caren 2 ADVANCED PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS @1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Newton’s laws were formulated for a single particle, The second law Jeads to a differential equation which, upon integration, yields the motion of the particle. In the case of a system of several particles, a differential equation ‘must be written for each particle. The resulting system of equations contains interacting forces and the solutions may be difficult to obtain. The principal concepts in this approach are force and momentum, both vector quantities, A different approach, called analytical mechanics and attributed to Leibnitz and Lagrange, considers the system asa whole and requires knowledge of two scalar functions, the kinetic energy and the work function. Quite often there are present constraint foree, reflecting the action of the surroundings upon 4 particle, which cause certain kinematical conditions. Whereas the New- tonian approach requires knowledge of these forces, the analytical mechanics approach requires only the kinematical relations resulting from the forces. The analytical approach leads to unifying formulations such as Hamilton's principle and Lagrange’s equation, which do not depend on the coordinate system used When dealing with multisdegree-of-freedom systems, it is often more expedient to derive the equations of motion by using the analytical rather than the Newtonian approach. The analytical approach can also be used for continuous systems, in which ease one obtains not only the differential 30See. 2] Work and Enorgy. Single Particle a1 equations of motion but also the associated boundary conditions. In future discussions the advantages of the analytical approach will be amply illustrated. ‘The present chapter presents the general ideas behind analytical mechani. 22 WORK AND ENERGY. SINGLE PARTICLE Consider a particle m moving along curve C under the action of force F (Figure 2.1). The position of the particle at any time is given by the position Figure 241 ‘vector r. If the particle is moved over an element of distance dr, the element of work is, by definition, given by the dot (or sealar) product dW = Bod, en where WV denotes the work. If the particle travels from point 1 to point 2, along curve C, the work done is Wes Pedr. 22) For a particle of constant mass, Newton's second law gives F = m(dt/dt), and, as dr = di, we can write Wan [Bde = f° moted = 3 [* mS (en dt a < Yntyety = dmb t, = dm — imi = 12-7, 23) where fis the velocity at any point and Tis the kinetic energy, T= ymt-t. 24)Pa Aavanced Principles of Dynamles (Ch. 2 Define a conservative force fields as a field in which the work done in moving a particle from point 1 to point 2 depends only on the positions r, and r, and is independent of the path of integration, Wiae= [orem [ Rd, as where the subscript ¢ denotes the work done by conservative forces only (Gee Figure 2.2) 2 ne Tt So Poth ( a, a a ae 7 Ficure 2.2 The potential ener’) oie wih poston mi deed the work done ina cneratve foe fed nmanioga pri hog eo Vey = [Foe 26 Next let us calculate the work done in a conservative force field in moving 4 particle from position r, to position r3. The path is immaterial, so choose 4 path passing through the reference position rp. Hence Wane = fr Fde= Far + = [Pa [Era = -1700 - ven. en de Equation (2.7) states that the work done in a conservative field is the negative of the change in the potential energy, which is expressed in diferentia form by Ww, = ~av. 28) Im general there are both conservative and nonconservative forces acting upon a particle, The nonconservative forces are energy-dissipating forces,