atractions. For this a Lorentz covariant formulation wil be essential, Th this introductory chapter we employ a simpler non-covarant approach hich sues for many applications and brings out many ofthe ideas of Fe quantization. We shall consider the important case of eetrodyeamies for which a complete clsical theory—Maxwells—exsts. AB quantum ‘lestrodynamice wil be ederved ltr we sali this ehapter at times rely fom pwsibility arguments rather than fully justify all tps 12 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD IN-THE ABSENCE OF CHARGES 1241 |The clase eld) Cassia eee tromagnetc theory ie summed up in Maxwells equations. nthe presence of charge desiy (a1) anda current density io the eerie find magnetic elds F and B sty the equations vE=p cu 1, ee vowels le cu) ven=0 (ue) 128 vara (4) where, throughout this book, rationalized Gaussian (es) units ed! "Te aa aed ation Lent Hee nih In thse wi ee cue cout ghee ty Sheth Sih een wsatonaes Goin on STEAL ETL Van! Cieepondnayiorne hea b= Eeyig en ee bg 12 The lestomagnsti a the abs wfcanges From the second pat of Maxwell's equations [(.1e) nd (14) follows th exstene of scalar and vector potentials gfx.) and ACs) defined by 128 em gs. (12) do not determine the potentials uniquely sine for an arbiteary funetion f(x the tasformation vy, tear Bavaa B= -¥6 a, one -y a3) leaves the feds Band unaltered The transformation (13) s known as & lpge transformation ofthe second kind. Since alhobservable quantities can be expresed in terns of E and B, ii «fundamental requirement of any 1 ‘hry formulated in terms of potentials that ts pauge-invarian ie thatthe | predictions for observable quantities are invariant under such gauge {tansormatons TExpresed in terms of the potentials, the second pair of Maxwells uations [(1.1e and (-1)] ate satisfied automatically, while the frst pair {ita and (119)} become 2g 12 weaye cote (tava wee Thoma (eema)=# oy we e(L2E ove oa+v(iteva)= bs cay) where ra o=bh-w ws ‘We now go on to consider the ease ofthe fee Rel, ie the absence of charges and curents p= 0, J= 0. We can then choose a gauge forthe potentials such that vAn0, a6, “The condition (1.6) defines the Coulomb or radiation gauge. Actor field vith vanishing divergence, Le-saisfying Eq, (1.6), s called a transverse Bel, tine for a wave At) = Agro Eq (16) gives aco, an ie Ais pempendiculas tothe direction of propagation kof the wave. Inthe‘Coulomb gauge, the vector potential it transverse vector: la thischapter we ‘hall be employing the Coulomb gauge In the absence of charges, Eq (4a) now becomes V26=0 with the solution, which vanishes at inity, @ = 0. Hence Fg (4b) reduces 0 the wave equation cAno, as) “The corresponding electric and magnetic elds ae, rom Eas. (1.2) given wy 124 em and, ke A re transverse els. The solution of Eq, (18) ae the transverse fecromagnetic waves in free space. These waves are often called the radiation Del Is enery is piven by AA ES as tag 3 J 02 BE) (19 Inorder to quantize the theory we shall want to introduce canonically con: jugate coordinates ike x and pn non-relativistic quantum mechanis) for ‘ach degree of reedom and subject these o commutation relations. Ata given Instant of time the vector potential A must be specie at every point xin space Looked a rom this View point, the electromagnetic field possesses a ‘Continous infiny of degree of freedom. The problem can be simpiied by ‘considering the radiation onde large euic enone ofside Land volume = 13 andimposing pevoaic boundary conditions on he vector potential A at the surlacr ofthe cube, The vector polenta ean then be epeseated as 2 Fourie series i. it specie by the denurerable set of Fourie expansion cocfcints, and we have obtained description of he fin terms ofa n= fife but denumerable number of degres of freedom. The Fourier analysis corresponds 0 finding the normal modes of the radiation fel, each mode bing deserbed independently of the others by a harmonic oscillator ‘equation (All thisis analogous to the Fourier analysis of vibrating string) ‘This wil enable ws to. quantize the radiation ald by taking over the ‘quantization of the harmonic oscillator from non-relativistic quantum ‘mechanics, ‘With the periodic boundary conditions 0, any the functions 1) form complete net of transverse orthonormal vector fds Here the wave fects hat of he form Fmwmsitsh —memaim= 0, . as) so that thefts (1.12) stl the periodicity condition (.11)e(k) and exh) fre two mutually perpendicular fal unt vestrs which ae also orthogonal ox MYERS EMER, ee L 2 (D4) ‘The last of these conditions ensues thatthe fields (1.12) are transverse satialying the Coulomb gauge condition (1) and (1.7) Wecan now expand the vector potential A(x.) 6 & Fourier seis aan Z2( Ae) eaaaneremne ey (9 wine oy =e Te summations with expt rand ae oct bth Pobriatntatrr= 17 Goren Kant Orlow moments ae ero ett st ihe mma arr come ony The fermof ters (113 emu ft he eco pea ea A= Ea (Cid uamcrandon At atnchnuat ime The ine pendence Crib Fons geno aoe Se Amat ay ve Slunion (8) Seetutag Eq 019 9 0 and psig oo maa Shute, oe sass Bato ofa) 16) ‘These are the harmonic oscilator equations of the normal modes of the radition field I nll prove convenient to take thee Soations ithe form ath) = afk) exp (io), a.) where the o(k) ae intial amplitudes a ime r= 0 a, (115) for the vector pote, with Eg. (1.17) and its complex conjugate subsitted forthe amplitades and ap represents our final result forthe classical theory We can express the energy ofthe radiation eld, Ea (110) in terms ofthe ampltades by substitting Eqs (1.9) and (118)ia (1.10) lndcaryingout the integration overthe volume V othe enclose Inthe way tne obtains Has = ET hoya, cus) "wun chet (112 eee ny poles le By king prope couple near conanone te ptpoaraon1 Photons al he ctromusntc eld Chap. Note that this it independont of ine, as expected in the absence of charges and currents; we could equally have writen the ie dependent amplitudes (7) stead, since the ane dependence of wand of a? canoes ‘As already stated, we shall quantize the radiation Held by quanszig the {individual hurmoniecnilator mode, As the interpretation ofthe quantized fed theory in terms of photons is intimately connected withthe quantum eatment ofthe harmonic esllator, we shall summarize the late. 122, Harmonic ol “The hat onic oscilstor Hamiltonian i, in an obvious notation, + mate, with qand psatsying the commutation elation ep] = i, Weiatroducethe operators Hae He Shs are nonin ‘These satsy the commutation relation [well=1, cy) and the Hamiltonian expressed in terms of «und a becomes: Hn = Ya +a!) = haf + 4. (120) ‘This is essentially the operator New, aay hich s positive definite, ie for any state (¥) CHINIY) = Catal) = Cala) > 0 Hence, N posesies lonest non-negative eigenvalue 2950. 1 follows from the eigenvalue equation Nia) = al) and (19) that Not) == Dai, Nae = (e+ Dela, (122) ie aa) and ali) are eigenfunctions of WN belonging to the eigenvalues (2-1) and (a+ 0 espetvly. Since a the Lowest eigenvalue we must have ‘ha = 0, a2) and since a) = ace) 4, (1.23) implies ap =O. 1 flows fom Eqs (119) and (1.22) that the cigeavales of N are the integers m= 0,1, 2 and tha ifn) = 1, then the states tI), defied by Ae, almaine DRED, 20 ae also normed to unity. <0) wr I, the normed eigenfunctions of N are m= 2m, O12, (128) ‘These ate also the eigenfunctions ofthe harmonic oxllator Hamiltonian (1.20) with the energy eigenvalues B= hain +d, m= 0.1.2, (126) ‘The operators and" ar called lowering and raising operators because of the properties (128). We shale that nthe quantize eld theory fe) rere- sete atte with n quanta, The operator «(ehanaog a) into —1)) wll ‘noite a quantum similarly a” wil create a quantum. ‘So far we have considered one stat of tie, say t= 0. We now discuss the equations of motion ia the Heisenberg picture! Ia this picture, the operators ar functions of tne. Tn particular in fa Hd ay ca withthe iia condition (0) = a the lowering Operator considered so fi. Since Hy. is timesndependent, and ul?) and a") satisfy the same commutation relation (1:19) a5 a and the Heenberg equation of motion (127) reduces to a) M4 soul) with the solution a ao (2) 123 (The quantized radation fd The harmonic oilator results we have derived can at once be applied to the radiation fel. ts Hamiltonian, Bq, (118) isa superposition of independent sc SRDe agate ar aie acne depen of te Sin:basmonicoscilator Hamiltonians (120), one foreach mode ofthe radiation fe. (The onder ofthe factors in (18) is mot sgnicant and canbe changed, since the anda? are. classcal amplitudes) We therefore introduce commutation rations analogous +0 Eq (1.19) (ash a) = Bd (ena) eden of om and write the Hamitonian (1.18) as Has = ES hoch +9. 130) The operators 2k = ath) 1.2... and eigenfunctions of the form then have eigenvalues (h 1135) [wor ra ‘The eigenfunctions ofthe radiation Hamiltonian (130) are products of such Irakyy >, «3p oom) (UMint>, 03 with every EE bona +d. 033) “The interpretation ofthese equations is straightforward generalization {tom one harmonic osilatr toa superposiion of independent osilators ‘one for each radiation mode (hr) ak) operating on the sate (1.32) will educe the oceupaion number nk) ofthe tmode(h.?) by unity, faving all ‘other oecupation numbers uallered, ie from Eq (124 28) = EARL oR) Bhds 38 Correspondingly the energy (1.3) is reduced by hoy = kl We interpret “G{4) as an antblation (or destruction or absorption) operator hich tonite one photon in the mode (kL. with momentum Mh, energy fn linear polarization vector ek). Similarly af) is imtexpreted as. Creation operator of sucha photon. The assertion that a(k) and a(k) are sbsorpton and creation operators of photons with momentum Rk can be stl by clelatig the momentum of the radiation Bld, We salle later thatthe momentum operator of the Feld wen by PHTTAwsa +d, as) which leads tothe above interpretation. We shall not consider the more Jnicate problem ofthe angular momentum ofthe photons but only mention that ercular polarization sae obtained by forming linear combinations ee ae aremore appropriate or his Remembering tate) (kK) form a ih handed Cartes coordinate system we See that these two combinations orespond to angular momentum ‘= in the direction k (analogous to the properties of the spherial harmonics Vj") .e.they represen sght-and le [cular polaris the photon behaves ik a pasiceof sin 1. The hid spin component i of coutse missing becuse ofthe Wansverse nature ofthe photon fed “The state of lowest energy ofthe radiation ld is the vacuum sate in which ll occupation numbers m(k) are zero. According to Eqs. (1.30) or (1.3) this state asthe energy 434 5 ho, This isan infinite constant which Js of no physial significance: we a ‘altogether by siting he zero_of-the energy sale to coincide with the vacuum state ). This ‘corresponds to replasing Ea, (30) by Hae LE htt) aan term in Eq, (1.35) for the momentum will similarly be dropped. I. ‘sctally vanishes in any case due to symmetry i the k summation} “The representation (1.32) in which states ate specie by the occupation [Thee numbers nik) is called the mamber representation Wis of great practical importance in calculating (ansons (possibly via intermediate stats) between inland inal states containing dente numbers of photons with welldetned properties. These Meas are ofcourse not restricted to photons Botaply gemeraly tothe particles of quantaed ede Weshallhave a oly the formatiam in one fespect We have seen that the photon occupation fumbes nh) can assume al vals 0,2, Thus, photons satisfy Bose” instein static! They ate bosons So 4 molfcation willbe required (0 describe particles obeying Ferm Dae stasis (frmios), such aselecrons for muons, for which the occupation mummers are restricted (0 the vals 0 snd 'We have quantized the electromagnetic fel by replacing the classical amplitudes a and a? inthe vector potential (15) By operators, 0 that the1 Photon at the detromugntc eld Chap. ‘vector potential and the electsc and magnetic lds become operators. In particular, the vector potential (115) becomes, nthe Heisenberg picture [cL Eqs (128) and (L17)]},the time-dependent operator maneET({)"amumer, asm weo-Er(A)"aniremnn, gasp ‘The operator A* contains only absorption operators, AW only eration operators A" and A~ are called the postive and negative fequeoey part of A! The operators for B(x) and BAX) follow from Eqs. (1.9). There is an spotantdilerence between 1 quantized Beld theory and non-elatviaic ‘quantum mechanics. In the former tis the amplitudes (and bene the Bl), ‘thi are operators andthe potion and ime coordinates (x?) ae ordinary ‘numbers, whereas the later the postion coordinates but not the ie) ar operators Finally, we note that a sate with a defnite number y of photons (Lean lgensate ofthe ttl photon number operator W = YS, NA) cannot bea ‘asia eld, not eve for > so, Thies a consequence ofthe fac that E, like A, is linear in the creation and absorption operators. Hence the expectation value of Bin sucha sate vanishes I is posible to form so-called ‘coherent sates for which CB) represents a transverse wave and for ‘which the relative fuctuation AE/ tends to 20 asthe number of ‘Photons i the state, » For example, for optical transitions in atoms, Risof the order fof | Aad dtesin the range 4000-7500 A Similan, for gamma-raysemitted by nucle, Ris ofthe ordet of few ermis (1 = 10-7? m) and since 32x e119) we hae ate i we sm a tae the oxo intraton ween es sn Se Ses Sa cd12 Photons andthe eestomagntic eld Chap. {197)E in MeV) for gamma-tay of E MeV, the det dipole aprox mation is valid upto gute igh gamma-ray enres: thee are selection rls forbidding a tration in the elec dipole approximation i might stil occu athe magnetic trations OF i parts ofthe cleric interactions which are neglected the dipole eppoximation Tt ‘may happen that tration is tly forbidden, ie cannot ceed in fist der peruibation theory even when the exact infraction fused ao perturbation instead of Hy (Eq (1401) In such cases the trasition can til scar in higher orders of perturbation theory or, pohly by some ute to ial state (B) ad the oxcupation ‘umber of one photon state wll change fom m(Q) to mh) 1 The ital Si al states ofthe sper wil be Menah =a, 1Bntk) 1) = Bond) 1) ey whet the occupation nimbers ofthe photon sates which are not changed in ‘the tanstion are ot showa. The dipole operator (Ll) now becomes Da nen -e. cas) whet the summation is over the atomic electrons and we have introduced the abbreviation x, The transverse else field y(, 1) whish occurs nthe itraction (140) i rom Eqs. (1.38) 1 2A00.0) 0.0) = oo. Let us consider radiative emission. The transition matrix element of the interaction (140) between the stats (1.42) then is ven by (Bind) + WHA, mth) (2) a sate D0 em (Ray oe anaes can where the Ist in follows from Eg (1.26) ‘meme Quan Secon Snes Bet, Ne York, 19 Chap The transition probability per unit time between init (142) is given by limedependen perturbation theory as and final states w= Ba) +A MAADE Es Bhan) — 48) where Ey and fate the energies of the inital and final atomic tates |) and |B}. The deta funtion ensues conservation of ener i the transition, ie "he emited photos enery fay must satisfy the Bohr equency condition Wy 0= (Es ~ Fah 46) “The deta function is eliminated in the wsusl way from a. (145) by integrating over a narrow group of final photon sates. The number of photon stats inthe interval (kk + dk, all the same polaizaton sate eh) oF E08), vere _ ve akan! GF ay From Eqs (1.48)-(147) we obtain the probability per uit time for an atomie transition 4) ~ |B) with emision ofa photon of wave vector inthe Tange (kk dh) and wih polarization vector V4 4k d0.25 ar F aa) d= HE 4— Ex hoy) (he » (FP) ow + nvexarvior. ca {we perform the integration with respect tok (=e) and subsite (1.43) for Dy the last expression reduces to eo? a d= SSP Gh) + Heth) neal? (150) where xy stands forthe matrix element xac= (BIIAD = (BIE FIA), sy *Timedepedet peut hy i cml eloped i Darden, Qn can a "ep, Oa Ime cen F(a, Face (Gen Mecha dey, New Yok eS YA LE St ura Sih ee sie NY ie St sé lwed weve wc oe EC] ore P=)14 Photon andthe estomagntic eld Chap. ‘The most intresting feature of Ea (10) he osteo the Stor tm) 1 ih he ean er pon te) moe Present. a! thas he ato (5 pope om eprons Induced (or siete) emotion, adaen which tes fom, the ‘adation ie on he stom cea we ca hk ofits ering om thereat onan ofthe ctons att rm an be produce fm Semiclassical theory of raation” Howeve even wh no ration pesca intaty (ui) = 0} the tansconproaby (1.0) iflen am sere “This coreponds tthe spontanes emvon of ation rom Mm, ‘uth canbo be derived rom seas thor radiation as (1. and(.8) epee the bas ea bout ono aiation inde aipoe aston, a me yb inate some conscquenes ‘Tosum ove the wo polatzaton stats for agen we ate ht 0 sh and t= WM oma orthonormal eooiate stem, Hence, Zeina = eats ex aiees (sae xbaXl — cos?) wer the lt line but one defines the angle @ which the compen vector Xe makes with Hence from Eq (150) 7 eo Ae Bnd ies dt) + saa sin? 8.052) For spontancous emission, the total transition probability per wait imei bianed fom the fast uation, with mt) 0, by teat ove ll directions. Since eee oe foo oan 8, ve obtain wilt = B)= 22 ng ass) ‘heli time + ofan excited atom state A> is defined asthe reprocal of she ta anson probity pe ut neopets > Eval By. ase) SESE LSM uma Mechs ed Min ew Yar, Jn purtcula, if he nate (A> ean decay to states with non-zero foal angular ‘omentum, Ha, (14) mist contain & summation over the corresponding ‘magnetic quantum numbers. “he selection fules for cleric pole tanstons fellow from the matrix clement (151). For example since is 8 Veto, the states |4) apd |B) must have opposite parity and the total angular momentum quantum number J of the atom and is -component Af must sats the selection cules By-021 nod = +420, aM=040 “The second selection rule (not J = 01+ J = 0) applies srl to one-photon process, n0t ony in the electric dipole approximation, tia consequence of Whe fat that there are no one photon states wth mo angular momentum. To form such a state fom the spin tof the photon and a unt of orbital angular momentum regures all three componeats of the spin angular ‘momentum, but because ofthe transversality ofthe ration fl only to ofthe spin components ae avaiable [compare Ea (136)] Filly, we note tht very similar resis hal for the absorption oadiation in leat dipole transitions. The mati element (Bande) ~ HHA, mk corresponding to Eg, (18) now involves the factor (m0)! instead of {nah} = 1]"* Our final rest for emision, Eq. (180), abo holds for Stuorption, with [a4k) + 1) replaced by [n(k)], df being the solid angle Sefining the incident radiation, and the mati element Xn, Fa. (151) ‘presenting tration rom analomiestate[A) withenergy Ey toastate|B> ‘wth eneray Ey > Ey Correspondingly te frequeney cis defined by ho Fy Ey intend of £4 (146) THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD IN THE PRESENCE OF CHARGES, [Ait the special case ofthe electric uiple interaction, we now want con- ‘le the general interaction of moving charges and an electromagnetic fel [Asthis problem wl later be teatedina flavin covariant way, weshall not sve a figorous complete deivation but rather stress the physia inter- pretation. As in the lat section, the motion of the charges will again be eseribed non-eatvsielly. Ta Section L41 we shall deal with the Hamiltonian formulation ofthe clsial theory. This will enable us very ceasl to go over to the quantized theory in Section 1.42. n Sections 143 tnd 144 we shall illustrate the appiation of the theory for radiative {tutsions and Thomson searingLAL Clasical eectodyaumis ‘We would expe the Hamiltonian ofa system of moving charges, such a an ‘oma a electromagnetic el consist othe para art refering co mato (a the charges) a pat referring tothe lectromagnetc field, and 8 part describing te interaction between matter and fel Fora syst af pint masses ma with charges, and poston coordinates the Hamiltonian i mop hien as where He ithe Coulomb interaction 5 (1550) and py = md the kinetic momentum ofthe th parts. This isthe tual Hamiltonian of atomic physics, for example "The elvtomagnetic eld in Hatraction with charges is described by Maxwells equations (Eqs (1.1), We coatinue to use the Coulomb gauss, eA 0, a0 thatthe electric eld (1.2) decomposes into transverse and Iongitoinal elds whore (A longitudinal field i defined by the condition V 4 By = 0) The magnetic Feld isgven by B= « . The foal energy ofthe dectromagnti eld 1 foe emer an be writen Jetsons fice “The last integral can be transformed, using Poisson's equation V9 = ~p, frees OSD ws hus the energy aswciated with the longitudinal field isthe energy of the dnvtantanons letanatc interaction between the charges. With id= Sess nt) 1g. (1.86) reduces “Bat sn ipo tents Eke deny ea Bake aa =4 fed + BIO ass) as (3.5) allow fo the instantaneous Coulomb interaction of charges To slow for he interaction of moving charges with an clestromagnels Bld, one ‘rst replace the mater Hamstonian (1383) by 1 y=S 3h (n-Ea) +H 39 whore Ay = Af} denotes the vector potetial athe position of he charge at time f, In Eq. (158) pi the momentum coordinate canoacaly ‘Conjugate to the poston coordinate, ia the sense of Lagrangian mechanics, and it is elated to the velocity ¥,= dr ofthe ith particle by namin a, Wi oaly fr A =0 eat his caja momentum eds (the inti tomatsm mg The tenon efor 139) Hs tha en the “Set qu of mono the args Gn Pie 2 aa) where and B, are the electric and magnti fds at the instantaneous postion of the th charge or the Lagnagan an Heit orto smc sich he dn seam ei Cau Man ah aay en MnWe can regroup the terms in Ea, (1.59) a5 Hy Ha + Hy ao nese My the interaction Hamiltonian of matter an fl seven by aE {Slower acwt rhe eee inter” enn rm nt i eetesmiee ao neeenenm neta ea as as this Hamiltonian leads tothe comet equations of motion (1.60) for hares, sot also leads othe correct field equations (18), with WA = 0, for the potential nestiaa os) 142 Quantum electrodynamics Te quantization ofthe system described by the Hamiltonian (1.63) is atid ‘out by subjecting the partite” coordinates, and canonically conjugate ‘momenta to the usual commulation telations (eg in the coordinate ‘epresentation p> ~iA¥), and quantizing the radiation i as in Section 123, The longitudinal elecrc field Fy dort not provide any additional ‘egrees of feedom, being completly determined via the fist Maxwell ‘quation V-E, » p by the charges. ‘The interaction Hn Ba. (1.68) is usually (ented a a perturbation which ‘nuses transitions between the sats of the notiteractng Hemiltonan Hy = Ha + Hs (164) ‘The eigenstates of Hy are again ofthe fem, [A smb) = A) > With (A) and |.) egensates of Hy and Hog SM Hee: Te Quan Try of Ration bs Cedan Pes, Of 184, Compared with the clctte dipole interaction (1.40), the interstion (1.62) sisi that itcontainsa erm quadratic inthe vector potential This esis ‘a tworphoton process in Risvorder perturbation theory (.. emission of sorption oftwo photons or scattering) Ta addition, the fist term in (1.62) ‘ontuis magnetic interactions apd higher-order effets due to the spatial, ‘atation of A(t) which are absent from the ekestre dipole interaction (14) These aspects are ilstrated inthe applications to radiative ansitions and Thomson scalteing which low 143 Radiative trantons We consider transitions between two states af an atom with emision oF shsoepion of one photon. Thik problem wa teat in Sesion 1.3 inthe ‘ectte dipole approximation bul now we shall use the teraction (1.62, "We shall consider the emission process between the ntl and final states (142) Using the expansion (138 ofthe vector potential we obtain the matrix ‘lmeat fortis eansiton [which ress from the term lear in A in Eg. (rey Bonde) + TIA, n> ep hye 7 (PL) toad + 11th Le Me pid om (aig) oa ence Lee niay (165) Using this matrix element, one ealzultes the transition probably per ust lime a in Secon 1.3 Tnscad of Eqs. (150) and (1.81), one obtains w= 28 ays lede- R. The atomic wavenctions [4 tnd |B) restrict the elective values of 1 rR, so that hee, < AR 1. We ‘awe in Section 13 that this inequality i generously sated for optical ‘stomie transitions, From the equation of motion i= [rH] and Eg (1.46) cal IAD = BIA =~20 Photons a he estoy eld Chap 1 Hence, in the approximation (1.67), Eqs (165) and (1.65) reduce to the lettic dipole form, Eqs. (1.8) and 1.0, IE selection rues forbid the transition [4) to |B) via the eee dipole interaction it may in general sl occur via higher terms in the expansion of the exponentials ens With the second tem, the expression within the modulus signin Ea. (1.66 Witte fen in Ea, (1.66) 1k) 6B (mike A> EB, eatonecanS ropaiad, where a (= 1,2,3) label the Cartesian components of the vectors, and p, The mattis clement an be writen asthe sum ofan antsymmetic ad {symmetric seeond-rank tensor Brant = {AE ara ~rarala) + AT Cane + rare “The sm consi te att angle moment opera a ovespondh 1 the map ile tsa. pie hs mast he Smet by hapa at) The symm cepts oh et Sosdropoenencton Te pry and tngarsaetom secon es ithe wanton tous aout by she ma cnt cay ‘Serine romtn foran Webi ot ny anepanon eee td magnetic mato, te pote detain. and sar Ionian Ass es poe rch a exon ee he Silt uc nts prea ater ten Carson cudnt “he rou (16) can apn be sdped oe ee of atop f tain y regalo Eh) 1) 89 NB) an he tpplops ‘Scranton oh i see LAA Thorson ettering As asecond illsiration we consider Thomson seaterng i. the setting of photons of energy ha by atom electrons, with ha large compared tothe binding energies of the electrons, so that they can be considered a fee ‘lecirons, but ho ery small compared to the lecron cst energy m! In this ease the energy ho of the scattered photon isnot changed a! = ha, since for small ecll momenta the reol energy may be neglected qi S04 S Deo, Quinn Mechs en Pp, Os 976, Seon The watering fom an ntl state with one photon of momentum Nand prezation ek) (with x= [ of 2) t0 a final state with one photon of hromentum MK’ and polarization ek’) (with = 1 0 2) ean occur in fist Sine perturbation theory athe tem im A? inthe traction (1.2) Tt an “iho ocur in second-order pertorbation theory vate tem linear in Ain Eq, {i2h but one can show thet under our conditions the contbution ofthe Acsond-order process is neglpible® The operator A(0,1) can, trom 1g (138), be writen ‘0 2 teks) 6h) = FS arty these % [ah)e“H + ahead eM + ahs) e") (iss) whee = ck r= 12. This operator can bring about the transition from "he initial state ks) to te final state IB (we se a somewhat simpli hut unambigoous notation) in two ways either of the factors in square putenteses ean act fo absorb the intl photon and the other factor thea ‘eats the final photon, One then obsins the matrix element for this trans Uo fom Eq (162) 03g A7O.0Nk ad = (hak) teem nee Invioay? whore w= ck and ~ ok. The transition probability pee unit time fora ‘photon, initially i the state kya, toe satered into an element of solid Single din the dretin K, and with polasztion gk’), is given by 1 a A sepa — may oh} ears oye whore [k= kl. Dividing this transition probability per unit time by the ‘neident photon ux (/V), one obtains the corresponding dileential cro en-sk) JA rilethre KP 0, a) her Shu lowed Qt Mas A, Rn, Ma 122 Photons a the lst e) Chap hore the classical eetron radius has been introduced by am) For an unpolarized incident photon beam, the unpolarized dierential rosesction the final polarization sates not observed) obtained from Eq. (1.69) by summing over nal and averaging over ial polarization slate, Weintroduc the abbreviations e, = ek) and g = ek) Sine ye and & = k/k form an orthonormal coordinate syste, fog ee Sima Fay 1-8 = ante here 0 is the angle between the directions and of the incident and scattered photons, ithe angle of scattering From the las tw equations 53, 3 eet 40 — sia K+ cox). ‘nd hence the unpolarized dierent eros-secion for scattering through an angle i rom Eg (165) given a8 216) 80 ~ HC + cos? 20. (162) Integrating over angles, we obtain the total crsesection for Thomson scattering fea 3 ont £13 = 665 x 10° em? an 1S” APPENDIX: THE SCHRODINGER, HEISENBERG AND INTERACTION PICTURES ‘These thre pictues (abbreviated SP, HP and LP.)ar thee ferent ways ‘of deserbing the time development ofa system, We sal derive the HP and ‘the LP from the SP. Quantities in these three picture willbe distinguished bythe label §, Hand Tn the SP. the time dependence is carried by the states according tthe Schringer equation an) This can formally besolved in terms of the state of the system at an arbitrary inital time to [Ade UA tae a7 whore U is the unitary operator: : U2 UG) = mm, 75) By means of U we can carey out a unitary transformation of sates and ‘operators (0) frm the SP. tothe HP. in which we deine VA. On= UA Ds= 1Ast)s 75) and om =U'0W. an AC E= ty states and operators inthe two pictures ae the same. We sce from Bq. (1.76) that inthe H.P. state vectors are constant i ime: the time dependence i cari by the Hesenberg operators From Eq (1.77) Haws 78) Since the wansformation fom the SP 0 the HLP.is unitary, tenures the invariance of matrix elements and commutation relations KB HOA, Ds = WCB, HONDIA. De am) and if 0 and P are two operators for which [0F, P= const, then 10%, PMO) equals the sume constant Diferentaton of Ea, (177) gives the Hesenberg equation of motion [0% 10. (130) 4 oy ind on Vor am operator which i time-dependent in the SP. (corresponding 10 8 sqanlty hich lasealy hasan explicit tne dependence), Eq. (180) is nugmented to nd om anZ on + torn as stl et caniing peter Heys as In quantum fed theory H, will deserbe the interaction between two fs Memselves deseribed by Hy. (Note that the suffix T on Hy sands for aerastion It doesnot Ibel x pctre- Eq (1-2) holds in ny ptr) The1s lated to the S.P. bythe unitary transformation Uys Ulta) = ote (183) HA. USA Ds ass) and 0) = io. ass) ‘Thus the relation between LP. and S.P 8 similar 1 that between HP, and SP, but with the unitary transformation Up involving the. none Jterating Humitonisn Mo, instead of U ivolving the total Haaitonian From Eq (1.85) y= HS = Ho, (186) Diflerentating Eq (L85) gives the diferetisl equation of motion of operators in the LP: ‘ F010 = (010. He) as Sabsttting Eq, (1.84) into the Schebdingr equation (1.72), ome obtains {he equation of motion of state vectors in the LP. ave ay cs) oe Pra ee aw, PROBLEMS | Theradiaton fed nie a cubic encour which coun no charge seid bytes shew Heian ome sean) hte 1.30 ih ee ‘thar Date te aang proper te ane pT =TE A Ti ip normalizes cc) (313 ft Caen fhe etrucoa opto a) with he mpl aukio = 40, (i) The mean number of photoes the ensure i the state een by R= CaN =i w photon number operator costae in the atc) gv (ANF = Gv — =i o (Te capesain ae of he le el in he ate hen by cette) = came (SP) “eandex ene +8) © where ¥ i the volume ofthe encore Arey ay, (ab? = CaP ~ " o Wenetedin Secon 123 that heexpectation valucofEinastte witha efite utero photons er sofa sucha tae camot represents asa et ranfor eg phtonaumbers In oot hows im Bay (ACD) ‘he rane Mottin in phonon mbes ‘Sidzucopinate[o)grcoerintoa cal etsteln which te doe dct fei8 cect, Ths state k) baled conernt ate and represents te lest ‘funtm-methiieal appooch to canal eetomagaci had (Fos al Resi he yt etd te edt eon 13) ‘st en by Ua =h sabe A= Als.) and d= $a the vector and sale potentas of the ‘stomagnes el a he poston taf he partie at me iy Show that te momentum conjugate ton pen by poms ta, wo {ie the cosjgate moment pl ot he Klee momenta mn net) and "ha tagranges equations race tothe souabnr of motion of te parle Feompare Ee (1.80) ndece[estens] » Thechage Ii) Bere the oreponding Hamatonian faompar Eg. (19)) a ‘show thatthe rniting Haron equations agin ead to Eas (A) and (8).1 For Them saterng of am poled team of photons, bitin the Ciena ewracton for scttng tage nt mage Bere send ‘adatom being ineary plaid is ger Grecon. By cendeig tro imately perpen Seon fe Your oul to easrne Ey 15n {orth unpolaraed dierent croseaecon, ee Show that fr = 90 the ated team 10 percent ier plariad tae cecton ote nol te pane o ener CHAPTER 2 Lagrangian field theory lo the ast chapter we quantized the clecromagnetic field by Fourier naling the classical fel into normal modes and imposing harmonic ‘ilatoFcommatation relations om the normal coordinates. We shall now Take the elds at each point in space as the dypamical variables and ‘juntas these diet. This approach generalizes the casical mechanics of 1 system of partils, and its quantization, 1.8 cominoous system, fe. 10 Michls? One introduces a Lagrangian (acally, as we shall sc, itis @ Ugrangian density) from which the Geld equations follow by means of Hamiton' principle. One intcduces momenta conjugate 1 the fis and inapses canonical commutation felations dietly on the fk and the njugate momenta. This formaliem provides & systematic quantization procedure for any classical fed theory derivable from a Lagrangian, Since this approweh is equivalent fo that ofthe last chapter, one cin only obiain thowns in thie way a diferent formalism wil be needed for fermions ‘Another diference fom Chapter is that the theory wil now be detcloped ina mans elativitclly covariant form, andin Section 21 we ‘all define our eatviete notation. The dassical Lagrangian fd theory willbe developed in Seton 22, tobe quantized in Secion 23. An important, FEvtureofu Lagrangian eld theory that als symmetry properties and the tomequent conservation we are contained inthe Lagrangian density. We ‘hull consider some ofthese aepects a Secuon 24 "Ye ln taggin ad Hanon mshi oe example, doped in He ‘atin Ming i i Aen Ney Ring Nn Choets Zand ceear Tteeta PALL: Mh Pm One Sctc 7 and2) RELATIVISTIC NOTATION| ‘We shall write x (= 0,1, 2,3) forthe space-time four-veetor with the time component»? = ct and the space coordinates x!) =1,2,3hie-x¢ = (ee §) ‘The components of four-vectors will be labeled by Greck indices the components of spatial theee-vector by Lain indices By means ofthe metic tensor gv, with Compunents G00" 941 = ~022 = ~on= +1 Mitte} en We define the covariant vector fom the contavariant x nen E aoe = oe an Inthe lst expression we have used the summation convention: repeated Greek indices one contravariant and one covariant, are summed. From qu (21) and 22) we hives, = (Ct —). ‘We also deine the contravarant metre tensor 9 by Oty = 08 = a ey where 5% is the usual Kronecker dla: 3 From Eas. 21) and (23) "= 9 A Loven ansform 1 idan and 8 Oia vane es eave, an = es lant ext, =o, is a seal quantity, Hence Rhy, =a. eo {n adition the matrix A must be reat ensure the calty of the space time coordinates) 'A Tour-component object + (4) tansforming like x(x, under Lorentz transformations and hence with invariant, sa conteavariant (covariant) fourrvetor. An examples theener-momentum vetor p= (Ec 9). When no confusion can rs, We shall lle omit the tensor indies WE may write x for oF "The scalar prot of two fourvectors a and b can be writen in various ways ab =o", oa i HP en Like? = eye the sular product ab is am invariant under Lorentz framsonmatons The four-dimensional generalization of the gradient operator transforms ti foursetor fs) i ela funtion, $0 is s0~4e,) and hence i fe # 4) iv sovarant fourvsto Simay Bevonee aw is comtravariant foursnector: Note that indices following a comma denote “ierentation nally. e ote tha the operator C1 is a salar: Co oak 7-Peo! 9) 2 CLASSICAL LAGRANGIAN FIELD. THEORY ‘Wie considera sytem which requires several elds d(x) r= Speci The inden may label components ofthe same eld [or example the components of the vector potential ACQ)] of it may refer to diferent Independent lds, We restrict ourselves to theories which can be derived by ‘nats of a sanational priseiple fom an action integral involving. @ gcangian density P= Ladd 0) hore the derivative bus defined by Eq, (28a). The Lagrangian density {10}, depending wn the fields and thee Bat derivatives only snot the vst general ease possible, but ft covers all Choris ascused in this book greatly simples the formalism, “we detne the action inegal S(O) for an arbitrary region © of the four Atensonal space time continuum by sey | eee om there dx stands forthe four-dimensional element de® "We now postulate that the equations of motion Le the Feld equations, are80 Lapa eld teary Chap 2 ined fom the flowing variational princph which coset analogous to Hamilons pile n mechani. For anata repon we conser variations of the fields, = 4100) + 44) + 8948, en nthe surface TM) bounding the epion 5640) =0 on FO) en “The felds may be real of comple. In the case ofa complex fll), he fells (2) and Ce) are treated as iwo independent fils. Alternatively, « ‘comple il (scam be decomposed int a pir of real elds which ae then lteated as independent fields. We now demand that for an arbitrary region and the variation (212-213) the ation (211) basa stationary ¥ asia) =0 aw (Caleulating 8510) tom Fg. 2.11), we obtain? which 150 = [afin « 2 toh Loti ae (cie* [emcee whet the last in is obtained by partial integration, since ais) Stan bot ‘Th st am a £4215 be omered 1a sue te on he {ice wing Gs des arm ae ac” Sen Oont titans nagelccher ancora eeraey ‘son nd aay vats Spe B' 19 ale oe Bae Tapa eaten aw oa 24, be (F9, ‘These ae the equations of motion of the fields. In order to quantize this classical theory bythe canonical formalism of ‘on-telativtic quantum mechanics we must inttoduce conjugite variables, Weare dealing witha system witha continuously infinite mimber of derees of treadom, corresponding to the vals of the fields oy comsideted at functions of time, at each point of space'x. We shall agtin approximate the Pea, 16) 21) and here mma paints and ocr, ) system by one having countable numberof degrees of feedom and ult ‘ately go tothe eontinaum tim, ‘Consider the stem ata fixed instant of ime and decompose the thee sinensional space... the fat spacelike surface ¢ = cons, into small ells of ‘ual volume x, labelled bythe index = 1,2... Weapproximate the values ‘the Bld within each cil by thir vals at, sy, the centre of the cell X=, The sjsem is now described by the dacrele et of geecalized Sovedinate: deh) 4002 O00 Lae Qt which ae the vals ofthe flds atthe discrete tice sites x I we also ‘place te spatial derivatives of the fields by their iferene coecients retween neighbouring sts, we can write the Lagrangian of the dicrete reo Lo FR LGA dH. 8.2) ew ‘whore the dot denotes ifrentition with repost to time, The Lagrangian deny inthe th cell, 2, depends onthe fils at the neighbouring tcc ‘tes om account of the approximation ofthe spatial derivatives. We define momenta conjugate to gy in the usual Way as a _ at P= Fe ag MODI ew shore og, mans get 7 0* eq or he Hamitonian ofthe discrete system i then given by He Spd = bulndindlied~ 4). ey With a view to going to the limit dx, ~ 0, etting the cel size and the lace spacing shenk to 210, we deine the fi 7 i we ne nt a 0) edo. he ie Laggan tn oon fan 8 ond ome fore 2 Tras em U HW32 Lagrangian ed nergy Chap. 2 and ne feo, 228) where the Hamiltonian density 2s) is defined by 20) = RIL) ~ Libr Goad 225) and the integrations in Eqs. (223) and (224 ar over al pace, at time With ‘our Lagrangian density which does not depend expiity on the time, the ‘Hanitonan is ofesira Castano tine The conervsonofchrps val ‘pe proved in Scoton 24 where the expresions (224) and 228) for the Hamiltonian wil also te iederive, fe Asan example, consider the Lagrangian density £~Hb06!— 28) 226) for a single real eld g(x), with pa constant which has the dimensions (sgt) In the next chapter we shall ce thatthe quanta of this eld are jnless neural bosons with Compton wavelength "ie, particles of mass “hats The equntion of motion (216) for this fl the Kl Gordon equation (a+ H)¢69 = 0. a2 the conjogate field (222) is A) = 5.60) 22 and the Hamiltonian density (225) is ete) + (9) + 2 es) © QUANTIZED LAGRANGIAN FIELD THEORY Wis now easy t go from te classical to the quantum fl theory by inter preting the conjugate coordinates and momenta of the dierete lattice “approximation, Eqs (217) and (219) as Hesenberg operators and subject ing these to the usual eanoneal commutation relations. bby ox, (230) [hU.o6001 = Fetsehali.0) 0 we let the latice spacing g0 to zero, Eqs. (2.30) go over into the Lotion su' 0) conmmtation relations for the Rls [bla i) = thd Ste =X) la. 84a] = Eta 0 4.0] = 0} sien the imi, 8 yO, bb Dsomes the tee dimensional Dirac ks fonetion 4G), te pts € and 3 ‘peavey Noted the leat ete ie; ye talon how chapter we Tal State conimtators ofthe elds at ifort or the Kkin- Gordon eld 226), Eqs (2) reduce tothe commutation ee dems actin aa [04 4 0) = [4 0 es 1 =O In the neat chapter we shall stuy the Klin-Gordon fed in deta 24 SYMMETRIES AND CONSERVATION LAWS, 1 lows rom the Heisenberg equation of motion ofan operat O() 000, & (se are nt considering operators with explicit ime-dependencs) that 0 is a ‘nstant of the mation provided [o.m=0. Constants of the motion generally stem from invariance properties of systems under groups of transformations, eg translational and rotational tnwsrunce lead to conservation of linear and angular momentom, respec: Uisely. Such transformations lend to equivalent dexeriptions ofthe ster for ‘sample, rere to two rames of ference related by Lorentz transforma ‘inn: Quantum-mechanically, two such deseriptions must be related DY @ lary transformation U under which sates and operators transform ‘cording 1 02 Coe .10) > aN>= =0, all ore) of expressed in terms ofthe fd operators (38), by oreo 0, alls, G17) ‘The vacuum has the infinite energy 45, hoy. As discussed forthe radiation felony energy dierences are observable: Hence, thi infinite constant ‘harmless and easily removed by measuring allenerics relative to the vacuum One can avoid the explicit occurence of uch infinite constants by normal ‘ordering of operators na normal produc, ll sbxorpion operators stad to ‘he right of al creation operators in each product of operators. Denoting the ‘normal product by Nt.) we have, for example, Neath) = ahah atk, G18) and NOON = NEU) + 6° COME") + 8-0 = NEG" "G] + NEHED-OD) 4 NEO" + NOIP"ON] 6) + EUW +6°S"O) + 6° CIE-O, oa) Where the order ofthe factors fs ben interchanged inthe second term ie all positve frequency parts 9" (which contain only absorption operator) Sand to the ight ofall negative fequency parts 9 (which contain only «xeation operator)! Normal ordering does nt fix the order of absorption ot exeation operators each amongst themselves, but since cach of these ‘ommute amongst thembelves such difrent way of writing. « normal ‘wut comment edn he toa pose NAB) ea ae feat rovuet are equal for example, exprsion (318) also uals alka). Hence in arranging a product of operators in nora oder, one simpy teats ‘em as though all commutators vanish. ‘Clearly, the vacuum expectation value of any normal product vanishes. We redefine the Lagrangian density 2 and all observables, such asthe energy ‘momentum or angular momentam of the fel, or their Jeni, as normal Feoduets Wearefte todo ths ait merely corresponds toa particular order ‘factors before quantization, With observable defined as normal products, their vacuum expectation values vanish. In parcular, Eqs. (18) and (16) P= Uti P) =F heath. 2 From the vacuum state 0) one constructs patie states in the sare way a seas done for photons in Section 12, For example, one-particle states are linear superpositions of 616), all; e21) two-paticle sates are linear superpositions of a7ye1K0>, all kand W 4h, 620m) pln, alk, G29 and soon. With the vacuum state normalized, ie. (0) = 1, he states (3.21) fare aio normalized. That isthe purpose of the factor Ij)? in Eq, (3210. Similar factors eur for more than two pats The particles of the Klein-Gordon feld are bosons: the occupation humbers can take on any value mk) =0, 1,2... Eg. (3.21) ilustrates sinother aspect of boson states: they are syometic under interchange of rte labels Since all creation operators commute witheach other, we have aah) = ok '0> om 32 THE COMPLEX KLEIN-GORDON FIELD! We shall now extend te treatment of the last section tothe complex Klein- Gordon itd. The new feature this introduces is as we know rom Section 2 ‘thatwecan assocateu conserved charge with the fill Forte real eld this was ‘ot possible, Weshall concentrate on his aspect ofaconservedcharge.Inother ‘expect he ral and complex fields ae very simila, and we shall only quote the mn revit leaving tension tothe render.For the complex Kiein-Gordon field, the Lagrangian density (35) is replaced by ¥ Wl? 1880), 02 where we have at once writen the quantized operator a «normal prot Bred Sina stan neds nyt asin oe cs OeM=8 sew 2 y= 4a weno 029 and the equal-time commutation relations (2.31) become [een 8X0) = ihe) [ot n= (oa. 9°.) = E4060, d0e.01}. 020) Bea, 810.01 = C606 ,408,00 = 0 ‘Analogously to Eqs. (48), we write the Fourier expansions ofthe fils as H=9'e9 90 =F(FE) Tae owe CaM Carne NW Ie Oa) cata = HE = Ca AE). “2 From the commutation relations (3.28) follows that we can interpret ok) and ak), and Bik) and Bk as absorption and creation operators of (49 {per of patles—we shall ell them apartiles and epartces and Nak) =aldethy, Ns) = ADH, 629) asthe coresponding number operators with eigenalves 1,2... Hence & ‘umber representation can be setup as before, with tates Coating a nd bbpartsles generated by tmeans ofthe cteation operators a and B from the ‘acum state 0) whichis now defined by sk) = Wk}0> = 0, al 300) ‘or equivalently by BP ERIO> = 90) =O, all x (0.308) expressed in tems of th absorption and eration operators the eneray ‘momentim operator (25) ofthe complex Klein-Ceordoa Held assumes the {oem we expeet, (1ie.8) = EMEA) +N) esp ‘We now turn 1 the charg. From the invariance ofthe Lagrangian density (223) under the phase transformation (2.1) felons the conservation of ‘charge 0, Ea. (242), which now takes the form, 0 Zit fence - dnote am “The corresponding charge-curent density is given by $00) = tte) = GEN 9-3 oy ich viol ties he cominy equation fold om {ixpressd in tem of creation and absorption operators Eg (332) becomes = aS (NAA - Ni) 635) which clearly commutes withthe Hamsitonin H, Ea. (30. Teollows rom Eq (3.3) that one must associate charges +g and —9 wth, sand particles, respectively. Apart frm the sign ofthe charge, a and be rraris have Identical properties. Furthermore, the theory i completly Symmetric between them, av one ses from Eqs (327)(838). Interchange Inga and b metely changes the sgn of Q. This revalts nt resected to spin bosons but hols generaly. The occurence of anipartles in. association with ll parties of nonzero charge sa fundamental feature of relaivi “qintum field theory which is ull vindicated by experiment. "An cuample af particle-antipartile pi isthe pt f charged p-mesons. Taking q = e(>0) one can enti the x"- and x "mesons with the and b= patie ofthe complex Kicin-Gordon feld.On th other hand fora real Tl the charge operator 0, By (3.32) oF (3.39), iidentialy zero, and sich a Fld coreesponds to neural meson, such asthe‘The above considerations ate not restricted to electric charge, The invariance of the Lagrangian density under phase ranformations would allow conservation of other adatve quantities which by analogy one would call some kind of charge other than electri. The above argument woul ead to the occurrence of pars of partic and antipartis aiflring fom each othe in the sign of his new kind of charge. Besse ofthis, even cectrily ‘neutral particles may possess antparticks. This situation docs occur ia nature. The elecrcally neural pueUdo-cilar K®-meson poseesees an a particle, the K'-meson, which sas electrically neural K® and R° posses ‘opposite hypercharge, Y= 41 and are represented by a complex Klein ‘Gordon eld Hypercharge is ery nearly conterved (unlike ele charge which s always exaly conserved) which why it a useful concep. To be Specific, hypercharge is comterved in the strong interactions which aze responsible for nuclear forces and associated production o strange particles, butitis ot conserve in the weak interactions (about 10" times Weaker than the strong interactions) responsible forthe decay of ange partie, Instead of tating the complex Klin-Gordon Bld direly in terms of and 6 as independent fields, as we have done, one can define two eal Klein-Gordon folds dy and) by 1 ets mito, 036) (tion and use thee as independent lls We shal not give the developmen in {erm ofthe el elds asthe twopproaces ar closely elated avery simic Sige he els ahd ee eal the erestion a annlton operators asocated with them cannot describe charged particles and it onl nea Combinations of them, coresponding tothe complex felds (136), whch deserbe charged partis. Consequently, when dealing. wth comerved ‘hargs tit antral more natural o work dey with he comple el 33. COVARIANT COMMUTATION RELATIONS Wile the equations of motion obtained using the Lagrangian formalism ate maniesty covariant, this # ot so obvious for the feld commutation relations derived by the canonical fermalsm, since these single out equa Times. Taking the real Klin- Gordon feld as typical example, we shall ilstrate the covariance ofthe commutation claion by caleulting the com- ‘mutator [ote 9) fortwo arbitrary space-time points x and y. Sine this commutators 2 salar, t mast equal an invariant fonction Writing 6 = 6" + 9", we note that [o°e.9°O) = LOWEN = oan since §°( ) contains only absorption (creation) operators [960,601 = 60. OLE CAYO, — 3H) and we ned only evaluate the fist commutator onthe right-hand side ofthis ‘squation From Eqs (38) one ota oa wy tanetone Emap) eee ~ 2087 Ja, oe. e-0 aun 039 whore we have taken the limit + 2 see E948}, ain the lst inte [y= aye, We introduce the definition aw “i (0 eae ome 40 ia ae mee singe this and related functions will ocur repeatedly Ea (3.3% ean then be [¥en 8°] = ihed"O = 9, ean and [o-(e.8" 91 = —iheat yp sient yh) 0. BITTE ity co. esl of eon 0) a ey as TEs ay] eww 8 lvor = (+9) 04 Te aA ae Lowe amma 6 ing i cal ee ee Sipe te bes in a Tendon aeae—n0-0 am ih ea es (6)! The an 2) mp at Studies bre 9h = 19629662910) 63) We define the tme-ordered or T-produet by hea" ~x) eae, he> Se, if > Atl Treen =f (1 x¥/6,ee) be: the operators are weten in chronological orer with timerunning from right co lf eale? operators operste ist Using the step oafh t1>0 ie =f) ey 654) ae the T-product ean be written i TECH] = 6 = NAEREL + AE — NBKRTBE). 55) j ‘The Feyaman Afenction Ay is defined by the vacium expectation value “ of this Tproduc: os Ite Aes — 1) = CMT dE 056 From Eas. (3.52) and (242) his leads to the explicit defisition ade, Bob) = BDAC) — BAU os Fig 33, Conibton rom oven etchant to meclon-aeon Ste Thus aparece iest Aes) = £440) itr 20 osm) "We would tke fo beable o visualize the meaning of dy, Fa. (3.56) For meson inthe direction of the arrow, om x tox or vce versa. Hence oF {> 1 this vacuum expectation value becomes Og(s6(0H0). Weean tak the vacuum expectation value (350) eterred toa the Feynman propagator this epression as represealing« meson being crested at © avelig to =, forthe mesons of the Klsi-Gordon fd. We shal bi eal the meson and being ansiisted at The coreaponding expresion fr > propagator, to distinguish trom the fermion and photon propagators Yo be admits a similar interpretation as a meson ereted a reduced ater. Dropssaing to where it absorbed. These tw situations are Miatrted "To ilustrate how these propsgators arse, we shall consider qualitatively Sschematcally in Fig 32. The dashed lines represent the propagation ef he nycleon-nuclon seating In his process there wile two nucleons but 0 Imesons present in the inital and inal sates (ie. belore and after the ‘eatterng). The scattering the interaction, cortesponds tothe exchange of ‘Virtual mesons between the nucleons The simplest such process the one : a tneson exchange schematically stated in Fig 33. The continuous fines rent the nclons the dashed ine the mesos As before, two stutions 7 [iuwaccording to whether! > or? > nthe actual cleulatin al values, / ti and are intersted ener, coresponding oemision and absorption of the meson occurring st any two space-time pont 4 ivi intresting to note that the dvson ito the two 1p of process (2) and () of Pig. 3.3, dspending on wheter ¢> oF > fis not Lorentz considering both cases together leads tothe covariant Feynman propagator {G50 which we represent bythe single diagram in Fig. 34 No ime-ordering Is implied inthis Gagram and correspondingly there is no arrow on the Fig 32. The meoe propagior (56 meson line, ‘We have bere introduced the ideas of Feynman graphs or diagrams. We The defn (5) wie modi femins shall deal with these uly ner and sal se that they rea most weal way ofSh The Klein non eld Chap { Fin 34 Feyaman graph 6 the sot acon "cui to Picturing the mathematics But the eader must be warned not to take this Pictorial description ofthe mathematis asa eral description oa proces in Space and time. For example, our naive intereation of the meson propagator would imply that, for x) spacerke separation, the meson ‘raves between the tno points witha speed greater than the velocity flight, Wis however possible to substantiate the above decription i instead of considering propagation between two points ¥ and x, one eaeulates the probability for emision and absorption in two appropriately chosen four Simensonal regions” Inthe following we shall requntly require a representation of the meson propagator not ia coordinate but in momentum spue, This given bythe following integra representation, similar to Eq. (881) for A¥(3} eerien 1) abe (Se es» where the contour Cy is shown in Fig 3S. To very Eq, (58), we evaluate the contour intepraLFor x°> 0, we must complete the coatour Cy inthe lower bal ke-plane (since exp(—ikox") 0 for ky» ~io]. and comparing Eqs. (258) and (331) we obtain Ay(s) ~ A" C3, in agreement with Eq. G57) For 2° <0, completion of the contour in the upper half Ke plane similar Teads vo agreement with Bg, (3.37 Seth ac by GK in ned Pac a pa, Sia, ei 958 ‘See 3 a Engh anon ha nad un Rceeae ‘lel by Sip Now Yar 972 andy Alen & Unwin Condo Fg 35. The cotour Gy te mon open . Ey. 3.58) we can move the poles an Instead of deforming the contour asin Fig 35, infntenmal distance of the rea ax as shown in Fig. 6,and perform the Kepnteraton along the whole real ais Le. we replace Eg, (3.8) by late waehttits am, Fig 84 Contour and diplced oles for the ‘aeson popaptor Ba Ba 59)SK The Klein Gordon eld Chip. 3 whete «= 2naye a small postive number which we let tend to zero alter integration. In Eq. (3.59) integration withthe respect to cach of the four variables ko... ky is along the whole tel axis (~ >, 2), “The arguments ofthis section at once generalize to the case ofthe complex scala fel discussed in Section 32. The charged meson propagator i now wiven by OI (G(9)8"CI)0) = He Bx — ¥, G00) here Ae) the sume function [Eqs (3.57}(3 59) a forthe real field. The interpretation of the vacuum expectation value (960) in terms of the mission propagation and reabsorption of particles or antipurtces, depend ing on whether f <1 oF > fi left tothe reader, PROBLEMS. 1M From the exunsion (38) fr the real Kin-Gordon $e) derive the [somingepremon he spo owner a = asta Jee + ton, Sg: ce en i (0 enn st Popsca tare at at nee ta sin (H2)"emem camer + Eo — i gtd somata to 038 Fo he fe aad ihe cermin tons (38 om Shoe or nd hr From Fa 0h thas Sow hte ojala he Inhomopenoor Kin Gordon eation (0+ 1a) ~ 0% 34 Dasve Eq (360 for th charged meson propstr, and itr isin dren pri dtr, 35 Chars cojestion rte complex Kicn-Gordon 8 fe deted by $2) 69601" = na) w here unitary pear wh aes the vactum nvr 0) = 1) an ibs pase nar Show hal ue the transormaton (A) the Lagrangian deny (32) is Invariant charp-caendetaty (23) change = Jota). y= J ms of Deswe eahye =a eine = ta) forte aboepion operators and Rene show th eu.k> =I, KD = Wa. bd ‘ip a dnt este with axing rl of mamentan kre anes usb the phase mary and esl gulf uni, 16 Fre poy transformation le space inversion) ofthe Hermitian Kleo-Gordon fete (a deed by 0) = 6H = HARD o ier the party operator is unary operator which Fane the aeuam TSO BO ang y= nce tents party othe el Show ‘Bath party andor late the Lagrangian densty (95) variant Pha =H Bay sen BD ee ds A einen $a =P BB mah lds dental. Hence prove that Held)! —ih,— Peh7e* = ~ina— snr the aft atthe ation operators the eld. and and 4 ae ven avon Egeuan] 7 no[iFoeg sein} Hence show hat the operator & = 9s antary nsaises Ea (A tenes icapitespesnon forthe parity operatorCHAPTER 4 The Dirac field We now wish to consider systems of particles which satisfy the Paul clusion principle, ke. which ebey Fermi-Dirae statisti, so-called fermions ‘We sew in Chapter 2 thatthe canonical quantization formalism necessarily Ieads to bosons On the other hand, the harmonic oscillator quantization, ted ia Chapter Iyalows an ad hoe modifeation which leas to Femi-Dirac Matists, This modieation war frst fntrodoced in 1928 by Jordan and Wizner and consists in replacing the commutation relations tetwern sbsorption tnd creation operators by anicommutation relations. We shal ‘develop tis general formalism in Seton 4.1 To the remainder ofthis chapter, this formalism wil be applied to the Dias cquaton i,t lait mater particles of pin One ofthe ditintions fetwecn bosons and fermions is thatthe former always have integral spin (0.1) where the latter must ave halintegral spin (3...) We shal fee tha this connection betveen spin and sais i an essential feature of relativistic quantum Bld theory. 41 THE NUMBER REPRESENTATION FOR FERMIONS In Sections 22 and 1.23 we derived a number representation for bosons Hom the quinigation ofa system of independent harmonic oscillator. We hall now modify this formalism so as fo obtain a number representation for fermions “The essence of our eater treatment can be sated as follows, We had‘operators a ar = 2. satsthng the commutation relations [eanatl~ bn Cana) = faa] =0, a and defined operators N= ata. «a then follows feom the operator identity (48, C)= ATB.C1+ (4.018 “ OS ea a ‘The interpretation ofa, at and Ny ax absorption, eestion and number operators, follows from Eqs. (62) and (49). In particular, Nj has the ‘igenvales n,=0, 1,2, The vacuum state 0) is fined b) >= 0, ally as sn other states ar built up fom he vacuum tata incr spepostins of ‘states of the form cm (ayn 49 Te isa remarkable fac chat there isan altemative way of deriving the relations (4). Defite the anconmusair of wo operators A and B bY (AB), = AB + BA, 6 ‘We then havea scond operator idemity, analogous to (43), [ABC] = 418, C}, ~C4,C1-8. 4a) ‘Suppose now that the operators ay ar = 1,2. iatead of stsng the ‘commutation telaions (1) satsy the antcommutation rations [anatls =3m Canale = [abel] $0; «sy in particular (ay = ai? =0, 490) One verifies fom Eqs. (42), (48) and (49) that for the anticommuting operators [ie.stslying Fas (49)) the some commutation eatons (34) hold which were previously dered for the commuting operators [ie satisying Eqs. (4.1). This gain leads tothe interpretation of dy nd Nas sbsorption, creation and number operators but, om Eqs (89), we now have NP = asta, = (1 ~atahy », (10) whence on NaN, % 100) ie for the antioommating eeution and absorption operators, the number operator N, has the eigenvalues nO and m= Lon, Le. we ae dating with Fermi-Dizue statistics, "The vacuum site 0) again defined by Eg (45). The state in which one pari is inthe state ris In) = a0. ay For the two-particle states we hate rom the anicommutation relations (4.9) that for r #8 oie = —L> 12) alo ya ie the states antisymmetic unde interchange of prt labels a required for fermions For r= se have a> = (a> =0, ay thus regining the earn result tha two parties cannot be inthe same single-particle tate Th conclusion we would keto not the fundamental ference, in spite of their supecical simi, the derivation ofthe boson andfeion resus [of tis section, The boron commutation felations (41) area diet conse- {quence of the canonical commutation relations of non-relativistic quantum tnechanis [compare the derivation of Eq. (1.19). We have no such founda- ton for the fermion anticommutation relation (49). 42. THE DIRAC EQUATION We hl oy soe cl al ary of te Die eu in ration forgoing over othe quantized el theory i the next ection {ie ira eauaion desis atrial pares of spin | We shall se han thequuntom eld theory anipariss sean cess cue orelerons those ate the postvons. Because of our Inte appeatons to quantom ‘Secrdyumich, we sul for debitens speak fet snd poston in ths chaper but the theory i equally applic to ether spin } material partis pach a nckons “The Dirac eatin for partes of est mass ea ( IHW) + fme* WO) Se Ses8 The Diewteld Chap 4 can be writen au ie a mp) = where a are Dirae 4 x 4 matrices which satisfy the anscommutation relations br and the Hermitcty conditions 9 = ® and" = 7! for j= 1,2 3, whieh ‘an be combined into (415) anes (416) Correspondingly, y(x i spinor wavefunction with four components Ys), = h-4, The ices labaling spinor components and matrix elements ‘wll bully be suppres Although its at times convenient to use a par Ticlar matrix representation this 1s generally not necessary. We shall for late the theory in a representations way and only assume tha he mains satis the andcommutation and Hermit relations (4.18) and (G16, This wl cate we ofthe most convenient representation i a piven ‘The adjoint eld G(x) is defined by He = Hear? a so ste te ait Dire euton Te Diacequons (and (9c be dere om he Lagann sent #=<409[ 07 Sm] 09 29 by varying the action integral 11) independent with respect 1 the elds ‘and gy From Eq (4.20) one obtns forthe conjgate elds of 30d Ye ae ¢ 4a) =F mings, 2a = OF. aan enteacay en an ‘net ae mt atin pg yd ee eee ‘ave ‘The Hamiltonian and the momentum of the Dinte field are from Eas. (251), (420) and (420, given by p[esto[-trem]voo an P in feomvorven ay Eg (422) of ours lo flows fom the usual definition ofthe Hamiltonian density 225) applied tothe present case : "Th egguler meme ofthe Dirac eld follows similarly from Fa, (258) ‘Tae wansformation ofthe fed under ep ifntesimal Lorentz transforma: tion ie, Ea (247) is in the ease ofthe Dirac id ven by be) WE = He) ~ F086 42H) where summation over 9= 0. 4s implied, and where Tair the ah matrix element of the 4% 4 mi 4258) Eq (4.24) derived in Appendix A, Eq (A). Eq (258) now gives for the angular momentum ofthe Dirac field st= feats cana + [arvo(even_ 39 where the $4 matrices o,0%084) 4250) are the generalizations forthe irae theory ofthe 2 2 Pai spin matrices ‘We se thatthe to ters a Eg (4.26) represent the orbital and spin angular momenta of pares of spin “The Lagrangian density (420) sinvarant under the phase transformation (2d), Hence Eq (242) lads tothe conserved charge e fewroven, and the charge-cutent density (pts) = eal") (28) sesatises the continuity equation (e, conservation equation) ae (429) “he continu equation ao oo det fom te Dic equations and (4.19). it aie: a node to gua he ia field inthe not seston we shales tia acomplete se of olatons othe Dir eeationand then ese speopte Snconmutaton raion on he epson suficets To conus sition we shal herd spi mp orhonormal se the Dirac equation (10), We sal gan onder atic ensue of volume ¥, wth peodc boundary condos A complet lnc wave sate can ene eed ‘follows or ach monatam plowed by he poe wand’) eas tom and pure cacy ont, Hemet + eps, 30) the Dirac equation (4.14) possesses four independent solutions These wil be wine se 12 sy ie up) and nf) are constant spinors satisyng the equations (Fme)u(p)=0, (i+ mebp) = 0, r= 1,2. 432) Here we introduce the very convenient notation A (called slash) whichis defined for any four-vector 4, by A 39) eae of he tine dependence solitons (431 avling and re ‘fred as post sn epatncene sins rapectvely Meshal se these trms mec 1 tabling te and estatns, Wesel se flow up tht interpeatn these pr ory, the reashing de catherines hehe a Wes tat Sheseond quantization of iether (i when 9 ay brome operat) lends dat tothe erretn Ia feof paris cn entree Sithoat he eto contorne of tebe ay “he twos depres anh vo nga ener ¢slatons fora gen momeatum pet rom the fol pn ores FortheDiaceqation onthe logan pin components ual 4p) are constants ofthe motion, and we shall choose these spin eigenstates for the solutions (431). With #9, ao wl : whete ais defined in Fg. (4250) and (4256), we then choos the spinors in ag (631) so that ged) = (18000) -1yo(p), r= 1,2. 438) pA) = “The asymmetty in labelling t- and espinos wil be convenient for ablling the spin properties of articles and antipartles, ‘We normalize the spinors u ant so that : sim ston = Be wo The en i he oom aoe ie somes B), Wepre —p) = 0 nd the sates (31) frm a complete orthonoeal st of solutions of he free= particle Dirse equation, normalized to Eymc! in a volume ¥. These and bther properties ofthe plane wave solutions (231) ae discussed further in Appendix A. 43. SECOND QUANTIZATION Inorder to quanie the Dirac fed we expand itn terms ofthe complete set of plane wae states (431) yor = vr +80) 22(S2)"tamun eminem eats sod wa te cog d= 9? bs pen Fe = Fa + Fo E(B)" msn em ectomaner ate nhete = wi te. The summations ia Eqs (438) are over the allowed‘momenta pend the spin state, labelled by r= 1,2! The factors | VE)? willbe convenient forthe subsequent interpretation of the expanvon Coefciens. We have weten ¢ and fortwo ofthese, enticpating that they Wil become operators on second quantization qs (438) are closely analogous to the expansions ofthe complex Kin Gordon field, gs. 3.27) However, the Dirac equation devrbes spin } prices, suchas eleczons, which obey the Paul principle and FermiDirac Statistics. Following the treatment in Setion 4, we shall therefore impose the following anicommutaion relations onthe expansion coicents Col) 9]. = CAO) LAB. = bd (4390) tnd all other antiommutators vanish, wih 6 = c(h. co ed) ened = Chel) aaa on Conds =Cendlde = [eds = Cehdi}, = 0) Ite deine the operators Ae) = cipitP), Sap) = andy), 420) the interpretation of cy ¢ Ny and dd, Nas absorption, ereation and number operators af wo Kinds of patie, both fermions, follows fom the nticommutatoneelations (439), analogously tothe development in Seton “1 The vacuum state (0) is defined by (0)0) = dép)0>=0, all and r= 1,2, any of equivalently, by #90) = FeoI0) =O, alls 4) ‘States containing parties are generated from the vacuum state by mesos of the creation operators Asin Section 4.1, one ses that teve sats hve a the properties characteristic of fermions (ne equations analogous 9 Eqs. (412) and (4.13) hold). To obtain the physical propertis ofthe partes astcited with the and stoperatrs, we express the constants of the mation interme ofthe. (The feader should beable to havea good gues at most of thee properties) In Section 42, we derived expressions forthe energy, moment, ungular ‘momentum and charge of the ira: eld [See Es. (4.22), (625), (426) and (4277) However, these operators do not necessarily have the valu 240 for {he vacaum state We founda similar situation or the Klein-Gordon fed (see gy. G15) and (2.16)) AS i the later case, we automaticaly measure ‘qanities elative to the vacuum slate i we redefine the expesions forthe ‘Sonstants ofthe motion with the operators ordered as normal produc (8 lny proc, absorption operators occur 0 the eight of eeation operator) So that vacuum values necessary vanish For fermions we mus modily our eatiedefirition of the normal product. Inarranging produc of bown operators in normal order, on eather as ‘hough all commutators vanish [see Eqs. (318) and (319). For fermion operators, one treats them ae though all anikommutators vanish, eg. with Wen dids) and yy = Gat vel, one as Nidade) = NUE + YE KE + 97 A025 Web + Oni + ENE 43) which should be compared with Eg (3.19 for Boxons. Similar resus hold it Jn Fg. (4) one or both operators are replaced by thee adjoint operators, (OF for products of more than two fds ‘With the expressions for the constants of the motion ie. Eqs. (422), (4.23) and (426) (428), modified to be normal products, eg i= [orrfico[ hogs +mfyenf uae St aly Si m= SEN) + 80d) ay PS alan) + 8400) 44s) E Lvan) — 840), 446) Th ean pion ad ar oncoming can ny ch hi SFOWhi +85, (ae) Le aneing i ion td en ont end ei = 05" har" ‘ete tO, =O tous oa he eer stn wee he mcr nes speInthe last equation we have taken the parameter gto be the charge ofthe ectron: q™= ~e <0, Hence identiing the mass min the Dirac equation With the mass of the electron, we ean interpret the paris astciated mith the cand d-opertors as lets and positrons, respectively. To identify thespin properties, we calculate the spin angular omentum in the stats clip) > and dip, containing one electron or one poston of ‘momentum p. From Eqs. (4.26) and (438) we define the longitudinal spin operator, Leia the direction of motion p by : fossa we Wis eft to the reader to verify that seine) (17 Re, Sion yoy ye Raion. + 2 (44s) We ser from Bas. (448) that in both the electron state ip) and the poston state dp)0> the spin component in the direction of motion has the Value +2 forr= and the value ~h2forr ~ 2, We rele io these twospin stale ie. pin parallel and antiparallel tothe direction of motion, as having Positive (right-handed) and negative (lefehanded) helicity respectively. (Right and lehanded here specifies the stew sense of the spin in the ‘rection of motion) We shall call the helicity operator oa spin! partle (ehether electron of poston) with momentum p i followsfeom Eas (44) 46) and (448) that, as for the complex Klein~ Gordon field, the theory is completely symmetric between parties (electrons) and antipartes (positrons). These have the same properties except forthe reversal of the sign ofthe electric charge. {Asa ruler electromagnetic properties such as the magnetic moments have opposite siens)| “The symmeuy of the theory between particles and antipaticles isnot vious from the expansions ofthe eld operators y and J Ege. (4.38). This isdue to thetact hat we have not chosen a specie pina presentation and in most representations the positive and negative energy spinors will look very diferent The expansions (438) only manifest the parile-antipartile symmety for representations of a particular kind, known a5 Majorana representations. Labeling the pmatrces in a Majorana representation with ‘the subscript M, the defining property of a Majorana representation is that R= The HQ, aa) where the asterisk denotes complex conjugation, ial four jm pure imaginary A particular Majorana representation i given i Appendix 1 Eas (A79) Here me only zegute the defiing property (449), ‘We sce from Eq (349) that im Majorana representation the operator (vsss-=) ie ral Hence if yy 58 solution of the Dirac equation in a Majorana represattion, so ts complex conjugte yi It follows that we denote the postive energy solutions (3) by — (4.500) in a. Majorana represeatation, then the corresponding negative energy solutions are (4st) ene he expansions (438) Become in aMajorna representation dod = ETE) teamed ee imino) oe (4s) 40 -5(52)" mene citi In the last uation e gave the expansion fry rather than Fo bring out the compete symmetry between pares and antares. The absorption ‘operators cp) and dp) ze multiplied bythe same single-particle wavefunc- tons and tus ae absorption operators of particles and antares in the Se sage particle state, Le. with the same momentum, energ) ad helicity The same i true of the creation operators. Having used a Majrana representation to mane the particle antparicle symmetry of the Held ‘operators we shall now revert tothe vepresentationre formulation of Eqs (G31) and (438) in whieh this symmetry is masked The anticommutation relations (433) for the creation and absorption ‘operators imply anticommotation relations forthe Dirac eld operators land. From Eqs. (49) and the expansions (4.38) ofthe lds, one obtains (Waco. dlrs = WA. FAN = 0, (4520) wien. sion. (0S meen asm Where A*(x) are the invariant A-fusctions introduced for the Klein~Gordon equation, Bgs (040) and (342). Eqs. (4528) are obvious. The ervaton of Eqs. (4.326) i elt as an exercise forthe reader ‘Omitting sufi, is considered ar «4 » 4 matrix equation, we can waite gp 520) a8 we FO. «isa terete A mats 3d pe me) as se (ge%) wo (hsm oe Twn gon. = ey am where, analogously to As) = A*(x) + As) we defined see) rea tso=(mr GM) aon, este) From the repsetton ofthe various Anctions,obtaned in Chapter 3, Eas (450) provide repsentations ofthe conespondingSunstions. For ‘xampis, rom the ntepal epresentation (51 for (x), we can wnt (4.54a) as. = ej pt me ny Je Pome where the contours C' jn the complex pe-plane af anticlockwise closed paths enclonng the poles at pe = (Eh, coresponding to Fig, forthe ‘complex k(=po/erlane. Since sta epee 4550) ‘We conclude this section with ri dsussion on the connection between spin and statistics of parties. Inti section we quantied the Dirac equation tcording othe anticommotation relations (39) in orde to obtain Fem Dirac statistics fr electrons. Its intresting to ak what the consequences would be if we quantize the Dirse equation according to Bose-Einstein Hatisticy ie. by replacing all the antiommutators in Eqs, (438) by ommuttors With this chang, the energy ofthe eld again calculated Irom Fg (422), 6 mot given by Eq (448) but by = BNA) ~ 849) (456) We are now dealing with Bose-Einstein statisti, und the oscupation ruber operators Np) a 87{p)can take om ll values 01,2... Henesthe Hamitonan (4.56) docs not posess a lower bound. If we demand the Crntencr of a state of lowest energy (ce. a stable ground sat), we must [Gute the Dirac equation acordin to Fermi-Dirae statisti “Onc ma sir ask what the comequences are of quantizing the Klein— Gordon Bid according to FermiDirac statistics. In Section 33 we referred fo miroenusality. ie the requirement that two observables (x) and BU) must be compatible (xy) va spacelike inter 0, forx—y <0. as (409, BOY We have seen that the observables of the fis, such as the ene momentum densities or the charge-curent densities, are bilinear inthe Held fperators [ee for example, Ege (3.13, G10, 33), (422), (423) and (Rasy) Using the operator dente (43) and (48), one can show tat for Fg, (459) to hol for such blinear observables, the lds themselves must ther ‘Commute or antivorimte for Gr) a spacelike Interval. For the ral Kein-Govson fk! we must ave eer (900. 600 0, forte? <0, for (x= 9 <0. Tees. 6001 ‘We know thatthe fint ofthese lations hols ifthe Klin-Gordon i is _quanied according to Bore Einstein statistics (compare Eq, (30)) 1 is sey to show that neither relation hold fe quantize acording to Fermi- iste statistics Le rplage the commutators by anticommutators in the Commutation tations (10) Hence, the requiement of microcasalty fovees us to. quantize the Klei-Gordon field according to Bose-Einscin ait, “Thos conclusions generalize fo interacting pastes and other spin valu, Pari with interal spin must be quantzed acording to Bose-Eitstein Stasis, particles with alintegral spn according to Ferm-Dirac statistic, “The wrong’ spin-statstics connections lead othe two types of difcaties we found above This spinstatitic theorem, to which no exception i known in ‘lure, epresens an pressive succes or relativistic quantum fd theory, 44. THE FERMION PROPAGATOR In Section 34 we introduced the meson propagator. Coreesponing to Ea. {G.56, we now define the Feynman fermion propagator ax OIF WCB 438)14 The Die Slt Cap. where spinor indices have again been suppressed, For ermion fis the time ‘ordered producti defined by TYEE) = He pEARFL) — AW — NF WER) froin, tear as) Le gewen, atest (ere «= xe) This definition ders by afactor(— I) inthe’ > tterm from the corresponding boson definition, Egy. (3.53) and (2.55). This change Jn sign reflects the anticommutation property of fermion fields (A similar sierence oecurzed inthe definition ofthe normal products of Boson and fermion fields) In order to caleulate the fermion propagator (658), using Eq, (4.59), we note that OW CHEE OD = COW" CHF™(}0> = IFO) = 18" x), 600) where we used Ei. (4538; similarly O10) ~ iS — »). (4606) Combining Eqs. (4.58)-(4.60), we obtain the fermion propagator COTY LD}O> = 156 — x) ao here Sis) defined, analogously to Eqs (3.57) and (48, by S9 : P(e la casey a-osei-(e der Zour to Componente) be 4 ime Sie) = on [atperimn 48) ~ ant |P _btme (69 Pome ei Ce where the integration inthe complex py-plane i along the whole real asic To < py < 25 (Compare Fig. 36) [As Tor the meson propagstor, itis useful to visulize the fermion pagator in terms of Feynman diagrams (As mentioned before, one must ‘ot take this interpretation to literally) For f inv 440), BG) in the fe. particle Schringer equation eads to the correct wave equation fora partic of change po this fed. [Te coresponding els rests colaned in Fg 18) "The subtition (4s usualy fered os tenia subsution’ Interns ofthe Your-ector poten (2) = (A), he minal susiuon, ‘Huse epicly cova frm S-0-[a +f a0 os) ashWe shall assume that this substitution also correctly niaduces the electeo- smagoetic interaction into the Dieae equation. With he replacement (44), and q = ~ for eleetons, the Dirse equation (616) and the Lagrangian ‘ensty (420) become (Gy ,— mas = Ey cow, 495) and £2 eater. man, ae where eis the Lagrangian density of he fee Disc fel, ie. B= eFeVihi 2 — mey¥s), on, snd 2s the interaction Lagrangian density y= eB OAL. ss ‘which couples the conserved current ss) = o(—e)F¢ Ea (628), tothe ‘ecromageti Bel “To oblain the complete Lagrangian deni for electrodynamics, we must aldo Ba. (466 the Lagrangian density Zp of the radtion eld eof the ‘lecromagnetic eld inthe absence of charges. This divin ie analogous to {at of the Hamiltonian in Chapter 1, Eas. (1.61)+{143) 2 depends on the potential 4,() only and we shall study itn the next chapter. ‘We know tha its only the electromagnetic Beds E and B which have physical signifeance. got the potential 4, sell. i the theory must be Invariant under the eauge transformations ofthe potentials Eg (1.3) The later can be writen inthe covariant frm Ads) > Abs) = AG) * 265) hove) wher /(x) san arbitrary function. The invariance of the theory under gauge mations Fallows from that ofthe Lagrangian density. Zn has tht nce popery a8 we shall sein the next chapter. However, spplying (ova) 10 Fa, (460), we obtain FF Fs HW II «0 ie 2 is not gauge-invariant with respect to 4.60) We can restore gauge invariance by demanding that coupled with he gauge warsformation (4698) ofthe electromagnet potential, the Dirae fields transform according ee | Fla) = Fea) = sy erwtene (4090) Under the coupled transformations (4698) and (4696), the Lagrangian densities (467) and (468) transform according to Lar y= Lo = HOV eS) are) Bai = H+ HHP AIO) car) Consequently # = y+ %; remains invariant under the coupled trans formations Eg (4.69) are called local phase transformation since the phase factors depend on sn the special ease tha fa) = const, Bas (4.096) reduce to @ ‘lal phase tansformation, considered in Section 24 where we st that Invariance under a lobal phase transformation lads tos conserved charge ‘We have now seen that gaupe invariance ofthe theory requires invariance ‘when simultaneounly wansforming the electromagnetic potentials according to the gauge trasformation (46) and the Dirac fis according to the focal phase transformation (696), and we shall in future rele t0 these Coupled transformations 8s gauge transformations. It ca be show thatthe pplication of Nocther thearem to the invariance with respect t0 these (Coupled) gauge transformations doesnot lead to anew conservation law, but only reproduces the conservation of charge. That follows we shall assume thal Eq (468) ies the correc interaction of quantum electrodynamics. One could ry and add other guuge-invariant ‘nd Loren invariant focal teraction terms, bt these are generally excluded by another general restriction —renormalzabilty ofthe theory—which we Sl sty in Chapter 9. The ultimate ustieaion fr taking Eq (4.68) a the eet infraction fies of course inthe complete agrement between some of Physi most prose experiments and theoteial predictions fased on this PROBLEMS, 4. From Eq (453 or okerig, deve he eqn anconmutation ration WAT gen 2 8-9. 42 Show that the fantons Us nd 4) ae slats of he homogeneous Die ‘Sjurtion a ofan nbomogeneoos Dic equation tespetve 443 Show a Ine change curren demi operate 9) = =F) of the Di equation air the relation (rte) 7 =0, forte y? <0 “This lation shows tit the chage-carent deals, which are obseable ‘lsc wo Brent space lie polis a6d av opal provided thelr ey) apes ar reted by maton44 Show tin he rpnion 2) thee Rie Cordon ls) ne po ohh oD. = Bas Latha. = fo, aD, hen for (x — 9). pace ie ier: [olen ¢Gr 40 and (Heh 90) #0. (We know fom the dicustion athe end of Section 4 that iter the mutator or the anicommattor a's) and 9) must vats or (9) Spacike ithe Ditmar oer contd hom ave taut the ‘miocasalty conaivon (4371, 0) -+ VIO) = exp Gaza, WR) > ULE) = Vex inn where 2 san rier el parameter, acl chil phase tramsormations ‘Stow thatthe Lagrangian denaty (620) ss ivan aed eh pase tcamforaton athe seat nt m= 0 ony and thatthe oresponding ‘Sneed cura inthis the axa ver cament J) = VY HL ‘Bede th equations of moto fr the Bel (or sonvanisiag mats, and show tha he Sesnupe athe it ‘ow tha the Lastangan Set) 200) = ht? But) esrb storms fermions with oegnivehcy only, and zero-mass ai tcemonr wth poste ely ony. (Th Seid cael te Wey ld and em be {Sat wo dautfe the nets in ek neato hey have ero mass) CHAPTER 6 Photons: [covariant theory In our discussion ofthe electromagnetic fel in Chap 1 we saw that only the tanwerse radiation Held eorrespoads to independent dynamical degrees ‘of ieedom, and we only quantized this tansterse Bald On the other hand, the instantaneous Coulomb interaction Between charge is uly determined bythe charge dstbtion and inthe formation of Chapter 1, treated sa lasial potential. This formslaion of qauntum elecwodynamis is closely elated to the clisical theory and so facitates interpretation in familiae terms, However, the decomposition of the felis soto tcansverse aud he Loren in eapiily Lorent-coar ory 4 Sf quaniom eletrodynamic, The i required (0 ‘Stable rnormalizabity of the eoy, eth porbiity of carryingout ‘leslations to all orders of pertorbation theory with Rite self-consistent fests and i is ery heipfol in practice in calelaing such higher-order radiative coretions "We shall therefore in this chapter develop a covariant theory starting in | Seton en ancien ona maior of coma een \ mis abil our components ofthe four vector potential As) = (6.8 re fisted on an equal oing This corresponds 10 ntfoducing more Sjrursal dopant Faso ta te ae eae a hee wl tt “Guutized Theory, derived in Section $2 By quantizing all four components ofthe fout-iector potential A"), looks on the feof i ery32 Photons conain theory Chup. 5 erent from the theory of Chapter 1. However, the two formulations are ‘auivlent, at we shall lustre when dicusing the photon propagator ia Section 83 4 GHEGESicar ens, ‘To express Maxwells equations in covariant form, we introduce the nsymmetic eld tensor je , owe SL we are = Lc) 6 PM) + PEM) + OPM 6 Since Fis antisymmetric, Eg. (52) a once wives as) =O, 64 ‘consistency requires conservation ofthe current to which the electromag ‘ele fl x coupled ‘The ld F*can be expressed in terms othe four-vetor potential 443) = (Arby ee) 69 sti ei wih Es (12 mr ft portal, Bas (3a isd nha eee =o oo “These equations ate Lorent-covarant and they ae also invariant under the ‘gauge ansformation Ata) A200) = Arta) OF. on “The field equations (5.6) can be derived from the Lagrangian density oe ¥ = tRtaPred — Estee, on by treating the four components 4¥(x) as the independent elds in the ‘ariational principle (2.11) (214) The form of his Lagrangian density sures the greet behaviout of the tT equations (8) unde Lorca ond snares the coves behaviour of the atom = Lagrangian density (58) isnot suitable for carrying out rey Go iad ote cog wen Bf = ot ‘The anisymmetry of FP" then implies 2°%(e) = 0, and this i_plainly incompatible with the canoniel commutation relations (231) wHich we Wis, oimpase PR tagrangan density which is suitabl for quantization, fet proposed by Femi is ga -yoatonoarsy Lyne, 610 Frum (109 oobi nt ed went te ou stich soe a ooe-aing 9 a he no osinon imate a EEE 10 mse sequin ett oi Compra wh $0) howe ht 3 a oy exe Seat pat eta sata aau-0. / oy he quantization bat ew wit Manes aun sem he Bist plas quantize the theory Br tbe general Lagrangian ‘Si, gor ts comin ater antl a EGS) onan cguaen conta ae 3S ‘We shall ovate tis pot in detain he next seston. oe -taos eine t= Petae on ARR Sac esSer te LapteesInthe classical theory. starting from potentials (x) in an arbitrary gauge, we can always perform a gauge transformation (57) so at the wansformed Potentials 4(x) satis the subsidiary condition (S13) We achieve this by ‘hoosing the function f(x) in Eq. (57) asa Salton of aA) + Ofte) = 0 19) ‘The subsidiary condition (5.13) doesnot speiy the potentials uniquely. If the potentials 443) stisy Eq (513) 0 will any potentials As) obtained by the gauge wassormation (8.7), provided the gauge function f(x) satishes ore as) ‘The subsidiary condition (513) is called the Lorentz condition. His imposition repenents restriction of the choice of gauge. Any gauge in ‘which Eq (3.13) holds is called a Lorentz guage Using a Lorentz gauge has some important advantages. Frey, the Lorentz condition (S13) fea Lorentecovariantconsrant. This iin coirast to the condition forthe Coulomb gxues, 8), WAR, wich decomposes fs into transverse and longitudinal components and so FE manifestly frame-dependent. Scondly, the fed equations (S12) i 2 torete gauge are mach simpler than the corresponding Eas (36) in @ sep eure In prt me fe Bal ase 1) =O es Dare 0 516) Eq (5.16) i the limit of the Klcin-Gordon equation (33) for parties with rast zero. This wil enable us to ada many of our eater results when considering the covariant quantization ofthe eletromagneti eld Fg, (516) enables us to expand the re cletromagnetic ld AY) in a complete st of solutions of the wave equation, in lose analogy to the ‘expansion (38) forthe Klein-Gordon fel w= Z(A)awmmee ts o hey He wo=E(Qh)awmer ty ‘The summations these equations are over wave vectors k allowed bythe petadie boundary conditions, and etki «6 “The summation ver, fom r= 0 (07 =3 corresponds to the fet that for the fourvetorfetd 40) there exis foreach, four linearly independent Plarzation sates. Thee ate described by the polarization vectors ck) pinta frwhich we choos tobe real and which satisfy the orhonormality ‘nd completeness relutons| efbdedh) = (RNA) = fede EOD SUBD (319 seth) = where (520) The classical potentials 4M), =O... are of course real quantities [Anticipating their interpretation ip the quantized theory as operators, We fave denoted the expansion coeicnts in Eqs (S16) bya, and, Eas (S16) should be compared with Eas. (138) The latter expand the radiation Belin terms of two transverse polarization states foreach value of {snd im adsition, we had the instantaneous Coulomb interaction between ‘harass Baa (516) sve an expansion ofthe foal eld (x) in terms of four Poreation states foreach value of k We shall sein Section $3 that the To extra polarization stats provide a covariant deserption of the instan- taneous Coulomb interaction For many purposes one only roquires the properties(S18) and (519) of the polarization vectors However speci chee of polarization vestorsin one Eon fame of ference often ulitates the interpretation. We shall choose these vectors as th) = =(1,0.003, can) ek) = Oe), r= 23, (3216) whore i(k) and exh) are mutsaly orthogonal unit vectors which are also frthogonal to and ext) = Wik, (523) beeth) <0, P= H2efhyresh) Bay osm 123, (5226) and ofa called transverse longitudinal polarization, and ob sclar for time-ike polarization. For later ue me noe that (A) canbe written in the eovartant form fe hme 52) Keka? — AY : su)‘This expression comes about since (Ane subiracts olf the time-tke component of and the denominator makes ea spacelike unit vector. We have not sek? = On Eq, (5222) a it would befor a fal photon, since we stall ater require the more general ase K? 40. Real polation vectors correspond to linear polarization. To decrbe circular or elliptic polasiztion would require complex polarization vector land covtexponting modifeations of xs (S18) and (S19 82 COVARIANT QUANTIZATION We now apply the canonical formalism of Chapter 2 10 quantize the fee lecromagnetic fd sing the Lagrangian density (5.1) wit sx) = O and, inthe fst pace, snoring the Lorentz condition (13). With the Bel (8) conjugate 10-44) given by Eqs (Sl), the equaltime commutation 0, Cea eo relations 231) Become 4 62) [ate Ata = ie x = x) Apart from the factor (~g"), these equations are identical with the commutation relations (37) of four independent Kleia-Gordon fields, ind ach component (x) sass the wave equation (5.16) which the limit of the Klein-Gordon equation (3) for partes of mass 210. (Both these points can be appreciated by comparing the Lagrangian densities (5.10) and (6.5) This similarity enables us to take over eaber mathematical results although their physical interpretation wil have io be re-examined taking into secouat the factor (= 3") In Secon 33, we devved the covariant commutation relations (343) for ‘the Kleis-Gordon fel. From these we can at once write down the covariant commutation relations forthe (3). Len, A001 [49.9] = hed — x, 629) whore Dw im ("Ao (325) nd A(x) isthe invariant function (3.4. ‘The Feynman photon propagator is similarly given by OMAP) AIH) = heDHLe (525) athe Ere e Dra) to C- aton= Ef an sis sen from Ege, (356) and (359). The photon propugator will be ‘igus full n the next section "To gun the photon interpretation ofthe quantized lds, we substitute the feld expansions (316) inthe commutation relations (523), with the result Tah, a1 = 6 Bnd } a [ash 2407] (0, 89) From Bg ($20) §, = Hor? = I, 2, 3s0 that for these values ofr Egs. (828) fare the standard boson commutation tlations (3.0) leading to the usual umber representation for teansverse photons (f= 1.2) and Jongitudinal photons (= 3), For r= 0 (sala photons) fq = 1, and it consequently okss hough the usual ks of absorption and creation operators mus be fnterchanged for ask) nd afk), However, electing only this change results Jn other aificaies, and the standard formalism must be modied more radically, OF the several procedures available, we shall fllow tha due 0 Gupta and to Bleuler. Th the Gupta-Bleuler theor) the operators afl), r= 1.2.3 and 0 are fnerpteied a absorption operators, ah), 7=1,2,3 and 0, as creation ‘operators fr transverse, longitudinal and scalar photons. The vacuum stale [tb isdeined a the state in which there are no photons of any kind present 401) =O, aR, Pd (5298) of equivalent. C010 (529) als, =O, “The operators (operating onthe vacuum state 0) create the one-photon Ie) = b0> (530) in which one transverse (F= 1,2), longitudinal (¢= 3) or salar (r= 0) photon of momentum kis present "To justly thi interpretation ofthe operators Hamiltonian operator ofthe Bed. From aq, (2.5 and df, we consider the this given by en en a oer shims HE hncaloaty 63)18 Photons eonrun theany Chap $ Despite the minut sgn (Zp = —1) associated with the scalar photons in Eg (6:3) this energy postive definite For example. forthe one photon sates (530) one celyobtrng ring the commutation lations (525), ily) =F hoeait@as@ai0o> jaei}O>, P= Ove ie. the energy has the postive value hay for transverse, longitudinal and scalar photons. Correspondingly, we ust define the number operators by Ak) = Gai, 633) and these defitons,tgeter wit the commutation cations (52, kad 10 Consent umber epeetations ora types of photons ‘although the formas ata we ave developed i, ems stato thee arson iets wich show up ve clste the rmaiaton of Dhoton stats For example or the tate (530 lathe) = (ad) = 400) = {if we oasis) 10 (0) = 1) A fora ssl photon thi oe i tau More pacaly oe can show tht fr syste taining sno tuner of sear photon the worn teat At Bs sigh his looks ike ‘Shows day, soc the probabyierpretation of quantum mechanics depends on stas having peste avn HOvever no salar or tongdial fhotons have eer bcn served ath tse pats are lated othe fat Ins wavgmredthe Lone cna 1.0 hao fo ye egal o Manvels equations We mist now Uy and impose the Lorentz condition, a es nrc. we canotsnpy take she Lovet conion (513) a a operator Met, ta (213) incompatible with he commutation eons (S20) sce At 20) nd this snot identically 2x0, “This problem was resolved by Gupta and Blur by replacing the Lorentz condition (313) bythe weaker condition ice, D" ~ x) AM) =0, 638) involving absorption operators only. Eq (834) i a restriction on the tates which ar allowed by the theory. From Eq. (534) and its adjoint vied) =0 it follows thatthe Lorentz condition holds for expectation values CHIE AMENED = CHI2 APE) + ACO =O, (535) ‘his ensures thatthe Lorente condition and hence Maxwells cqustions hold asthe classic limit ofthis theory. In onde to understand the meaning ofthe subsidiary condition (S24), we expres tia momentum space On substituting bs. (5.160) and (521) (522) Tor asa) and eit), we obtain the conditions [aye = afb} = 0, all ke (539) “This sa constraint on the linear combinations of fongitudinal and scalar | Toten foreach value of tht may be present in state. I lass no! Fenretion on th transverse photos that may Be preset “The effect of the subsiiaty condition (536) becomes appaceat if we cata the expectation vale ofthe energy of an allowed state (¥. Since ffom Eg, (536) and its adjoint we have Maha) ~ ahoath#> = CHa RIE) ft fotlows from Bg, (532) that coed = CHE 3 boner). anh sentra photons cout Wo he expec San gas of he sry conSion. Tae a8 Sih ober a ace subsidiary conto, ne space obs aa ea ec pots ony. TH eafaes our ae aan i ey sar potty ar nt observed as fee seo te eter sout eponing oh we Fane a often Sl whch we band The af Chaper wie we worked ine Costes a ST tamer ao they dor skow up fe a egal and nr ptons mt red oo Fe tena! yo deg econ fo ech 4 SO a ey onan 3 Te tercante stows aa tr of exe ape More sete ae top alone sms ool and sat aaa aa toe frat teen eo potest Boh ere ein Lorete aun ee Problems 2 ad $2) cee oe ee rennin seniatoworkina ge oi eens raced bye we nwt no tetas | aaa a eta 25 Bt he vaste cul aa be Fo a ind rane and ony alowed admits Se arene Ths docipon would ey ct a ee af Lowe pgs The station 1 ele wr afr Coaing eve atoFor the eestomagoetic field inthe presence of charges the stuation is ‘more complicated. We can no longer ignore the longitudinal und scalar ‘photons When discussing the photon propagator inthe nxt sion, we ball fe tht longitudinal and scalar photons play an important role nvr parties in intemedate states and provide a covarant description of the Instantaneous Coulomb interaction of Chapter |. However, inthis cate (0, ‘one need consider only transverse photons in initial and final sate of scattering process. This coresponds toa particular ehoie of gauge andthe fact that one eam consider partic nly and finally, when they re fat spac, as fee. In Section 62 we shall recur to this ida of etching the Imeraction between colliding particles on and off adiabatically at they approach and as they move apart ‘We have developed the Gupta-Bleule formalism onl othe limited extent {o which it is needed in aplication. ts possible develop a more complete systematic formalism in which stats with negative norm do not appest a 4 ‘Blemish in Hilbert space but ocor ina aeleconsitent manne in function space with an indefinite metre. Fer most purposes, this complet formalism isnot require: 53. THE PHOTON PROPAGATOR In Section 34 we interpreted the Klsin-Gordon propagator (36) as the etchange ofa viral meson nan incermediate state We now expect ila interpretation for the photon propagator (326) but, corresponding (othe. four-vetor nature of the eld A(x) and the rewling four independent polarization states, we expect the exchange of four Kinds of photons, two Corresponding to tansiersepolaiation and one each to longitudinal and Scalar polarization. This deserption dies markedly fron hat of Chapter | Where only transverse radiation cccurted but no longitodinal or salar ‘dation. Instead we ha the instantancous Coulomb interaction between charges. We shall se that these two deserptions ate ined equivalent, To establish this interpretation intr of photon exchange we consider ‘the momentum space propagator Df‘, elated tothe configuration space. propagator Dy), (527), by Dr = aoe = ay ourrwe wom Teed ade ied SN Gt, Qa ron, Cana SVL aries sae "hero, 2a en, Spgs New Yr, Seon 68 aes om Eq. (27 ad (519) we otal pew = Ee ~ epebewam 6% Tnoner to interpet this expression, we use the special fame of reference in wich the polarization vectors sh) are even by Eg. (21) and (S22). The Text equation then becomes: oie ff aba (et = Ch IER" — (he i | SUM eg kay? = i the vacum state in shih fee reo pot yng pee Show tha thnorm ef is sate my aM) = 100, What is the mow general state whch there ate dsfirite number of trannere phox ih dene momenta snd polation vectors pron53 NW) fa sate mich contains ranserse photons ony Let Pep = th + ela avai, Shee ct gamit shw hat wean 1) by OF coment Or Leane = E+ PAD, - (22) nae nw fs) = ee) (es abd 2) = (DHT = Ce # agarsin sah Lagan deity 3.29) fhe come Ka Codon Sl die Sasa Zinta oe Sa Sethe Syanliad ged nah cecromageee oad 0) ssi tt eson enn ser he he contin eee! = 4% (ie amnion popes of te and of), Ey (29), under care Canton nes Sheba in robes 3) y i cis chow t's Teinpotor ses) ean esas of wih ‘igenvalve =I. i : CHAPTER 6 The S-matrix expansion ‘Weshall aow progtssfrom the discussion ofthe ee elds ose realisicand Ich more interesting css of elds in interacuon, in which partic can be uered, crested and destroyed. In essence this requires solving. the oupled nowinear field equations [or given conditions. In quantsm ‘lcsrodynamics, for example, one must Solve the inhomogeneous wave uation (61) with the Dias current dasity (28) as soure tem. This is ‘Stemely difcut problem which bas only been solved in perturbation Theorie the Hamiltonian of the system i divide into that ofthe reels ples an interaction term, The ler i treated a5 @pertrbation which is Josiable i the interaction fs sfcenly weak. For quantum elstrody ‘amics where the coupling of photons and electrons is measured by testa Aimensiones ie sirctore constant x~ 1/37, this approach is oustand- ingly succesful, not only im ealeuating. processes in lowest order of peturbation theory ut also in ealclaing higher-order corrections Ta he Hessenberg picate which we havesofar been sig, this programme ‘saul cry complex, and twas dee forthe success development of the theory to wor inssad in theintracion picture In Section 6.2 we shal sty {he cquations of motion ofthe interacting elds ath interaction picture and tte sbal obisin a perturbation sere solusion suitable fr eolision protests. ‘This soli, known a the -matrx expansion, is due to Dyson. The Dyson pansion of the Semainn 6 of great importance since it contains the Complete information about all clision processes in a frm suitable for xtacing the tanstion aniplitade fora specie process 10 any order of Spetturbaton theory. A systematic procedure for doing this wll be developed In Seton 63.9% The Sati etpansion Cha. 6 Before proceeding with these topics, we shall in Seton 6. intodce ‘natural units which considerably simplify detalsof the folowing calculations 61. NATURAL DIMENSIONS AND UNITS. We have so far used eg. units in which the fundamental dimensions, in terms of which quuntiss are exprsie, ate mass (MM), length (L) and ime (DiIn elativisie quantum fed theory, expressions and calculations are ‘ch Simplified if one uses natural units (-u) fn natural units one lakes ‘mass, etion (4) and velocity (as fundamental dimensions and choose has bnitof action andthe velocity oflight cas uit of velocity. Hence R= ¢ = Vin ratural uals, and ees oxpresons ae transformed into matical units By puting h~= c= I Insach nv, expression all vantites ave the dimeasiont ofa power of M. Since LA, and Me ri wn ‘one has the general result that x quantity which has the eg dimensions Mur Mrmr, a Jhas the nu. dimensions M?°*-* In natural units, many quanties have the same dimension. For example, the momentum energy celation fora parte fof mass m becomes in natural sits, B mie pam Hw, 63) So that mas, momentum eneray and wave number ll have the same natal dimension i. The es expression for the dimensinles fine structure enim ee) (64) becomes rn) (646) a7 ioe so tha in natural units eleti charge is dimensionles (M®) From the general elation (6.2) or by using particular equations one easly satisies the equation of mation KD» = HAeCD>, a a where fo) = ems emma «3 isthe interaction Hamiltonian in the LP. with HF and My =H being the interaction and lrefied Hamikorians ia the Schrodinger picture (SP), 140) is obtained by replacing. in, the SP. Rid operators by the time- ‘ependentfreefildopertors. In Eg (612) and (6.3) we have omited the lubes used in Ege. (188) snd (189) to distinguish the LP, a we shall be ‘working exclusively in th LP. in wht follows. "Eg (612) is a Schrodingr-lke equation with the time-dependent Hamil> tonian i), With the interaction ‘switched of (Le. we put Hy = 0), thestate seme he wena Sean 15, Thrace ot tently emia10) The Sates exumsion Chap ‘vector i constant in tne. The interaction leads to the tats 10) changing wit ime Given thatthe system sn stale ata iii tine f= 12 1940)> = >. 8) the solution of a (6.12) with thisintal condition gives the state HX) of the stem at anyother time tI follows fem the Hermtiiy of the operator Fi that the ie development ofthe tate Kt)» according to Eq (612) 84 unitary transformation. Accordingly It preserves the normalization of tates, 1019) = cons is, and, more generally the sealae product ‘Clearly the formalism which we ae ere developing snot appropriate for the detription of bound states bot its particulary suitable for scattering process, In collion proces the state vector |} will define anita tte Tong before the scattering occurs ( = ~ 2) by speching a deiite number tof particles with definite properties and far apart from each other so that they Sdorotinteract. (For example in QED |) would specify a definite number of ‘trons, positrons and photons with given momenta, spins and pola tions) Inthe seating prowess, the Parties wil come close together, olde (Le interact) and fly apart agui. Eq. (612) determines the state (@(o}> into which the state (2) =>, (614) evolves at ¢ = 0, long afer the scattering is over and all particles are fe part again. The Somatas relates [ce)) To HX ~se)) and is defined by |942)) = S12) = St. 619) A collision can lead to many dierent final states [f>, and all these possiblities ate contained within (20). (For example, an electron Positron colision may result in elastic seating, Bremssrahlung (ie Eision of photons) par annihilation, ete) Each ofthese inal tates > s ‘pected in way analogous 10>. “The transition probability tht ater the colison (Le. ate {sin the state If) is sven by 5) the system Kao) 1) ((0(c0)> and > are assumed normed 0 unity.) The corresponding probe Diy amplitude is are, as usual eigenstates of the unpercurbed freed Hamitonian He. ie. with the interaction switched off (Hh = 0). This description appears wrong since the patties we are dealing with are ral physical particles even when far spac. ‘An electron, even when faraway trom other electrons, s surrounded By its photon doud; ir areal elestcon, not bare electron without its owe Bectramagnetic Sed. Hence, the use of bare particle sate) and If Toguiresjustifcation, One posible procedure i o appeal to the adiabatic hypothesis in which the interaction Hy) i replaced by IKO)/). The function fi chosen so that f() =1 for a sufcently long interval “Tere, and fi) 0 monotonically as ¢-> +2, [in QED, for ‘example, we could replace the elementary charge € bythe time-dependent ‘coupling constant ef] this way the intl and fal states are deseribed by bare paris, During the interval ~ << ~The equation of motion (612) with 24¢) replaced by Hf, generates the real physical particles from the bare pile, and during che inlerval | < Te are dealing with the physical particles and the fll interaction jo) In particular, the full foteraction i fev during the interval —¢ << ¢ while the paris are sulicienly close together to interact (ve we mest choose T > 2) The essence ‘ofthe adiabatic hypothesis thatthe settering, which occurs during the Interval ©). Only a the end of a calesation do we take the limit T > 22. OF couse if we flculate a proces in lowest oder perturbation theory (ie. we ust only the {erm of lowes order nin Ba. (623) which gives a non-vanishing eeu) then the interaction i exclusively used fo cause the transition and not aso to ‘convert bein eel particles. We may then take the limit T+ 2 rom the ‘Sart ofthe calculation and work with the fll teraction Hy). 763. WICK’S THEOREM We must now see how 10 obtain fem the Sematce expansion (623) the teansition amplitude (J!) fora particular tansiion >») ina given fonder of perturbation theory. The Hamiltonian density 2) in Eg. (023) Tnvolves the interacting fells, each finear in eration and absorption operators, Hence the expansion (623) will describe @ lange number of Aiferent prooemes. However, only certain terms of the S-matrix will ‘ontibute toa given tani If) ~ |/>. For these terms must contain jst the ight absorption operators o destroy the partes present in|, and they Ist contin the ight creation operators to emit he particles present in|). ‘They may aso contain additional creation and absorption operators which rele paticles which ae subsequently reabsorbed. These parties are only present in intermediate sates andar called virtual artls, ‘Cafultins can be etl simpliied by avoiding the expt introduction of virtual intermediate particles This can e achieved by writing the Smatix fxpansion a5 a sum of normal product since in a normal product al Sbvorplon operators stand to te righ of all ereation operators. Such an ‘perator fis abyorbs a certain numberof particles and then emis some Parties It doce not cate emission and reabsorption of intermediate pticks Each of thee normal products wil eect a particular transition fide [/) which can be represented by a Feynman graph, similar to those Introduced in Chapters 3 and 4 ‘Conse, for example, Compton sateing(e~ + 7+ €” 47). The QED interaction Hatiltonian dent fom Eq (610, tis) = — 210) = —eN LBA 024) Since the negative tpostiv) frequency pars 4°. Fs" tA" 6". 8) ace Tinea i eration (absorption) operators for photons, eecrons and posi= trons eespeavely. the only norm product which eonibutes to Compton seatering is raw “The method for expanding the Smatrix a a sum of normal products hich we shall now describe duc to Dyson and Wick. We fia fal simmarie the general deiition of anormal product. Let Q. 1h... W be operators ofthe type VA", ety e_each i Hear in either ‘reation or absorption operators then NOR.) = (DOR (6250) Here Q, Ryo W" are the operators Q, Ryu 7 reordered so that ll absorption operators (ie. positive frequency pats) stand 10 the right of all reation operators (ie. negative frequenc) pars). The exponent P isthe fhumber of interchanges of neighbouring fermion opealors required to Change the order (QR 1) into (QR...) We generalize the definition {625e) by requiting the normal product to obey the distribute aw NURS. + PW) NIRS ANH), (6286) “The QED interaction (6.24) ie normal product of eld operators We shall106 The Satin cxpumion Chip. 6 find that in oter cases too the interaction Hamiltonian density canbe writen 54 normal produce 240) = NACOBLO 625) net each ofthe Bes A(s), Bt), near in creation and absorption Dperators Hence we mutt consider the expansion iato a sum of normal products ofa mixed T-product (ea T-produc whose factors ae normal Products), sch at cut in the Ssmatrix expansion (623) From the definion ofthe normal product We have or two field operators Ase Alyy) and B= Bley) that anne = {UB D> eta emin ey [UB], otherwise For two fermion fills the anticommutator, and in all other eases the Cornmutators are numbers i. they donot involve eration or annihilation ‘Operators [We had examples im Eqs (341) and (4834) Hence, the right band side of Eg, (627) i always a camumber. It is gien by (OlABIO>, as follows by taking the vacuum expectation value of Eq (627). Hence Ea, (621) becomes: AB=NUAB) + ABD). (628) Since N¢4B) = £NBA), (629) the minus sgn applying in the case of two fermion elds, the plus sign in ail other eases, follows from Eq (628) that fr 2 #0 TAs} Ble2)} = ACBL) + COMT{AL BCID, (630) The case of equal times, xf “The special aoation Alsat) = x4, willbe considered below OFT )B(02)1> (63h) willbe convenient fortis vacuum expectation value which wl be called the onracion of Us,) aod B{s3), Being 8 vacuum expectation vale, it Wl vanish unless one ofthe Hel operators A and B reas particles which the other absorbs. The non-vanishing contractions are of couse just the Feynman propagators, eg Eas. (356), (340), (461) and (5265 flanges) = ides 09 (6328) Hanged = gleadgeud =I =) 6220) YAEFAa) = —Pasadfed = Sass a9) 6326) sresg'ten)= PEG =). 6328) ‘To generalize Eq. (630) to several operators A M2 M(sgh vs the generalized normal producti defined by NUBCDEF KLM...) it SCUAKECER NDF IM.) (633) where P is the number of interchanges of neighbouring fermion operators Teale fo change the order (ABC...) (AKB... or example Neste ngaled4eudT eadfteed) —yptesWuesINGMPEEDF LD). 634) For the ease of unequal times (ie. xf #9, fr i), Wick has proved the following generalization of Ea. (630) TUBCD... WXYZ) = NABCD... WXYZ) 4 NCABC...¥2)-+ NIABC... YZ) 40+ NABC YZ) 4 NABED YZ) 40 NAB. WIZ) + (635) (On the right-hand side of this equation appears the sum of all possible fenealized normal products that san be formed from (ABCD... WXYZ), fhe tet second and tir ines represeming ll ers with no, one and two Contractions, and 30-98. Each term oa the sigh-hand side ofthis equation Clntainsal the actors inthe same order in which they our the T-product fon the left-hand side. ‘Eg (635) sttes Wic’s theorem, We sal ot reproduce its prot which is by induction, and 9 not very ileminating® ‘With the fteracton (626) the S-matix expansion (623) contains the mixed Tproducts “Ta A) I) =TINAB Jo N(AB.n) (638) ‘Wick extended the theorem (635) to ncde such mixed T-products. In each factor NAB), we replace «= (xx) by & aps (6> 0) depending on wher the substation made in the eeston or absorption par ofthe field Hence TEN (AB ey NAB.) im TAB Jey AAB-oDhe 3D106 The Smatsx expansion Chap. 6 ‘he normal and chronological orderings within each group (4B. being ‘he ame on account of the eine. On expanding the right-hand side of Eq (639) by Wick’ theorem before going toe limite 0, conteations sithin fone sroup (AB... be over equal-time operators when 0) vanish at the group is aleadj in normal order. We thus have the dased result: the mixed T-produc (636) can be expanded according to Ea, (635), provided Contactons over qual times af omited: TINAB. yoo NAB.) = TUAB ayo (AB hare no et. stands fr ‘no equal-time contacsions. Ege. (635) and (638) represent the desired res, enabling us to expand eich Lem in the Somatrix expansion (623) into x sm of generalized formal products. Each of tese normal products corresponds to a definite procs, charelerized by the operators not contracted which absorb and [rete the pte present inthe inital and final sate Texpetvey, The non-vanishing contractions which occur im these generalized normal Bro: ucts are the Feyaman propagators (62) corresponding to virtual parties bing emitted and reabsorbed in intermediate stats. In the next chapter we shall se how to evaluate these individual contributions to CJ'S) which result om the application of Wick’ theorem, mess (638) CHAPTER 7 Feynman diagrams and rules in QED In the lst chapter we obtained the S-matrix expansion (623) and Wick’s theorem for writing the terms in this expansion as a sum of normal ‘products. In this chaper we shall show how to calculate th mattis element Pps foe transition fromm an inal slate) to 2 inal tate 7) ina given ‘Srde of peturbation theory. For dfniteess we shall give this development fbr the important case of QED. Once this ase is understood, the crrespond- ing formats for others is easily derived Tn Section 7.1 we shall show How 1 pick out from the Sati expansion the tems whch contibuteto fist) ina given orde of perturbation theory "These terms are ealy Hentiod, They are those normal products which contain the appropriate destruction and creation operators to destroy th paris present it the initial state [> and etete those present in te fn state). i Section 7.2 we shall evaluate the transition amplitude (JH) inmomen= tum spec. This eads to Feynman diagrams asa way ofintrpeting the erms Inthe Wick expansion Ther exists x one-to-one correspondence between the diagrams and the terms which ean be summarized in simple cules. These enable one to write down transition amplitudes directly from the Feyaman [raph rather than proeesd ab to fom Wick’ theorem. In Setion 7.3 we Shall sate these cules, known as Feynman rules for QED. We shall have tbtainod these ele from the Dyxon- Wick formalism, but historically they ‘nee fst derived by Feynman ding a strongly intuitive approach, Th the first three sections ofthis chapler we stall conser QED as the {teraction ofthe electron. positon fel! wit he clectromagnti ek. Intheom Feynman dna ad aon QED Cha? last seton Section 74) we shall extend QED to include in adtion tothe ‘ecton- positron fel, other leptons, suchas the muon and tauon, 711 FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS IN CONFIGURATION SPACE ‘The process to which the individual ems in the Somatrie expansion (623), Hore EGP fa feutectineanaicals on contribute are of course determined by the nature ofthe interaction 200, For QED this is gen by Eq (62: 2840) = ~eNIGOIAWED), a TENE EPMA 0 Ie With $46), 19") and A*(A™) being liner i absorption (retin) ‘operators of leon, positrons and photos, respectively the interaction 2 gives rset eight base proasse, ep the term —eN(J* A-9") cor ‘eagonds othe annihilation of an eletron-positron par with the creation of, photon, ‘Using the conveations for Feynman diagrams explained atthe end of ‘Seton 44, we can represent thse eight processes bythe Feynman graphs of Fig. 1, which have boon grouped ito pair. The graph in each pur respond to absorption of emlsion of & photon looser With (2) the Seatering ofan leon, the seating aa positon (pai annitlation, ‘(0 pat ereation. Tet diagrams lustrate the basi proceso which the ‘QED interaction ives ric and wil be refered to the base vertex part. All ‘ther QED Feynman dlagrams are bull up by combining such babe vertex VS < ia) PeNtoy ahe matege erg 0) min 21 eynman grams oiguaton pace 0 “The digrams of Fig. 7.1 alo represent the processes arising fom the fist. ‘onde erm $n Eq (71) However these are not real physical processes is for none of them can enetsy and momentum be conserved for teal physical partis for which we mst have A? = 0 for photons, and p? =m! for fermions. Consequently «sis for these transitions, a8 will be shown explicly ia the next section, More enerally 38) 23) «psy for any unphysical proves, ie. fora transition between real phys states tthich lates a conservation law ofthe theory. This follows since S generates 1 soltion ofthe equations of motion, so th = AREUD> aay Eg. (7-14) gives four contributions to the transition (7.18), since ether inal electron ean be absorbed by ether Y~ operator, and either Baal ‘lecton can be emitted by ether operator. These four terms comprise two Dues which difer only by the interchange of the integration variables +12 in Bg (718). We need consider only one of thee pais and muliply the result by'a factor 2 The remaining two terms are represented by the Feynman graphs in Fig 76. ‘We had another ase of to identical contribution toa proces, related to the interchange x; ++ in connection with Eq (75b). Thi fepresens & ‘general result The wth order term Sin the Somatri expansion (2.1) ‘Contains auctor Il and mntegraton variables x, x... Tse ae sly summation variables and can be attached to the n vertes of a given FFeyaman graph inn! ways. We can omit the actor In! i we consider only topologically dierent Feynman diagrams, ie. diagrams which dif only in {he labeling of verte are considered the same. Some care is required in fntepreting this statement. For example, the wo diagrams of Fig. 76 are topologically diferent from eachother because the two final elects have dileent properties (These were labelled and 2” In practice they ate the ‘momenta and spins) Pstmuting xj abd x; does not Interchange the (v0 sraphs of Fg. 75 As we shal Sc, ee contributions occur witha relative ‘minor sign and corespond to the “diret minus exchange seating” which the reader should recognize, ftom nortelativistic quantum mechanics, a5 ‘harateristie of two denial fermions 1 order to obtain explicit expressions for these two contributions, let WI = NSD, F7= ah 716) Fit 74, The to diagrams for ckton-cston seating (Malet eaten be the pats of the operatre (x) and JC) proportional to «() and eG) especialy.) =o 2s 1,2 labels th electron sats involved in the proces {The per of the’ Sanatri operator (7.14) which effects the transtion |p +11), Bg. 115). 1 hen ven by SHEMFERACIFTANALES — OAT) where Sand $, correspond to Figs. 7.6) and (b), and are given by Sine [tn dtr NFL FIFO Drs = 89) ca) Sooo [ote dt NTETHIWTMG a NDras — 1) ane “The relative minus sgn ofthe two contributions i implied by the normal products in these equations. To arange the cteaion and annihilation Uperators in both caves in the same order eg. as (V2) 1A), requires (he mormal prvdcts in Eas (2.170) and (7 17e) to be reordered equal to Fee Hae WSs) and 497d ZGOWT CW) respectively, Using Ege. (7.1), we obtain from Eqs. (7.17) the transition amplitude ) >|) inagiven order. In practice one is usualy interested in the corresponding matrix clement fis. The sates [> and [fare usally specified by the particles of Known momenta and spin and polarization properties present intally and finaly. Explicit alulatins ofthe matrix elements lead a entrpretation ‘ofthe Feynman graphs os diagrams in momentum space. By studying some Spee cases we shall see that these diagrams are dosely rested to the ‘iathematcl expresions they tepresent, It possible to formulate a set of ules which enable one to write down the marx elements dtety from the Feyaman diagrams without detailed calculations. These Feynman rues wrhch will be given in the next section, are the linchpin of practical {alelatons in perturbation theory. alultion of the matin elements with J) end (f) specified as ‘momentum eigenstates ofthe particles prevent, esentlly coresponds to Furr traning the fldsinto momentum space inorder pick out the tppropsateubworpion and creation operator. For the propagators hese120 Feynman grand lea QED Chap 7 Fourier transforms are given from Es. (6320, (6.328), (463) and (527k by La es pt Year =i8te.—aa)= aba fetmbanre am) oF, een) =H, — 9) where fersprarem-m 2x) Soy= 5 P : cay vw 246) “The Fourier expansions ofthe uncontraced fel, and Ay are given by eg. (38) and (£16). The eft ofthe uncontracted operators a P" and AD stich eur i a erm of the Senate expansion, acting om, sto give the vacuum state 0) For example, follows fom Eqs. (438) and (3.16) that rorn=m(Z)nre gat Frese =O (FE) ane (7280) at» (o)"aave™ 89 Here we have suppressed the spin and polarization labels. For example, |e-p)> tnd hk) stand for the one-eceon and one-photon states Jerp> Slew) = cl9VO>. —k>-= ke = aR, r= 1,2, and a(p) and eh) ae short for ip) and eh. fo te following we shall frequently simply the ataton inthis way writing ip) for dp et “The eft ofthe uncontracied operators.” and A; which oceur ina ‘erm ofthe S-matrx expansion, eting on io produce the final sate >. 1m particular, we find from Eqs (438) and (16) that Fem -Dew (RE) "ane 036) 09 -Z(ghg)"awes 026) “whore the summations are over spin ad polarization sates, ab well as tnomenta, eis sraightorvard to generalize the results (7.25) and (7.26) to ates involving several particles Unog Eqn (25/4720) it easy to calculate S-matrx elements 5 the Following examples wil show. 1A. The fisorder terms $ “The Feynman graphs sling from the storde term 50 wie [ateniav. om ar just the basic vertex diagrams of Fig. 7.1 Let us calculate the matrix ment C/iStH) for one of thexe proces, same for electron scattering tridhemision ofa photon ilstrated in Fig 7.11. n his figure we state the ‘Tersycmomentum Tour-veetors ofthe prtices involved but their spin and olutzaton labels have Been suppressed, ab discussed above, Fig. 7.17 eprerete the tassition ip = p> = C90) +> = wD = CWA, (728) fe. i consists ofan electron of momentum p (and spin states ~ 1,2), and [fporan electron of momentum p (ad spin state = 1,2) plus photon of Permentum K (and polarization state 7 = 1,2). From Eqs. (7.25)4728) we ‘basin psn = Cv aie [otF Coron 0} wefe[ (ay anes)" lagen} om Fig, 111. The prowess 6” 2 $1, The four moments ‘Bhi pate te showa, The sen and partion Meds oe an ave Yee upped, as epsiod few122 Feyman gun a sin QHD Cp 7 “The sependen terms in this expresion give forootie +e —m-ansK—m, 030 where we have anticipated going fo the limits af an infinite volume, V+ 2, and am infinite time interval during which the transition may oecut. From gs. (7.29) and (7.30) we obtain cong [anton +402)" (as) J a3 where A = iat 4 = pul) 03 Eqs. (731) and (7.32) ate our foal result i called the Feynman ample forthe process represented by the Feynman graph in Fig. 7. Since this diagram is labelled by the momenta (and the implied spin and polarization labels) of he particles involved, tis aed a Feynman diagram fin momentum space, in contrast fo the configuration space diagrams of the last section, g Fig 710). ‘The Bunton in Eq (731) arose from the x-integration in Ea. (7.29) over the thre exponential functions associated with the to fermion line and the photon line which meet at the vertex x. Ths function ensues conservation ‘of energy and momentum for this proces: p= p+ K. (Correspondingly. ‘he argument of the polarization vector sk) in Eq. (732) was writen Kp] We shall se thar for more complicated Feyaman diagrams Jsuch'n function is obtained in this way foreach vertex, ensuring ener) | momentum conversation a each vertex and consequently forthe process a8 Fa whole. For the proces &”-+e" +) and the other first-order processes eneray~ momentum conservation is incompatible with the conditions for real (i ou ease) 50 these arent teal processes [As second example, we calculate the matix clement for Compton scat tering, for which the matrix operator and Feynman graphs were given sn Fas. 79) and (7.10) and Fig. 72. Their counterpars in momentum Space ae shown in Fig. 7.12. coresponding tothe wansition 1D = ea'W)M> + /> = ew. 033) | | | Fig 112 Compon string by eetons ‘The S.matix element for this teansiion is derived from Eqs. (79) and (710) Using Eqs. (7230, (225) and (726, one obtains [om] (i8i0=-e fener xa fonsine: [Gay men] GE) ae} oa [Note that w and dare four-component spinors and that Sy and the factors ¢ fated x 4 matrices, The spinor indice are suppressed, but these quanitis tos lye be writen inte corteet order of matrix algebra The, abd x, integrations in Eq. (738) give eseotsare-93 sertan=r-m1 the process In partculu, the energy momentum g of the virtual ‘adite electron is Hue dart here. 036)126 Feynman daa and aon @ QED Chan. 7 Substituting Eq (7.38) in (734) and carrying out the 4 integration, one obiains sn [anny rea i)" Coa)" 0m where, the Feynman amplitude associate with Fig 712() i given by A= ~ ip AUISHa= 9 + WALD). (7389) Wis eft as an exercise forthe reader to show that the second contribution to Compton sattering, (iS. 5 given by the ame equation (7.37) with, replaced bythe Feynman amplitde for Fig 7120: A= Pp D'SHG ~~ KM). (7380) (Our result, Bas. (737) and (7.38), displays some general features which aloays occur in ealeulating Ssmatrt elements by these methods sty the factors Egs (7.384) and (138 ate inthe core spinor onder. Comparing these expenons with the Feyaman graphs, Figs 7124) and (@). we can describe this oder ax Following a frmioa Line nthe Sense ofits larrons, coctexponds 1 writing he spina factors from right 0 lef ‘Seondly comparing thes results wth Eqs (731) and (732), wenote many common features, The square brackets in Eqs (731) and (737) each contain ‘Sfantion for overall energy-momentum conservation (multipie by (2)*), td factors (1/2V)"* and (n/ VE)" Tor each external photon and fermion ttand f associated nan obvious manner with external electron and photon lines The one addtional feature in Eqs (7.8) the presence ofthe factors {@) which corespond to the intermediate ermion lines in diagrams 7.123) land Ib). These common features are examples of Feynman ules wich willbe fully discussed in the next section Finally, we se that, fr both Figs 7.12) and (the intermediate particle cannot be a real pate q? # m2 since we cannot have enrg)-momentam Conservation fo thee ral particles at a vertex. Tasisia contrast the non- ‘ovarant perturbation theory of non-elativistie quantum mechanics, where time and space coordinates and consequently energy and tree-momentu) fre teat on diferent fotings particles in intermediate states sat the hergy-momentum conditions of fal particles (Le p* =m K=O) but nergy snot conserved in intermediate state although hece-momentum is "We briefy consider Compton sattaring by positon in oder to establish some diferences of detail hich ose for positrons. The Feyaman graphs in Fig 713, Compton string by poston, ‘momentum space for this process ate shows ia Fig. 7.13. We leave it as eerie forthe reader f0 show from fst principles thatthe Feyaman ‘ing 713) again fads to Ba (737), witha replaced by = Capa = ~P— RAB) 739) nd to obtain the corresponding rest for diagram 7.1300. Ie Eq (739), the spinor op) relates tothe nastate positron, and the spinor rip) 0 the intaksate poston. The order ofthe spinor acorn this ‘uation corresponds to writing these factors rom ight 1 las one follows the fermion line nthe sense of ts aroms. This the same prescription as for flectrons Care is also needed in interpreting the momentum labels on Feynman diagrams. For external fines the momenta shown are the actual fourmomenta ofthe partes preset intially and finaly. This applies to slecirons positons aad photon. This means that on exteraal electron lines the ow of four-momeatum sin the same sense as tha of the arrows on the lines om external positron nests inthe sense oppose to that of the arrows. ‘On intrna eign line, onthe other hand, the four-momentum labels on Feynman graphs alvays represent energy-momentum flow in the same ection asthe arrows. “This completes our dotled analysis of Compton scattering. In the following examples, the detailed derivations will be left as exercises forthe ‘caer und we shall concenrateon the emalning tutes of Feynman graphs fot yet encountered 12. Hlectron electro seateriag “The Feynman diagrams in configuration space for Moller seatering were shown in Fig. 78. The cocesponding momentum space graphs are shown in126 Feynman diagrams and rlesia QED Chap 7 eee Hegel 714, Blcwon-eecuon seating (Moller seater. Fig, 714. The Sates clement for the transition W>=eO210190> + 1/> = HON a4) {is obtained fom Eqs. (7.17). One finds (s\Qe- 26» [eorreen-n-nmn(Z)"Jeaeay any where the meaning of T(w/¥E,)” should be clear tothe reader and where the Feynman amplitudes correypondng to Figs 7-14(a) and (b) ae given by Me= -8UG) PADD elk =P HABYP Mp) —(AIB) +2 UH UDID elk = ps — Fuels). (76) ‘The lst two equations exhibit expiciy the elaive minus sign of the divest and exchange amplitudes, which reflects the exclusion principe as = 9. 08) ‘We leave i tothe reader o obtain the revu C119 o> 2-0 (5) GE)" Joreenone —e- at a9 XID KIP 7S) -[exree-0 (5) "G)"]« 48s) tere 12 Gi fetinaninrsio—oran, 04 ig 115. Te ton selene128 Feynman dram and aes ® QED Chu. 7 [As expected, this Feynman amplitude contains an interution overall internal photon momenta k, while foreach valve ofk the interal fermion momentum has the value g= pk which corresponds 10 eaeray- ‘momentum conservation atthe vertices. This intepation over ap internal ‘momentum & pial of «closed loop. (For another example se Problem 7.2 fn the photon sel-energy) qs, (74) dspay the same structure which oocurred in all our other examples. The origins ofthe indvidvl factors in Bq, (7-43) should he clear to the reader The Feyoman amplitude contains factors iSp and iD for fermion and photon propagators, spinors a and a for the inal and final extra electon lines and factor foreach vertex. Te spinor quantities farein the expected order as one follows the fermion lin inthe diestion of its. {erws. The emang factor (—e")~ (ie) has ts orgi athe form ofS for QED, Eqs (7.1) and (12) 13 FEYNMAN RULES FOR QED ‘The Ssmatrc elements . ‘where the intial end final states are speciied hy the momenta (and spin and Polarization variables) ofthe partes preset, the S-matrx element is given ty «9% =5n[entone—rogy()" I(t)" } 09 Here P and Pare the total four-momenta inthe nts nd inal tates, and the products extend over ll external fermions e~ and e") and photons E and’ being the energies of the individual extemal fermions and photons respectively wale oe QED a-ha 046) eae erp tcas pple a mewn pes HOES cota ee ee ae oboe Ferenc sn 1. For each vertex, write a factor ie” (see Eqs. (7.1) and (7.2). Fe ee tse tne ell fe monte we & tare Ea 50) ee a 3. Foe each internal fermion lin, labeled by the momentum p, write @ factor (see Eq (7.24)) 1 ° >) sun =i 7 4. For each external line, write one of the following factors (see Eas. (725) and (726) (a) for cach inal electron: ip) @——P———* (7494) (by foreach Gaal electron fp) @———+———p (1496) (6 foreach initial posivon: fp) @——+——+ (748), (6) for each inal positron: cfg) -——*——# (1494) : (ai nak (6) foreach initial photon: ef) (© for each fin photon: nth) 399 In Eqs. (749) pand k denote the three-momenta ofthe external particles, and ‘= 1r3) label ther spa and polarization stats, 5. The spinor factors (pmatics, Sy-functions,fourspinors) for each fermion line are ordered 9 that, reading from ight to let, they occur inthe same sequence as following the fermion line inthe direction of is arrows. "6 For each dosed fron loop, take the tact and multiply by a factor ch "Fett plsinton ale which we emg cele icomlen 6 for sero se ma hen apace by SI for anne son1a Feyaman diagrams and ules a QED Chup. 7 This cule follows direct fom the coresponding result ia eontiguraton space, derived in Section 71 [see Eq. (7.22) 7. Thefour-momenta sociated withthe three lines meting at each vertex satiy energy-momentum conservation For each fourmomentam q which fot fixed by energy-momentum conservation carry out the integration {Gs)~* fda, One such integration with respect to an internal momenturs ‘arable occurs foreach closed loop ‘We ad sn example of thie rule n Eg (74h) for the lecon selene. Inclison ofthe factors (22) in this ule convenient, since all numerical factors except forthe phase ator of rae 8) ae accounted fori this Way, as wil he shown below '. Multiply the expression bya pase factor 5 which sequal to +1 (— tan even (od) ube of interchanges of eighbouring lennon operators is required to write the fermion operators inthe correet normal order. Tgenera ths phase ators only of ignicance when the coatbutions of several Feynman sraphs af added, and ony the relative signs mater. The ‘Stuation most frequently met ithe one we dcussed for (e")-and (€-e") Scattering involving contebuttons from diagrams which difer only by the Interchange of external fermion liner asiocated with identical fermion ‘operators Ths coresponds to the interchange of either () wos e"(e") Unes, or (i) 80 nal e-(e*) ines, oF (i) am inital e-(e*) line with fal ee) line. Tt remains to justly our assertion, made when discussing rule 7, thatthe above rls allow forall merc factors. The on actors not taken into ‘sccouat 30 far are factor 2s)" which oocur together with functions of ‘est rom propagators The integration at each verte ives factor (22)* {Gee Eg (7.30) and the Fourie rasform of ech pe (Gn) [ae Ege (7.2)), Fora Feynman diagram co (5) interalleraion (photon) lines, the Feynman amplitude contains & factor Lentyiort 750) ‘where the exponent —| allows for the facto (2! which was separated ou in Eg. (743), Its eft as a problem forthe reader to show that for Feyaman ‘this we obtained rom fiat principles eater inthis chapter. Aft litle Dractice, Feynman rus provide an extnordinatly simple method for ‘hisining even very complicated mati elements, and for this reason they orm the hess of owt practical caleuations. Similar diagrammatic tech rgd at also of ret mmportance in many other elds, weak interactions {to be studied ater inthis book) and condensed matter physics, where ‘analogous eules ean be developed.» Appendix B, a the end of his book, we tive a summary ofthese rules for QED, as wel ab those fr the standard Sletro-weak theory which willbe derived later 74 LEPTONS Soar we have treated QED as the interaction of electrons and positrons with {he electromagnetic eld, Bu there are many elcecally charged partes in ‘ature. Thos can be divided into two categories hadrons which also iateract Win sttong forces (often cal pues orcs leptons which donot. Both types interact va weak ae well as electromagnetic interactions. "etrons and positron ae leptons, as are muons (j*) and tauons (¢*), the later discovered in 1975 only? Both muons and tauons have spin $ and charge +e Furthermore, within experimental accuracy (which s high io the case of muon expermens), the extibit all che properties of particles whose interactions afe identical with those of elctons, except for their ‘iferent masses m, = 2068 my = 108.7 MeV, m, = (17843) MeV. This is feleed to as €- e+ unreraality, Whether other pariles exist in tis ‘ene of o-aled sequential lepons isan open question. Present experiments Indicate only that none ent with a mas of less than about 15 GeV. ‘QED is usually understood to include the interaction oll kinds fleptons (e.jots.) with the Gectromagnetie field. The reason why hadrons are ‘eluded will become clear shortly. This extended QED whieh we shall now Nudy displays a new richaesr procese involving more than ove kind of lepton “Assuming universality, the extension of the theory i most teva. Like the electron, we deseribe etch kindof lepton by @ Dirac spinor fe: Yd), where labels the Kind of lepton,» The generalization of the ree. Fold Lagrangian density for elecuons, By (467), FoF Fleni72.— me, (752) ‘snd making the minimal substitution (4.64) (wth = —e) leads to the ‘teraction Hamiltonian desity 2840) = — 460) ~ =e NEGANAHVAT. — 526) onan pol adage cage pric, cdi Secon ta potent sl owe deen "ee i hep cage mo he pa We sa ow adie? acne nic ran Wigley12 Feynmun diagrams and esi OED Chap. 7 “his equation describes lca interaction sine all eld opertor ae exalted at singe spacetime pin. Thi appropriate forthe ineaction Othe eectomagnetis ld wih pot price Wh within the mis of | ren experiment, pons are pointe, hadrons have ine ale For Shample the experimental value of the proton radius is of the otet Ox 10m For this reason he eectromaget interaction of charged ¥ fons cannot be descibed by expressions ke (1320, 1 "Thesecond point to noteabou teinteracton (752) tht it consis ofa sum of term each of which involves one Kind of lepton ony Hence the | interactions denied by base vertex part ike thon of Fi 71, ih ath Sermion lines ata vertex refering to the same kind of lepton. Instead of two lector, asin Fig. 71 they could both be muons of both tons. But we could not, fr example, have one electron and one muon The vertex pat in | Fig 7.16 conserves charge but it does not oeur withthe interaction (7526) singe it would roi an interaction term ofthe form eG, dye. Conse: ‘quently, for any non-vanishing marx eemeat 1D = Mp w RD =.) ‘one would in this way obtain the Feynman amplitude AGE + hi) = ARAYA DDrud B+ PAP? >, (280) 2) (sy, Here the labels ean tached to the fermion lines in Fig. 717, to creation thd absorption operators in Eq (740), and to spinors im Eq (78D, dis ‘Gngush dectons and muons "We do not advocate deriving the Feyeman amplitude (7.61) fom fst principles (other than as an exercise), since i is trival (0 extend the ul for eaealting amplitudes, which were iven dn the lat section, co {QED involving several leptons The Scmatet operator (759) ifr rom the operator SE (1.199, fr the annbilation diagram, Fig. 7719, fr(e"e) scattering in that inthe final state the electrons ae replaced by muons lence the amplitude 7.1) can be derived in to seps Fray, obtain the Feynman amplitude 1, corresponding tothe operator 5, Ba. (7199), forthe transition analogovs to (7.60) but with all particles etrons fy can be writen down dive, using the Feynman rules of | Section 13 Fig 1 The proves e* o> 0° 44 Sccondly, in the expression for My replace all quantities referring to the final sate Gevtrons BY the cotresponding quantiis for muons islet as an execs forthe fade verify that this procedure fads to Bq, (26, “Tere is one important diference between the e°e” +?” prot and ("e-) scattering. For the ater, 2 second contibution stems trom 5, Ea (0.190), coresponding to Fig. 77a) For the former, a we have seen, Ea. (2.57) gives no such contrbution. Ke would correspond to replacing the na ‘lesron lines in Fig 77a) by son lines, 0 that cach vertex would involve ‘oneelecizon line and one muon ine (eg the vertex athe top would lok ike Fig 716), wolting the conservation ofboth electron number Me) and of muon number Ny) at each vere, From this example eas) se how to extend the ues of Setion 73. For any process one must draw al roevant Feynman diagrams which ‘conserve Nie), Nl, at each verte, ithe two lepton lines entering and leaving a verter must be of the same kind (both ¢ or both pete) The Feynman amplitude corresponding o each ofthese diagrams then wetten down deel using the Feynman rules ofthe lst section PROBLEMS: 711 ive the owes onder nonvanishing Smatrix element (719) and hence the ‘hreponing Feynman amp for Bhabha cate. the proses EF) + € 5.2) -+ U5) + 72 Show that the Feynan amplitude forthe photon selfeneey agra in Fig. 78 pen eae : 1 ga forrecwsae + nesion where and c(t are the mmentur and poarztin vets of the photon 73 Areal sala el ge) asoclted with 2 pio boson By eee the Tapepin densi Fu) = #40) + 400) where the ee demity (5, a 240) = afoot less a neraton ofthe ld wih isl, wth ga ra ouping consti ‘Nomal erring of operators need hroughost) "Witedowe he Sate exguin, and pc at he noxmal dere term hat enue to the BB wateng roe ky) + Bik) +h) + th) Infants perurbatlon theory. Draw th Feynman diagram sereteting this186 Feynman agra andre QED Chap 7 ‘erm and show that he correspon Smtr met pen by hs) = RFI hth hc) sh the Feynman amptade a= ig (Noe that isindependen he boson B00) = 40) + #60) 20) ~ HOB) — 244) + FNP, — mL) represent era pia 0 ld (x) an fe fermion Geld Ys) and 20) = intense) ates thei inteacton “The inerction Lgsangian denity Zi simaro hat of QED, exept that eis replaced by (ph and the Pct Geld 4,5) replaced bythe ese ie Expl ts sty tote down the Ferran ues fo oe scant meson hea 15 rea bar elds) x denied bythe Lagrangian deny Lea) = £40) + HUI were the eld Lagrangian density (5) and Ua) a sai extern ‘Dee the caution of motion (+ #90) = ae. ‘Show tain lovet rd the Sate seent fora ncn Btce wth ‘women = (yk tobe Seatered to statewith rent y= a) Seen 6 ian wy ‘BreF AM aise 2n0hy 4) 21 = fasuiyers ‘Thigp fpotle with st entenlpotema willbe considered farther lw Chaps CHAPTER 8 QED Processes in lowest order In the las chapter we established the Feyoman rule fo oblsiing the matrix jlemeat 5, oF any colson process in QED. In this chapter we shall tart by deriving from 5, the experimentally observable quantities, ie the cros- sections. This is 4 stughdorward generalization of the corresponding Kinematic and phase-space arguments of nonrelativistic collision theory “Thecross-sections obtained inthis way are fly polarized, ie. the photons and leptons present inital and nally ae in dfite polarization states. (AS 's customary, we use the term ‘polarization stat’ for both photons and fermions, mesning a spin satin the late case) Ia most practical tuations the beams of colding parties ae unpolarized, and the polarizations ofthe particle produced tn the colon are aot observed It then becomes ‘ecesay fo average and sim over polarization states of iil and final paris respectively. The very powerful and elegant techigues fr perform Ing these spin and polarization sums are developed in Sections 8.2 and 83, The corresponding formalism for analysing polarization properties more comples, and we shill considera simple extmpl on Ta Sections 84-86, we shall ltate our Tevalls by deriving the cos ‘sections, in lowest non-vanishing order of perturbation theory, forsome ofthe >roceses considered in the previous chapter. By the end ofthis chapter, the Trader should beable to dealin «saul way with ay cllsion problem in (QED. (A reader who tres of these applications should not be tempted also 10 ‘omit Sections 8.7 8.9 which introduce some fundamental new ideas) "We shall extend the matrix formalism to allow forthe presence of an138 QED proms in home onder Op ‘external electromagnetic eld, of feld whose quantum fluctuations are ‘negligible, so that itcan be described by an unguantized classical id Asan ‘pplication af thee ideas we shall consider the seatering of electrons by the Coulomb fld ofa nvcleus both elastic scattering (Section 87) and inelastic seatering accompanied by emision of faditon, ie. bremsstrahlung (Section 83). In studying these Coulomb sattring processes, we shall encounter a new feature. There exists the possibility ofthe emission by a charged particle of ‘one of mare very soft photons (ie with very litle energy). Experimental Decause of faite energy resolution, the distinction between elastic and Inelastic sealering becomes blued. This unrealistic separation ito elastic land inelastic scattering events leads tothe infrared divergence. Inthe last ‘ection of this chapter we shall se how this difiuly i eslved A THE CROSS-SECTION ‘We consider a saterng process in which two particles, they may be leptons or photons, with our momenta p, = (Ep) = 12, coli and produce N Foal patces with momenta pj =(Ej. pp). f= iy -.N Inial and final partic are assumed to bein deft planation ates. Asin Chapter the Indies labeling these sates will in general be suppressed. Eg. (788), ‘efning the Feynman amplitude Tor this process, can now be writen i+ 000'9(E9; En) (ape) (ats) Tome eo sth no tn nine ce Wy dijeataomd eaten ee and infinite volume, Po, For frie T and V, we would have obtained the same expression (8.1) with 29450, -En) = tbo Er, —En) we [eevee tole Sn replacedby (5 pi; — Ep). Inderiving thecross section i wllbelpotakeT and fine to begin with Inshiscase the ransion probabiliy per unit time ease @ BI Thecrossecion 139 ines the ator (5p Sp)" Forage vals of Tan ¥ we can then ake sulSn-En)=asre(en-n) a [so(Z0-Zn)]=rvane(E0,-En) 9 with erors which tend to ato as To and V-+<0. Hence Eq (83) becomes and varefsn-tKsa) PaO) a, (86) is the transton rte 10 one definite fina sate. To obtain the teanstion rate to a group of final sates with momenta in the intevals (jp; + db)hy=1,--.Nywemust mulply why the number ofthese states thi ven, Ven en “The difeentia ecos-stin isthe transition rate into this group of fin states for one scattering centre and unit incident Sux. With ur choice of ‘normalization for he states, the volume V which we are considering contains fone scattering cere and the incident Aux i yl? Whee hs the eelaive ‘elocty af he colliding parties ‘Combining these eesuls with Eq (8.6), we obtain the equitedexpresion forthe dierenial cross-section ome = cot e4(E0,-En) at (Mem)(I ate ss) Eg (88) holds in any Lorent frame in wbich the colin parties move collinear In sucha frame the relative velocity fi given by te expression EE ata = psp) — mindy a where mand m, are the rest asses ofthe cllidng particles Two important cxamples of such frames re the cenreofmats (COM) system, and the0 QED proses in vet oer Chap sent a sen te al eve = rane =n Eth enn, eon ln the lnboratory system, the target particle (Particle 2, say is at res Pr and in (ua, 10) Ff. (810) ofcourse aso fellow fom the general result (9). “The telativitie invariance ofthe cross setion formula (88) follows from {Eq (49) and fom the Lorentz invariance of ORE for any fourvecor paibpl: ecsise of conservation of eneray and momentum, the final-state momenta pi. By are otal ndependent variables. In order to obtain a ‘Siena cross-section inthe independent variables appropiate toa given ‘uation we integrate Eq. (88) with rept to the remaining variables. We ilurate his forthe frequently ocurtng ease ofa proces Teding toa two- body final sate. Eq (88) now becomes a= J.P) 9% # re PIP MH — B12) vere 1 wee EEE (IOm)ar en Tocearation of (128) with respec to sies do = fro) ME +E, Ey Eaitapild, 13) were pi = ps + 9s nd integrating Bq, (13) over iil we beat See) man 8 BIT" rots] a 2. erup on . seen =~ fag yen 050 ep ie fee 2 "er ge nn 7 eves foeasan( 2) ‘ (i “ 82 Spin same 1 where =p, +p — pad the partial dr polar angles, of the vector pj eonstant. "To obtain the difeentalerose-section inthe CoM system, we nae that In eis evaluated with the the CoM system pj = ~p. From Cee 169) we find AE HED EE a ie and combining Es. (18), (8.12, (610s) and (8.17) we obtain the CoM ‘ierentia cross-section de oe 4 (Si). aeerser tim) Finally, we noe that all he cossseton formulae which we have derived apply ireapscive of whether ential particles ae present or 9 However, fn calculating total crsesecios in cases wbere two or moe fistate partes ae identical, one mus incerate only over those ranges of angles, Inhich corespond fo physially distinguishable events. For example, the (CoM eons section 8.18 reers toa process with vo iene parties in the fnal state, then the scattering. anges (04) (2) and. (0.84) = (earn + f) describe the sae proces, Hens the otal CoM crossection 5 obtained by integrating Eq. (818) only over the forward hemisphere ema tnic ce [sof anf where the Inst integral is over the complete slid angle 4x, as indicate, 2. SPIN SUMS ’ In the Inst scion we coded easton i which the nian Gna sates ae completely specie, including the polarization stats of the eptoas | fd photone present iially and fnlly- In many experiments, he eoiing | 2 ‘aril are unpolarized and the polarizations of the Bnabtae aries are | ‘not detested. To obtain the corresponding unpolarized cross-section from Eq. |! (48), we must average La’ overall nal polarization states and we must ‘um cover al inl polarization stats. In this section we shall show how co ‘obtain these average and sums over iil and Hal epcon spins. We shall find thatthe unpolarized crowr-section can always be expressed In terms of trues of products of mates,12 QED prsenen nomen order Chap Consider a Feynman amplitude ofthe form = udp THAD) 620) “This occurs, for example, for Compton scaterng (we Fig 712 and Eas (7.38) Hee the spinors wip) ands) completely speiy the momenta nd Spins of the elton inthe inal and final states and the operator Fis 2 ‘Fx Amati ult up out of matics. Eq (820) gies rise to an unpolarized ‘rosesetion proportional to xed fue en where me have average over intl spins.) and summed over inal pins (S) Defiaing Payry, cr wwe can write Eg (82) as KATE Gs ‘Writing out the spinor indies explicitly, this can be written Tutp KiAnIT ws). 625) rai(Swarer)ta(S sain) We introduce the postive energy projection operator [Eqs (A31) and ao) A) Jn order to eliminate the sums over positive energy tates! This ends to our final result a (2),-fsinssn aw X= ALO ARO =ETELAT@ IFAT) tm ae (e In addition to the amplitude (420), involving the absorption and emission of an external negative lepton thee are also Feynman amplitudes 25) ton mans (A) ee eo i en § ‘ofthe form 4H = chp IFolo) 26) = ap To6D) (426) HET HED) (8266) “These represent: (a) absorption and emission of a postive lepton, a in ‘Compton seattering by ostrons [Eq (7.39) and Fig 7.13] (creation of @ lepton pai, asin 2)» e"e” (Fig. 7-5 and) annation of lepton pa as imete 92) (Fig. 74). ‘The spin sums for these cases are performed as for the case which we ‘conser in detail, but using the negative energy projection operator [Eas (SI and (A357) sin=-(t52),--Rasomiy ie Loctite sums oer sepa er st Foreample (426 ket ADDL = “A Tr(a ora“ coy Spin sums, and consequently tries tke Ege. (25) and (8.27) frequently ‘occur in practice. There exist simple technigus fr ealalting tach traces “These use algebraic idemtites for -matnce Gee Appendix A, Section A2) and some general rules fr calculating the waces f products of matrices (ee Ssstion AS) Later inthis chapter we shal repeatedly apply these sls sad ‘methods in calculating the unpolarized cross-sections for various processes in OED. ‘To conclude this section we briety dscuss how to calculate the spin polarization properties of proces This involves evaluating for specific ‘tial and fra pin sates This can be done ether by using specie matin represetation forthe spinors or by employing heey or spin projection ‘operators to select the appropriate spin states. The later technigue again Jetds to traces and s usually the more convenient one ‘We shall lustate this method forthe particular process resulting from the Feynman amplitude (820) ia which the incident electron as postive heiity andthe outgoing electron has negative elicit. The cross-section [or this Relcity ip process's proportional to X= |e)? = Gp Tulornau(ousy, 62)Lad QED prwescsintomen oer Chap We introduce the hei projection operators Ne@)= Mt op aan which have the properticn Tp) ~ bul Eq, (628) then becomes Foal) EE GION orate nada) (»)418)) Tein) = Savi0). (A) TeEA“ IFT A“ OTT). 29) where the las ln lows from Egy. (823) and (8.25) with F and F replaced byTM"(p) and P11 Inthe relativistic Init E> mm, the bality peojetion operators (A.40) simply to TM =0 7) Eom as) Which ako leads 10 a considerable simplifcation of Eq. (829) in the Felatvsi init E> m, 9m 43. PHOTON POLARIZATION SUMS In the last section we showed how to perform spin sums in order to ‘obtain unpolarized crosesections. We now consider the corresponding photon plarzation sums. We met anexampleo his for Thomson scattering In Section 144, where we fist obtained the lly polarize cross-section, Ea. (149) snd then expliily performed the summing and averaging over nal nd initial polarizations by means of Eq. (71). An alternative covariant formalism exists for ebaining the unpolarized cross-section dire. Ths formalism depends onthe gauge invariance ofthe theory, he consequences of ‘which we shall now consider in more deal (Gauge invariance of the theory implies the guuge invariance of the matrix clement, ia of the Feynman amplitudes Is ofcourse only the matrix ‘Semen isl correxponding tothe som of ll possible Feynman graphs in & faven order of perturbation theory, which must be gauge-nvarian. The contributions to the amplitde (rom individual Feynman graphs ae in feneral not gaugeinvalant. For example, for Compton settring the Individual amplitudes aed, Eqs (7.38) and (7386), are not gauge Sarit, but their sum, (A+. (The verification ofthis tateme Using the method to be developed inthis sections et as a protem [or the reader See Problem 87.) For any proce involving extersil photons, the Feynman ampitide AW sol the form nie (hha) Ay thick) 830 wih oe polation vetor Hh oF ech external photon an the tensor pita: ay (hy. fnependnt of ise plutzaton vectors (TS {tows ro our fot Feyaman Ful, Es (149s) and (749, We re again sing veal polrzation vectors] “The poatzaton vectors ar of our groge-dependent. For example fora fre photon deserbed in «Lorentz ene By the pla save 0) = const ete" (he gauge acsformation At) +A) +27, with fo) = Fidpee*, ‘pies se ef) + fio} «on Invariance of the amplitude (830) under this transformation requires 2 ax je when any external photon polarization vecor is replaced by the corresponding four-momentum, the amplitude must vanish Toillustate how Fa (8.32) i used to cleat photon polarization sms, ve consider as simple example, the matrix element ie) = 6.) corresponing 10 proces involving oe exten poon, The gauge Invariance now implies fag ha a) = Hay, As ay bath) 0. (33) The unpolarived cross-section forthe process proportional to Xm 3 ar = aa www a Using he elation

4m! cannot vanish For the unpolarized crosesection we reguite EEE earn sick a») Using the hermit condition" = 1°") (Ba, (A.6)}, Ea, (8.38) gives arota5082) ts gee ‘sa 154 Leptom pe prodection ae" e")eolsins 147 sand Eq (839) Becomes eT +7 as Bt any ese A is ven by Aone = EE la srt (Hho oot} ata) where we sed the energy projection operators (824s) and (824), Similarly ‘ne obtains Bat [Ach phem famehgmy] eam The tries (Ala) and (8b) ae easily evaluated using the results of ApnondixA. Sections A 2and A3 Since the race ofaproductofanodd number ‘of mates vanishes (Eq. (A16)] Fa Ta) becomes Ais = app TE) — mE THC snd rom Eqs. (A.17 this ives i saa ¢y din Paty +e. 4) Beta btnitend-ocenewl. — aay eee = stm ape (Purina) + (rene meant rar linrrn+trrtnrd ++ mo) + mp) + Is a) Sofarwe have worked inan arbitrary reference frame, We now specialize to the CoM frame, as specified in Fig. 8.1. For experiments earid out with clldingeletron and positzonbeamsthisisthesameas the aboratory system Ti fone th enrol sunton Morel. pre ano athe satis BeEEX QED prosons homes onder Chap Fig. Kinematic for the process e+ Fla the CoM hse, “The kinematic factors ocuring in Eg. (843) now take she form Pipi = pap = B— pp’ cos, p= pati = E* + py cos Pips Ee rah B+? Bae) (tn) where (644) Furthermore, since £ > m, © 207m, itt avery 800d approximation 10 take (P= [pl =F. and to neglect ems proportional om? inside te curly brackess fn Ea. (643), On making these approximations and substituting Eqs. (843) tnd (844) inthe CoM cross-section formula (818), we finaly obain (8) naalfwrntsronn sn wee B(Che eee assy for the total erost-secton, In the extreme relasvsic Kimi, E> my, hese foumle reduce 1 the much quoted (S)-rtroro a oat Emm) 64) AA Lepton pe production ine" Peions 149 Fig 82 £2 4 (in atbeary un) for te prot ee” rane tetas 3 2m Fre W Bacio er a Pye Re tae, a G97, 12} ferpermentl di ctrve orosesseton formals ©89) atm, = 18S MV Bosh the proceses¢*2” — y*y” and ee” -+2*2” have heen extensively sued over a wide range of energies For the, which was ist discoveced in ‘his reaction. the threshold region i of particular interest The «= highly unstable rile Ie is detected by is decay products so that its precise mass isnot easy to determine. The est values ae obtanal by fiting the total ‘oss section (ASH) othe experimental ata nthe threshold region Fig. 82 ‘hows the exellent agreement obtained in such aft the experiments of W. Bucino eal, Phys Re. Let, 411978), 13. The tauon mass ebtaned inthis sway ism, = 178254 MeV, Other experiments ee compatible with his value but with somewhat larger exons ‘At cease energies the predicions of Ea. (846) are in excellent agreement with experiment. Typical resuls showin Fig. 3 which s based to the work of DP. Barber etal, Phys. Ren. Lett, 43 (1979), 1915, These high-energy esl ae of great interest since they probe the interaction dows vo very small distances and so represent a severe test of QED. Inthe CoM system, the energy ofthe vital photon inthe process is 2P, implying 2 limeseae of order NE and a corresponding distance sale of order he/2E. or E= 18 GeV, this coresponds tom stance ofthe order 7» 10-°£ The agreement between theory and experiment implies that even at these very