ELETRNICA BSICA

CF-071

Prof.: Cyro Ketzer Saul

cyro@fisica.ufpr.br

2012-2

Programa
Componentes Eletrnicos:
Componentes lineares passivos
Resistores; Capacitores; Indutores.

Componentes no-lineares passivos

Termistores, varistores, diodos (P-N, Zener, tnel)

Componentes no-lineares ativos

Transistores (bipolares, de efeito de campo, MOS) SCRs, Triacs, IGBT, Amplificadores Operacionais, 555

Princpios Bsicos de Circuitos

Circutos RC e aplicao em filtros Retificao de sinal alternado Polarizao de transistores e circuitos transistorizados simples Circuitos com amplificadores operacionais Circuitos empregando o 555

Eletrnica Digital
Princpios de lgica Booleana para aplicaes em circuitos lgicos. Caractersticas e aplicaes de circuitos lgicos TTL e CMOS. Microcontroladores (Arduino)

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Objetivo
Capacitar o aluno a distinguir e analisar:
Componentes Aplicaes Especificaes Esquemas eletrnicos simples

Construir:
Circuitos eletrnicos analgicos (muito simples) Circuitos digitais simples

Introduo ao Arduino

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Funcionamento
Aulas Terico Prticas
Configurao das Aulas
Tericas Terico-Prticas Prticas

Avaliao
A cada aula sempre sobre a aula anterior Trabalhos prticos

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Caixa de Ferramentas / Componentes

Incio do semestre
Cada grupo fica responsvel por uma caixa de ferramentas (numerada) com cadeado (e chave) contendo os seguintes itens:
Protoboard Alicate de corte de fio Alicate de ponta fina Ferro de solda (30W) / suporte Rolo de solda

Final do semestre
Cada aluno / grupo dever devolver a caixa contendo os itens recebidos no incio do semestre. A reposicao de itens extraviados ou danificados da responsabilidade do aluno / grupo usurio da caixa.

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Histrico da Eletrnica (Resumido)

1904

Thermionic valve, or diode invented

Sir John Ambrose Fleming, a professor of electrical engineering and the first scientific adviser for the M arconi Company, invents the thermionic valve, or diode, a two-electrode rectifier. (A rectifier prevents the flow of current from reversing.) Building on the work of Thomas Edison, Fleming devises an "oscillation valve"a filament and a small metal plate in a vacuum bulb. He discovers that an electric current passing through the vacuum is always unidirectional.

1907

Triode patented
Lee De Forest, an American inventor, files for a patent on a triode, a three-electrode device he calls an Audion. He improves on Flemings diode by inserting a gridlike wire between the two elements in the vacuum tube, creating a sensitive receiver and amplifier of radio wave signals. The triode is used to improve sound in long-distance phone service, radios, televisions, sound on film, and eventually in modern applications such as computers and satellite transmitters.

1940 Ohl discovers that impurities in semiconductor crystals create photoelectric properties
Russell Ohl, a researcher at Bell Labs, discovers that small amounts of impurities in semiconductor crystals create photoelectric and other potentially useful properties. When he shines a light on a silicon crystal with a crack running through it, a voltmeter attached to the crystal registers a half-volt jump. The crack, it turns out, is a natural P-N junction, with impurities on one side that create an excess of negative electrons (N) and impurities on the other side that create a deficit (P). Ohls crystal is the precursor of modern-day solar cells, which convert sunlight into electricity. It also heralds the coming of transistors.

Discovered that it was due to the modulation of his laboratory lighting by a spinning fan blade

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1947

First pointcontact transistor

John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William B. Shockley of Bell Labs discover the transistor. Brattain and Bardeen build the first pointcontact transistor, made of two gold foil contacts sitting on a germanium crystal. When electric current is applied to one contact, the germanium boosts the strength of the current flowing through the other contact. Shockley improves on the idea by building the junction transistor"sandwiches" of N- and P-type germanium. A weak voltage applied to the middle layer modifies a current traveling across the entire "sandwich." In November 1956 the three men are awarded the Nobel Prize in physics.

1952 First commercial device to apply Shockleys junction transistor

Sonotone markets a $229.50 hearing aid that uses two vacuum tubes and one transistorthe first commercial device to apply Shockleys junction transistor. Replacement batteries for transistorized hearing aids cost only $10, not the nearly $100 of batteries for earlier vacuum tube models.

1954

First transistor radio

Texas Instruments introduces the first transistor radio, the Regency TR1, with radios by Regency Electronics and transistors by Texas Instruments. The transistor replaces De Forests triode, which was the electrical component that amplified audio signalsmaking AM (amplitude modulation) radio possible. The door is now open to the transistorization of other mass production devices.

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1954 First truly consistent mass-produced transistor is demonstrated

Gordon Teal, a physical chemist formerly with Bell Labs, shows colleagues at Texas Instruments that transistors can be made from pure silicondemonstrating the first truly consistent mass-produced transistor. By the late 1950s silicon begins to replace germanium as the semiconductor material out of which almost all modern transistors are made.

Kilby

1955

Silicon dioxide discovery

Carl Frosch and Link Derick at Bell Labs discover that silicon dioxide can act as a diffusion mask. That is, when a silicon wafer is heated to about 1200C in an atmosphere of water vapor or oxygen, a thin skin of silicon dioxide forms on the surface. With selective etching of the oxide layer, they could diffuse impurities into the silicon to create P-N junctions. Bell Labs engineer John M oll then develops the all-diffused silicon transistor, in which impurities are diffused into the wafer while the active elements are protected by the oxide layer. Silicon begins to replace germanium as the preferred semiconductor for electronics.

1958-1959 Integrated circuit invented

Jack Kilby, an electrical engineer at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor independently invent the integrated circuit. In September 1958, Kilby builds an integrated circuit that includes multiple components connected with gold wires on a tiny silicon chip, creating a "solid circuit." (On February 6, 1959, a patent is issued to TI for "miniaturized electronic circuits.") In January 1959, Noyce develops his integrated circuit using the process of planar technology, developed by a colleague, Jean Hoerni. Instead of connecting individual circuits with gold wires, Noyce uses vapor-deposited metal connections, a method that allows for miniaturization and mass production. Noyce files a detailed patent on July 30, 1959.

Noyce

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1962 MOSFET is invented

The metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) is invented by engineers Steven Hofstein and Frederic Heiman at RCA's research laboratory in Princeton, New Jersey. Although slower than a bipolar junction transistor, a MOSFET is smaller and cheaper and uses less power, allowing greater numbers of transistors to be crammed together before a heat problem arises. Most microprocessors are made up of MOSFETs, which are also widely used in switching applications.

1965 Automatic adaptive equalizer invented by Robert Lucky

The automatic adaptive equalizer is invented in 1965 at Bell Laboratories by electrical engineer Robert Lucky. Automatic equalizers correct distorted signals, greatly improving data performance and speed. All modems still use equalizers.

1967 First handheld calculator invented

A Texas Instruments team, led by Jack Kilby, invents the first handheld calculator in order to showcase the integrated circuit. Housed in a case made from a solid piece of aluminum, the battery-powered device fits in the palm of a hand and weighs 45 ounces. It accepts six-digit numbers and performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, printing results up to 12 digits on a thermal printer.

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1968 Bell Labs team develops molecular beam epitaxy

Alfred Y. Cho heads a Bell Labs team that develops molecular beam epitaxy, a process that deposits single-crystal structures one atomic layer at a time, creating materials that cannot be duplicated by any other known technique. This ultraprecise method of growing crystals is now used worldwide for making semiconductor lasers used in compact disc players. (The term epitaxy is derived from the Greek words epi, meaning "on" and taxis, meaning "arrangement.")

1970 The first CD-ROM patented - James T. Russell

Russel era um viciado em msica. Como todos de sua poca, usavam disco de vinil, e reclamavam da falta de qualidade de som e queriam algo com melhor tecnologia. Em seus experimentos para melhorar o som ele usou como agulha um espinho de um cacto. Sozinho em sua casa em um sbado a tarde, Russell comeou a esboar um novo sistema de gravar msica, e teve uma inspirao revolucionria. Russel visionou um sistema que poderia gravar e tocar sons sem o contato fsico entre o disco e o player, e ele percebeu que o melhor jeito de se fazer isso era usando luz. Russell j tinha familiaridade com dispositivos de gravar dados em cartes perfurados e fitas magnticas. Ele percebeu que se representasse os nmeros binrios 0 e 1 com claro e escuro, o aparelho poderia tocar sons, ou ento qualquer informao sem ao menos ter uma agulha. Ele conseguiu perceber se conseguisse deixar o cdigo binrio pequeno o bastante conseguiria guardar no s sinfonias mas sim enciclopdias inteiras em um pequeno pedao de filme.

1971 Intel introduces "computer on a chip"

Intel, founded in 1968 by Robert Noyce and Gordon M oore, introduces a "Computer on a chip," the 4004 four-bit microprocessor, design by Frederico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan M azor. It can execute 60,000 operations per second and changes the face of modern electronics by making it possible to include data processing hundreds of devices. A 4004 provides the computing power for NASA's Pioneer 10 spacecraft, launched the following year to survey Jupiter. 3M Corporation introduces the ceramic chip carrier, designed to protect integrated circuits when they are attached or removed from circuit boards. The chip is bonded to a gold base inside a cavity in the square ceramic carrier, and the package is then hermetically sealed.

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1972 Home video game systems become available

In September, Magnavox ships Odyssey 100 home game systems to distributors. The system is test marketed in 25 cities, and 9,000 units are sold in Southern California Alone during the first month at a price of $99.95. In November, Nolan Bushnell forms Atari and ships Pong, a coin-operated video arcade game, designed and built by Al Alcorn. The following year Atari introduces its home version of the game, which soon outstrips Odyssey 100.

1974 Texas Instruments introduces the TMS 1000

Texas Instruments introduces the TMS 1000, destined to become the most widely used computer on a chip. Over the next quarter-century, more than 35 different versions of the chip are produced for use in toys and games, calculators, photcopying machines, appliances, burglar alarms, and jukeboxes. (Although TI engineers Michael Cochran and Gary Boone create the first microcomputer, a four-bit microprocessor, at about the same time Intel does in 1971, TI does not put its chip on the market immediately, using it in a calculator introduced in 1972.)

1980 First circuit boards that have built- in self-testing technology

Chuck Stroud, while working at Bell Laboratories, develops and designs 21 different microchips and three different circuit boardsthe first to employ built-in self-testing (BIST) technology. BIST results in a significant reduction in the cost, and a significant increase in the quality of producing electronic components.

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1997 IBM develops a copper-based chip technology

IBM announces that it has developed a copper-based chip technology, using copper wires rather than traditional aluminum to connect transistors in chips. Other chip manufacturers are not far behind, as research into copper wires has been going on for about a decade. Copper, the better conductor, offers faster performance, requires less electricity, and runs at lower temperatures, This breakthrough allows up to 200 million transistors to be placed on a single chip.

1998 Plastic transistors developed

A team of Bell Labs researchersHoward Katz, V. Reddy Raju, Ananth Dodabalapur, Andrew Lovinger, and chemist John Rogerspresent their latest findings on the first fully "printed" plastic transistor, which uses a process similar to silk screening. Potential uses for plastic transistors include flexible computer screens and "smart" cards, full of vital statistics and buying power, and virtually indestructible.

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Definies em Eletrnica
Analgica x Digital
Analgica:
Os sinais variam continuamente no tempo. Pode empregar pulsos

Digital:
Os sinais variam discretamente (descontinuamente) no tempo. Em geral so pulsos tipo (liga/desliga)

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Discreta x Integrada
Discreta:
Convencional
Consiste de componentes discretos (individuais) Passivos ou ativos Lineares ou no-lineares

SMD (Surface Mounted Device)

Contm todos os componentes anteriores com dimenses bastante reduzidas

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 Integrada:
Mdulos SMD
exemplo: Transmissor e receptor de RF especificao (arq PDF)

Circuitos Integrados
Lineares NE555 Digitais TTL (7400) CMOS (4001)

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Montagens Eletrnicas
Aranha
Componentes so soldados diretamente uns nos terminais dos outros
Vantagens
Rapidez

Desvantagens
Aparncia Possibilidade de curto-circuitos Dificuldade de analisar o circuto Interferncias de sinal

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Protoboard
Funciona como uma placa de Circuito Impresso
Vantagens
No necessita soldagem Permite colocar diversos componentes discretos ou integrados

Desvantagens
Interferncia Circuitos complexos so de difcil analise e correo

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Wire Wrap (Fio enrolado)

Fios so enrolados diretamente nos terminais dos componentes Necessita componentes especiais com terminais longos Usa placas especficas para a montagem Vantagens
Permite montagens complexas confivel

Desvantagens
Mau contato por oxidao (demora muito tempo)

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 Circuito Impresso
Placa com camada de cobre em um ou dois lados Definio das vias:
Obteno da camada protetora
Impresso das vias com tinta protetora Processo litogrfico Confeco da mscara Colocao da camada de foto-resiste Transferncia da imagem Revelao

Processo de corroso

Vantagens
Permite montagens complexas confivel

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Fotolito Lay-out dupla face

Placa de dupla face

Placa corroda

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Placas com Multicamadas

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Processo LTCC
Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramic

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Necessidade de Miniaturizao
After Spielberg, S. 1941 (1979)

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Efeitos Macro de Foras Micro

Processo de deslocamento de Laragtixas em paredes
Foras de Van der Waals promovem a adeso

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Foras em escala Microscpica

Fora Van der Waals
Todos os tipos de Fora Intermolecular
Principalmente devidas a polarizao de molculas
Fora de Keeson Mdia angular de Dipolos (Eltricos) Foras de Debye Dipolos Livres ou de Rotao Foras de London Deslocamentos da Nvem de Eltrons

Modelagem emprega geralmente o Potencial de Lennard-Jones Range ~ 10 nm

Potencial de um dmero de Argnio 2012-2 25

Fora de Casimir
uma fora eltrica de natureza quntica Fora devida partculas virtuais Associada a Energia do Ponto Zero (ZPE) S. K. Lamoreaux [Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 5 (1997)] Range ~ at alguns micrometros

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Foras Eletrostticas
Ocorre quando um dieltrico imerso em um eletrlito Ocorre acmulo de carga superficial no dieltrico
Surge a camada dupla

Estas foras interagem com a vizinhana

Foras de Solvatao
Lquido confinado placas afastadas nanmetros Lquido sofre estruturao A fora depende da estruturao do lquido Range ~10 nm

Foras de Hidratao
Molculas de gua ligam fortemente superfcies com grupos hidrfilos Tipos
Foras estricas Foras de hidratao repulsiva

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Importantes na qumica dos colides e em biologia

S olues coloidais de AuAg

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Lei de Escala
Relao rea / Volume
Objeto Esfrico
O raio ( r ) do objeto ser a dimenso caracterstica ( l ).

rea de Superfcie de uma Esfera

A = 4. .l 2
Volume de uma Esfera

4 V = . .l 3 3

1E9 1E8 1E7

-1

A razo R dada por:

A 4. .l 2 3 R= = = V 4 l 3 . .l 3

1E6

Portanto

R l

1E5 1E4 1000 100 10

R~l
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1 1E-8 1E-6 1E-4 0,01 1

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Gravidade x Capilaridade
Lei de escala da Fora Gravitacional
Fg l3

Lei de escala da Fora de Capilaridade

Fc l1

1E3 1 1E-3 1E-6 1E-9 1E-12 1E-15 1E-18 1E-21 1E-24 1E-27 1E-30 1E-8 1E-6 1E-4 0,01 1
L^3 - Grav L^1- Capilarid

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Litografia ptica

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Positive Resist Process

Shipley S1400-27

Negative Resist Process

Futurrex NR8-1000

UV - Light

UV - Light

Glass Mask

Glass Mask

Pattern

Pattern

Si wafer
Resist removed during development Resist NOT removed during development

Si wafer
Resist removed during development Resist NOT removed during development

UV Light breaks chemical bonds in the resist polymer making it soluble

UV Light activates chemical reactions of polymerization turning the resist insoluble.

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Lift-off Profile for Negative Resist

UV - Light Glass Mask Pattern Positive Resist Process
Shipley S1813 Wafer drying Hot plate 90oC / 2 min Spin Coat 5000 RPM / 30s 1,2 m Soft-bake 90 / 1 min Chlorobenzene Soak 10 min (hardens surface) Exposition 70 mJ/cm2 (necessary) Development Post-bake 100oC / 2 min

Si wafer

Resist removed during development Resist NOT removed during development

Under-etch occurs during the development processing

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Litografia com Raios-x

Elevada penetrao dos Raios-x
Vantagens:
Estruturas com alta razo de aspecto Ultra-alta resoluo (nm)

Desvantagens
Difcil fabricar mascaras Necessita radiao Sincrotron

300 m

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e-beam Lithography

Standard SEM Software Quantum Elphy Raith ( 50k)

Positive Resist
Electrons break chemical bonds Increases solubility Material dissolves during development PMMA (Plexiglass)

Negative resist
Electron promote a reaction in the catalyst Lewis acids formation Cross linking Material remains during development SU-8-2002
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400 nm hole in PMMA

300 nm holes in PMMA

-Not completely open (development) -Metallic filled (25 nm Au/Pd)

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ElphyQuantum / IEF (Institut d'lectronique Fondamentale)

300 nm - nom

~ ~350 90 nm nm
Su8Su8 -2002 Diluted Pillar height ~340 nm

25 nm - nom

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Processo de Corroso Hmida

Mscara

Isotrpica
Independente da orientao do substrato

Anisotrpica
Dependente da orientao do substrato

Truques de projeto

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Corroso a Plasma (RIE)

Plasma DC
Fonte DC de alta tenso

Plasma AC
Baixa freqncia Alta freqncia (13,56 MHz)

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Exemplos de Estruturas

Laser Assisted Etch

XeCl exdmer (308 nm) Dry etching ablation of InP C12/He atmosphere.

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Oxidao de Silcio
Executada em forno na faixa de 900 a 1200oC Processo Seco
xido de alta densidade e alta qualidade (Gate Oxide) Crescimento lento Em muitos casos emprega vapores de Cloro (HCl) para eliminar os metais alcalinos (Na , K) Reao:

Si + O2 SiO2

Processo mido
Fluxo de O2 + H20 Crescimento rpido xido de baixa qualidade (mscaras / passivao) Reao:

Si + H 2O SiO2 + 2 H 2

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Forno de 3-zonas

Thermal silicon dioxide growth on <100> silicon for wet and dry oxides.

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Dopagem de Silcio
Intrnseco

Dopagem tipo-n

Dopagem tipo-p

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Implantao Inica
Processo de dopagem que emprega Ions da impureza acelerados Energia do Feixe (10 keV 6 MeV)
Permite controlar a profundidade de penetrao

Corrente
Permite controlar a Dose

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 Spin-on
Advantages
Si wafer SiO2 mask Spin-on dopant Si wafer

Low toxicity (POCl3 , Bromines , .... ) Easy to handle Used dopants

P (Phosphorous) type n+ B (Boron) type p+

Si wafer

Diffusion
Doped Si

Si wafer

Si wafer

Si wafer

Dopant removal

Drive in

Mask oxide removal

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Processos de Deposio - Fsicos

Resistivo simples e-Beam Clula de Efuso -MBE

Ablao - LASER

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Sputtering

magnetron

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Processos de Deposio - Qumicos

CVD Chemical Vapor Deposition Deposio de camadas gases reativos Si-poly, SiO2 e Si3 N4 . Pode depositar alguns metais LPCVD Low Pressure Desvantagem elevada temperatura de deposio entre 800 e 900 o C

N2(g) + SiH4(g) Six Ny SiCl4(g) + 2H2(g) Si(s) + 4HCl(g)

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PECVD - Plasma Enhanced

Gerador de plasma + forno Temperaturas mais baixas que o convecional (o plasma ioniza as especies ativas)

MOCVD Metal Organic

Pode empregar ou no Plasma Deposita materiais metlicos a partir de precursores Metal-Orgnicos Alta toxidez dos materiais torna o processo perigoso

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Eletroqumica
Processos eletroqumicos de deposio so conhecidos desde a antiguidade Estes podem ser divididos em
Processo Eletroless nao necessita o emprego de eletricidade externa Processo Convencional emprega fontes de tenso / corrente / Potenciostato / Galvanostato

Baixo custo Emprega solues de materiais inorgnicos

Electroless

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Processos de Encapsulamento (Packaging)

Corte
O processo de corte dos dispositivos uma das etapas crticas do processo de fabricao Processos de corte
Disco de diamante Fio diamantado

Superfcie da amostra deve ser protegida

Partculas geradas no corte aderem e no so facilmente removidas Os fotoresistes podem ser empregados para proteger a superfcie

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Silicon Bonding
Anodic Bonding
Temperatura ~ 300 a 450o C Tenso ~ 1000Vdc Si em Pirex (em funo da similaridade dos coeficientes de dilatao trmica)
Camada isolante no Si SiO2 ou Si3 N4

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Soldagem de Fios
Wire bonding permite conectar os dispositivos microfabricados com a eletrnica externa. Em geral so empregados fios de Au ou Al O processo de soldagem envolve
Presso mecnica Vibrao ultra-snica

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FIM
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