655627

research-article2016
NMS0010.1177/1461444816655627new media & societyOh

Article

new media & society

Immigration and social

2016, Vol. 18(10) 2224­–2241
© The Author(s) 2016
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DOI: 10.1177/1461444816655627
women’s online community: nms.sagepub.com

Supporting acculturation,
cultural pluralism, and
transnationalism

Joong-Hwan Oh
Hunter College of The City University of New York, USA

Abstract
This study of a Korean-American women’s online community, also known as the
“MissyUSA” community, has incorporated the concept of social capital with an
important topic within each of three major migration research areas—legal immigration
status in assimilation, the retention of Korean culinary culture in cultural pluralism, and
transnational plans in transnationalism. The central argument of this article is that this
“MissyUSA” community creates social capital for its online members. One important
form of social capital stressed here is social resources that correspond to its online
members’ (information seekers) access to valuable information regarding the process
of obtaining legal status as documented immigrants, Korean-style cuisines, and their
transnational plans. Moreover, social support is also regarded in this study as another
form of social capital. In this case, the “MissyUSA” community becomes a network of
social supporters by which they (respondents) support its information seekers through
the transmission of their knowledge and/or through their positive emotional reactions.

Keywords
Acculturation, ethnic culinary culture, ethnic online communities, legal immigration
status, social capital, transnational plans

Corresponding author:
Joong-Hwan Oh, Department of Sociology, Hunter College, The City University of New York, New York,
NY 10065, USA.
Email: joonghwan.oh@hunter.cuny.edu
Oh 2225

Introduction
In this article, the scope of online communities is confined to a certain type of computer-
mediated community where all their participating members share some common inter-
ests and backgrounds. More specifically, the main focus of concern here is immigrant
ethnic online communities. Much of the research undertaken on immigrant ethnic online
communities has placed greater emphasis on the representations and/or mobilization of
their own voices; the creation or re-creation of a sense of community; or the formation,
transformation, and reconstruction of identity across ethnicity, gender, location, or nation
(Ignacio, 2005; Kim, 2011; Madianou, 2005; Mitra, 2001, 2005). However, the idea that
these ethnic online communities have the potential to create two forms of social capital
(social resources and social support) among their participating members has been less
known in the research areas linking new media to immigration. This article addresses
this point by analyzing the messages posted on the message board (“Life Q&A”) of a
Korean-American online community called “MissyUSA.”
Members of “MissyUSA” have shared backgrounds, such as having been born in
South Korea (hereafter Korea), their status as married women, their use of the Korean
language, and their residence in the United States or Canada. It is a social network that has
been primarily built on the interplay among gender, ethnicity, immigration status, and
marital status. For some of its members, it is also an important source of information. In
this regard, social capital corresponds to social resources (Coleman, 1994; Lin, 2001),
namely, a wide range of information accessible among members of “MissyUSA” com-
munity. The range of information some of its members seek on immigration-related issues
can be broadly classified into one of three main academic traditions of immigration
research, that is, assimilation, cultural pluralism, and transnationalism (Alba and Nee,
2003; Gans, 1997; Glick Schiller et al., 1995; Waters and Jiménez, 2005). Indeed, many
members of the “MissyUSA” community sought, or are now seeking, information through
its “Life Q&A” message board to better adjust to their new environments, to maintain
their ethnic cultural traditions, or to reconnect with their homeland. In this study, the func-
tion of the “MissyUSA” community as the source of a wide range of immigration-related
information is examined by viewing immigrants’ assimilation through the lens of obtain-
ing documentation of legal status, cultural pluralism through the lens of culinary culture
retention, and transnationalism through the lens of transnational plans.
Moreover, this study attempts to show that some online communities like “MissyUSA”
also become a network of social support (Rheingold, 2000; Wellman, 2001). The function
of social support from the “MissyUSA” community surfaces when some of its members
respond to the postings seeking information by disseminating knowledge and wisdom, shar-
ing personal experiences with no expectation of reward, or alleviating the emotional stress
of information seekers. Overall, the main objective of this study is to reveal that membership
in the “MissyUSA” community makes it possible for its participating members to access
one or both forms of social capital: social resources (information) and social support.

Ethnic online community as social capital: information

Much of sociological literature on social capital has focused upon its sources, character,
forms, and its functions (Coleman, 1994; Lin, 2001; Portes and Sensenbrenner, 1993). In
2226 new media & society 18(10)

this study, one form of social capital is understood as the resources embedded in, or
accessible through, social networks, called “social resources” (Lin, 1982, 2001).
According to Lin (2001: 43), there are two distinctive types of social resources: material
goods (e.g. houses, cars, and money) and symbolic goods (e.g. education, memberships
in clubs, reputation). Expanding on Lin (2001), one of the social resources emphasized
in this study is information itself. In other words, this information becomes a specific
category of social resources that is inherent in social networks (Coleman, 1994).
The “MissyUSA” community analyzed in this study is a kind of closed network
whose membership is open only to Korean-born, immigrant women. However, it is not a
typical example of a closed network and is distinguished by its particular characteristics.
First, its online membership is relatively large in size and members exchange messages
with one another on condition of anonymity. Second, another unique feature of the
“MissyUSA” community is that this network’s unidentified members become a group of
prospective informants who can provide other members with a great deal of information,
often of a high quality. Third, it is also an unconstrained network under which the acqui-
sition of information is always possible through members’ connections to its website.
Taken together, the “MissyUSA” community adheres to Castells’ model of “specialized
communities” in which individuals build their networks with low barriers to entry and
low opportunity costs on the basis of their specific interests (Castells, 2001).

Legal immigration status

In the realm of immigrant assimilation, a great deal of academic research has focused on
immigrants’ cultural, economic, social, or spatial assimilation into their host society
(Alba and Nee, 2003; Massey, 1985; Waters and Jiménez, 2005). Immigrants’ political
incorporation into the host society has now begun to garner academic interest, especially
their access to citizenship within the host society. The main issues surrounding citizen-
ship in the host country include legal status, rights and participation in politics, and a
sense of belonging (Bloemraad et al., 2008: 156). Of these elements, the acquisition of
legal status through naturalization has often been portrayed as the most important com-
ponent of political incorporation (Bloemraad, 2006).
The reasons for immigrants’ eagerness to obtain permanent legal status in the United
States have been intensively discussed, including their rising awareness of their legal
protection amid the growing insecurity of the post-9/11 environment, desire for employ-
ment advantages, access to public benefits and personal conveniences in an era of glo-
balization (i.e. foreign trips), and the recent US government’s policies on immigrant
assimilation (Van Hook et al., 2006). This study considers immigrants’ efforts to obtain
permanent legal status in the dual forms of permanent residence and naturalization as the
two main phases of their political incorporation into the host society. For temporary
immigrants, legal permanent residence (green card) carries no sufficient guarantee of
legal protection, access to public-sector employment, or social welfare benefits
(Bloemraad, 2006; Brettell, 2006). Nonetheless, the acquisition of US legal permanent
resident status can make them feel more secure by avoiding the need to renew their tem-
porary visa, permissions for employment in an American company, or being eligible for
government-sponsored financial aid for education and housing. Importantly, acquisition
Oh 2227

of legal permanent resident status is also the initial and vital stage before application for
naturalization.
More specifically, this study also attempts to identify the issues, themes, or specific
topics pertaining to both types of political incorporation—legal permanent residence and
naturalization. Indeed, this study will reveal that the “MissyUSA” community is an
important network for its members to be able to access a wide range of information about
these two types of political incorporation into American society.

Ethnic cultural retention

Immigrants’ adoption of the cultural beliefs, standards, and language of a host society is
often referred to as cultural assimilation or acculturation (Alba and Nee, 2003; Gordon,
1964). The main thrust of the acculturation approach is that immigrants tend to give up
maintaining their own ethnic cultural values and practices in order to adopt the main-
stream culture of their host country. Cultural pluralism, however, is the perspective that
ethnic immigrant groups have a propensity to retain their ethnic languages, culture, and
even identity while living in the host society (Gans, 1997). In fact, some cultural tradi-
tions of ethnic immigrant groups still appear to be sustained in the United States in con-
junction with a large growth of ethnic immigrants from Latin America and Asia over the
last several decades (Frey, 2011; US Census Bureau, 2011). Also relevant is that general
American laws and policies to protect the rights of ethnic minorities—for example, equal
rights and justice in all social institutions, multicultural curricula in educational institu-
tions, and the celebration of ethnic festivals—have led to the maintenance of immigrants’
native cultural traditions in the United States (Alba, 1999).
Two other important markers for immigrants’ retention of their own ethnic cultural
practices in the host society are language and food (Van den Berghe, 1984). For most
immigrants, ethnic foods, in particular, are seen as the carrier of personal and collective
memory, the axis of collective identity, and the promoter of ethnic ties (Bardenstein,
2002; Fisher, 2011). As a whole, ethnic immigrant women play a pivotal role in transmit-
ting ethnic cultural traditions, including ethnic cuisine (Yuval-Davis, 1993). In this study,
ethnic culinary repertoires and knowhow are understood as one important manifestation
of immigrants’ cultural retention within their new country. Hence, this study examines
the themes and specific topics of Korean culinary information requested by some mem-
bers of the “MissyUSA” community. Thus, it serves as an important network to exchange
or transmit information about various Korean culinary traditions and knowledge among
its online members.

Transnationalism
Transnationalism refers to “the process by which immigrants forge and sustain multi-
stranded social relations that link together their societies of origin and settlement” (Basch
et al., 1994: 27). In the related literature, immigrants’ interconnections over national
borders have been discussed in the spheres of economic activities (remittances, busi-
nesses), political participation (dual citizenship), ties with the families in their homeland,
or cross-cultural connections (transnational identity) (Faist, 2000; Levitt and Jaworsky,
2228 new media & society 18(10)

2007). With the rapid development of aviation and information and communication tech-
nologies, especially the Internet, it is now possible for many immigrants to build or
maintain their transnational activities in a variety of ways.
First, this study focuses on the kind of transnational connectivity among a select
group of immigrants who participate in their ethnic online community. In fact, all of the
women who participate in the “MissyUSA” community cannot be classified as typical
transmigrants, those whose lives heavily depend upon constant interconnections across
nation-state boundaries (Glick Schiller et al., 1995). Instead, some might be classified as
occasional transmigrants who are often inclined to search for transnational-level infor-
mation at the time when they need it most. More specifically, this study analyzes
“MissyUSA” members’ connectivity across nation-states from the perspective of their
personal, upcoming plans. This is a unique type of transnationalism that relies heavily
upon immigrants’ personal perception. In turn, their perceptions on the necessity of
transnational connectivity can lead them to seek the information that is adequately suited
to facilitate their transnational plans. Hence, this study introduces the themes and spe-
cific topics of their transnational plans in both their countries of origin (Korea) and des-
tination (United States). Ultimately, the “MissyUSA” community becomes an online
conduit that plays an important role of transmitting transnational-level information
among their online members.

Ethnic online community as social capital: social support

As some online communities serve as social resources for its members, so do they often
become networks of social support (Rheingold, 2000; Wellman, 2001). In the
“MissyUSA” community, social support for some information seekers is manifested
through the messages posted in response to posts seeking information. At this point, one
important question that needs to be answered is in what ways these respondents support
the information seekers.
In general, they can be broadly classified into two groups. First, one group of its
respondents is instrumental guides for information seekers. More specifically, these
instrumental guides can be divided into two subgroups: information conveyers and advi-
sors. The major role of information conveyers is just to provide their knowledge, with or
without explaining the specific background, onset, contents, process, or outcomes regard-
ing the core elements of the inquiry. Aside from information conveyers, information
advisers take charge of correcting misinformation or providing their ideas or suggestions
as supplemental or alternative solutions. The second group of its respondents is emotional
supporters (encouragers) who express their sympathy or demand more efforts of the infor-
mation seekers and/or posting their own past or current experiences or stories (compan-
ions). In some cases, some respondents tend to conduct the joint roles of both instrumental
guides and emotional supporters in assisting the information seekers.

A Korean-American women’s online community

During the past four decades, the Korean population in the United States has grown from
almost 800,000 in 1990 to more than 1.4 million in 2010 (Min, 2012). Thus, accessibility
Oh 2229

to information on employment, housing, local community, or children’s schools can be

crucial for their settlement process in American society. As the Internet plays a pivotal
role in providing useful information to many information-seeking Korean-American s, a
website called “MissyUSA” (missyusa.com) was selected for analysis as it is known to be
the largest Korean-American online community in North America: as of November 2002,
the estimated total number of members was more than 13,000 (The Chosun Ilbo, 23 July
2003). Full membership is permitted only to married Korean-American women and,
recently, married Korean-Canadian women. The homepage of the “MissyUSA” website
offers a list of links, such as talk lounge, health and beauty, home and food, motherhood,
life information, commerce, missy writer, and missy shopping. This study focused on the
messages posted on the “Life Q & A” message board within its talk lounge page; its mes-
sage board can be accessed by anyone, including Korean-American men.
There is an exceedingly large number of daily postings on its “Life Q & A” message
board. For example, from 1 January 2011 to 20 July 2012, the total number of postings
(inquiries only) on its “Life Q & A” message board was 222,985, an average of 447 per day.
As a result of such a high volume of postings, this study has selected a manageable sample
of only those postings with over 100 views between 1 January and 15 January 2012, and
between 15 February and 29 February 2012. A total of 13,475 messages (inquiries only)
were posted during these two half-month periods of 2012. Of these, 4515 postings were
viewed more than 100 times each. In classifying them according to general issues or themes,
all of these postings (4515) have to do directly or indirectly with culture; laws, regulations
and welfare; house or home; health or nutrition; school or education; visit or relocation;
finance; technology; marital relationship; work; consumer products; beauty; and others.
This study is interested in only those posts directly or indirectly related to the afore-
mentioned three immigration research areas. Based on these criteria, 531 out of 4515
postings (almost 12%) were selected. As the first step of this study’s analytical strategy,
all of the inquiries have been divided into two parts: one for any inquiries on assimila-
tion, ethnic retention, and transnationalism and the other for all other inquiries. In the
second step, these messages of inquiry were further sorted according to two dimensions
of three key concepts, respectively: (1) inquiries about legal immigration status (perma-
nent resident status or citizenship through naturalization), and all other inquiries pertain-
ing to issues of assimilation; (2) inquiries about ethnic culinary culture, and all other
inquiries pertaining to research on cultural pluralism; and (3) inquiries about transna-
tional plans, and all other inquiries relating to research on transnationalism. In general,
these two steps of the classification were based on the most salient argument, point, or
idea in the text of each message rather than upon specific words, phrases, or separate
sentences. Almost all postings are written in Korean; although there are some posts in
English, they are very rare. All postings written in Korean were translated into English
by an expert who is bilingual in Korean and English.

The “MissyUSA” community as the source of information

The “Life Q & A” message board is an important online venue for its information seek-
ers. Indeed, it provides its members a great opportunity to assess a wide range of
immigration-related information.
2230 new media & society 18(10)

Table 1.  Lists of information inquiries about permanent resident status and citizenship (N=87).

Themes and topics N

Permanent resident status
 Period 10
 Qualification 8
 Sponsorship 8
 Documents 7
 Moving 5
  Immigration lawyer 4
 Renewal 3
  Interview or fingerprint 2
  Processing fees 2
 Others 5
  44
Citizenship
 Documents 9
 Qualification 7
  Interview, test, or fingerprint 6
  Name change 4
  Moving or trip 4
 Period 2
 Denial 2
  Processing fees 2
  Maintenance of legal status 2
  Citizenship oath ceremony 2
 Others 3
  43

Legal immigration status

To potential seekers and some current applicants for either US legal permanent resident
status or American citizenship through naturalization, the “Life Q & A” message board
is a useful online site for them to seek information about either or both of them. In ana-
lyzing 531 postings, 87 of them were related to the messages requesting information for
legal permanent resident status (44) and naturalized citizenship status (43). Table 1 pre-
sents this summary according to the themes, topics, and their frequencies.
Messages seeking information about legal permanent resident status include such
diverse topics as period, qualification, sponsorship, documents, and the like. Notably, the
period of time required to receive a permanent resident card (a green card) fell under the
most frequently asked questions. Under this topic, however, the postings of inquiries dif-
fered in content, such as the various types of family-based immigration (spouse, unmar-
ried child under the age of 21, unmarried sons or daughters over the age of 21, parents,
or siblings). For instance, one member asked on the “Life Q & A” message board; “How
long does it take to receive my own green card if I get married to a green card holder?”
Oh 2231

(5 January 2012). The second most prevalent topic was eligibility requirements for per-
manent residency in the United States based upon undocumented immigration status, no
previous income tax report, criminal record, divorce, or the minimum duration of resi-
dence. For instance, one person wrote, “I am currently an illegal immigrant … Am I
eligible to become a legal permanent resident if I am being married to a U.S. citizen?” (3
January 2012).
Another eight posts contained the messages requesting sponsorship-related informa-
tion (employment-based sponsorship, the size and types of sponsoring companies, and
financial support). To illustrate, someone posted, “I am looking for a company that spon-
sors the application for my permanent residence … Is there anyone who knows any
fashion firms sponsoring permanent residence for their newly hired employees in New
York areas?” (10 January 2012). Questions regarding the kinds of documents that should
be prepared in the application for permanent residence were raised by six members. The
information seekers of this sort generally wanted to know whether or not they omitted
some important documents, in addition to application forms, such as personal checks,
photos, birth certificate, marriage license, copies of bank statements, lease, and contract.
Some other frequently asked questions were about what to do while moving or traveling
under pending adjustment of status at the US Citizenship and Immigration Services
(USCIS) or their loss of green cards. There were also some posts seeking information
about the recommendation (immigration lawyers), the renewal of green cards, the pro-
jected times for their green card interview or fingerprint, and processing fees.
The second panel of Table 2 presents a summary of information requests for citizen-
ship through naturalization. Of all inquiries for information on naturalized citizenship,
popular topics were documents, qualifications, interview, and the citizenship test. In the
topic of documents, included are one’s own preparation of the citizenship application and
the types of documents that should be included in the application of citizenship through
naturalization. As one member wrote,

I already mailed the applications for U.S. citizenship [N-400 Form] for my husband and me to
the USCIS. But, we forgot writing my multiple traffic violations … very worried about an
incorrect report of my past. I wonder whether this matter can affect the USCIS’s decision to
grant me citizenship. (2 January 2012)

Next, eight members asked for information regarding qualifications for the application of
citizenship in light of their own unique backgrounds or situations, such as divorce from a
US citizen after the acquisition of green cards, unemployment, criminal records, traffic
violations, recipients of food stamps or state health aid, or bankruptcy. The questions
about preparation for the naturalization interview and test (the US history and civics test)
and the English tests (reading and writing) were asked by six members. One member
wrote, “I have no knowledge about my naturalization interview and civics test … Can you
recommend any study guide or provide some tips to pass both of them?” (25 February
2012). Besides, there were also some other topics, such as name change, relocation or
travel upon submission of applications, the period of time taken for the naturalization
process, citizenship denial, processing fees, and the maintenance of legal immigration
status under pending citizenship status.
2232 new media & society 18(10)

Table 2.  A list of information inquiries about Korean cuisines and related topics (N=230).

Themes and topics Items N

Staple foodstuffs
 Vegetables, Cabbage kimchi, diced radish kimchi, water-based radish kimchi, 50
beans, potatoes, kimchi fried rice, kimchi dumplings, young radish kimchi, soft
or fruits tofu stew, soybean paste stew, potato stew, pumpkin soup,
cabbage soup, spinach soup, pickled garlic, baked sweet potato,
kimchi pancakes, seasoned beans, steamed buns, and so on
 Beef, pork, or Seasoned barbequed beef, beef-rib stew, beef-rib soup, beef 30
poultry soup, hot spicy meat soup, boiled beef or pork, pork belly,
seasoned barbequed pork, pork cutlet, pork chops, chicken
soup, boiled chicken, seasoned spicy chicken, bone soup, beef
soup served with rice, and so on
  Fish or seafood Seafood pot stew, hot-sauced fish stew, fishcake soup, frozen 25
pollack stew, deep-fried shrimp, sliced fish mix with rice and
vegetables, seafood pancake, and so on
 Rice Steamed rice, multigrain rice, rice-cake soup, rice noodle, 16
gimbap (dried seaweed rolls), bibimbap (rice and vegetables
cooked in a pot), and so on
Recommendation Lunch menus, guest foods from Korea or foreigners, and feast 29
food
Korean restaurants 19
Grocery stores 18
Brands Rice, meat, pork, chicken, fish, vegetables, and so on 15
Kitchen and culinary Electric rice cooker, kimchi refrigerator, pot, and food spin- 10
utensils dryer
Storage Steamed rice, kimchi, and side dishes 6
Others Eating habits, making side dishes, scales (pound), English name, 12
and so on, and personal episode

Ethnic culinary culture

Through connections over the “Life Q & A” message board, some members can have
the opportunity to acquire some knowhow about traditional Korean foods and cuisines
from other members. Even for members who are skilled at preparing Korean cuisine,
online connections enable them to exchange information with other participating
Korean food experts regarding Korean dishes. Overall, the retention of Korean culinary
traditions and knowledge in the United States is made possible through the active learn-
ing of Korean culinary culture by using this “MissyUSA” message board. Of the 531
postings analyzed, 230 messages related to information requests for Korean culinary
knowledge, skills, or the other closely related topics. Table 2 presents a detailed list of
these inquiries.
More than half of these postings (121 out of 230) were messages seeking information
about the preparation of a wide variety of Korean dishes. To begin with, the theme of
stable foodstuffs can be divided into four distinct categories (or topics). The first cate-
gory of stable foodstuffs includes vegetables, beans, potatoes, and fruits—all of which
Oh 2233

are the items used in popular Korean recipes like cabbage kimchi, diced radish kimchi,
water-based radish kimchi, and others. For example, one member wrote,

I purchased two boxes of cabbages, and then, attempted to make cabbage kimchi with a mix of
salt, hot pepper, and other spices. But, the taste of kimchi was dull … very frustrated about this
unanticipated result. So, I need your advice to make tasteful kimchi. (3 January 2012)

Beef, pork, and poultry comprise the second category of stable foodstuffs. Popular
Korean recipes that include them are seasoned barbequed beef, beef-rib stew, beef-rib
soup, beef soup, hot spicy meat soup, and others. For example, one member asked,

I have some guests this evening … I am now thinking to serve seasoned barbequed beef to
them. I recognize that I need to add pieces of pineapple to make delicious barbequed beef.
Because pineapple is not available this time, can I add slices of apple instead? (20 February
2012)

Fish and seafood belong to the third category of stable foodstuffs. Popular Korean
dishes (or items) that include these ingredients are seafood pot stew, hot-sauced fish
stew, fishcake soup, frozen pollack stew, deep-fried shrimp, stir-fried anchovies, and oth-
ers. One member made the following inquiry: “I want to cook hot-sauced fish stew. I am
not sure of what type of fish I should buy at the market … What would you recom-
mend?” (22 February 2012). Rice, as the fourth category of staple foodstuffs, is used as
the key ingredient of such Korean cuisines as steamed rice, multigrain rice, rice-cake
soup, rice noodle, rice-cake dumpling soup, gimbap [dried seaweed rolls], and bibimbap
[rice with vegetables]. One member wrote, “I have been married for ten years. I still have
trouble in making rice noodles. To taste its real texture, can I share your secret method
for making it?” (4 January 2012). Other inquiries seeking information on Korean cuisine
included items such as requests for recommendations of certain Korean dishes, the
whereabouts of Korean restaurants, the name and/or location of Korean grocery stores,
product brands, and kitchen knowledge. As one member wrote,

Our family used to buy a Japanese brand of rice. Almost two weeks ago, one of my friends sent
me a sack of rice which brand is distributed by one Korean company. This Korean rice gave our
family members settled very well with our stomachs … I want to try another brand of Korean
rice. Can you recommend some other Korean brands of rice that also provide a good taste? (4
January 2012)

Transnationalism
In this article, Korean-American women’s transnational plans are viewed as an aspect of
transnationalism that involves a lasting connectivity between Korea and the United
States. Furthermore, these transnational plans are further divided into two broad themes.
The first is “For Korea or in Korea” to distinguish between online members who ask
what to do for their future visit to Korea and those information seekers who are presently
visiting Korea. In contrast, the second theme is “In America or for America” to distin-
guish between online members who ask for advice regarding their connection to Korea
2234 new media & society 18(10)

Table 3.  Lists of information inquiries about transnational plans (N=214).

Themes and topics N

For Korea or in Korea
  Airplane tickets 43
  Places to stay or to visit 21
 Gifts 12
  Wire transfer 9
  Package delivery 8
  Consumer items 8
  Information and communications technologies 8
  Medical costs or services 5
 Banking 5
  American citizenship 3
  International phone call 3
 Others 7
In America or for America
  Korean broadcasting 20
  Wire transfer 14
  Consumer items 13
  Korean citizenship 11
  Information and communications technologies 8
  Package delivery 5
 Businesses 4
 Comparisons 3
 Others 3

(Korean society) from the United States and those requesting information regarding their
return to the United States from their current stay in Korea. Overall, 214 out of 531post-
ings were messages requesting information about cross-national plans. Table 3 presents
two lists of messages seeking information about transnational plans.
Under the theme “For Korea or in Korea” (132 postings), specific topics were classi-
fied according to frequency: airplane tickets (prices, making reservations, travel agen-
cies, airlines, or airline services), places to stay or to visit in Korea (accommodation,
places worth visiting), gifts to buy for friends and family members in Korea, wire trans-
fer from the United States to Korea, package delivery from the United States to Korea
(items, delivery methods, customs formalities), consumer items to bring into Korea (per-
mitted or recommendable items), information and communication technologies in Korea
(how to use high-tech devices), medical costs or services in Korea (surgery, dental treat-
ment), banking in Korea (credit cards, bank accounts), American citizenship (rules or
regulations), phone calls to Korea, and Others (recommendations for beauty salons in
Korea, passports, visas, living costs, or personal tips for a good experience in Korea).
Several illustrations of some topics in this theme are as follows. One post was made
under the topic of airplane tickets by someone writing, “I am going to visit Korea in late
August … I didn’t buy my round-trip ticket yet. If I buy it in early August, do you think
Oh 2235

that its price can be a little bit cheap?” (23 February 2012). As for a case of package
delivery from the United States to Korea, a member wrote,

I sent my sister in Korea a package of two pairs of shoes and T-shirts by a shipping company.
When I checked its location via the computer, I found out that my package had been stuck in
Korean Customs over a week. I am not sure why it wasn’t delivered to my sister … (24 February
2012)

Under the topic of medical costs or services in Korea, one member wrote, “As soon as I
visit Korea, I am going to have plastic surgery … Can you recommend one of its clinics
or hospitals that have already gained great reputations in the field?” (20 February 2012).
In the second theme of “In America or for America” (81 postings), there were various
topics: Korean broadcasting in the United States (Korean TV dramas, movies, music,
news, or sports), wire transfer from Korea to the United States, consumer items to bring
into the United States (permitted or recommendable items), Korean citizenship in the
United States (rules or regulations), information and communications technologies in the
United States (the methods to use high-tech devices to connect to Korea or someone in
Korea), package delivery from Korea to the United States (items, delivery methods, or
customs formalities), businesses across both countries, comparisons between both coun-
tries (consumer goods’ qualities or prices), and Others (the price of airline tickets for
America, birth registration in Korea, or voter’s registration for Korean elections).
As an illustration of the topic of Korean broadcasting in the United States, one mem-
ber wrote, “I want to watch Korean TV dramas … in a legal way by paying a member-
ship fee. Can you introduce me one of its legal websites?” (28 February 2012). On the
topic of consumer items to bring into the United States, one member posted, “After one
more week of my stay in Korea, I will return to America. Can I bring some dried persim-
mons in?” (11 January 2012). One example of seeking information about Korean citizen-
ship in the United States was a member who wrote, “I have a 5-year-old son who was
born in the US. My husband and I are green card holders here … Should we report his
birth in Korea?” (23 February 2012). On the topic of businesses across both countries,
one person asked,

I am the owner of a clothing store in Koreatown in New York City … Without visiting Korea,
I want to purchase a variety of high-quality and relatively cheap clothes through online clothing
sites. Can you inform me of those websites? (22 February 2012)

The “MissyUSA” community as a network of social support

Upon receiving requests for information about permanent legal status in the United
States, Korean culinary knowledge or techniques, and transnational plans, some mem-
bers of the “MissyUSA” community (respondents) offer social support to inquirers as
revealed in how they convey information (description, advice) and/or emotional support
(encouragement, companionship). Here, I will briefly introduce some specific examples
of their social support patterns for legal immigration status, the retention of ethnic culi-
nary culture, and transnational plans, respectively. First, as an example of some respond-
ents’ social support for the inquirer regarding legal immigration status, the post stated, “I
2236 new media & society 18(10)

was scheduled to take my English tests for my naturalization next month. I am very
worried about my written English test, in particular. Can you suggest any good ideas to
handle this?” (24 February, 2012). There were five messages in response to this inquiry:

I took my written English test 6 years ago. It was just a simple dictation test. (Respondent 1)

There was only one question in my case. The question I received was that she wanted to live
near her brother. (Respondent 2)

You need to study the vocabularies that appear in the citizenship exam preparation workbook
… You can download this from the USCIS website. You don’t have to worry about it. In fact,
those vocabularies are very easy to learn. (Respondent 3)

http://www.passcitizenshipexam.com/newCivicsTest/test.html. (Respondent 4)

It was very simple. My question was that you can vote. Don’t worry. (Respondent 5)

All of these five respondents took on the role of information conveyers to the inquirer.
Besides, two of them (3 and 5) were also emotional encouragers to the inquirer.
Second, the retention of Korean culinary practices in the United States can also be
analyzed from the frame of social support. For example, one member posted, “I want to
make water-based radish kimchi. This is my first time to try this. Then the radishes I
bought are too dirty. Do I have peel off their skins?” (5 January 2012). There were four
response messages to this inquiry:

As far as I know, just wash the radishes and don’t peel their skins off. Then soak them in water
with coarse salt. After that, you can make water-based radish kimchi. (Respondent 1)

You don’t have to peel their skins off. For several hours, soak them with coarse salt. Also, add
fermented pepper there … water-based radish kimchi will taste better. (Respondent 2)

If you already peeled their skins off, it doesn’t matter at all. At first, wash the radishes clean …
soak them in salt water almost for a full day. It will taste good. (Respondent 3)

You should keep in mind that the taste of water-based radish kimchi actually depends on how
to soak radishes. (Respondent 4)

The role of instrumental guides—here, the description of information and advice—

for the inquirer was conducted by all four respondents.
Last, some members of the “MissyUSA” community also played the role of social
supporters for the inquirers seeking information about transnational plans. One member
wrote,

I need to have one of my teeth crowned. Here, its cost amounts to almost $1,000 without
endodontic treatment. This summer, I am going to Korea. Is it a good idea that I put the crown
of my tooth in Korea? (19 February 2012)
Oh 2237

There were six messages in response to this inquiry:

Its cost may be almost over $300 in Korea. Do it there. (Respondent 1)

Its full crown costs $500 in Korea. (Respondent 2)

I did it in Korea last fall by paying for $300. Of course, you can put a crown valued at $500.
(Respondent 3)

Here I paid for almost $1,000 to replace my broken crown without endodontic treatment … If
I were in your place, I would do it in Korea. (Respondent 4)

Can you believe that it costs $3,600 in Manhattan? (Respondent 5)

American dentists recommend a porcelain crown, not a gold one. When you smile, a gold
crown looks awkward. If you want to wear a porcelain crown here, its cost will not be as
expensive as you thought. (Respondent 6)

All six respondents belong to the subgroup of information conveyers for the inquirer.
In addition, Respondent 4 also performed the role of an information advisor. In summary,
a common point across all of the above illustrations is that the conveyance of information
and the emergence of a subgroup of social supporters are characteristic of the responses
to posts seeking information on immigration.

Conclusion
This study of the “MissyUSA” community has incorporated the concept of social capital
(social resources comprising information and social support) with a focus on three
important immigration research areas—legal immigration status in assimilation, the
retention of Korean culinary culture in cultural pluralism, and transnational plans in
transnationalism. The community’s “Life Q & A” message board has functioned as the
platform for some of its members to post a wide range of messages about those immigra-
tion issues. After analyzing these posts seeking information about legal immigration sta-
tus, ethnic culinary culture, or transnational plans, there is compelling evidence that for
its inquirers, the “MissyUSA” community becomes the critical source of their social
resources, as a form of social capital, and in particular, an important source of informa-
tion. Indeed, there were various kinds of information sought by inquirers, that is, back-
ground, cases, substance, process, and outcomes. Likewise, the contents of information
posted by its inquirers embraced a wide variety of topics under each theme; for example,
the theme of naturalized citizenship included topics such as detailed documents, qualifi-
cations, procedures, each step of the interviewing process, and methods to prepare for the
citizenship test.
For information seekers, the “MissyUSA” community is very efficient in the realms
of time, cost—both tangible and intangible, and the maintenance of relationships among
its online members. However, their requests for information on the “Life Q & A” mes-
sage board appear to reflect their efforts to find a clue for improving their knowledge
2238 new media & society 18(10)

and/or deciding on their subsequent course of action. Besides, the specificity of most of
their inquiries indicates that their efforts to cope with their personal or family issues or
needs are what motivated them to post the messages requesting information. Although its
members remain anonymous to one another, their decision to post messages about their
personal lives or circumstances results obviously from their expectation that some mem-
bers will provide valuable information or advice at their request. In fact, a sense of
belonging among its members is what makes the “MissyUSA” online community
become a true community. To some of its members (inquirers), their sense of belonging
makes them feel comfortable about requesting information from other members
(respondents).
Social support is the other form of social capital that is accessible through the
“MissyUSA” community. In this study, the dissemination of information online was the
most important role among the respondents who commented on inquiry postings.
Sometimes, emotional support for the inquirers was also expressed in some respondents’
messages. A sense of belonging, like in the case of social resources (information), is also
the basic foundation for social support for inquirers from the members who respond with
encouragement and morale-boosting words.
At this juncture, it is not difficult to speculate about the root causes of a sense of
belonging among members of the “MissyUSA” community. First, it is essentially
grounded in their “communal sharing of culture” in history, identity, experiences, and
rituals (Etzioni and Etzioni, 2001: 93). After immigration to the United States, many
first-generation Korean Americans still have a vivid memory or imagery of their past
lives in their home country (Korea), a nation that is highly racially homogeneous and
very group-oriented in cultural orientations—for example, collective values, norms,
identity, and practices (Kim, 2008; Min, 1998). Second, almost all postings on the
“MissyUSA” community were written in Korean. Indeed, a sense of belonging among
“MissyUSA” members has evolved after they, as people from the same linguistic cul-
ture, constructed a very similar mental world in ways to share their values, norms,
emotions, and behaviors (Chayko, 2002). Third, members of the “MissyUSA” com-
munity immigrated to the United States (or Canada) and were married, just as many of
them are full-time homemakers with primary responsibilities for child-rearing and
children’s education, and suffer from relatively poor English language skills. Thus,
their sense of belonging is also deeply rooted in their similar demographic statuses
together with their commonly shared interests and life experiences in their new coun-
try (Ignacio, 2005; Mitra, 2001, 2005). In turn, “MissyUSA” members’ sense of
belonging that is manifested in their inquiries or offers of social support is the embodi-
ment of their shared mother tongue (Korean), culture, birth country (Korea), positions
in the family (a housewife and/or mother), and life experiences in their new country
(immigration status).
Moreover, a strong sense of belonging among “MissyUSA” members has clearly
materialized through their language styles that appear especially in the messages that
respond to the postings seeking information. Thus, most “MissyUSA” respondents
posted messages that include detailed information with a full explanation and/or emo-
tional support—that is, companionship, sympathy, confidence, or encouragement—to
the inquirers. On the other hand, it was rare for “MissyUSA” respondents to use words,
Oh 2239

phrases, or passages that express disdain, insult, sarcasm, denial, disrespect, or hope-
lessness. This result is consistent with previous research findings that there exist such
female language cues in computer-mediated, text-based communication (Wolf, 2000).
Interestingly enough, these linguistic expressions of most “MissyUSA” respondents
are also likely to epitomize their gender identity, roles, and expectations as cis-
gendered women. However, an in-depth analysis of these aspects is beyond the scope
of this article and should be further clarified in future studies.
In summary, this study of the aforementioned three selected immigration research
areas, under the concept of social capital and throughout the “MissyUSA” commu-
nity, has been an attempt to demonstrate the possibility that online discourses among
members of some ethnic digital platforms like “MissyUSA” provide excellent mate-
rial for research on immigration. To put it another way, the in-depth analysis of
user-generated content, such as the messages posted on ethnic-specific online com-
munities, can open up a new arena in immigration studies for migration scholars by
broadening and deepening their understanding about the settlement process of ethnic
immigrants in their new land and the reasons behind their interconnections over
national borders.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

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Author biography
Joong-Hwan Oh is Associate Professor of the Sociology Department at Hunter College of the City
University of New York. His substantive areas of expertise in sociology are immigration, urban
sociology, online communities, race and ethnicity, and East Asia. He has published more than 20
journal articles in these fields. He is also the author of the book entitled Immigration and Social
Capital in the Age of Social Media: American Social Institutions and a Korean-American Women’s
Online Community (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016).