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    de 51
    SOCIAL RIGHTS AND HUMAN WELFARE Hartley Dean Routledge Re m Ft ub 25 has Sars Mion Yk, Abin, Ovn OX ARN Rates git of be Taylor Fac Cy, not si “The sig of Haney Dean be eid if wk ‘Allg rscrved No pak my nepali a esr by 9 tone macan reeh onm u rte. nhigpomepyng necro ay tread sede fr Seaton adc wise 8 Sine is ier Gain Pao ate ‘loge ordre bark nati fr he Dh ary ary of Cop Cain abet Dae ‘Sst lho win/win by Hay Dea, 1. Seda ign 2. Sal policy 2. Pie wll, Sxl ight —Grot Greaney De wll Iain Tae ty hp Mars LL Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ld, Croqdan, CRO AY To Pam, with love and gratitude 60 soci ight in theory Ge. propery) rights or distraction fom propely enforceable b,c and politica!) human rights The nea-Marxist objection thu social rights, i spite ofthe advantages they have brought the working cls, are exploitative, THEY ate a necessary component in die proces by which labour power i eproduced and articulated with the capitals market sen, and they ares s0utce of ideological mystfcaion Feminist and-racis and dhabiliy activi complain that women, members of ethno- coltral wniritis an disabled people can be systetatiealyexcloded fom eetive social ‘ghts or that sock ight anew framed ax ete to accommodate therm in a work chat is lunges shape by aa for white sble-hovtied men, There are ao related defensive crits ‘stow coneera is withthe undemocratic naste oscil rights and thei capacity fo impose Condition of social uniformity. The pow -stueturlis objection is that the extension ef ial Fig is constituted 2 an extension of adnaistative state power, based on ap increasingly sophisticated attay of disciplinary technigees for the definition and contro of indivi sbject inital his complex spectrum of arguments as been somesehat simplified, bur the purpon of this chapter hay been to demonste that soc sights are contoversial Through Dat te rest of the book we shill eturh w@ some ofthese controversies and wall conser ‘sehet, for al their potentially adverse an consoling propensities, soci rights are impor taar aud can be srtegcslly deployed or developed. We shall also (parila ithe next “hoptecoosier further questions about whether the socal rights famed for the capa ‘well stats ofthe global Nort canoes the auspiees of che human rights framewook, be meaningfully transposed to counties of the global Sonth, PART TWO Social rights in practice 5 SOCIAL RIGHTS IN GLOBAL CONTEXT ‘We have seen that sora rights were inisally famed at righ of citisnship through sub santiverocillegishion by capitalist welfare sates, but alo formwlated as general principles within dhe UDHR. This chapter weil consider to wit exten social rights Paries betwen afin urban coastal egions and lygely impoverished ural westers China le should always be borne in mind that cere canbe significa diversity an differences hcween countries within the same eegion, and the above account is crude IF indeed iis feonomicprowth chat drives social rights developmen, we showld perhaps review the pros ects of the largest and most rapidly developing economies. At the tuen ofthe twenty-first entry economst Jim O'Neil (2001) first coined the acronym HRIC for 8 group of lead ing merging econanie and G20 members: Brarl Rua, India and China, The counties ‘hereafter formally eaablshed therecves a6 4 co-operative grouping and were joined in 2010 by South Aftica, More recently, the acronyms MINT (Frases, 2011) was coined for a Farther group of nations with large populations and rapid economic development: Meso, Indonesia, Nigevia and Turkey. At the tins of weiting, economic peformance ofthe URICS and MINT counsies,ehough flucroating, is generally otecpping cst in North American tnd Westcen European countries, and dhe diversity ofthe uajectories challenges orthodox analyses of how soil sights development nigh occur. 7. Soci sights in practice Ross isa oligarchiceaptalisvpost communist welfine regime: Latin American ibera-infornal welfie regimes (Mexico isan OBC re, Cina and Indonesi ate radically covtraing East Asian countries ~ he former being se potentially beeotne the migtiest economy in the world and the latex being one ofthe vibvane young capitalist Tiger Cabs — but each has uneven socal ight provision. South Africs aed Nigeria ure radically conteating African counties: the formee ~ a0 exceptional cae im the Afican Context — which despite ts legacy of Woster-stle industrial development during ts parte bid era suffers entrenched poverty and inequality: the latter (Niger) has very high levels of poverty and simmering social divisions, despite its expanding, Ingelyel-bssed econo. “Turkey might wil ecetly have been characterised os 3 Middle Esteza reise, subject to iat ith an incipient welfire state Ra! been moving towards uthoritarian paerulis rue, ddemocrati-wellare-captli ans EU gecesi, albeit subject receat tines to strong neo libersl policy tendencies (Borstay & Oral, 2006; Manning, 2007). These may be dhe counties to watch, but there io discernible pattern a to dhe prospects or the most ikely ‘munner in which socal rights might dovel. The cultural critique ‘The third of the three brood critiques ofthe human rights agenda densified by Sen was the ‘eulural” critique (te other two being the “legtimsey’ and the 'eierenceeriques se Chapter 4, this volume), the ewence of which thet concepts of right’ forged during the ‘Western Enlightenment sn developed within democraie-captalist- welfare tte ate nimi cal, for example, to Asian cultures Atempts to impose them in the name of development {mount so ethnoceatrinn (eg. Pali & Schiab, 1979) if not eulura imperialism. There are tov questions we might ask = dit tracy adjust why does mater? Cultural values and practices ‘We have explored how the thicl foundations of rights disowts lie in Western philoso- phy and va systema, bt Ure are Eastcrn philosophies and value systems ~ Confucian, Hind, Buddhist, Masi ~ through sehich other cultures and erations have been shaped and which mey, for example, prize hyalty,selErelinnce and abedience above indvidesl ‘hghts Early stempts to charscerte weir atte regimes emerging in Bast Asia sought to characterise them as Confucian welfsre regimes constructed on principles of hierarchical ‘community building and in the manner of a eraditonal extended Confucian fansily ones, 1953) This characterization has since been questioned, not only because it ovesimliies comple influences, but because ca be's convenient excuse, with 3 persuasive historia] sand euleural camouflage, to filter sponse to social welfare needs’ (Walker & Wong, 2005: 215) Ie isa characterisation that alo sdeseps the fact that, 25 we have seen, even China than written certain vis right into i constitution, as do for example 2 mamsber of amie states (Jung et ly 2013), The Organisation of the Inie Conference i 1990 adopted the Cairo Declaration on Homan Rights in lam. The declaration insists thot che roots of such rights ie in Sharia, not Wester law, but i inclu, for example, the fllowing statement “The State sll ensire the right ofthe individu to a deesut Living which will enable him oct all is requirements and those of his dependents incloding food, clothing, housing, ‘dneation, eial cate anal other Basic needs (Article 17 fl). Ana though the Association Social ightsingaba content 73 ‘of Southesst Asian Nations’ (ASEAN) Declaration of Hunan Rights which was adopted in 2012, has been held by Amnesty Tuterationsl, Haman Rights Watch and the UN High ‘Comision for Human Rights on several rounds wo be Flawed it dacs contin an exphet anny of socal igh, Sen (1999: 231-8) sgt that allusions to now-Westrn values may not be wed to expan for jusify auhoriarian polices systemic inquaities. He claims that walter stcined with tolerance and equality have deep-rooted counterparts within several Asian piloro= pies, pointing by way of example vo parallels between the ancient eachings of Kastily, the Indian philoropher and royol adver, and Aristole, with wim he happened to have heen 2 chronological contemporary: Keutilys was 2 strong advocate of personal liberty for the privileged elite in Unda caste society ~ 36 was Aristotle for dhe Athenian ity lite ~ fut ike Acie, he alvocated no sul ding for slaves or the members of lower cute, For won nevertheless re advocated paterlistic government asstance to relews their misery. Uh torial enjectovies vary, but eultaal constructions my ames cone -A-eae can be made for the existence Within a vaiety of non-Westers philosophies of ctical or moral prinepls dat, 1 would argu, are impliedly op even explicitly cosient ith te ideal of share responsility for meeting individual neds and therfore with some sort of bass for social rights as articulation of shared hiaman needs (though not necesily fumed inthe language of righ) + Te Confucian iden of Rf hich tramates os hust-nes and the wlimat state 10 which al should aspzetheough the observance of sich value fil piety and loyalty (Chan, 1999), There is to my mind at least a resonance between Ret atd the Ar telan otion of eudaimonia 38 state of fallen at aval being, concerned nt wth personal pins and pleasures, but with one's harmony of existence with other beings + The ancient pan-African bei system, Ubu, whose esence is caped in the apho= rism, a person ionly a person throupls other persons It niles an inerentlysolidare= tie abi potentially comervative philosophy, which ean nonetheless inform cing sl sharing practices between and within human generations (Rasose, 2008; Whitworth & Wilkisson, 2013. + The Islamic principle of Zaber: one of the pills of the Monn th based om a reli iow obligation to share portion of one’ individual weakh with seedy members of the Unmah (he worldwide community ofthe fithfu), At che heat of san hes a quite particular conception of vocal justice (Dean & Klan, 1997) | do not sugges that we should romantic the manner in which thes devs have over the centutes been interpreted and reinterpeeted. My point i that non-Westera’ value aystenit are by no tieansincommiensorte with social rights. They etal theories of personhood ‘ith implications for the way in which husssn needs ae to be waderton’ ad provided fr, whether oot the framing of needs-baed claims involves an explici diacourse of right. However elusively the examples I give contin pefigurativeelment ofthe oF even the B pewpectives outlined in Figore 3.1 sn Chapter 3 this volome. ‘The cultural erigus, however, has relevance not only for the real or imagined te sions betwee Western and Eatetn philosophical tations, bat alo fr the very practical tension between the sci standards that are promoted in the global North and the cil custons tht apply in the glob South, A well-intcutoned attempt in 2000 to establish» set 74 Soc rights in practi ‘of Global Social Policy Principe” distil from the raft of relevant UN conventions an tleclacations (ce Fergiston, 199) foundered a the UN's Copenhagen pss 5 Social Sommit, amides charges of hypoeriy agaist its proponents hy representatives fom the global South (Deacon, 2007: 139-140). The proposals were ceseted a au unacceptable interference with the sovereignty of nations the global South ad, without a tausfer of esourees from Noeth te South, they would amount to an wnachievable imposition, The imposton of ILO labour ondards, has long been and remains a thorny ive for many countries Felice, 1999). Tis Claimed that te protection of highly exploted women workers and the abolition of child Iuboue in certain parts ofthe word cannot necesarly be achieved withowt endangering the liited sources of income avaiable to women (Kober, 2004) and without imposing Wester cultusal conceptions of childhood aod of children’s legitimate role in socal and economic Iie (Edmonds & Pave, 2008). Conflicting epistemotogies “There isa probes about transposing notions of eights constructed largely within the eapi- tulst North to other parts ofthe world, bu this 3 cultural problems or an epistemological ‘se? Culture, undeniably, is dynamic, syeretic and evolving (Philips, 2007). Ina pose to the eafural crtgue, Donnelly hones n oa precisely this argument, asserting that ‘lure {s not destiny” (2008: 88). At ehe same time, however, he ako dismiss che posiility that there can be, or ever were, non-Western conceptions of human rights. He sggest hat jst ss cardinal principles of mathematics have snivesal validity eventhough they were invented in the Arabic world, so the principle of human rights have univers validity even though their origins ate “Wester. Hie argoment is redolent of Meyer's World Society” idea: the ‘ea thc systems of management snd governance around the world conform to increasingly Similar ashazptions (Meyer, 2007, Meyer ta, 197). Human rights, Donnelly implies ae 3 twovdezn epistemological triuapl and jatt because older philosophies defined that which was "Tight did not mean that they satisfactorily conceptoabned the ght that inbere tothe indi ‘al human being. Though certain margins of apprecistion may apply when it comes to “fering interpretations of fxman eights, cultural relativism, according to Donnelly, should be confined within proper limits, Donnelly is right sbour culture, but mistaken, I believe, ahout the epistemological estos of hamsan rights ‘So far a socal right ate concerned, these may have been incorporated into the UDHR. sd subsequent international covenants, but we have already seen First, that social rights in the Marshallian sense had already been substantively formulated at legislative entilemnents ‘within vacios types of welfare tate nd second, eat the terms on whic they were incor~ porated as human rights were not dicovered or deduced but mst! by representatives From many nations. They are not eteraal verter. They snight yet be renegotiated, So far as thu rights more generally are concerned, the iste ie not confit of eulewres so mel san epistemological or ideological conflict between what wos referred to in Chapter 2 ta hegemonic libers-individvslist conception on the one and and the cxteal minority Conception on the other: the fornice i premised on what Arent desribed asthe ‘arogant "nyt (1951 439) of inborn indivi] dignity che later i premised on a understanding of the share vulverailty that the human condition (@g Turner, 2006), In an inereasngly “nulki-pola world (Held, 2010: 2), ie et 5o meh that Western and Eastern assurapions and belies converge or that che global South must adapt is understanding of rights to tha of Soci ghts in gobs cantst. 75 ‘heb, ttt Ea We Sth Nathan and wil hp gi and evolve broader understandi * Sw hope Retecing om te pn ft gl ceo at-baton move a sex nthe eben te Wo Soom nue oa dex Sines sgn se pocnal wi ospenee genre noche icine cpstonsog te bl North nrg peel fh “he frets sn xy of ree hgh cpl Seapets hb ea ‘mip ac (0a athe cen an fue see eel Sono hn nerd ana ara el) mid opr ‘reat pp We tl une bet ees Chop Globalisation The existence of an at-globaisation movements testimony to che extent to which plbali- sation, like development, 2 contested concept (Held & McGrew, 2007) The concepts and the procenes they purport to define ate interconnected. Supporters of globalisation regard the process as coterminous with that of human development. ks opponents fear that the hegemionie neo-liberal form of the globalisation procets promotes 9 ocially and eavieor ‘mentally damaging form of economic development, the expeuse of elective and inclusive social development: that the age of ueo-iseal globalisation "has now superseded the age of development’ (Shs, 2010: vi. The direction and pace of global change anx human evelopment are affected by global events: ats of terrorism, military interventions, financial crises and climate disasters. Butch extent ofthe interdependence ad iterconnectenes of ‘ounttcs, regions and transoatonal corporations is ever mote tense a they interact within ‘social space that is increasingly de-teritorilised: Globalization is synonystous with 3 pro- ‘set of time-space compression ~ literally a shrinking worl! ~ in which the sources of even ‘ery local developments, from unemployment to ethaie conflict, may be traced to distant ondtions or atin (Held 8 MeCrew, 2007: 3). Global institutfonal framework One ofc consgiences in he cv ofthe ps alF-etary ha een Hs the context sole elevanes soi rig ave been chang Bok Deaton fa eae hat oe Been wires "the ltleton of oi palty ad he cat ga! ple (0r3)."The ip of opinion hat flowed th nt ofthe Cols Wr fe soe com tensor enon» bl crsmeniy ana sf ba eee edo ted this of pace, lie an eclgil ointty ak 9), Teele ho ies on ee teas re tat he anon fe pan concerns wt ik sontnnent ter shan toc inl develope Fes txt jem 9), Nees te oneness thal pte ne coun oreo canna mae wou ens Gebel comet hat ake ove sn cil ingles fave potions fr ey cote #9 eon Ncoihra paaltion proce etd bythe aeaney and conto he eshingeon comes) blige port and opponents ket think sense shoot wt econ cli hte He ga Raion, gal Reglon st gba ‘social Rights (2007: 1). = “ 76. Social ights in practice ‘Table Sexi igh the Ui None Speculaacaiacpnaromns sone hss + ECOSOC a 10 me | ivclihiood/stantard of living (Eeonemie a8 Sci Counc) ferationl Labour (otk anol cont) Organnaton a Kesudowmsw0c: v0 — 1 SUNDESA {wer Heats Orzaietion) CaENtues Depsmewet SUNCOM Elon [ceand Soil Atna) (Und Naty Edo + OHCHR ‘Scientific and Calo (Other ofthe High Comnisioner Orgaicon) for Hunn Ragbo) UNDP Se (Soca) development ean finns and ated (Unked Nations Development osislogenion Progr) SMF LEP ey Fo andar fling, {tmertonal Monetary Fund} (World Fod Programe) + World Book SUN-HABITAT Sm Housing twro (United Nations Human (Wo Fade Organiatoe) —_—_—_Seterents Progra) ‘he Dyan pny of UN gece opis nce wee of et oe ee hey ger ough he myers Cae eee Tey fbogoc ner yea een perl aa ee acai commrin noma beep pl a ncrenera entitetions wcaipotcon sien oe oo cane lito coarser pomodoro Here Stns witin he UN Scrat these eit aera ccc UNDESA) cote pnaunn ran riin genet Sea ms rhs oft oe OACHN A po een on aoe ty te Don Woe anray od Bacal Conee, ponte cae ty stan ee tl noni teh ce ae eran domes pc is Wen Ds ad ree se! ain wa aro whe os haben town we God Aeon To ROUSE apes sence tt ht ent se ine ee es Te cc Lacon pnb fu ade we Gane te pticheatendbshae tas (oe WHO) an esol aera Shee lecupen (UNESCO, pty te nator Connite Tees Tepe) Faye ese enced pc ec enc Une teat es nt wich brent ened, WEP Fa hn ayn ft cnt) nd UN HABITAT fn 196 al Sees UN ay watt nia onan Sane ae) cna eh he UN ce ey iat om hat fr wichita Cee Pie lal he mol woh sone ne sere Secis rights in lobat contest 77 century: However che relevance of supranational perspective onthe promotion and imple mentation of socal rights, arguably, greater now than ever hefire Global consumers and regulatory standards [Nicola Yestes (2001) has sugested that a distinction may be driven between a ‘ong and a ‘weak’ glohulsaion thesis. Clearly, there ia specerum of interpretations a 9 whether glo- Dilation iam inevitable process and as vo what implications are for the future of soca sights. At the ‘stuongest end of the spectrum of belicf iti apposed that globalisation hos ushered joa wholly new era (Fukuym, 1992) in which market wil rule supreme, andi ‘which our rights o income security and pension, to heath and socal care, edueuton and outing will all be met on the busi of our rights as consumers of financial prods ant hurnan services offered compeisively by private and/or trnsational providers ina global ‘matt place Insofar as there may be abertant minorities or eames who cannot aces such provision, there shouldbe publicly provided safety nes, but thee shall be wlectve, tional end intellocrl developmen’ (Article 12 {U}. But the protocol also suggest that tes patties snus ‘undertake to improve mathods of prodactias, sappy ae distribution of food, And to this end agree to promote grester international cooperation. in support of ee relevant rational polio” (Article 12 [2), We se here as example of shetoric tht Hinks socal rights to 3 wider international social development apends (ef, Chapter 5, this wlume) [Antile 25 [1] ofthe UDHR also provides for cights to clothing, howsing, medical ese and necessary social services. The right to clothing appears to be largely a ‘forgotten right (anes, 2008), excep inofer a itis nireedy provided for throug cash transfers. Hos fing, miedical care aud social services will be disensed in Chapeet 7, since these may be consered as human services as opposed 2 wubsitence goods, These too may be provided 90 Socalrighs ms pracice in kind through public sector provision ~or their costo the individual maybe eee et cosh transfer schemes specifically intended to cover feats, ies and charges. Social security systems ‘We move thesefore to consider the complex eal of es thinsérs oF ~ the term we shall, vow be using ~ socal security. The term socal serorty is ne na certain amo mit undersvding, since it ean refer to diflezent things in Gifsent pars ofthe world. However, by social security we ae alluding to the UDHR% reference in Article 25 xe ‘curity nthe event of stemplayment, sickness, debility, widowhood, od age or other lack of velibood’ ‘Catieusty, the provision relating 0 sci security in Ue OESCR of 1966 in warding be isa ely that de ates parties recognise the rights of everyone to social security inching social insurance’ (Article 9} a clanuy compronsine reflecting sntesolved disagreement 3 the mesningof wail security (U. Davy, 2013). ‘Michael Hill 2006; 67) us provided! what i pep the simplest definition of socal security: ‘Collective sction to protect indlviduds against income deficiencies, Collective action may take a variety of forms: soca! assistance Funded through geval taxation social Insraice funded theough specific contributions universal social allowance sehotes; Y= allowsnces; oF the public regulation of private provision. We shal be considering cach in tum, The complexity of sacial security andthe diferent mechani o systems it an entail seem patty fron the diferent contingencies or circumstances ia Which right to socal sceu- rity right aie ~ but portly ao fom the proviso eh dhe right does noc aise oder than in ‘ncumstances where individal Ick of lvelibood is "beyond their control Rights to socal Security a, to 3 greater or leer extent, condi, ‘Social assistance i the erm applied co forms of relief tae ste conditional on proof of roe estally 3 text of means. Traditional” forms of weil sistance have thet 00% dnetly jn be Poor Laws: frins of poor relief choractritialy to be found in Western counties riot t the development of welfre sate regimes. The receipt of relief under such sebemes had been based not on sights but upon the exercise of alminsrative discret. The Poor ‘Lays woyereded charitable forts of reli with organised relief ~ fonded fom loel rate, ‘or tnes Relief war a est jcgerental ~ being reserved only for those deemed to be su Ficently deserving ond ac Worst puritve, searing supplicant to submit to incarceration in workhouses, where they were rubject to conditiogs that were deliberstely contrived to ‘ne wore than thote endured by even the poorest independent labourer (eg Fraser, 200) Soci asitance schemes unde capitals welfare regimes can vary in terms of dhe degree of dscretion vested in chose who administer thea, but they are usually framed 35 eight for ‘the poorest in society and 8 a social eafety net, Subject 0 conditions, socal asitance may ‘ge dispensed for the maintenance of perions and the households af such persons where the Ihowehold has no or isweien income From any otber source. Iisa characteristic feature of liber welfire regime (Se Table 52 in Chapter 5, this volume), though usually noe 2 the only form of socal security provision (the exceptions hee being Australis and New “Zealand. The advantage of social aistance is that it ea target astance where appeass wo bbe most needed. Ie disadvantages ae that can stignatse ose who receive it (because they bre identified by thie poverty) iis inevitably complex to administer (becaos the household ‘iteumesnees oF every ecient mt be stesed) adit cu create perverse incentives (since ‘clef is withdrawn should recipients ceceive other income from earings or savings). Inthe igh toetnood 91 US, social asistance i not ehougt of form oF social security, tae "welfae~ a er that tat acquized disney pejorative asociations, wholly isin from social insurance. Hat Australia wd New Zend, where means-tested bevels are the mainstay of weil security, they attract ew gia Social assistance programmes have heen cierging ithe global Souths the dae sytem in China (Yan, 201) ad she Child Suppore Grant sm South Africa (Lund, 2008). But most prominent have heen ‘new’ forms of social anita, known a¢ conditional cash transfers (Bascal, 2009) These were fist developed in Latin Auneica eg Opportunidades in Mex {20 andthe Bolus Fain Beal ~ but schemes have proliferated eleewhere, Characterized a6 «form of ‘social citizenship forthe global poor (Letering & Barrienis, 013), shew locally Dsed schemes provide cath incomes to poorer hewschols on the condition thst mnothert port with their younger culdeen to health clinics, while older children atten sla ‘Tae explicit aim was not snerey to lieve currest poverty, but wo underrrite invenent human capital zo a8 to exsre higher levels of productivity among Sotsce generstions. The schemes have generally been popular with recipients though dhere have been PAE itses relting in sre instances tothe inaccessibility of health clnie and the poo quality of ed {ation avslable in schools. Thee is ao, potential a matter of principe at take because of the way such schemes make the household right 9 subsitence interdependent with tit chile’ ight tn healieare and education, Wheres ‘vaditional sci asia, with ts roots in the Poor Laws, reflects elements of the perspective on soci eights (2e Figure 3.1 ‘inChapter 3, this wolums, the new” form of socal assistance, which instrongly supported by the World Bank, reflects elements of che a perspective Social insurance may be remembered atone ofthe big ides of the wentiety cenisry. 1 made the poiat in Chapter 4 tha social imeurance entail principle that ea be embroced from ether an individualistic ora solarsic perspective: the term may encompass a Fully fandd scheme where idivdual encidenente se tity dependent on individ contribu ‘ions, and wihich social’ ony in the sense thai is state admininered (or administered ae 3 Provident Fand on behalf ofthe government 2s, for example, in Hong Kes rit may bea ‘scheme where the eat itself mainsin a Sidon behalf of workers from which benefits and ‘Pensions ar paid, and whichis insarance-bised only in the ene that everyone ha ‘sed protection (hough is was only under Soviet commana that any such scheme existed). In Prictic, contemporary social insurance schemes can represent compromise chit sone= hee between cheseextrene: they are ‘pay-as-you-go’ (PAYG) schemes nto which workers and employers pay contributions, while the ate Unerwrites the ability of the scheme 10 _meet curent sbi for Benefits and pensions Bu globally, sme fear tht he socal ine sce principle is beng marginalised in favour of wcialasintancesfeey nets on the one hand, and regulated private insurance scheres on the ather fe Ry, 2010), [Nevertheless social insorance against Ie risks ~ incading and eypecially the risks of tnemployraent sicko, injury or debility; and old age ~ continaes a8 a sikstntial and resent component of most established social security systems and is being ineremestally sxlopted by some newer ones, inchading Chisa (Chan etal, 2008) ‘The essence of soca] insurance is that membership and therefore contributions ae compulory, but tht sss are shared. Stasory social insurance arangements sometime syed Yontary schemes, begun by civ saciety ongaitations in the nisetenath century, Howevet the range of tks ‘or contingencies an he populations sc employment sectors covered by sich insure vais fom country t country. Contributions and benefits mon aleo vary ad the redistbutive 9 Social hts in pracice flees of such scherses will depend on jos how sul ates ave st. The adeantge of socal msrance rcheus itt they provide benef ecpiets with a clear seme of entilement ant they are usally, therefore, popula, Their advantage ie that dhey aay tend primarily to ‘benefit ony certain workers: Inbour market ‘ontaiders,especislly women, can be excluded Socal insutance schemes characterstialy reflect elements of dhe 7 perspective on socal eke (ce Figure 31 in Chopter’ this voluie). However, fly funded for of social insor- ince refiet elements of the a perspective, while generous and universally inlasve forms reflect elanents of the 8 perspective ‘Universal social security schemes, sometines called Yoel llowances, are wnivenal fn the emie that they ate non-meas-teted abd non-contributory, In practic, schemes te ‘oto much universal as categrial’; they are benefits payable in sone welie tates to per sons in particular demographic groups or categories, inching the fllowing: + Childcen or files with children. The right 19 socal security for children (pecially restated in the UNS Convention on the Rights ofthe Chill of 1989) can be realic {hough social asistonce provision to the Towicome households i which children res, or though child addons to socal insurance benefits payable ro parents. Aler= tutively oF additionally, however, provision can be made through wnivesal farily lowances of chill benefs payable to all houscholds with children, (Mritans Chi Benefit scheme had ben an exanple of hi aldhough entilement has now Been iecty withdeawn from certain high-income households, making i efectiely means-teted) + Disabled people and caters People who become disabled inthe course of their works fing ives may have previoualy ‘earned! an entitlement to benefits under social insur~ tne themes, and those who have been disabled from bir or since childhood may be tented to relief under social anistance rchemes.Aitionlly, however, social wecuticy provision ry be made by way of univer bereft, intended to compensate not for lack ‘of earnings but for dhe additional living vost experienced bya disbed person, Entte= tent, however, i subject to medic assent ertcrn, Universal social security may ho he insured for people who provide fal-time unpaid care fora dhabled relative, (Gets Persone! Independence Payznent and Caer’s Allowance schemes, respectively, te example, thovgh entillesent eritera forthe former have recently been tighten, and the lve of support provided by the laters wery modes indeed.) + Dider eople For people shove a specified retiemtent age, social asstance schemes may _povide a safety net or else socal insurance schemes may pay retiree pesos. How is abo posible for governinents provide a universal ate funded retirement pension to all older ekizens, (New Zealand currently provides an exasiple, and such 2 possiblity has been mooted foun tne to time in Brits) “Thre bus ben fong-standng debate around the ie of Fly nivel bs income soc viendo a’ income pst, 1989; Try, 213), and insted experiments ‘Shh des hove heen aterpied in Nansbi (sta ty 203) and tia (ond sen B01, The advo fuer beef schemes that ey singe oan {chee they ihe na nens-teting or covribin) ad they ate spicy highly sl Chon Te perecved dnevanager are tht eles Doin ate et aw eel he eves Srpogctone uation reqied to pay chem wold be high ~and that people wth igh Shounen would poy hgh ess while eeving + beef they do aot nee. Depending a ghisto Wweihood 93 exaly how they are desigued amd imperseoted, ever benefits schenks cur appeal either 10 Brana perspective on social rights (ee Figure AI in Chapter 3, thie lume in theor at le, chey ean help t0 underpin eter a substantively ora formally egalitarian soc. Rican Titmuss (1988) coined the terms “fiscal welfire’ aid ‘occupational wel to refer to systess dat run in prallel with the kind of wal scusity systems outlined above By fiscal welfare he was refering to systems of tay allowances ort credit that can be of benefit to people wio sleady have treable imooncs, Ana! by occupational welfare he vs sefering 2 the panoply of perks and baveits that ean be made ovailble by employes to ‘heir employees. Timmuss particule concern was that such systens were oe likely tobe of benef to individuals and households with higher incomes and better opportunitiey, an it was important chat state alminiered social security shoul! not be reserved primatly for the poorest or lest advanced in society Nevertheless, ives ans oceuptional welfare have plyed a part in proving woialycurity: OF particular importance in nsany couutis has been the development not only of occupational pension scivemes operated by empyers, bot ako the range of privite savings schemes and Finacial proces that povetinents eat both actively promote and regulate with view to eosuring opin sewity for oer citizens. “The Woe Bank (1954; and sce Holman & Hine, 2005) his reeormencel hota coon tries should eral pension eyes sel on three “ila + Fist pills» guaranced publicly fonded minimums safety net ~ whether means faa socal insurance-baed or universal. (Poul, an earingyeated socal insurance scheme might provide for an intermedia ‘pill’ above theft il an the next one) Second pila: 2 mandatory savings schente, ether am occupational ora pevsonal pension pln, subject to government reguliton, + Thind pillar wolumtary additional private nmurance or savings. (Arguably. informal inerafamily or inter generational tans represent ia “pilse) ‘The right to socal security may be interprctd st sight to secure subutence acros the life couse, but ts most problematic sapect rates to its intersection withthe right to work ‘The subsistence rights of workers We hhave seen that the UDHR provides a right to social security fo invidoals and their families inthe event of unemployment. I additionally provides that “everyone wo works has he right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himscif an his family a exitence worthy of human dignity, nd supplemented, ifnecesiry, by other means of socal provection’ (Article 23 [3)). The prowling sssnption is that horaa Beings will nrially ssin themselves wiehin families and ehroagh paid employment, but if they cannot, they should have a elsim apo the wate for protection, Ii ao su but petbaps imple hat ts person’ reciprocal responsibility to sostai herself in sucha manne. The beater of rights it Prinasily contated st a poentisl wage labourer who ding er alulthood should work susan herself he chiliten and, a ned be, he spouse or sll partic. In the two preceding sentences Ihave deliberately used the feminine posesive pronoun, though the insruients by which rights ate declared or insured have elasially been faine wring the male poses sive pronoun: in the minds of shoe who fram! uch ineernnent, te bearer of rights would fve been envisaged primarily as male (eg, Lister, 203). The foundational assmptions 9 Soca ght practice pn whch uch sight ha en Famed have Lg in be hl hy ach ed {foe womes about mas parca he at Ne he he ing anc of fly Te aed hae ot new ight ono the ight ne sn er were loners hae, ay ener "i norma ag ofthe oc igi agenda sexed a oer wa ye cine ca at gn th 1970 ee Chap vole npr hare Singer co mn ei lin esl Nr oe ‘ponies of cussion sot te re exc The mus at ached ‘Steen by thy othe milena we ite soa bh ihe

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