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FLOW ASSURANCE CHALLENGES FOR LONG SUBSEA PIPELINES

Conference Paper · September 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.4090.1445

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 IBP2269_14
FLOW ASSURANCE CHALLENGES FOR LONG SUBSEA
PIPELINES
Marcia Cristina Khalil de Oliveira1, Adriana Teixeira2, Lenise Couto
Vieira3 e Roberto da Fonseca Junior4

Copyright 2014, Instituto Brasileiro de Petróleo, Gás e Biocombustíveis - IBP

Este Trabalho Técnico foi preparado para apresentação na Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2014, realizado no período de 15 a
18 de setembro de 2014, no Rio de Janeiro. Este Trabalho Técnico foi selecionado para apresentação pelo Comitê Técnico do evento,
seguindo as informações contidas no trabalho completo submetido pelo(s) autor(es). Os organizadores não irão traduzir ou corrigir
os textos recebidos. O material conforme, apresentado, não necessariamente reflete as opiniões do Instituto Brasileiro de Petróleo,
Gás e Biocombustíveis, Sócios e Representantes. É de conhecimento e aprovação do(s) autor(es) que este Trabalho Técnico seja
publicado nos Anais da Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2014.
Resumo No cenário das novas descobertas, a produção de petróleo e gás ocorre em águas cada vez mais profundas e
distantes da costa. Tais cenários expõem o sistema de produção a condições ambientais cada vez mais severas, com altas
pressões e baixas temperaturas, aumentando assim os desafios de garantia de escoamento. Por isso durante o
desenvolvimento de projetos neste cenário é importante se avaliar o comprimento das linhas de produção, entre cada
poço e a plataforma, para que os problemas de garantia de escoamento sejam minimizados. O presente trabalho tem por
objetivo apresentar diferentes cenários de produção, comparando os riscos associados à deposição de parafina, formação
de hidratos, formação de emulsão e tensão limite de escoamento em diferentes comprimentos de linha de produção.
Assim, a partir dos dados de caracterização de um petróleo brasileiro, foram realizadas simulações de escoamento
multifásico com o intuito de analisar o comportamento dos fluidos durante o regime de escoamento permanente e
durante paradas de produção, em linhas de produção de 5 ou 20 km. Os resultados mostraram que o aumento do
comprimento da linha de produção tende a aumentar o risco de deposição de parafina e a acelerar o processo de
formação de hidratos durante paradas de produção. Como este petróleo apresentou baixo valor de tensão a limite de
escoamento não será necessária uma pressão adicional para reiniciar o escoamento.

Abstract
In the new oil and gas discoveries scenarios, the production of oil and gas occurs far from shore in deep and ultra deep
waters. Such production scenarios expose the system to increasingly stringent environmental conditions of pressure and
temperature, thus increasing the flow assurance challenges. Therefore, during the project development in this scenario is
important to evaluate production subsea pipelines length, between the wells and the platform, to minimize flow
assurance problems. This paper presents different production scenarios and compares the risks associated to wax
deposition, hydrate and emulsion formation and yield stress for long production flowlines. To do this, crude oil
characterization and multiphase flow simulations were carried to determine the behavior of fluids during steady state
flow and shutdown conditions, considering a distance between well and platform of 5 km and 20 km. The results showed
that increasing the length of the production line tends to increase the risk of wax deposition, as well as accelerate the
process of hydrate formation in case of shutdown. As this crude has a low yield stress value is not required additional
pressure to restart the system.

1. Introduction
Flow assurance is a critical concern during oil and gas production, especially in deep and ultra-deep water
conditions. It consist effective prevention and handling solid precipitates and deposits, such as hydrates, asphaltenes and
waxes, as well as emulsions. Laboratory testing provides data needed to defines the crude oil properties that are related
to flow problems and address the flow assurance risks. The knowledge of fluid properties in conjunction with thermal
and hydraulic analyses are used to develop strategies to control (prevent/mitigate/remediate) these flow assurance issues
and problems.

______________________________
1
PHD, Petroleum Chemist, PETROBRAS R&D CENTER
2
Petroleum Chemist PETROBRAS R&D CENTER
3
PHD, Petroleum Chemist, PETROBRAS R&D CENTER
4,
Petroleum Engineer, PETROBRAS R&D CENTER
 Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2014

In deep-water environments, the seawater temperature is usually 4ºC in Brazil, so if the fluid temperature inside
the pipeline becomes too low due to the heat losses, water and the light hydrocarbon (gas) may form hydrate and block
the flow. Furthermore, if the temperature is low enough, wax may start to precipitate and deposit on the pipe wall.
Then, in environments such as subsea pipelines, the precipitation, deposition, and gelling of solid waxes in
hydrocarbon fluids are critical production concerns. Understanding wax behavior can help to avoid high costs resulting
from production reduction or stoppage or, conversely, helps preventing production system overdesigning.
Asphaltenes are dark brown or black solids, unlike waxes, will not melt at high temperature. However, the
changes in pressure, temperature and composition, tend to flocculate the asphaltenes that may deposit inside the
reservoir formation, in the well tubing and flowlines and at topside facilities. Mixing reservoir fluids with a different gas
(injected gas or gas-lift) or mixing two oil streams can also induce asphaltene precipitation.
Wax deposition and temperature and pressure profile during shutdowns are examples of topics that are useful
address the risks of long subsea pipelines. Comparison using multiphase flow simulation can be used to as a tool to
check the difference in terms of flow assurance strategy.

2. Experimental Procedure
The main flow assurance analyses performed were as follows to know the fluid properties.

2.1. Sample Characterization

A Brazilian waxy crude oil, the so-called crude A, was selected for this study. This sample was characterized
by rheology, API gravity, water content, pour point and SARA (saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes content) by
the methods described at Table 1.

Table 1 - Crude oil characterization

Analysis Method

Crude oil viscosity ASTM D 2196 modified

API gravity ASTM D 4052
Water content ASTM D 4377
Pour point ASTM D97
SARA SFC/TLC-FID/D ASTM6560

2.2. Wax Appearance Temperature (WAT) and Crystallization Enthalpy

The wax appearance temperature was determined on a differential scanning microcalorimeter (µDSC). This
technique allows to determine the temperature at which wax crystals begin to form or precipitate from crude oil bulk.
This is set by the exothermic peak during crude oil sample cool down. The onset temperature is measured by the
intersection point of the baseline and the tangent line of the inflection point of the exothermal peak. The calculated
temperature will be noted as the WAT. The total heat flux of wax precipitation is computed by the integration of the area
between the DSC signal curve and the baseline. This heat flux is related to the solids amount, provided the latent heat is
known. The best way to avoid wax deposition during crude oil production is to maintain fluid temperature above WAT.
Analyses to determine the WAT were carried out on a SETARAM µDSC VIIa differential scanning micro
calorimeter, in 850 µL Hastelloy alloy sealed cells. The experiments were performed at a temperature range of 80°C to -
10°C, and a cooling rate of 0.8°C/min.

2.3. Emulsion Preparation and Stability Evaluation

Water-in-oil emulsions were prepared using synthetic brine consisting of 5.0 wt % NaCl in Milli-Q water, at
aqueous volume fractions of 10, 30, 50 and 70% to simulate the water production concomitant to crude oil. The crude
oil was thermally preconditioned in an oven at 60 ºC for at least 1 h to dissolve any wax already precipitated, and after
that, the aqueous phase was added. Emulsification was performed using a homogenizer at 8,000 rpm for 3 min at 25 ºC.
Subsequently, bottle tests were performed at 60 ºC to visually determine emulsion stability.
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2.4. Rheological Analysis

2.4.1. Crude Oil Rheology

Rheometric measurements were performed using a controlled-stress rheometer. Dynamic viscosity was
measured using concentric cylinder geometry, while the sample was cooled at a programmed cooling rate (1ºC/min)
from the starting temperature (60ºC) to the hold temperature (4ºC). The range of shear rate applied was 20-250 s-1.
Crude oil and emulsion viscosity data are used to calculate the pressure drop during the flow.

2.4.2. Yield Stress Measurement

To define the crude oil yield stress (gelling behavior), oscillatory rheology studies are performed using plate-
plate geometry. The sample was heated to 45ºC and sheared during 15 min at 10 s-1 shear rate. After this, the sample is
cooled to 4ºC and remains at rest for 15 min. Then an oscillation stress sweep test is performed at 1 Hz frequency,
applying rising shear stress, from 0.1 up to 1,000 Pa. The yield stress value is established as a crossover point between
the elastic and viscous modulus (Figure 1).

During long shutdowns, the fluid will achieve equilibrium with the ambient temperature. If the environment
temperature is below the pour point then a gel consisting of wax crystals in a viscous matrix could be formed. Therefore,
a minimum pressure will be needed to break the gel yield stress and then to restart the crude oil flow.

G’
G’, G’’ (Pa)

G’’

Yield Stress

Stress (Pa)

Figure 1. Representative viscous and elastic modulus (G” e G’) versus stress curve to establish the crude oil yield stress.

2.5. Hydrate Analysis

The rheology of the transition from water-in-oil emulsion to hydrate suspension is performed to qualitatively
evaluate the maximum water cut where a stable suspension is obtained. Rheometric measurements were performed using
a controlled-stress rheometer, and the dynamic viscosity was measured using vane geometry.
Each test was started with the preparation of a water-in-oil emulsion that was placed in a pressure cell. After
that, the cell was pressurized with a synthetic natural gas until the desired pressure, and which was kept constant during
the entire test. The gas mixture used in this test composition is: 87% methane, 10% ethane, 2% propane, 0.05%
isobutane, 0.04% n-butane, 0.01% isopentane, 0.4% carbon dioxide, and 0.5% nitrogen.
The initial temperature was 40 oC, and to incorporate the gas the system was maintained in this temperature for
12 hours at a shear rate of 30 s-1. Then, the system was cooled to 4 ºC (0.5 ºC/min) at constant shear (30 s-1) and
pressure (100 bar), remaining at this temperature for at least 6 h. During this step, hydrates were formed and the
viscosity increase was evaluated. If a plug was formed, the test was interrupted due to the sensor movement blockage.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Crude Oil Analysis

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Table 2 is a summary of the crude oil A characterization results. As we can see, this crude oil has a 28.1 ºAPI
and pour point at 6.0 ºC.

Table 2. Crude oil A characterization results

Test Crude oil sample

Water content (%w/w) 0.28

API (ºC) 28.1
Specific gravity (g/cm3) 0.8814
Pour point (ºC) 6.0
Saturates 51.8
SARA Aromatic 21.9
(%w/w) Resin 25.6
Asphaltenes 0.75

3.2. Wax Appearance Temperature (WAT) And Crystallization Enthalpy

The crude oil WAT is 43.02°C and the 2nd crystallization event at 19.66°C. The analysis of the enthalpies of
crystallization aims to provide information such as the evolution of the quantities of waxes that crystallize within a
determined temperature range. These quantities of waxes (%solids) were calculated by the rate between the
crystallization enthalpies of the oil, at each temperature, and the average value of crystallization enthalpy for paraffins
(200 J/g). The Table 3 and Figure 2 show the % solids for this crude oil.

Table 3. Crystallization enthalpy and solids

Temperature (°C) Crystallization enthalpy (J/g) Solids (%)

43 0.0047 0.0023
40 0.1126 0.0563
37 0.2735 0.1368
35 0.3443 0.1721
33 0.3976 0.1988
30 0.4649 0.2324
27 0.5257 0.2628
25 0.5627 0.2814
22 0.6130 0.3065
20 0.6513 0.3257
18 0.8607 0.4303
15 1.8058 0.9029
12 2.8587 1.4294
10 3.5289 1.7645
7 4.4520 2.2260
4 5.2948 2.6474
0 6.2839 3.1419

As a PETROBRAS project criteria the critical wax deposition temperature is the temperature below which the
amount of paraffin crystallized becomes relevant to the deposition, i.e., 0.2% solids for crude oil with API < 30. For this
crude, the critical deposition temperature is 32.70 °C.

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Figure 2. Solids content as a function of the temperature for crude oil A

3.3. Rheological Analysis

Rheological properties of crude oils, such as viscosity, depends on temperature, shear rate and water content.
Table 4 and Figure 3 show crude oil and emulsions viscosity at different water cut (%v/v). In Figures 4 and 5 the
viscosity experimental data for crude oil and emulsion were plotted at different shear rates and temperatures. As the
temperature drops, the viscosity increases, especially below WAT. The results show that this crude oil incorporated until
70% of water as stable emulsion. The emulsion viscosity is higher than crude oil in all ranges of the temperature.

Table 4. The apparent viscosity of crude oil and emulsions at different water cut and temperatures

Viscosity (mPa.s) at 50 s-1

Temp.
Crude oil Emulsion Emulsion Emulsion Emulsion
(°C)
(0.28% ) (10%) (30%) (50%) (70%)
60.0 10.2 14.9 22.7 84.1 232.6
50.0 14.7 20.2 29.8 107.3 285.6
40.0 21.7 29.5 51.8 152.0 392.3
30.0 33.8 46.5 84.4 231.8 551.3
20.0 66.3 112.2 173.8 457.5 966.1
15.0 142.0 238.8 342.7 777.2 1,538.3
12.0 205.2 327.7 467.5 992.9 2,010.1
7.0 335.9 492.1 736.6 1,460,3 2,978.0
4.0 497.3 677.3 1,048.4 2,033,9 4,376.7

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Figure 3. Dynamic viscosity versus temperature for crude A at different water contents at 50s-1.

Figures 4 and 5 display the crude oil and emulsion viscosity according to the water content and shear rate. This
crude oil and its emulsions exhibited a non-Newtonian behavior at the range of the shear rate and temperature used in
the study.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Dynamic viscosity versus temperature for (a) crude oil and (b) emulsion with 10% water content at
different shear rates.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Dynamic viscosity versus temperature for emulsion with (a) 30% and (b) 50%, water content at different
shear rates.

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Figure 6 shows the elastic modulus, G`, and the viscous modulus, G`` behavior as the sample is submitted to
rising shear stress values after 15 min at static conditions at 4 ºC . For this crude oil, the crossover is observed at a low
yield stress value (128 Pa).

Figure 6. Viscous and elastic modulus versus stress for crude oil A.

3.5. Hydrate Analysis

Certain crude oils have the capability to keep stable hydrate suspensions. The first analysis to evaluate this
capability is look at emulsion formation and stability. As a general trend for Brazilian crudes, when the oil is not able to
form stable water-in-oil emulsions, it also has no capability to prevent hydrate particles from agglomeration. It means
that, when hydrate forms in the presence of free water, problems with blockage are expected. If a stable emulsion is
formed, the second step is to promote the hydrate formation in this emulsion and analyze the stability of the hydrate
suspension formed.

Hydrate formation tests were performed with 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% water-in-oil emulsions, at hydrate
formation condition of 100 bar and 4oC. The results, presented in Figure 7, show that hydrates were formed in all the
tests performed; an increase in the viscosity is the signal of hydrate formation. After the initial peak of viscosity, a
formation of stable hydrate suspensions is observed for emulsions with 30 and 40%, represented by stable viscosity
values. However, with 50% of water the viscosity of the suspension formed is not so stable, and presents a tendency of
increasing viscosities with time. Finally, with 60% of water, a hydrate plug was observed.

Figure 7. Hydrate formation tests results, performed with 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% water-in-oil emulsions. Brine
with 5% wt of NaCl, 100 bar (constant pressure), shear rate 30s-1, and temperature of 4oC.

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So, this crude is capable to generate stable hydrate suspensions when the water content is not superior to 40%.
Conversely, the risk of a hydrate blockage is high when the water content is more than 40%. In this case, if the hydrate
stability zone is reached during steady state flowing conditions, a strategy to prevent hydrate is needed, either by
injecting a thermodynamic, anti-agglomerant or kinetic inhibitor.

3.6 Multiphase flow simulations

At this stage, the main goal is to assess the influence of the length of the subsea flowline on the development of
an offshore field. To this end, two scenarios were selected, one with a 5 km distance between the subsea X-Tree and the
platform and a second one with 20 km. After that selection, simulations using OLGA® multiphase flow simulator,
considering steady state production and wax deposition were performed in addition to the study of the behavior of the
pressure and temperature in case of shutdown.

3.6.1. Steady State Flow Simulations

Figure 8 shows the behavior of pressure and temperature along the geometry of the system. In terms of pressure
drop (Figure 8a), it is observed that this effect is not as pronounced, considering that the gravity represents the main loss
(approximately 90% of total). Thus, the impact of emulsion formation did not become pronounced for the scenarios
analyzed. In terms of steady state, it is observed in Figure 8b that the fluid temperature when it arrives at the platform is
the variable most affected when the length of the production flowline increases. This fact is associated with longer heat
exchange with the subsea environment (4ºC).

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Fluid profile along the flow during steady state, a) Pressure and b) temperature variation

3.6.2. Wax Deposition

Another comparison between scenarios was studied with respect to the wax deposition. In this case, a
simulation was carried out considering until 15 days of production for the two cases. The results can be seen in Figure 9.
As can be seen in the previous figure, the case that presents the greatest line length is greater risk of wax
deposition, mainly in the flowline. In the case of shorter length (5Km), the risk of deposition is concentrated in the riser.

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(a) (b)
Figure 9. Wax deposition thickness considering different time of production for each pipeline length, a) 5 Km and
b) 20 Km.

3.6.3. Transient Simulation

The transient simulation is conducted to analyze the behavior of the pressure and temperature in case of
shutdown and allows defining the strategy to be adopted to prevent hydrate formation. In figure 10 the behavior of the
variables is presented.

As can be seen, considering the scenarios studied, for geometry that has a larger horizontal length, it is
observed that the fluid entering the envelope of hydrates with degree of sub cooling of the order of 5 °C in the first hour
of production stop.

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Simulated behavior of pressure and temperature during shutdown comparing the relative hydrate envelope at
a) 5Km and b) 20 Km pipeline lenght.

In Figure 11 a comparison between the holdup is displayed during stop production. It is observed that in the
case of the longest length flowline remains over 80% liquid filling the horizontal portions.

Considering a fluid with the property of gelification, long tie-back represents a greater risk in the event of long
shutdown since the calculation of the pressure required for a distributed system takes into account the length of the line
filled with liquid. As this dead crude has a low yield stress value is not required additional pressure to restart the system.

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Figure 11. Behavior of holdup during shutdown.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The multiphase flow simulations showed that projects involving long subsea flowlines require special attention
regarding flow assurance issues, particularly with respect to wax deposition and risk of hydrate formation and blockage.
The results obtained for crude oil A showed that flow assurance challenges are higher when flowlines are longer. The
temperature decrease during steady state condition for the flowline of 20 km is critical for wax deposition, as the
minimum temperature achieved is below than the WAT and the 2nd crystallization temperature (19.66oC).
When a shutdown occurs, more problems have to be mitigated. Temperature will be lower than steady state
condition, and hydrate formation risk appears for both pipelines lengths (5 and 20 km). Crude oil A has the capability to
incorporate up to 70% of water, and showed good anti-agglomerant properties when the water cut is not higher than
40%. In this case, fluids don’t need to be changed during stoppages operational activities. If the water cut is higher than
40%, fluids need to be changed before the hydrate formation condition is achieved. This condition is achieved first for
the longer production line.
As dead crude oil A presents a low value of yield stress (128 Pa), it’s not expected to have problems to
production restart after a shutdown. During the restart operation, hydrate blockage risk is avoided following the previous
observations and performing the flowline depressurization. If the fluids coming from the well enter in the hydrate
stability zone during transient condition, a hydrate inhibition strategy is needed when the water cut is higher than 40%.
This situation is expected for longer flowline.
To mitigate wax deposition and hydrate formation, the first option to consider, mainly for steady state
condition, is maintain the pipeline temperature above WAT and hydrate formation temperature, by either insulation or
electrical heating. In some cases, chemical inhibitor injection can be considered. Both options are more restrictive for
longer flowlines, and the best technology and method will be defined on a cost and energy efficiency basis.

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