Part II

Vectors, Matrices, and Vector Calculus

Vectors

EXERCISES 7.1
Vectors in 2-Space

65

1. (a) 6i + 12j

(b) i + 8j

(c) 3i

(d)

2. (a) 3, 3

(b) 3, 4

(c) 1,2

(d) 5

3. (a) 12, 0

(b) 4, 5

(c) 4, 5

(d)

(c) 13 i j

4. (a)

1
2i

12 j

(b)

2
3i

+ 23 j

(e) 3
(e)

(e)

41

(d) 2 2/3

(e)

10/3

34

41

5. (a) 9i + 6j

(b) 3i + 9j

(c) 3i 5j

(d) 3 10

(e)

6. (a) 3, 9

(b) 4,12

(c) 6, 18

(d) 4 10

(e) 6 10

7. (a) 6i + 27j

(b) 0

(c) 4i + 18j

(d) 0

(e) 2 85

8. (a) 21, 30

(b) 8, 12

(c) 6, 8

(d) 4 13

(e) 10

9. (a) 4, 12 2, 2 = 6, 14

(b) 3, 9 5, 5 = 2, 4

10. (a) (4i + 4j) (6i 4j) = 2i + 8j

(b) (3i 3j) (15i 10j) = 18i + 7j

11. (a) (4i 4j) (6i + 8j) = 10i 12j

(b) (3i + 3j) (15i + 20j) = 12i 17j

12. (a) 8, 0 0, 6 = 8, 6

(b) 6, 0 0, 15 = 6, 15

13. (a) 16, 40 4, 12 = 20, 52

(b) 12, 30 10, 30 = 2, 0

14. (a) 8, 12 10, 6 = 2, 6

(b) 6, 9 25, 15 = 31, 24

360

7.1 Vectors in 2-Space

y

15.

16.

5
P1P2

P2

P1P2 = 2, 5

P1P2 = 6, 4

y
P2

P1P2

17.

P1

P1

18.

P1

y
5
P1

P1P2
5

P1P2

P2

P1P2 = 2, 2

P1P2 = 2, 3

19. Since P1 P2 = OP2 OP1 , OP2 = P1 P2 + OP1 = (4i + 8j) + (3i + 10j) = i + 18j, and the terminal point is
(1, 18).

20. Since P1 P2 = OP2 OP1 , OP1 = OP2 P1 P2 = 4, 7 5, 1 = 9, 8, and the initial point is (9, 8).
21. a(= a), b(= 14 a), c(= 52 a), e(= 2a), and f (= 12 a) are parallel to a.
22. We want 3b = a, so c = 3(9) = 27.
23. 6, 15
24. 5, 2

1
4 + 4 = 2 2 ; (a) u = 2
2, 2 =  12 , 12 ; (b) u =  12 , 12 
2

26. a = 9 + 16 = 5; (a) u = 15 3, 4 =  35 , 45 ; (b) u =  35 , 45 

25. a =

27. a = 5; (a) u = 15 0, 5 = 0, 1; (b) u = 0, 1

28. a = 1 + 3 = 2; (a) u = 12 1, 3  =  12 , 23 ; (b) u =  12 , 23 

1
5 12
5, 12 =  13
, 13 
29. a + b = 5, 12 = 25 + 144 = 13; u = 13

30. 2a 3b = 5, 4 = 25 + 16 = 41 ; u = 141 5, 4 =  541 , 441 

31. a = 9 + 49 = 58 ; b = 2( 158 )(3i + 7j) = 658 i + 1458 j



32. a = 14 + 14 = 12 ; b = 3( 1/12 )( 12 i 12 j) = 3 2 2 i 3 2 2 j

33. 34 a = 3, 15/2

34. 5(a + b) = 50, 1 = 0, 5

35.

36.

3b a

b = a + (b + c)

a
a

37. x = (a + b) = a b

b+c
c

38. x = 2(a b) = 2a 2b

361

7.1 Vectors in 2-Space

39.

40.

d
e
a

From Problem 39, e + c + d = 0. But b = e a

and e = a + b, so (a + b) + c + d = 0.

b = (c) a; (b + c) + a = 0; a + b + c = 0

41. From 2i + 3j = k1 b + k2 c = k1 (i + j) + k2 (i j) = (k1 + k2 )i + (k1 k2 )j we obtain the system of equations

k1 + k2 = 2, k1 k2 = 3. Solving, we nd k1 = 52 and k2 = 12 . Then a = 52 b 12 c.
42. From 2i + 3j = k1 b + k2 c = k1 (2i + 4j) + k2 (5i + 7j) = (2k1 + 5k2 )i + (4k1 + 7k2 )j we obtain the system of
1
7
equations 2k1 + 5k2 = 2, 4k1 + 7k2 = 3. Solving, we nd k1 = 34
and k2 = 17
.
43. From y  = 12 x we see that the slope of the tangent line at (2, 2) is 1. A vector with slope 1 is i + j. A unit vector

is (i + j)/i + j = (i + j)/ 2 = 12 i + 12 j. Another unit vector tangent to the curve is 12 i 12 j.

44. From y  = 2x + 3 we see that the slope of the tangent line at (0, 0) is 3. A vector with slope 3 is i + 3j. A

unit vector is (i + 3j)/i + 3j = (i + 3j)/ 10 = 110 i + 110 j. Another unit vector is 110 i 110 j.
45. (a) Since Ff = Fg , Fg  = Ff  = Fn  and tan = Fg /Fn  = Fn /Fn  = .
(b) = tan1 0.6 31
46. Since w + F1 + F2 = 0,
200j + F1  cos 20 i + F1  sin 20 j F2  cos 15 i + F2  sin 15 j = 0
or
(F1  cos 20 F2  cos 15 )i + (F1  sin 20 + F2  sin 15 200)j = 0.
Thus, F1  cos 20 F2  cos 15 = 0; F1  sin 20 + F2  sin 15 200 = 0. Solving this system for F1  and
F2 , we obtain
F1  =

sin 15

200 cos 15
200 cos 15
200 cos 15
=
=
336.8 lb

cos 20 + cos 15 sin 20

sin(15 + 20 )
sin 35

and
F2  =

200 cos 20
200 cos 20
=
327.7 lb.
sin 15 cos 20 + cos 15 sin 20
sin 35

47. Since y/2a(L2 + y 2 )3/2 is an odd function on [a, a], Fy = 0. Now, using the fact that L/(L2 + y 2 )3/2 is an
even function, we have
 a

L a
L dy
dy
=
y = L tan , dy = L sec2 d
2 + y 2 )3/2
2 + y 2 )3/2
a
2a(L
(L
a
0
1

 tan1 a/L
L tan a/L
1
L sec2 d
sec2 d
=
=
2
a 0
La 0
sec3
L3 (1 + tan )3/2
tan1 a/L
 tan1 a/L

1
1
sin 
cos d =
=
La 0
La
0
a
1
1

=
=
.
La L2 + a2
L L2 + a2

Then Fx = qQ/40 L L2 + a2 and F = (qQ/40 L L2 + a2 )i.

48. Place one corner of the parallelogram at the origin and let two adjacent sides

P2
be OP1 and OP2 . Let M be the midpoint of the diagonal connecting P1 and
P2
M
1
N
P2 and N be the midpoint of the other diagonal. Then OM = 2 (OP1 + OP2 ).
P1
P1

1
Since OP1 + OP2 is the main diagonal of the parallelogram and N is its midpoint, ON = 2 (OP1 + OP2 ). Thus,

OM = ON and the diagonals bisect each other.

362

7.2 Vectors in 3-Space

49. By Problem 39, AB + BC + CA = 0 and AD + DE + EC + CA = 0. From the rst equation,

AB + BC = CA. Since D and E are midpoints, AD = 12 AB and EC = 12 BC. Then,

1
1
2 AB + DE + 2 BC + CA = 0 and

B
D
A

E
C

1
1

1
DE = CA (AB + BC) = CA (CA) = CA.
2
2
2
Thus, the line segment joining the midpoints D and E is parallel to the side AC and half its length.

50. We have OA = 150 cos 20 i +150 sin 20 j, AB = 200 cos 113 i +200 sin 113 j, BC = 240 cos 190 i +240 sin 190 j.
Then
r = (150 cos 20 + 200 cos 113 + 240 cos 190 )i + (150 sin 20 + 200 sin 113 + 240 sin 190 )j
173.55i + 193.73j
and r 260.09 miles.

EXERCISES 7.2
Vectors in 3-Space
z

1. 6.

(0, 0, 4)

(1, 1, 5)

(5, 4, 3)

y
(3, 4, 0)

(6, 2, 0)

(6, 0, 0)
x

7. A plane perpendicular to the z-axis, 5 units above the xy-plane

8. A plane perpendicular to the x-axis, 1 unit in front of the yz-plane
9. A line perpendicular to the xy-plane at (2, 3, 0)
10. A single point located at (4, 1, 7)
11. (2, 0, 0), (2, 5, 0), (2, 0, 8), (2, 5, 8), (0, 5, 0), (0, 5, 8), (0, 0, 8), (0, 0, 0)
12.

z (1, 3, 7)

(3, 3, 7)
(1, 3, 4)
(3, 3, 4)

(3, 6, 7)

(1, 6, 7)
(1, 6, 4)

(3, 6, 4)
y

13. (a) xy-plane: (2, 5, 0), xz-plane: (2, 0, 4), yz-plane: (0, 5, 4); (b) (2, 5, 2)

363

7.2 Vectors in 3-Space

(c) Since the shortest distance between a point and a plane is a perpendicular line, the point in the plane x = 3
is (3, 5, 4).
14. We nd planes that are parallel to coordinate planes: (a) z = 5; (b) x = 1 and y = 1; (c) z = 2
15. The union of the planes x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0
16. The origin (0, 0, 0)
17. The point (1, 2, 3)
18. The union of the planes x = 2 and z = 8
19. The union of the planes z = 5 and z = 5
20. The line through the points (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1), and the origin


21. d = (3 6)2 + (1 4)2 + (2 8)2 = 70



22. d = (1 0)2 + (3 4)2 + (5 3)2 = 3 6


23. (a) 7; (b) d = (3)2 + (4)2 = 5

24. (a) 2; (b) d = (6)2 + 22 + (3)2 = 7


25. d(P1 , P2 ) = 32 + 62 + (6)2 = 9; d(P1 , P3 ) = 22 + 12 + 22 = 3



d(P2 , P3 ) = (2 3)2 + (1 6)2 + (2 (6))2 = 90 ; The triangle is a right triangle.



26. d(P1 , P2 ) = 12 + 22 + 42 = 21 ; d(P1 , P3 ) = 32 + 22 + (2 2)2 = 21




d(P2 , P3 ) = (3 1)2 + (2 2)2 + (2 2 4)2 = 28 16 2 The triangle is an isosceles triangle.



27. d(P1 , P2 ) = (4 1)2 + (1 2)2 + (3 3)2 = 10



d(P1 , P3 ) = (4 1)2 + (6 2)2 + (4 3)2 = 26



d(P2 , P3 ) = (4 4)2 + (6 1)2 + (4 3)2 = 26 ; The triangle is an isosceles triangle.


28. d(P1 , P2 ) = (1 1)2 + (1 1)2 + (1 (1))2 = 2

d(P1 , P3 ) = (0 1)2 + (1 1)2 + (1 (1))2 = 3


d(P2 , P3 ) = (0 1)2 + (1 1)2 + (1 1)2 = 5 ; The triangle is a right triangle.



29. d(P1 , P2 ) = (2 1)2 + (2 2)2 + (3 0)2 = 34



d(P1 , P3 ) = (7 1)2 + (10 2)2 + (6 0)2 = 2 34



d(P2 , P3 ) = (7 (2))2 + (10 (2))2 + (6 (3))2 = 3 34

Since d(P1 , P2 ) + d(P1 , P3 ) = d(P2 , P3 ), the points P1 , P2 , and P3 are collinear.


30. d(P1 , P2 ) = (1 2)2 + (4 3)2 + (4 2)2 = 6



d(P1 , P3 ) = (5 2)2 + (0 3)2 + (4 2)2 = 3 6



d(P2 , P3 ) = (5 1)2 + (0 4)2 + (4 4)2 = 4 6

Since d(P1 , P2 ) + d(P1 , P3 ) = d(P2 , P3 ), the points P1 , P2 , and P3 are collinear.


(2 x)2 + (1 2)2 + (1 3)2 = 21 = x2 4x + 9 = 21 = x2 4x + 4 = 16

31.
= (x 2)2 = 16 = x = 2 4 or x = 6, 2

364

7.2 Vectors in 3-Space


(0 x)2 + (3 x)2 + (5 1)2 = 5 = 2x2 6x + 25 = 25 = x2 3x = 0 = x = 0, 3


1 + 7 3 + (2) 1/2 + 5/2
33.
= (4, 1/2, 3/2)
,
,
2
2
2


0 + 4 5 + 1 8 + (6)
34.
= (2, 3, 7)
,
,
2
2
2

32.

35. (x1 + 2)/2 = 1, x1 = 4; (y1 + 3)/2 = 4, y1 = 11;

(z1 + 6)/2 = 8, z1 = 10

The coordinates of P1 are (4, 11, 10).

36. (3 + (5))/2 = x3 = 4; (4 + 8)/2 = y3 = 6; (1 + 3)/2 = z3 = 2.


3 + (4) 4 + 6 1 + 2
= (7/2, 5, 3/2)
,
,
The coordinates of P3 are (4, 6, 2). (a)
2
2
2


4 + (5) 6 + 8 2 + 3
= (9/2, 7, 5/2)
,
,
(b)
2
2
2

37. P1 P2 = 3, 6, 1

38. P1 P2 = 8, 5/2, 8

39. P1 P2 = 2, 1, 1

40. P1 P2 3, 3, 7

41. a + (b + c) = 2, 4, 12

42. 2a (b c) = 2, 6, 4 3, 5, 8 = 5, 1, 12
43. b + 2(a 3c) = 1, 1, 1 + 25, 21, 25 = 11, 41, 49
44. 4(a + 2c) 6b = 45, 9, 20 6, 6, 6 = 26, 30, 74

45. a + c = 3, 3, 11 = 9 + 9 + 121 = 139

46. c2b = ( 4 + 36 + 81 )(2)( 1 + 1 + 1 ) = 22 3





 a 
 b 


 = 1 a + 5 1 b = 1 + 5 = 6

47. 
+ 5
a 
|b  a
b

48. ba + ab = 1 + 1 + 1 1, 3, 2 + 1 + 9 + 4 1, 1, 1 =  3 , 3 3 , 2 3  +  14 , 14 , 14 

=  3 14 , 3 3 + 14 , 2 3 + 14 

1
100 + 25 + 100 = 15; u = 10, 5, 10 = 2/3, 1/3, 2/3
15

1
1
3
2
50. a = 1 + 9 + 4 = 14 ; u = (i 3j + 2k) = i j + k
14
14
14
14
49. a =

51. b = 4a = 4i 4j + 4k
52. a =
53.

1
36 + 9 + 4 = 7; b =
2

 
3
3 1
1
6, 3, 2 =  , , 
7
7
14 7

z
a

1 (a + b)
2
y

365

7.2 Vectors in 3-Space

EXERCISES 7.3
Dot Product

1. a b = 10(5) cos(/4) = 25 2

2. a b = 6(12) cos(/6) = 36 3

3. a b = 2(1) + (3)2 + 4(5) = 12

4. b c = (1)3 + 2(6) + 5(1) = 4

5. a c = 2(3) + (3)6 + 4(1) = 16

6. a (b + c) = 2(2) + (3)8 + 4(4) = 4

7. a (4b) = 2(4) + (3)8 + 4(20) = 48

8. b (a c) = (1)(1) + 2(9) + 5(5) = 8

9. a a = 22 + (3)2 + 42 = 29

10. (2b) (3c) = (2)9 + 4(18) + 10(3) = 24

11. a (a + b + c) = 2(4) + (3)5 + 4(8) = 25

12. (2a) (a 2b) = 4(4) + (6)(7) + 8(6) = 10




12
2(1) + (3)2 + 4(5)
ab
1, 2, 5 =
b=
1, 2, 5 = 2/5, 4/5, 2
13.
2
2
2
bb
(1) + 2 + 5
30
14. (c b)a = [3(1) + 6(2) + (1)5]2, 3, 4 = 42, 3, 4 = 8, 12, 16
15. a and f, b and e, c and d
16. (a) a b = 2 3 + (c)2 + 3(4) = 0 = c = 9
(b) a b = c(3) + 12 (4) + c2 = c2 3c + 2 = (c 2)(c 1) = 0 = c = 1, 2
17. Solving the system of equations 3x1 + y1 1 = 0, 3x1 + 2y1 + 2 = 0 gives x1 = 4/9 and y1 = 1/3. Thus,
v = 4/9, 1/3, 1.
18. If a and b represent adjacent sides of the rhombus, then a = b, the diagonals of the rhombus are a + b
and a b, and
(a + b) (a b) = a a a b + b a b b = a a b b = a2 b2 = 0.
Thus, the diagonals are perpendicular.
19. Since
ca=



ab
ab
ab
b
a
a=ba
(a a) = b a
a2 = b a a b = 0,
2
2
a
a
a2

the vectors c and a are orthogonal.

20. a b = 1(1) + c(1) = c + 1; a = 1 + c2 , b = 2


1
c+1

1 + c2 = c + 1 = 1 + c2 = c2 + 2c + 1 = c = 0
cos 45 = =
=
2
1 + c2 2

21. a b = 3(2) + (1)2 = 4; a = 10 , b = 2 2

4
1
1
=
cos =
= = cos1 1.11 rad 63.43
( 10)(2 2)
5
5

22. a b = 2(3) + 1(4) = 10; a = 5 , b = 5

366

7.3 Dot Product

10
2
cos =
=
( 5 )5
5

= = cos1 (2/ 5 ) 2.68 rad 153.43

23. a b = 2(1) + 4(1) + 0(4) = 6; a = 2 5 , b = 3 2

6
1
=
cos =
= = cos1 (1/ 10 ) 1.89 rad 108.43
(2 5)(3 2)
10

24. a b = 12 (2) + 12 (4) + 32 (6) = 8; a = 11/2, b = 2 14

8
8

cos =
=
= = cos1 (8/ 154 ) 0.87 rad 49.86
( 11/2)(2 14 )
154

25. a = 14 ; cos = 1/ 14 , 74.50 ; cos = 2/ 14 , 57.69 ; cos = 3/ 14 , 36.70

26. a = 9; cos = 2/3, 48.19 ; cos = 2/3, 48.19 ; cos = 1/3, 109.47

27. a = 2; cos = 1/2, = 60 ; cos = 0, = 90 ; cos = 3/2, = 150

28. a = 78 ; cos = 5/ 78 , 55.52 ; cos = 7/ 78 , 37.57 ; cos = 2/ 78 , 76.91

29. Let be the angle between AD and AB and a be the length of an edge of the cube. Then AD = ai + aj + ak,

AB = ai and

1
AD AB
a2
=
cos = =
2
2
3
3a a
AD AB

so 0.955317 radian or 54.7356 . Letting be the angle between AD and AC and noting that AC = ai + aj
we have


AD AC
2
a2 + a2

=
cos = =
2 2a2
3
3a
AD AC
so 0.61548 radian or 35.2644 .
30. If a and b are orthogonal, then a b = 0 and
a2 b2
a3 b3
a1 b1
+
+
a b a b a b
1
1
=
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 ) =
(a b) = 0.
a b
a b

31. a = 5, 7, 4; a = 3 10 ; cos = 5/3 10 , 58.19 ; cos = 7/3 10 , 42.45 ; cos = 4/3 10 ,
65.06
cos 1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2 =

32. We want cos = cos = cos or a1 = a2 = a3 . Letting a1 = a2 = a3 = 1 we obtain the vector i + j + k. A unit
vector in the same direction is 13 i + 13 j + 13 k.
33. compb a = a b/b = 1, 1, 3 2, 6, 3/7 = 5/7

34. compa b = b a/a = 2, 6, 3 1, 1, 3/ 11 = 5/ 11

35. b a = 1, 7, 0; compa (b a) = (b a) a/a = 1, 7, 0 1, 1, 3/ 11 = 6/ 11

36. a + b = 3, 5, 6; 2b = 4, 12, 6; comp2b (a + b) 2b/|2b| = 3, 5, 6 4, 12, 6/14 = 54/7

a = a OP /OP  = (4i + 6j) (3i + 10j)/ 109 = 72/ 109

37. OP = 3i + 10j; OP  = 109 ; comp

OP

a = a OP /OP  = 2, 1, 1 1, 1, 1/ 3 = 0

38. OP = 1, 1, 1; OP  = 3 ; comp

OP
39. compb a = a b/b = (5i + 5j) (3i + 4j)/5 = 7

projb a = (compb a)b/b = 7(3i + 4j)/5 = 21

5 i+

28
5 j

367

7.3 Dot Product

40. compb a = a b/b = (4i + 2j) (3i + j)/ 10 = 10

projb a = (compb a)b/b = 10(3i + j)/ 10 = 3i j

41. compb a = a b/b = (i 2j + 7k) (6i 3j 2k)/7 = 2
6
4
projb a = (compb a)b/b = 2(6i 3j 2k)/7 = 12
7 i + 7j + 7k
42. compb a = a b/b = 1, 1, 1 2, 2, 1/3 = 1/3
projb a = (compb a)b/b = 13 2, 2, 1/3 = 2/9, 2/9, 1/9
43. a + b = 3i + 4j; a + b = 5; comp(a+b) a = a (a + b)/a + b = (4i + 3j) (3i + 4j)/5 = 24/5
72
96
proj(a+b) a = (comp(a+b) a)(a + b)/a + b = 24
5 (3i + 4j)/5 = 25 i + 25 j

44. a b = 5i + 2j; a b = 29 ; comp(ab) b = b (a b)/a b = (i + j) (5i + 2j)/ 29 = 3/ 29

6
proj(ab) b = (comp(ab) b)(a b)/a b = 329 (5i + 2j)/ 29 = 15
29 i 29 j
45. We identify F = 20, = 60 and d = 100. Then W = F d cos = 20(100)( 12 ) = 1000 ft-lb.
46. We identify d = i + 3j + 8k. Then W = F d = 4, 3, 5 1, 3, 8 = 45 N-m.
47. (a) Since w and d are orthogonal, W = w d = 0.

(b) We identify = 0 . Then W = F d cos = 30( 42 + 32 ) = 150 N-m.

48. Using d = 6i + 2j and F = 3( 35 i + 45 j), W = F d =  95 , 12

5  6, 2 =

78
5

ft-lb.

49. Let a and b be vectors from the center of the carbon atom to the centers of two distinct hydrogen atoms. The
distance between two hydrogen atoms is then


b a = (b a) (b a) = b b 2a b + a a


= b2 + a2 2a b cos = (1.1)2 + (1.1)2 2(1.1)(1.1) cos 109.5

= 1.21 + 1.21 2.42(0.333807) 1.80 angstroms.
50. Using the fact that | cos | 1, we have |a b| = a b| cos | = a b| cos | a b.
51. a + b2 = (a + b) (a + b) = a a + 2a b + b b = a2 + 2a b + b2
a2 + 2|a b| + b2

since x |x|

a2 + 2a b + b2 = (a + b)2

by Problem 50

Thus, since a + b and a + b are positive, a + b a + b.

52. Let P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) be distinct points on the line ax + by = c. Then

n P1 P2 = a, b x2 x1 , y2 y1  = ax2 ax1 + by2 by1

= (ax2 + by2 ) (ax1 + by1 ) = c (c) = 0,
and the vectors are perpendicular. Thus, n is perpendicular to the line.

53. Let be the angle between n and P2 P1 . Then

|a, b x1 x2 , y1 y2 |
|n P2 P1 |
|ax1 ax2 + by1 by2 |

d = P1 P2  | cos | =
=
=
n
a2 + b2
a2 + b2
|ax1 + by1 (ax2 + by2 )|
|ax1 + by1 (c)|
|ax1 + by1 + c|

=
=
=
.
2
2
2
2
a +b
a +b
a2 + b2

368

7.4 Cross Product

EXERCISES 7.4
Cross Product

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.



i
j k  






1 0
 1 1 

  1 0 




a b =  1 1 0  = 
 i  0 5  j +  0 3  k = 5i 5j + 3k


3
5
0 3 5 


i j k  





  1 0 
2 0 
2 1

 





a b = 2 1 0  = 
 i  4 1  j +  4 0  k = i + 2j 4k


0
1
 4 0 1 


i
j k  






1 1
 1 3 

  3 1 




a b =  1 3 1  = 
 i  2 4  j +  2 0  k = 12, 2, 6


0
4
2 0 4 


 i
j k  






 1 1
 1 1

  1 1 




ab= 1 1 1=
 i  5 3  j +  5 2  k = 1, 8, 7


2
3
 5 2 3 


 i
j
k  






 2
 2 1 
2 
  1 2 




a b =  2 1 2  = 
 i  1 1  j +  1 3  k = 5i + 5k


3
1
 1 3 1 


i j k  





  1 5 
 4 5 
4 1

 





a b =  4 1 5  = 
 i  2 1  j +  2 3  k = 14i 6j + 10k


3
1
 2 3 1 


 i
j
k  






 1/2 1/2 
 1/2 0 

  0 1/2 




a b =  1/2 0 1/2  = 
i  4
 j +  4 6  k = 3, 2, 3


6
0
0
 4 6 0 


i
j k  






0 0
0 5 

  5 0 




a b = 0 5 0  = 
 i  2 4  j +  2 3  k = 20, 0, 10


3
4
 2 3 4 


 i
j
k  






 2 4 
 2
2 

  2 4 



ab= 2
2 4  = 
i
j+
k = 0, 0, 0


3 6 
3 6 
3 3 
 3 3 6 


i
j
k  






 8 6 
8 1 

  1 6 




a b =  8 1 6  = 
 i  1 10  j +  1 2  k = 2, 86, 17


2
10
 1 2 10 

11. P1 P2 = (2, 2, 4);


 i

P1 P2 P1 P3 =  2

 3

P1 P3 = (3, 1, 1)

j k  





 2 4 


  2 4 

 j +  2 2  k = 6i + 14j + 4k
2 4  = 
i






1 1
3 1
3 1 
1 1 

369

7.4 Cross Product



 i j k 





  1 1 
0 1
0 1

 





12. P1 P2 = (0, 1, 1); P1 P3 = (1, 2, 2); P1 P2 P1 P3 =  0 1 1  = 
i 1 2j + 1 2k = j k


2
2
1 2 2 


i j k  





  7 4 






 i  2 4  j +  2 7  k = 3i 2j 5k
13. a b =  2 7 4  = 






1 1
1 1
1 1
 1 1 1 
is perpendicular to

 i
j


14. a b =  1 2

 4 1

both a and b.

k  





 1 4 


  2 4 

 j +  1 2  k = 4, 16, 9
4  = 
i






1 0
4 0
4 1 
0

is perpendicular to both a and b.



i
j
k  






5 1 
 5 2 

  2 1 




15. a b =  5 2 1  = 
 i  2 7  j +  2 0  k = 14, 37, 4


0
7
 2 0 7 
a (a b) = 5, 2, 1 14, 37, 4 = 70 74 + 4 = 0; b (a b) = 2, 0, 7 14, 37, 4 = 28 + 0 28 = 0


 i
j
k  






 1/2 1/4 
 1/2 0 

  1/4 0 

 k = 3 i 3j 1 k


16. a b =  1/2 1/4 0  = 
2
2

i  2 6j +  2


2
2
6
 2
2
6
a (a b) = ( 12 i 14 j) ( 32 i 3j 12 k) = 34 +
( 32 i

b (a b) = (2i 2j + 6k)
3j


 i j k 


  1 1 



i 2
17. (a) b c =  2 1 1  = 

3


1 1
3 1 1 


i
j
k  


  1
a (b c) =  1 1 2  = 


1
 0 1 1 

1
2 k)

3
4

+0=0

= 3 + 6 3 = 0




2 1
1 


j
+
3 1k = j k
1





1 2 


2 

 j +  1 1  k = i + j + k
i





1
0 1
0 1 

(b) a c = (i j + 2k) (3i + j + k) = 4; (a c)b = 4(2i + j + k) = 8i + 4j + 4k

a b = (i j + 2k) (2i + j + k) = 3; (a b)c = 3(3i + j + k) = 9i + 3j + 3k
a (b c) = (a c)b (a b)c = (8i + 4j + 4k) (9i + 3j + 3k) = i + j + k


 i
j k  






 1 1 
 1 2

  2 1 




18. (a) b c =  1 2 1  = 
 i  1 8  j +  1 5  k = 21i 7j + 7k


5
8
 1 5 8 


 i
j
k  






 3 4 
 3
0 

  0 4 



k = 28i 105j 21k
a (b c) =  3
0 4  = 
i
j+


21 7 
7 7 
21 7 
 21 7 7 
(b) a c = (3i 4k) (i + 5j + 8k) = 35; (a c)b = 35(i + 2j k) = 35i 70j + 35k
a b = (3i 4k) (i + 2j k) = 7; (a b)c = 7(i + 5j + 8k) = 7i + 35j + 56k
a (b c) = (a c)b (a b)c = (35i 70j + 35k) (7i + 35j + 56k) = 28i 105j 21k
19. (2i) j = 2(i j) = 2k
20. i (3k) = 3(i k) = 3(j) = 3j

370

7.4 Cross Product

21. k (2i j) = k (2i) + k (j) = 2(k i) (k j) = 2j (i) = i + 2j
22. i (j k) = i i = 0
23. [(2k) (3j)] (4j) = [2 3(k j) (4j)] = 6(i) 4j = (6)(4)(i j) = 24k
24. (2i j + 5k) i = (2i i) + (j i) + (5k i) = 2(i i) + (i j) + 5(k i) = 5j + k
25. (i + j) (i + 5k) = [(i + j) i] + [(i + j) 5k] = (i i) + (j i) + (i 5k) + (j 5k)
= k + 5(j) + 5i = 5i 5j k
26. i k 2(j i) = j 2(k) = j + 2k
27. k (j k) = k i = 0
28. i [j (k)] = i [(j k)] = i (i) = (i i) = 1

29. 4j 5(i j) = 4j 5k = 41

30. (i j) (3j i) = k (3k) = 3(k k) = 3
31. i (i j) = i k = j

32. (i j) i = k i = j

33. (i i) j = 0 j = 0

34. (i i)(i j) = 1(k) = k

35. 2j [i (j 3k)] = 2j [(i j) + (i (3k)] = 2j [k + 3(k i)] = 2j (k + 3j) = 2j k + 2j 3j

= 2(j k) + 6(j j) = 2(0) + 6(1) = 6
36. (i k) (j i) = (j) (k) = (1)(1)(j k) = j k = i
37. a (3b) = 3(a b) = 3(4i 3j + 6k) = 12i 9j + 18k
38. b a = a b = (a b) = 4i + 3j 6k
39. (a) b = (a b) = 4i + 3j 6k


40. |a b| = 42 + (3)2 + 62 = 61


i
j
k  






4 6 



  3 6 

 j +  4 3  k = 21i + 16j + 22k
41. (a b) c =  4 3 6  = 
i







4 1
2 1
2 4 
 2 4 1 
42. (a b) c = 4(2) + (3)4 + 6(1) = 10
43. a (b c) = (a b) c = 4(2) + (3)4 + 6(1) = 10
44. (4a) (b c) = (4a b) c = 4(a b) c = 16(2) + (12)4 + 24(1) = 40

45. (a) Let A = (1, 3, 0), B = (2, 0, 0), C = (0, 0, 4), and D = (1, 3, 4). Then AB = i 3j, AC = i 3j + 4k,

CD = i 3j, and BD = i 3j + 4k. Since AB = CD and AC = BD, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(b) Computing



 i
j k 



AB AC =  1 3 0  = 12i 4j 6k


 1 3 4 

we nd that the area is  12i 4j 6k =

144 + 16 + 36 = 14.

46. (a) Let A = (3, 4, 1), B = (1, 4, 2), C = (2, 0, 2) and D = (2, 0, 3). Then AB = 4i + k, AC = i 4j + k,

CD = 4i+k, and BD = i4j+k. Since AB = CD and AC = BD, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

371

7.4 Cross Product

(b) Computing



 i
j k 



AB AC =  4 0 1  = 4i + 3j + 16k


 1 4 1 

we nd that the area is 4i + 3j + 16k = 16 + 9 + 256 = 281 16.76.

47. P1 P2 = j; P2 P3 = j + k


i
j k  






0 0
0 1 

  1 0 
1




P1 P2 P2 P3 =  0 1 0  = 
 i  0 1  j +  0 1  k = i; A = 2 i =


1
1
 0 1 1 

1
2

sq. unit

48. P1 P2 = j + 2k; P2 P3 = 2i + j 2k


i j k  





  1 2 
0 2 
0 1

 





P1 P2 P2 P3 =  0 1 2  = 
 i  2 2  j +  2 1  k = 4i + 4j 2k


1
2
 2 1 2 
A = 12  4i + 4j 2k = 3 sq. units

49. P1 P2 = 3j k; P2 P3 = 2i k


 i
j
k  






 0 1 



  3 1 

 j +  0 3  k = 3i + 2j 6k
P1 P2 P2 P3 =  0 3 1  = 
i







0 1
2 1
2 0 
 2 0 1 
A = 12 3i + 2j 6k =

7
2

sq. units

50. P1 P2 = i + 3k; P2 P3 = 2i + 4j k


 i
j k  






 1 3 
 1 0 

  0 3 




P1 P2 P2 P3 =  1 0 3  = 
 i  2 1  j +  2 4  k = 12i + 5j 4k


4
1
 2 4 1 

sq. units
A = 12  12i + 5j 4k = 185
2


 i
j k  






 1 0 
 1 4 

  4 0 




51. b c =  1 4 0  = 
 i  2 2  j +  2 2  k = 8i + 2j 10k


2
2
 2 2 2
v = |a (b c)| = |(i + j) (8i + 2j 10k)| = |8 + 2 + 0| = 10 cu. units


 i j k 





  4 1 






 i  1 1  j +  1 4  k = 19i 4j 3k
52. b c =  1 4 1  = 






1 5
1 1
1 5
1 1 5 
v = |a (b c)| = |(3i + j + k) (19i 4j 3k)| = |57 4 3| = 50 cu. units


 i
j
k  






 2 6 
 2 6 

  6 6 




53. b c =  2 6 6  = 
 i  5/2 1/2  j +  5/2 3  k = 21i 14j 21k


3
2/2
 5/2 3 1/2 
a (b c) = (4i + 6j) (21i 14j 21k) = 84 84 + 0 = 0. The vectors are coplanar.

54. The four points will be coplanar if the three vectors P1 P2 = 3, 1, 1, P2 P3 = 3, 5, 13, and P3 P4 =
8, 7, 6 are coplanar.

372

7.4 Cross Product



 i
j
k  






 3 13 
 3 5 

  5 13 




P2 P3 P3 P4 =  3 5 13  = 
 i  8 6  j +  8 7  k = 61, 122, 61


7
6
 8 7 6 

P1 P2 (P2 P3 P3 P4 ) = 3, 1, 1 61, 122, 61 = 183 + 122 + 61 = 0
The four points are coplanar.
55. (a) Since = 90 , a b = a b | sin 90 | = 6.4(5) = 32.
(b) The direction of a b is into the fourth quadrant of the xy-plane or to the left of the plane determined by
a and b as shown in Figure 7.54 in the text. It makes an angle of 30 with the positive x-axis.

(c) We identify n = ( 3 i j)/2. Then a b = 32n = 16 3 i 16j.

56. Using Denition 7.4, a b = 27 (8) sin 120 n = 24 3 ( 3/2)n = 36n. By the right-hand rule, n = j or
n = j. Thus, a b = 36j or 36j.
57. (a) We note rst that a b = k, b c = 12 (i k), c a = 12 (j k), a (b c) =
c (a b) = 12 . Then
A=

1
2 (i

k)
1
2

= i k,

B=

1
2 (j

k)
1
2

= j k,

and C =

k
1
2

1
2

, b (c a) =

1
2

, and

= 2k.

(b) We need to compute A (B C). Using formula (10) in the text we have
(c a) (a b)
[(c a) b]a [(c a) a]b
=
[b (c a)][c (a b)]
[b (c a)][c (a b)]
a
=
since (c a) a = 0.
c (a b)

BC=

Then
A (B C) =

a
1
bc

=
a (b c) c (a b)
c (a b)

and the volume of the unit cell of the reciprocal latrice is the reciprocal of the volume of the unit cell of
the original lattice.






 a2
 a1
 a1
a3 
a3 
a2 



58. a (b + c) = 
i
j+
k
b2 + c2 b3 + c3 
b1 + c1 b3 + c3 
b1 + c1 b2 + c2 
= (a2 b3 a3 b2 )i + (a2 c3 a3 c2 )i [(a1 b3 a3 b1 )j + (a1 c3 a3 c1 )j] + (a1 b2 a2 b1 )k + (a1 c2 a2 c1 )k
= (a2 b3 a3 b2 )i (a1 b3 a3 b1 )j + (a1 b2 a2 b1 )k + (a2 c3 a3 c2 )i (a1 c3 a3 c1 )j + (a1 c2 a2 c1 )k
=ab+ac
59. b c = (b2 c3 b3 c2 )i (b1 c3 b3 c1 )j + (b1 c2 b2 c1 )k
a (b c) = [a2 (b1 c2 b2 c1 ) + a3 (b1 c3 b3 c1 )]i [a1 (b1 c2 b2 c1 ) a3 (b2 c3 b3 c2 )]j
+ [a1 (b1 c3 b3 c1 ) a2 (b2 c3 b3 c2 )]k
= (a2 b1 c2 a2 b2 c1 + a3 b1 c3 a3 b3 c1 )i (a1 b1 c2 a1 b2 c1 a3 b2 c3 + a3 b3 c2 )j
(a1 b1 c3 a1 b3 c1 + a2 b2 c3 a2 b3 c2 )k
(a c)b (a b)c = (a1 c1 + a2 c2 + a3 c3 )(b1 i + b2 j + b3 k) (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )(c1 i + c2 j + c3 k)
= (a2 b1 c2 a2 b2 c1 + a3 b1 c3 a3 b3 c1 )i (a1 b1 c2 a1 b2 c1 a3 b2 c3 + a3 b3 c2 )j
(a1 b1 c3 a1 b3 c1 + a2 b2 c3 a2 b3 c2 )k
60. The statement is false since i (i j) = i k = j and (i i) j = 0 j = 0.

373

7.4 Cross Product

61. Using equation 9 in the text,


 a1


a (b c) =  b1

 c1

a2
b2
c2


a3 

b3 

c3 


 c1


and (a b) c = c (a b) =  a1

 b1

c2
a2
b2


c3 

a3  .

b3 

Expanding these determinants out we obtain a (b c) = a1 b2 c3 + a2 b3 c1 + a3 b1 c2 a3 b2 c1 a1 b3 c2 a2 b1 c3

and c (a b) = a2 b3 c1 + a3 b1 c2 + a1 b2 c3 a2 b1 c3 a3 b2 c1 a1 b3 c2 . These are equal so a (b c) = (a b) c.
62. a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b)
= (a c)b (a b)c + (b a)c (b c)a + (c b)a (c a)b
= [(a c)b (c a)b] + [(b a)c (a b)c] + [(c b)a (b c)a] = 0
63. Since

a b2 = (a2 b3 a3 b2 )2 + (a1 b3 a3 b1 )2 + (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2

= a22 b23 2a2 b3 a3 b2 + a23 b22 + a21 b23 2a1 b3 a3 b1 + a23 b21 + a21 b22 2a1 b2 a2 b1 + a22 b21

and
a2 b2 (a b)2 = (a21 + a22 + a23 )(b21 + b22 + b23 ) (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )2
= a21 a22 + a21 b22 + a21 b23 + a22 b21 + a22 b22 + a22 b23 + a23 b21 + a23 b22 + a23 b23
a21 b21 a22 b22 a23 b23 2a1 b1 a2 b2 2a1 b1 a3 b3 2a2 b2 a3 b3
= a21 b22 + a21 b23 + a22 b21 + a22 b23 + a23 b21 + a23 b22 2a1 a2 b1 b2 2a1 a3 b1 b3 2a2 a3 b2 b3
we see that a b2 = a2 b2 (a b)2 .
64. No. For example i (i + j) = i j by the distributive law (iii) in the text, and the fact that i i = 0. But i + j
does not equal j.
65. By the distributive law (iii) in the text:
(a + b) (a b) = (a + b) a (a + b) b = a a + b a a b b b = 2b a
since a a = 0, b b = 0, and a b = b a.

EXERCISES 7.5
Lines and Planes in 3-Space

The equation of a line through P1 and P2 in 3-space with r1 = OP1 and r2 = OP2 can be expressed as r = r1 + t(ka)
or r = r2 + t(ka) where a = r2 r1 and k is any non-zero scalar. Thus, the form of the equation of a line is not
unique. (See the alternate solution to Problem 1.)
1. a = 1 3, 2 5, 1 (2) = 2, 3, 3; x, y, z = 1, 2, 1 + t2, 3, 3
Alternate Solution: a = 3 1, 5 2, 2 1 = 2, 3, 3; x, y, z = 3, 5, 2 + t2, 3, 3
2. a = 0 (2), 4 6, 5 3 = 2, 2, 2; x, y, z = 0, 4, 5 + t2, 2, 2
3. a = 1/2 (3/2), 1/2 5/2, 1 (1/2) = 2, 3, 3/2; x, y, z = 1/2, 1/2, 1 + t2, 3, 3/2
4. a = 10 5, 2 (3), 10 5 = 5, 5, 15; x, y, z = 10, 2, 10 + t5, 5, 15

374

7.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space

5. a = 1 (4), 1 1, 1 (1) = 5, 0, 0; x, y, z = 1, 1, 1 + t5, 0, 0
6. a = 3 5/2, 2 1, 1 (2) = 1/2, 1, 3; x, y, z = 3, 2, 1 + t1/2, 1, 3
7. a = 2 6, 3 (1), 5 8 = 4, 4, 3; x = 2 4t, y = 3 + 4t, z = 5 3t
8. a = 2 0, 0 4, 0 9 = 2, 4, 9; x = 2 + 2t, y = 4t, z = 9t
9. a = 1 3, 0 (2), 0 (7) = 2, 2, 7; x = 1 2t, y = 2t, z = 7t
10. a = 0 (2), 0 4, 5 0 = 2, 4, 5; x = 2t, y = 4t, z = 5 + 5t
11. a = 4 (6), 1/2 (1/4), 1/3 1/6 = 10, 3/4, 1/6; x = 4 + 10t, y =

1 1
1 3
+ t, z = + t
2 4
3 6

12. a = 3 4, 7 (8), 9 (1) = 7, 15, 10; x = 3 7t, y = 7 + 15t, z = 9 + 10t

13. a1 = 10 1 = 9, a2 = 14 4 = 10, a3 = 2 (9) = 7;

y 14
z+2
x 10
=
=
9
10
7

14. a1 = 1 2/3 = 1/3, a2 = 3 0 = 3, a3 = 1/4 (1/4) = 1/2;

15. a1 = 7 4 = 11, a2 = 2 2 = 0, a3 = 5 1 = 4;

y3
z 1/4
x1
=
=
1/3
3
1/2

z5
x+7
=
, y=2
11
4

16. a1 = 1 (5) = 6, a2 = 1 (2) = 3, a3 = 2 (4) = 6;

y1
z2
x1
=
=
6
3
6

17. a1 = 5 5 = 0, a2 = 10 1 = 9, a3 = 2 (14) = 12; x = 5,

z+2
y 10
=
9
12

18. a1 = 5/6 1/3 = 1/2; a2 = 1/4 3/8 = 5/8; a3 = 1/5 1/10 = 1/10
y + 1/4
z 1/5
x 5/6
=
=
1/2
5/8
1/10
19. parametric: x = 4 + 3t, y = 6 + t/2, z = 7 3t/2; symmetric:

y6
z+7
x4
=
=
3
1/2
3/2

y8
x1
=
, z = 2
7
8
x
y
z
21. parametric: x = 5t, y = 9t, z = 4t; symmetric:
= =
5
9
4
x
y+3
z 10
22. parametric: x = 12t, y = 3 5t, z = 10 6t; symmetric:
=
=
12
5
6

20. parametric: x = 1 7t, y = 8 8t, z = 2; symmetric:

23. Writing the given line in the form x/2 = (y 1)/(3) = (z 5)/6, we see that a direction vector is 2, 3, 6.
Parametric equations for the line are x = 6 + 2t, y = 4 3t, z = 2 + 6t.
24. A direction vector is 5, 1/3, 2. Symmetric equations for the line are (x4)/5 = (y +11)/(1/3) = (z +7)/(2).
25. A direction vector parallel to both the xz- and xy-planes is i = 1, 0, 0. Parametric equations for the line are
x = 2 + t, y = 2, z = 15.
26. (a) Since the unit vector j = 0, 1, 0 lies along the y-axis, we have x = 1, y = 2 + t, z = 8.
(b) since the unit vector k = 0, 0, 1 is perpendicular to the xy-plane, we have x = 1, y = 2, z = 8 + t.
27. Both lines go through the points (0, 0, 0) and (6, 6, 6). Since two points determine a line, the lines are the same.
28. a and f are parallel since 9, 12, 6 = 33, 4, 2. c and d are orthogonal since 2, 3, 4 1, 4, 5/2 = 0.
29. In the xy-plane, z = 9 + 3t = 0 and t = 3. Then x = 4 2(3) = 10 and y = 1 + 2(3) = 5. The point is
(10, 5, 0). In the xz-plane, y = 1+2t = 0 and t = 1/2. Then x = 42(1/2) = 5 and z = 9+3(1/2) = 15/2.

375

7.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space

The point is (5, 0, 15/2). In the yz-plane, x = 42t = 0 and t = 2. Then y = 1+2(2) = 5 and z = 9+3(2) = 15.
The point is (0, 5, 15).
30. The parametric equations for the line are x = 1 + 2t, y = 2 + 3t, z = 4 + 2t. In the xy-plane, z = 4 + 2t = 0
and t = 2. Then x = 1 + 2(2) = 3 and y = 2 + 3(2) = 8. The point is (3, 8, 0). In the xz-plane,
y = 2 + 3t = 0 and t = 2/3. Then x = 1 + 2(2/3) = 7/3 and z = 4 + 2(2/3) = 16/3. The point is (7/3, 0, 16/3).
In the yz-plane, x = 1 + 2t = 0 and t = 1/2. Then y = 2 + 3(1/2) = 7/2 and z = 4 + 2(1/2) = 3. The
point is (0, 7/2, 3).
31. Solving the system 4 + t = 6 + 2s, 5 + t = 11 + 4s, 1 + 2t = 3 + s, or t 2s = 2, t 4s = 6, 2t s = 2
yields s = 2 and t = 2 in all three equations. Thus, the lines intersect at the point x = 4 + (2) = 2,
y = 5 + (2) = 3, z = 1 + 2(2) = 5, or (2, 3, 5).
32. Solving the system 1 + t = 2 s, 2 t = 1 + s, 3t = 6s, or t + s = 1, t + s = 1, t 2s = 0 yields s = 1/3 and
t = 2/3 in all three equations. Thus, the lines intersect at the point x = 1 + 2/3 = 5/3, y = 2 2/3 = 4/3,
z = 3(2/3) = 2, or (5/3, 4/3, 2).
33. The system of equations 2 t = 4 + s, 3 + t = 1 + s, 1 + t = 1 s, or t + s = 2, t s = 2, t + s = 0 has no
solution since 2
= 0. Thus, the lines do not intersect.
34. Solving the system 3 t = 2 + 2s, 2 + t = 2 + 3s, 8 + 2t = 2 + 8s, or t + 2s = 1, t 3s = 4, 2t 8s = 10
yields s = 1 and t = 1 in all three equations. Thus, the lines intersect at the point x = 3 (1) = 4,
y = 2 + (1) = 1, z = 8 + 2(1) = 6, or (4, 1, 6).
35. a = 1, 2, 2, b = 2, 3, 6, a b = 16, a = 3, b = 7; cos =
= cos1

16
ab
=
;
a b
37

16
40.37
21

36. a = 2, 7, 1, b = 2, 1, 4, a b = 1, a = 3 6 , b = 21 ;

cos =

1
1
ab
1
=
= ; = cos1 ( ) 91.70
a b
(3 6 )( 21 )
9 14
9 14

37. A direction vector perpendicular to the given lines will be 1, 1, 1 2, 1, 5 = 6, 3, 3. Equations of the
line are x = 4 6t, y = 1 + 3t, z = 6 + 3t.
38. The direction vectors of the given lines are 3, 2, 4 and 6, 4, 8 = 23, 2, 4. These are parallel, so we need a
third vector parallel to the plane containing the lines which is not parallel to them. The point (1, 1, 0) is on
the rst line and (4, 6, 10) is on the second line. A third vector is then 1, 1, 0 4, 6, 10 = 5, 7, 10.
Now a direction vector perpendicular to the plane is 3, 2, 4 5, 7, 10 = 8, 50, 31. Equations of the line
through (1, 1, 0) and perpendicular to the plane are x = 1 + 8t, y = 1 + 50t, z = 31t.
39. 2(x 5) 3(y 1) + 4(z 3) = 0; 2x 3y + 4z = 19
40. 4(x 1) 2(y 2) + 0(z 5) = 0; 4x 2y = 0
41. 5(x 6) + 0(y 10) + 3(z + 7) = 0; 5x + 3z = 51
42. 6x y + 3z = 0
43. 6(x 1/2) + 8(y 3/4) 4(z + 1/2) = 0; 6x + 8y 4z = 11
44. (x + 1) + (y 1) (z 0) = 0; x + y z = 2
45. From the points (3, 5, 2) and (2, 3, 1) we obtain the vector u = i + 2j + k. From the points (2, 3, 1) and
(1, 1, 4) we obtain the vector v = 3i + 4j 3k. From the points (1, 1, 4) and (x, y, z) we obtain the vector

376

7.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space

w = (x + 1)i + (y + 1)j + (z 4)k. Then, a normal

i j


u v = 1 2

3 4

vector is

k 

1  = 10i + 6j 2k.

3 

A vector equation of the plane is 10(x + 1) + 6(y + 1) 2(z 4) = 0 or 5x 3y + z = 2.

46. From the points (0, 1, 0) and (0, 1, 1) we obtain the vector u = k. From the points (0, 1, 1) and (1, 3, 1) we obtain
the vector v = i + 2j 2k.
From the points (1, 3, 1) and (x, y, z) we obtain the vector
w = (x 1)i + (y 3)j + (z + 1)k. Then, a normal vector is


i j k 




u v =  0 0 1  = 2i + j.


 1 2 2 
A vector equation of the plane is 2(x 1) + (y 3) + 0(z + 1) = 0 or 2x + y = 1.
47. From the points (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) we obtain the vector u = i + j + k. From the points (1, 1, 1) and
(3, 2, 1) we obtain the vector v = 2i + j 2k. From the points (3, 2, 1) and (x, y, z) we obtain the vector
w = (x 3)i + (y 2)j + (z + 1)k. Then, a normal vector is


i j k 




u v =  1 1 1  = 3i + 4j k.


 2 1 2 
A vector equation of the plane is 3(x 3) + 4(y 2) (z + 1) = 0 or 3x + 4y z = 0.
48. The three points are not colinear and all satisfy x = 0, which is the equation of the plane.
49. From the points (1, 2, 1) and (4, 3, 1) we obtain the vector u = 3i + j + 2k. From the points (4, 3, 1) and
(7, 4, 3) we obtain the vector v = 3i + j + 2k. From the points (7, 4, 3) and (x, y, z) we obtain the vector
w = (x 7)i + (y 4)j + (z 3)k. Since u v = 0, the points are colinear.
50. From the points (2, 1, 2) and (4, 1, 0) we obtain the vector u = 2i 2k. From the points (4, 1, 0) and
(5, 0, 5) we obtain the vector v = i j 5k. From the points (5, 0, 5) and (x, y, z) we obtain the vector
w = (x 5)i + yj + (z + 5)k. Then, a normal vector is


i
j
k 



u v =  2 0 2  = 2i + 8j 2k.


 1 1 5 
A vector equation of the plane is 2(x 5) + 8y 2(z + 5) = 0 or x 4y + z = 0.
51. A normal vector to x + y 4z = 1 is 1, 1, 4. The equation of the parallel plane is
(x 2) + (y 3) 4(z + 5) = 0 or x + y 4z = 25.
52. A normal vector to 5xy+z = 6 is 5, 1, 1, . The equation of the parallel plane is 5(x0)(y0)+(z 0) = 0
or 5x y + z = 0.
53. A normal vector to the xy-plane is 0, 0, 1. The equation of the parallel plane is z 12 = 0 or z = 12.
54. A normal vector is 0, 1, 0. The equation of the plane is y + 5 = 0 or y = 5.
55. Direction vectors of the lines are 3, 1, 1. and 4, 2, 1. A normal vector to the plane is 3, 1, 1 4, 2, 1 =
3, 1, 10. A point on the rst line, and thus in the plane, is 1, 1, 2. The equation of the plane is
3(x 1) + (y 1) + 10(z 2) = 0 or 3x + y + 10z = 18.

377

7.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space

56. Direction vectors of the lines are 2, 1, 6 and 1, 1, 3. A normal vector to the plane is 2, 1, 61, 1, 3 =
3, 12, 3. A point on the rst line, and thus in the plane, is (1, 1, 5). The equation of the plane is
3(x 1) + 12(y + 1) + 3(z 5) = 0 or x + 4y + z = 0.
57. A direction vector for the two lines is 1, 2, 1. Points on the lines are (1, 1, 3) and (3, 0, 2). Thus, another
vector parallel to the plane is 13, 10, 3+2 = 2, 1, 5. A normal vector to the plane is 1, 2, 12, 1, 5 =
9, 7, 5. Using the point (3, 0, 2) in the plane, the equation of the plane is 9(x 3) 7(y 0) + 5(z + 2) = 0
or 9x 7y + 5z = 17.
58. A direction vector for the line is 3, 2, 2. Letting t = 0, we see that the origin is on the line and hence in the
plane. Thus, another vector parallel to the plane is 4 0, 0 0, 6 0 = 4, 0, 6. A normal vector to the
plane is 3, 2, 2 4, 0, 6 = 12, 10, 8. The equation of the plane is 12(x 0) + 10(y 0) 8(z 0) = 0
or 6x 5y + 4z = 0.
59. A direction vector for the line, and hence a normal vector to the plane, is 3, 1, 1/2. The equation of the
plane is 3(x 2) + (y 4) 12 (z 8) = 0 or 3x + y 12 z = 6.
60. A normal vector to the plane is 2 1, 6 0, 3 + 2 = 1, 6, 1. The equation of the plane is
(x 1) + 6(y 1) (z 1) = 0 or x + 6y z = 6.
61. Normal vectors to the planes are (a) 2, 1, 3, (b) 1, 2, 2, (c) 1, 1, 3/2, (d) 5, 2, 4,
(e) 8, 8, 12, (f ) 2, 1, 3. Parallel planes are (c) and (e), and (a) and (f ). Perpendicular planes
are (a) and (d), (b) and (c), (b) and (e), and (d) and (f ).
62. A normal vector to the plane is 7, 2, 3. This is a direction vector for the line and the equations of the line
are x = 4 7t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 7 + 3t.
63. A direction vector of the line is 6, 9, 3, and the normal vectors of the planes are (a) 4, 1, 2, (b) 2, 3, 1,
(c) 10, 15, 5, (d) 4, 6, 2. Vectors (c) and (d) are multiples of the direction vector and hence the
corresponding planes are perpendicular to the line.
64. A direction vector of the line is 2, 4, 1, and normal vectors to the planes are (a) 1, 1, 3,
(b) 6, 3, 0, (c) 1, 2, 5, (d) 2, 1, 2. Since the dot product of each normal vector with the direction vector is non-zero, none of the planes are parallel to the line.
65. Letting z = t in both equations and solving 5x 4y = 8 + 9t, x + 4y = 4 3t, we obtain x = 2 + t, y =
z = t.

1
2

t,

66. Letting y = t in both equations and solving x z = 2 2t, 3x + 2z = 1 + t, we obtain x = 1 35 t, y = t,

z = 1 + 75 t or, letting t = 5s, x = 1 3s, y = 5s, z = 1 + 7s.
67. Letting z = t in both equations and solving 4x 2y = 1 + t, x + y = 1 2t, we obtain x =
z = t.

1
2

12 t, y =

1
2

32 t,

68. Letting z = t and using y = 0 in the rst equation, we obtain x = 12 t, y = 0, z = t.

69. Substituting the parametric equations into the equation of the plane, we obtain 2(1+2t)3(2t)+2(3t) = 7
or t = 3. Letting t = 3 in the equation of the line, we obtain the point of intersection (5, 5, 9).
70. Substituting the parametric equations into the equation of the plane, we obtain (32t)+(1+6t)+4(2 12 t) = 12
or 2t = 0. Letting t = 0 in the equation of the line, we obtain the point of intersection (3, 1, 2).
71. Substituting the parametric equations into the equation of the plane, we obtain 1 + 2 (1 + t) = 8 or t = 6.
Letting t = 6 in the equation of the line, we obtain the point of intersection (1, 2, 5).
72. Substituting the parametric equations into the equation of the plane, we obtain 4 + t 3(2 + t) + 2(1 + 5t) = 0
or t = 0. Letting t = 0 in the equation of the line, we obtain the point of intersection (4, 2, 1).

378

7.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space

In Problems 73 and 74, the cross product of the normal vectors to the two planes will be a vector parallel to both
planes, and hence a direction vector for a line parallel to the two planes.
73. Normal vectors are 1, 1, 4 and 2, 1, 1. A direction vector is
1, 1, 4 2, 1, 1 = 3, 9, 3 = 31, 3, 1.
Equations of the line are x = 5 + t, y = 6 + 3t, z = 12 + t.
74. Normal vectors are 2, 0, 1 and 1, 3, 1. A direction vector is
2, 0, 1 1, 3, 1 = 3, 3, 6 = 31, 1, 2.
Equations of the line are x = 3 + t, y = 5 + t, z = 1 2t.
In Problems 75 and 76, the cross product of the direction vector of the line with the normal vector of the given plane
will be a normal vector to the desired plane.
75. A direction vector of the line is 3, 1, 5 and a normal vector to the given plane is 1, 1, 1. A normal vector
to the desired plane is 3, 1, 5 1, 1, 1 = 6, 2, 4. A point on the line, and hence in the plane, is (4, 0, 1).
The equation of the plane is 6(x 4) + 2(y 0) + 4(z 1) = 0 or 3x y 2z = 10.
76. A direction vector of the line is 3, 5, 2 and a normal vector to the given plane is 2, 4, 1. A normal vector to
the desired plane is 3, 5, 2 2, 4, 1 = 3, 1, 2. A point on the line, and hence in the plane, is (2, 2, 8).
The equation of the plane is 3(x 2) + (y + 2) + 2(z 8) = 0 or 3x + y + 2z = 20.
77.

78.

79.

z
6

10

2
y

6
y
2

80.

6
x

81.

82.

4
4

4
x

y
1
x

y
x

379

7.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space

EXERCISES 7.6
Vector Spaces

1. Not a vector space. Axiom (vi) is not satised.

2. Not a vector space. Axiom (i) is not satised.

3. Not a vector space. Axiom (x) is not satised.

4. A vector space

5. A vector space

6. A vector space

7. Not a vector space. Axiom (ii) is not satised.

8. A vector space

9. A vector space

10. Not a vector space. Axiom (i) is not satised.

11. A subspace

12. Not a subspace. Axiom (i) is not satised.

13. Not a subspace. Axiom (ii) is not satised.

14. A subspace

15. A subspace

16. A subspace

17. A subspace

18. A subspace

19. Not a subspace. Neither axioms (i) nor (ii) are satised.
20. A subspace
21. Let (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be in S. Then
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (at1 , bt1 , ct1 ) + (at2 , bt2 , ct2 ) = (a(t1 + t2 ), b(t1 + t2 ), c(t1 + t2 ))
is in S. Also, for (x, y, z) in S then k(x, y, z) = (kx, ky, kz) = (a(kt), b(kt), c(kt)) is also in S.
22. Let (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be in S. Then ax1 + by1 + cz1 = 0 and ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 0. Adding gives
a(x1 + x2 ) + b(y1 + y2 ) + c(z1 + z2 ) = 0 and so (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ) is in S. Also,
for (x, y, z) then ax + by + cz = 0 implies k(ax + by + cz) = k 0 = 0 and a(kx) + b(ky) + c(kz) = 0. this means
k(x, y, z) = (kx, ky, kz) is in S.
23. (a) c1 u1 + c2 u2 + c3 u3 = 0 if and only if c1 + c2 + c3 = 0, c2 + c3 = 0, c3 = 0. The only solution of this system
is c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0.
(b) Solving the system c1 + c2 + c3 = 3, c2 + c3 = 4, c3 = 8 gives c1 = 7, c2 = 12, c3 = 8. Thus
a = 7u1 12u2 + 8u3 .
24. (a) The assumption c1 p1 + c2 p2 = 0 is equivalent to (c1 + c2 )x + (c1 c2 ) = 0. Thus c1 + c2 = 0, c1 c2 = 0.
The only solution of this system is c1 = 0, c2 = 0.
(b) Solving the system c1 + c2 = 5, c1 c2 = 2 gives c1 =

7
2

, c2 =

25. Linearly dependent since 6, 12 = 32 4, 8

26. Linearly dependent since 21, 1 + 30, 1 + (1)2, 5 = 0, 0

380

3
2

. Thus p(x) = 72 p1 (x) + 32 p2 (x)

7.6 Vector Spaces

27. Linearly independent
28. Linearly dependent since for all x (1) 1 + (2)(x + 1) + (1)(x + 1)2 + (1)x2 = 0.
29. f is discontinuous at x = 1 and at x = 3.
 2
2

x sin x dx = (x cos x + sin x)  = 2
30. (x, sin x) =
0


2
1 3 
8 3
2 3
2
2
. Now
x dx = x  = and so x = 2
31. x =
3
3
3
0
0



 2
1
1 2
1
2
2
2
x sin 2x  =
 sin x =
sin x dx =
(1 cos 2x) dx =
2 0
2
2
0
0

and so  sin x = .


32. A basis could be 1, x, ex cos 3x, ex sin 3x.

33. We need to show that Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication. Suppose
u and v are in Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. Then u = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn and v = b1 x1 + b2 x2 + + bn xn , so
that
u + v = (a1 + b1 )x1 + (a2 + b2 )x2 + + (an + bn )xn ,
which is in Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. Also, for any real number k,
ku = k(a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn ) = ka1 x1 + ka2 x2 + + kan xn ,
which is in Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. Thus, Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } is a subspace of V.
34. R2 is not a subspace of either R3 or R4 and R3 is not a subspace of R4 . The vectors in R2 are ordered pairs,
while the vectors in R3 are ordered triples.
35. Since a basis for M22 is


B=

1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
,
,
,
,
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1

the dimension of M22 is 4.

36. To show that the set of nonzero orthogonal vectors is linearly independent we set c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + cn vn = 0.
For 0 i n,
(c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + ci vi + cn vn ) vi = c1 v1 vi + c2 v2 vi + + ci vi vi + cn vn vi = ci ||vi ||2 ,
so ci ||vi ||2 = 0 because
(c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + ci vi + cn vn ) vi = 0 vi = 0.
Since vi is a nonzero vector, ci = 0. Thus, the assumption that c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + cn vn = 0 leads to
c1 = c2 = = cn = 0, and the set is linearly independent.
37. We verify the four properties:
(i) (u, v) = u1 v1 + 4u2 v2 = v1 u1 + 4v2 u2 = (v, u)
(ii) (ku, v) = (ku1 )v1 + 4(ku2 )v2 = k(u1 v1 + 4u2 v2 ) = k(u, v)
(iii) (u, u) = u21 + 4ku22 > 0 for u
= 0. Furthermore, u21 + 4ku22 = 0 if and only if u1 = 0 and u2 = 0, or
equivalently, u = 0.
(iv) (u, v + w) = u1 (v1 + w1 ) + 4u2 (v2 + w2 ) = (u1 v1 + 4u2 v2 ) + (u1 w1 + 4u2 w2 ) = (u, v) + (u, w)

381

7.6 Vector Spaces

38. (a) Let u = 2, 1 and v = 2, 1 be nonzero vectors in R2 . With respect to the standard inner or dot product
on R2 ,
u v = 2, 1 2, 1 = 2 2 + 1 (1) = 3.
We see that u and v are not orthogonal with respect to that inner product. But using the inner product
in Problem 37, we have
(u, v) = 2 2 + 4(1) (1) = 0,
and so u and v are orthogonal with respect to that inner product.
(b) Consider f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x in C[0, 2]. Since
 2

2
1 2
1
1

sin x cos x dx =
sin 2x dx = cos 2x = (1 1) = 0,
2
4
4
0
0
0
these functions are orthogonal in C[0, 2].

EXERCISES 7.7
Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process
5
5
12
1. Letting w1 =  12
13 , 13  and w2 =  13 , 13 , we have

    
12
5
5
12
+

= 0,
w1 w2 =
13
13
13
13

so the vectors are orthogonal. Also,

 
 
2
 2

2
2
12
12
5
5
||w1 || =
+
= 1 and ||w2 || =
+
= 1,
13
13
13
13
so the basis is orthonormal. To express u = 4, 2 in terms of w1 and w2 we compute

 
 

58
12
5
12 5
,
= (4)
+ (2)
=
u w1 = 4, 2
13 13
13
13
13

 



12
12
4
5
5
,
= (4)
+ (2)
= ,
u w2 = 4, 2
13 13
13
13
13
so
4
58
w1
w2 .
13
13

2. Letting w1 = 1/ 3, 1/ 3, 1/ 3, w2 = 0, 1/ 2, 1/ 2, and w3 = 2/ 6, 1/ 6, 1/ 6, we have




 



1
1
1
1
1
(0) +

=0
w1 w2 =
3
3
2
3
2


 

 


1
2
1
1
1
1

w1 w3 =

+
+

=0
3
6
3
6
3
6
 

 



1
1
1
2
1

+
+

= 0,
w2 w3 = (0)
6
2
6
2
6
u=

382

7.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

so the vectors are orthogonal. Also,

||w1 || =

2


2
2 
2


1
1
1
2
+
+
= 1, ||w2 || = 0 +
+
= 1,
3
2
2

2 
2 
2
2
1
1

and ||w3 || =
+
+
= 1,
6
6
6


2

so the basis is orthonormal. To express u = 5, 1, 6 in terms of w1 , w2 , and w3 we compute








1
2
1
1
1
1
1
= (5)
+ (1)
+ (6)
=
u w1 = 5, 1, 6 , ,
3
3
3
3
3
3
3






1
1
5
1
1
= (5)(0) + (1)
+ (6)
=
u w2 = 5, 1, 6 0, ,
2
2
2
2
2








2
1
17
2
1
1
1
= (5)
+ (1)
+ (6)
=
u w3 = 5, 1, 6 , ,
6
6
6
6
6
6
6


so
2
5
17
u = w1 w2 w3 .
3
2
6

Since the basis vectors in Problems 3 and 4 are orthogonal but not orthonormal, the result of Theorem 7.5 must be
slightly modied to read
u w1
u w2
u wn
u=
w1 +
w2 + +
wn .
||w1 ||2
||w2 ||2
||wn ||2
The proof is very similar to that given in the text for Theorem 7.5.
3. Letting w1 = 1, 0, 1, w2 = 0, 1, 0, and w3 = 1, 0, 1 we have
w1 w2 = (1)(0) + (0)(1) + (1)(0) = 0
w1 w3 = (1)(1) + (0)(0) + (1)(1) = 0
w2 w3 = (0)(1) + (1)(0) + (0)(1) = 0
so the vectors are orthogonal. We also compute
||w1 ||2 = 12 + 02 + 12 = 2
||w2 ||2 = 02 + 12 + 02 = 1
||w3 ||2 = (1)2 + 02 + 12 = 2
and, with u = 10, 7, 13,
u w1 = (10)(1) + (7)(0) + (13)(1) = 3
u w2 = (10)(0) + (7)(1) + (13)(0) = 7
u w3 = (10)(1) + (7)(0) + (13)(1) = 23.
Then, using the result given before the solution to this problem, we have
23
3
w3 .
u = w1 + 7w2
2
2

383

7.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

4. Letting w1 = 2, 1, 2, 0, w2 = 1, 2, 2, 1, w3 = 3, 4, 1, 3, and w4 = 5, 2, 4, 9 we have
w1 w2 = (2)(1) + (1)(2) + (2)(2) + (0)(1) = 0
w1 w3 = (2)(3) + (1)(4) + (2)(1) + (0)(3) = 0
w1 w4 = (2)(5) + (1)(2) + (2)(4) + (0)(9) = 0
w2 w3 = (1)(3) + (2)(4) + (2)(1) + (1)(3) = 0
w2 w4 = (1)(5) + (2)(2) + (2)(4) + (1)(9) = 0
w3 w4 = (3)(5) + (4)(2) + (1)(4) + (3)(9) = 0
so the vectors are orthogonal. We also compute
||w1 ||2 = 22 + 12 + (2)2 + 02 = 9
||w2 ||2 = 12 + 22 + 22 + 12 = 10
||w3 ||2 = 32 + (4)2 + 12 + 32 = 35
||w4 ||2 = 52 + (2)2 + 42 + (9)2 = 126
and, with u = 1, 2, 4, 3,
u w1 = (1)(2) + (2)(1) + (4)(2) + (3)(0) = 4
u w2 = (1)(1) + (2)(2) + (4)(2) + (3)(1) = 16
u w3 = (1)(3) + (2)(4) + (4)(1) + (3)(3) = 8
u w4 = (1)(5) + (2)(2) + (4)(4) + (3)(9) = 10.
Then, using the result given before the solution to this problem, we have
8
8
5
4
w3
w4 .
u = w1 + w2 +
9
5
35
63
5. (a) We have u1 = 3, 2 and u2 = 1, 1. Taking v1 = u1 = 3, 2, and using u2 v1 = 1 and v1 v1 = 13
we obtain


10 15
u2 v1
1
v2 = u2
.
v1 = 1, 1 3, 2 = ,
v1 v1
13
13 13
15


Thus, an orthogonal basis is {3, 2,  10
13 , 13 } and an orthonormal basis is {w1 , w2 }, where


1
1
3
2
3, 2 = 3, 2 = ,
w1 =
||3, 2||
13
13
13

and
w2 =

1
15
|| 10
13 , 13 ||




 

10 15
1
2
10 15
3
,
.
=
= ,
,
13 13
13 13
5/ 13
13
13

(b) We have u1 = 3, 2 and u2 = 1, 1. Taking v1 = u2 = 1, 1, and using u1 v1 = 1 and v1 v1 = 2
we obtain


5 5
u1 v1
1
v1 = 3, 2 1, 1 = ,
v2 = u1
.
v1 v1
2
2 2
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {1, 1,  52 , 52 } and an orthonormal basis is {w3 , w4 }, where


1
1
1
1
1, 1 = 1, 1 = ,
w3 =
||1, 1||
2
2
2
and
w4 =

1
|| 52 , 52 ||





 
5 5
5 5
1
1
1
,
.
,
=
= ,
2 2
2 2
5/ 2
2
2

384

7.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

(c)

4
u
4 2

w1

2
2

v2

0.5

1 0.5

0.5

w2

0.5

1 0.5

0.5

w4

0.5

0.5
w3

6. (a) We have u1 = 3, 4 and u2 = 1, 0. Taking v1 = u1 = 3, 4, and using u2 v1 = 3 and v1 v1 = 25
we obtain


16 12
u2 v1
3
.
v1 = 1, 0 3, 4 = ,
v2 = u2
v1 v1
25
25 25
12


Thus, an orthogonal basis is {3, 4,  16
25 , 25 } and an orthonormal basis is {w1 , w2 }, where


1
3 4
1

3, 4 = 3, 4 = ,
w1 =
||3, 4||
5
5 5

and
w2 =

1
16
|| 25 , 12
25 ||



 


1
16 12
4 3
16 12
=
,
= ,
.
,
25 25
4/5
25 25
5 5

(b) We have u1 = 3, 4 and u2 = 1, 0. Taking v1 = u2 = 1, 0, and using u1 v1 = 3 and v1 v1 = 1
we obtain
u1 v1
3
v2 = u1
v1 = 3, 4 1, 0 = 0, 4 .
v1 v1
1
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {1, 0, 0, 4} and an orthonormal basis is {w3 , w4 }, where
w3 =

1
1
1, 0 = 1, 0 = 1, 0
||1, 0||
1

and
w4 =
(c)

1
1
0, 4 = 0, 4 = 0, 1 .
||0, 4||
4
1 w4

w1

0.5

0.5
w3
1 0.5

v
4 2

1 0.5

w2

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

7. (a) We have u1 = 1, 1 and u2 = 1, 0. Taking v1 = u1 = 1, 1, and using u2 v1 = 1 and v1 v1 = 2 we
obtain


u2 v1
1
1 1
,
.
v2 = u2
v1 = 1, 0 1, 1 =
v1 v1
2
2 2
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {1, 1,  12 , 12 } and an orthonormal basis is {w1 , w2 }, where


1
1
1
1

w1 =
1, 1 = 1, 1 = ,
||1, 1||
2
2
2
and
w2

1
=
1

|| 2 , 12 ||

1
1
,
2
2

1
=
1

385

1
1
,
2
2


=

1
1
,
2
2


.

7.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

(b) We have u1 = 1, 1 and u2 = 1, 0. Taking v1 = u2 = 1, 0, and using u1 v1 = 1 and v1 v1 = 1 we
obtain
u1 v1
1
v2 = u1
v1 = 1, 1 1, 0 = 0, 1 .
v1 v1
1
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {1, 0, 0, 1}, which is also an orthonormal basis.
(c)

2
1.5
1
0.5
2

0.5
1
1.5
2

1
u

1w
4

w1

0.5

v
1

1 0.5

0.5

0.5
0.5 1
w2

1 0.5

0.5

w3
1

0.5
1

8. (a) We have u1 = 5, 7 and u2 = 1, 2. Taking v1 = u1 = 5, 7, and using u2 v1 = 9 and v1 v1 = 74
we obtain


119 85
u2 v1
9
,
v1 = 1, 2 5, 7 =
v2 = u2
.
v1 v1
74
74
74
85


Thus, an orthogonal basis is {5, 7,  119
74 , 74 } and an orthonormal basis is {w1 , w2 }, where


1
1
5
7
5, 7 = 5, 7 = ,
w1 =
||5, 7||
74
74
74

and
w2

1
= 119 85
|| 74 , 74 ||

119 85
,
74
74

=
17/ 74

119 85
,
74
74


=

5
7
,
74
74


.

(b) We have u1 = 5, 7 and u2 = 1, 2. Taking v1 = u2 = 1, 2, and using u1 v1 = 9 and v1 v1 = 5
we obtain


34 17
u1 v1
9
,
v1 = 5, 7 1, 2 =
v2 = u1
.
v1 v1
5
5 5
17


Thus, an orthogonal basis is {1, 2,  34
5 , 5 } and an orthonormal basis is {w3 , w4 }, where


1
1
2
1
1, 2 = 1, 2 = ,
w3 =
||1, 2||
5
5
5

and
w4
(c)

8
6
4
2
7.552.5
2
4
6
8

1
= 34 17
|| 5 , 5 ||

34 17
,
5 5
1

0.5
2.5 5 7.5
v

1 0.5

34 17
,
5 5


=

1
2
,
5
5


.

w1

0.5

0.5

=
17/ 5

w4

0.5
1

1 0.5

0.5

0.5

w2

w3

9. We have u1 = 1, 1, 0, u2 = 1, 2, 2, and u3 = 2, 2, 1. Taking v1 = u1 = 1, 1, 0 and using u2 v1 = 3 and
v1 v1 = 2 we obtain


1 1
u2 v1
3
v2 = u2
v1 = 1, 2, 2 1, 1, 0 = , , 2 .
v1 v1
2
2 2

386

7.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

Next, using u3 v1 = 4, u3 v2 = 2, and v2 v2 = 92 , we obtain
v3 = u3

2
u3 v1
u3 v2
4
v1
v2 = 2, 2, 1 1, 1, 0
v1 v1
v2 v2
2
9/2

Thus, an orthogonal basis is

B =
and an orthonormal basis is
B  =


 

1 1
2 1
2
, ,2 =
.
, ,
2 2
9
9 9

 



2
2 1
1 1
, ,
1, 1, 0 , , , 2 ,
,
2 2
9
9 9

 

 
2 1
1
1
1
4
2
1
, ,0 , , ,
,
.
, ,
3
3 3
2
2
3 2 3 2 3 2

10. We have u1 = 3, 1, 1, u2 = 1, 1, 0, and u3 = 1, 4, 1. Taking v1 = u1 = 3, 1, 1 and using u2 v1 = 2
and v1 v1 = 11 we obtain


u2 v1
2
5 13 2
3, 1, 1 =
, ,
.
v1 = 1, 1, 0
v2 = u2
v1 v1
11
11 11 11
Next, using u3 v1 = 8, u3 v2 =

49
11 ,

and v2 v2 =

18
11 ,

we obtain

49/11
u3 v1
u3 v2
8
3, 1, 1
v1
v2 = 1, 4, 1
v3 = u3
v1 v1
v2 v2
11
18/11
Thus, an orthogonal basis is
B =

5 13 2
, ,
11 11 11



1 1
2
= ,
,
.
18 18
9



 

2
5 13 2
1 1
,
,
,
3, 1, 1 ,
, ,
,
11 11 11
18 18
9

and an orthonormal basis is

 
 


1
3
1
1
5
13
2
1
4

, ,
,
, , ,
.
, ,
B =
11
11
11
3 22 3 22 3 22
3 2 3 2 3 2
11. We have u1 =  12 , 12 , 1, u2 = 1, 1, 12 , and u3 = 1, 12 , 1. Taking v1 = u1 =  12 , 12 , 1 and using u2 v1 = 12
and v1 v1 = 32 we obtain


 


1/2 1 1
5 7 1
u2 v1
1

, ,1 = , ,
.
v1 = 1, 1,
v2 = u2
v1 v1
2
3/2
2 2
6 6 6
Next, using u3 v1 = 34 , u3 v2 = 54 , and v2 v2 = 25
12 , we obtain





 

3/4 1 1
5/4
9 3
u3 v1
u3 v2
1
5 7 1
3
, ,1
v1
v2 = 1, , 1
v3 = u3
, ,
= , ,
.
v1 v1
v2 v2
2
3/2 2 2
25/12
6 6 6
4
20 5
Thus, an orthogonal basis is
B =

 
 

5 7
1
9 3
1 1
3
, ,1 , , ,
, , ,
,
2 2
6 6
6
4
20 5

and an orthonormal basis is

 
 


1
1
1
2
7
1
3
4
1
, ,
, , ,
, , ,
.
B  =
6
6
6
3 5 3
5 3
2
5 2 5 2
12. We have u1 = 1, 1, 1, u2 = 9, 1, 1, and u3 = 1, 4, 2. Taking v1 = u1 = 1, 1, 1 and using u2 v1 = 9
and v1 v1 = 3 we obtain
v2 = u2

u2 v1
9
v1 = 9, 1, 1 1, 1, 1 = 6, 4, 2 .
v1 v1
3

387

7.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

Next, using u3 v1 = 1, u3 v2 = 18, and v2 v2 = 56, we obtain
v3 = u3

18
u3 v1
u3 v2
1
6, 4, 2 =
v1
v2 = 1, 4, 2 1, 1, 1
v1 v1
v2 v2
3
56

Thus, an orthogonal basis is

B =

25 50
125
,
,
42 21
42


.




125
25 50
,
1, 1, 1 , 6, 4, 2 ,
,
,
42 21
42

and an orthonormal basis is

 
 


1
1
3
2
1
1
4
5
1
, ,
, , ,
, , ,
.
B  =
3
3
3
14
14
14
42
42
42
13. We have u1 = 1, 5, 2, and u2 = 2, 1, 1. Taking v1 = u1 = 1, 5, 2 and using u2 v1 = 5 and v1 v1 = 30
we obtain


13 1 2
u2 v1
5
v2 = u2
.
1, 5, 2 = , ,
v1 = 2, 1, 1
v1 v1
30
6 6 3



1 2
, and an orthonormal basis is
Thus, an orthogonal basis is B  = 1, 5, 2 , 13
6 , 6 , 3
 


13
5
2
1
4
1
, ,
,
.
,
,
B  =
30
30
30
186
186
186
14. We have u1 = 1, 2, 3, and u2 = 3, 4, 1. Taking v1 = u1 = 1, 2, 3 and using u2 v1 = 14 and v1 v1 = 14 we
obtain
u2 v1
14
1, 2, 3 = 2, 2, 2 .
v1 = 3, 4, 1
v2 = u2
v1 v1
14
Thus, an orthogonal basis is B  = {1, 2, 3 , 2, 2, 2} , and an orthonormal basis is

 

1
2
3
1
1
1
, ,
B  =
, , ,
.
14
14
14
3
3
3
15. We have u1 = 1, 1, 1, 1, and u2 = 1, 3, 0, 1. Taking v1 = u1 = 1, 1, 1, 1 and using u2 v1 = 3 and
v1 v1 = 4 we obtain


7 9 3 1
u2 v1
3
v2 = u2
1, 1, 1, 1 =
, , ,
v1 = 1, 3, 0, 1
.
v1 v1
4
4 4 4 4



Thus, an orthogonal basis is B  = 1, 1, 1, 1 , 74 , 94 , 34 , 14 , and an orthonormal basis is

 

1 1
1
9
3
1
7
1

, , ,
.
, , ,
,
B =
2
2 2
2
2 35 2 35 2 35 2 35
16. We have u1 = 4, 0, 2, 1, u2 = 2, 1, 1, 1, and u3 = 1, 1, 1, 0. Taking v1 = u1 = 4, 0, 2, 1 and using
u2 v1 = 5 and v1 v1 = 21 we obtain


31 26
u2 v1
5
22
4, 0, 2, 1 =
, 1, ,
.
v2 = u2
v1 = 2, 1, 1, 1
v1 v1
21
21
21 21
Next, using u3 v1 = 2, u3 v2 =

74
21

, and v2 v2 =

122
21

, we obtain

u3 v1
u3 v2
v1
v2
v1 v1
v2 v2

 

1 24
74/21
31 26
18
40
2
22
4, 0, 2, 1
, 1, ,
= ,
, ,
.
= 1, 1, 1, 0
21
122/21 21
21 21
61 61
61
61

v3 = u3

Thus, an orthogonal basis is

 



31 26
1 24
18
40
22

, 1, ,
, ,
, ,
,
B = 4, 0, 2, 1 ,
21
21 21
61 61
61
61

388

7.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

and an orthonormal basis is

 

2
1
22
21
31
26
4

, 0, ,
,
,
B =
,
,
,
21
21
21
2562
2562
2562
2562


1
24
18
40
.

,
,
,
2501
2501
2501
2501
17. We have u1 = 1, u2 = x, and u3 = x2 . Taking v1 = u1 = 1 and using
 1

2
(u2 , v1 ) =
1 x dx = 0 and (v1 , v1 ) =
1

x x dx = 2

we obtain
v2 = u2

(u2 , v1 )
0
v1 = x x = x.
(v1 , v1 )
2

Next, using

(u3 , v1 ) =

x2 1 dx =

2
,
3


(u3 , v2 ) =

x2 x dx = 0,


and (v2 , v2 ) =

x x dx =

2
,
3

we obtain
0
(u3 , v1 )
(u3 , v2 )
2/3
1
v1
v2 = x2
1
x = x2 .
(v1 , v1 )
(v2 , v2 )
2
2/3
3


Thus, an orthogonal basis is B  = 1, x, x2 13 .
v3 = u3

18. We have u1 = x2 x, u2 = x2 + 1, and u3 = 1 x2 . Taking v1 = u1 = x2 x and using

 1
 1
16
16
(u2 , v1 ) =
and (v1 , v1 ) =
(x2 + 1)(x2 x)dx =
(x2 x)(x2 x)dx =
15
15
1
1
we obtain
v2 = u2

(u2 , v1 )
16/15 2
v1 = x2 + 1
(x x) = x + 1.
(v1 , v1 )
16/15

Next, using

(u3 , v1 ) =

(1 x2 )(x2 x)dx =

and


(v2 , v2 ) =

4
,
15

(u3 , v2 ) =

(x + 1)(x + 1)dx =
1

(1 x2 )(x + 1)dx =

4
,
3

8
,
3

we obtain
5
1
(u3 , v1 )
(u3 , v2 )
4/15 2
4/3
1
v1
v2 = 1 x2
(x x)
(x + 1) = x3 x + .
(v1 , v1 )
(v2 , v2 )
16/15
8/3
4
4
2


Thus, an orthogonal basis is B  = x2 x, x + 1, 54 x3 14 x + 12 .
v3 = u3

19. Using the solution of Problem 17 and computing

 1
||v1 ||2 = (v1 , v1 ) =
1 1 dx = 2,
1

and

||v2 ||2 = (v2 , v2 ) =

x x dx =




8
1
1
2
2
||v3 || = (v3 , v3 ) =
x
x
dx =
,
3
3
45
1
2

389

2
,
3

7.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

we see that an orthonormal basis is

 


1
1
x2 1/3
x
3
15
1

2




x
.
,
=
,
,
x,
B =
3
2
2
6 2 10
2/3
8/45
20. Using the solution of Problem 18 and computing
 1
16
2
,
(x2 x)(x2 x)dx =
||v1 || = (v1 , v1 ) =
15
1
and
||v3 ||2 = (v3 , v3 ) =

||v2 || = (v2 , v2 ) =

(x + 1)(x + 1)dx =
1

8
,
3




5
1
5
1
1
1
1
x3 x +
x3 x +
dx = ,
4
4
2
4
4
2
3
1

we see that an orthonormal basis is




3
15 2
3

2
B =
(x x), (x + 1),
(5x x + 2) .
4
4
2 6

21. Using w1 = 1/ 2, w2 = 3x/ 6, and w3 = (15/2 10)(x2 1/3), and computing

 1

1
(p, w1 ) =
(9x2 6x + 5) dx = 8 2,
2
1
 1

3
(p, w2 ) =
(9x2 6x + 5) x dx = 2 6
6
1




 1
15
1
12
(p, w3 ) =
(9x2 6x + 5)
x2
dx = ,
3
2
10
10
1
we nd from Theorem 7.5

12
p(x) = 9x2 6x + 5 = (p, w1 )w1 + (p, w2 )w2 + (p, w3 )w3 = 8 2 w1 2 6 w2 + w3 .
10

22. Using w1 = ( 15/4)(x2 x), w2 = (3/2 6)(x + 1), and w3 = ( 3/4)(5x2 + x 2), and computing


 1

41
15  2
2
(p, w1 ) =
x x dx = ,
(9x 6x + 5)
4
15
1

 1

3
(9x2 6x + 5) (x + 1) dx = 3 6
(p, w2 ) =
2 6
1


 1
1
3
2
2
(p, w3 ) =
(5x + x 2) dx = ,
(9x 6x + 5)
4
3
1
we nd from Theorem 7.5

41
1
p(x) = 9x2 6x + 5 = (p, w1 )w1 + (p, w2 )w2 + (p, w3 )w3 = w1 + 3 6 w2 + w3 .
15
3
23. Since u3 depends on u1 and u2 we would expect the Gram-Schmidt process to yield a pair of orthogonal vectors
v1 and v2 , with a third vector v3 that is 0. This is because u3 lies in the subspace W2 of R3 spanned by u1
and u2 , and hence the projection of u3 onto W2 is u3 itself. In other words,
u3 v1
u3 v2
u3 v1
u3 v2
v1 +
v2 so v3 = u3
v1 +
v2 = 0.
u3 = projW3 u3 =
v1 v1
v2 v2
v1 v1
v2 v2
To carry out the orthogonalization process we take v1 = u1 = 1, 1, 3. Then, using u2 v1 = 8 and v1 v1 = 11
we obtain


u2 v1
8
3 36 13
v2 = u2
, ,
.
v1 = 1, 4, 1 1, 1, 3 =
v1 v1
11
11 11 11

390

CHAPTER 7 REVIEW EXERCISES

Next, using u3 v1 = 2, u3 v2 =

402
11 ,

and v2 v2 =

134
11 ,

we obtain

402/11
u3 v1
u3 v2
2
v3 = u3
1, 1, 3
v1
v2 = 1, 10, 3
v1 v1
v2 v2
11
134/11

3 36 13
, ,
11 11 11


= 0, 0, 0 .

3 36
3
In this case {v1 , v2 } = {1, 1, 3},  11
, 11 , 13
11 } is an orthogonal subset of R containing the third vector
u3 = 1, 10, 3.

CHAPTER 7 REVIEW EXERCISES

1. True
2. False; the points must be non-collinear.
3. False; since a normal to the plane is 2, 3, 4 which is not a multiple of the direction vector 5, 2, 1 of the
line.
4. True

5. True

6. True

7. True

8. True

9. True

10. True; since a b and c d are both normal to the plane and hence parallel (unless a b = 0 or c d = 0.)
11. 9i + 2j + 2k

12. orthogonal

13. 5(k j) = 5(i) = 5i


(12)2 + 42 + 62 = 14
15.

14. i (i j) = i k = 0

16. (1 20)i (2 0)j + (8 0)k = 21i + 2j + 8k

17. 6i + j 7k
18. The coordinates of (1, 2, 10) satisfy the given equation.
19. Writing the line in parametric form, we have x = 1 + t, y = 2 + 3t, z = 1 + 2t. Substituting into the equation
of the plane yields (1 + t) + 2(2 + 3t) (1 + 2t) = 13 or t = 3. Thus, the point of intersection is x = 1 + 3 = 4,
y = 2 + 3(3) = 7, z = 1 + 2(3) = 5, or (4, 7, 5).
20. |a| =

1
4
3
1
42 + 32 + (5)2 = 5 2 ; u = (4i + 3j 5k) = i j + k
5 2
5 2
5 2
2

21. x2 2 = 3, x2 = 5; y2 1 = 5, y2 = 6; z2 7 = 4, z2 = 3; P2 = (5, 6, 3)
22. (5, 1/2, 5/2)

23. (7.2)(10) cos 135 = 36 2

24. 2b = 2, 4, 2; 4c = 0, 8, 8; a (2b + 4c) = 3, 1, 0 2, 4, 10 = 10
25. 12, 8, 6
ab
1
1
26. cos =
= = ; = 60
|a||b|
2
2 2

3 10
1
27. A = |5i 4j 7k| =
2
2

391

CHAPTER 7 REVIEW EXERCISES

28. From 3(x 3) + 0(y 6) + (1)(z (2)) = 0 we obtain 3x + z = 7.
29. | 5 (3)| = 2
30. parallel: 2c = 5,

i
j


31. a b =  1 1

 1 2
and b is

c = 5/2; orthogonal: 1(2) + 3(6) + c(5) = 0, c = 4


k  





1 0


  1 0 

 j +  1 1  k = i j 3k A unit vector perpendicular to both a
0  = 
i






2 1
1 1
1 2 
1
1
1
1
3
ab
=
(i j 3k) = i j k.
a b
1+1+9
11
11
11


1/2
2
2
3
1/2
= , 48.19 ; cos =
= , 48.19 ;
1/4 + 1/4 + 1/6 = ; cos =
4
3/4
3
3/4
3
1
1/4

= , 109.47
cos =
3/4
3

32. a =

33. compb a = a b/b = 1, 2, 2 4, 3, 0/5 = 2

34. compa b = b a/a = 4, 3, 0 1, 2, 2/3 = 10/3
proja b = (compa b)a/a = (10/3)1, 2, 2/3 = 10/9, 20/9, 20/9
35. a + b = 1, 2, 2 + 4, 3, 0 = 5, 5, 2

compa (a + b) = (a + b) a/ 1 + 4 + 4 = 13 (a a + b a) = 13 [(1 + 4 + 4) + (4 + 6 + 0)] =

1 2
2
19 38
38
proja (a + b) = [compa (a + b)](a/a) = 19
3 3, 3, 3 =  9 , 9 , 9 

19
3

36. a b = 1, 2, 2 4, 3, 0 = 3, 1, 2

compb (a b) = (a b) b/ 16 + 9 = 15 (a b b b) = 15 [(4 + 6 + 0) (16 + 9)] = 3

9
projb (a b) = [compb (a b)](b/b) = 3 45 , 35 , 0 =  12
5 , 5 , 0
37. Let a = a, b, c and r = x, y, z. Then
(a) (r a) r = x a, y b, z c x, y, z = x2 ax + y 2 by + z 2 zc = 0 implies
a
b
c
a2 + b2 + c2
(x )2 + (y )2 + (z )2 =
. The surface is a sphere.
2
2
2
4
(b) (r a) a = x a, y b, z c a, b, c = a(x a) + b(y b) + c(z c) = 0
The surface is a plane.
38. 4, 2, 2 2, 4, 3 = 2, 2, 1; 2, 4, 3 6, 7, 5 = 4, 3, 2; 2, 2, 1 4, 3, 2 = 0
The points are the vertices of a right triangle.
39. A direction vector of the given line is 4, 2, 6. A parallel line containing (7, 3, 5) is (x7)/4 = (y 3)/(2) =
(z + 5)/6.
40. A normal to the plane is 8, 3, 4. The line with this direction vector and through (5, 9, 3) is x = 5 + 8t,
y = 9 + 3t, z = 3 4t.
41. The direction vectors are 2, 3, 1 and 2, 1, 1. Since 2, 3, 1 2, 1, 1 = 0, the lines are orthogonal. Solving
1 2t = x = 1 + 2s, 3t = y = 4 + s, we obtain t = 1 and s = 1. The point (3, 3, 0) obtained by letting
t = 1 and s = 1 is common to the two lines, so they do intersect.
42. Vectors in the plane are 2, 3, 1 and 1, 0, 2. A normal vector is 2, 3, 1 1, 0, 2 = 6, 3, 3 = 32, 1, 1.
An equation of the plane is 2x y z = 0
43. The lines are parallel with direction vector 1, 4, 2. Since (0, 0, 0) is on the rst line and (1, 1, 3) is on the second
line, the vector 1, 1, 3 is in the plane. A normal vector to the plane is thus 1, 4, 2 1, 1, 3 = 14, 5, 3.
An equation of the plane is 14x 5y 3z = 0.

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CHAPTER 7 REVIEW EXERCISES

44. Letting z = t in the equations of the plane and solving x + y = 4 + 8t, 3x y = 2t, we obtain x = 2 + 3t,
y = 6 + 11t, z = t. Thus, a normal to the plane is 3, 11, 1 and an equation of the plane is
3(x 1) + 11(y 7) + (z + 1) = 0 or 3x + 11y + z = 79.

10
a
= (i + j) = 5 2 i + 5 2 j; d = 7, 4, 0 4, 1, 0 = 3i + 3j
a
2

W = F d = 15 2 + 15 2 = 30 2 N-m

46. F = 5 2 i + 5 2 j + 50i = (5 2 + 50)i + 5 2 j; d = 3i + 3j

W = 15 2 + 150 + 15 2 = 30 2 + 150 N-m 192.4 N-m

47. Since F2 = 200(i + j)/ 2 = 100 2 i + 100 2 j, F3 = F2 F1 = (100 2 200)i + 100 2 j and



F3  = (100 2 200)2 + (100 2)2 = 200 2 2 153 lb.

45. F = 10

48. Let F1  = F1 and F2  = F2 . Then F1 = F1 [(cos 45 )i + (sin 45 )j] and F2 = F2 [(cos 120 )i + (sin 120 )j], or

F1 = F1 ( 12 i + 12 j) and F2 = F2 ( 12 i + 23 j). Since w + F1 + F2 = 0,

1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
j) = 50j,
( F1 F2 )i + ( F1 +
F2 )j = 50j
F1 ( i + j) + F2 ( i +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
and

1
1
3
1
F1 F2 = 0,
F1 +
F2 = 50.
2
2
2
2

Solving, we obtain F1 = 25( 6 2 ) 25.9 lb and F2 = 50( 3 1) 36.6 lb.

49. Not a vector space. Axiom (viii) is not satised.

50. The vectors are linearly independent. The only solution of the system
c1 = 0,

c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 0,

2c1 + 3c2 c3 = 0

is c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0.
51. Let p1 and p2 be in Pn such that

d2 p1
d2 p2
= 0 and
= 0. Since
2
dx
dx2

d2 p1
d2 p2
d2
d2 p1
d2
+
=
(p
+
p
)
and
0
=
k
=
(kp1 )
1
2
dx2
dx2
dx2
dx2
dx2
we conclude that the set of polynomials with the given property is a subspace of Pn . A basis for the subspace
is 1, x.
0=

52. The intersection W1 W2 is a subspace of V . If x and y are in W1 W2 then x and y are in each subspace
and so x + y is in each subspace. That is, x + y is in W1 W2 . Similarly, if x is in W1 W2 then x is in each
subspace and so kx is in each subspace. That is, kx is in W1 W2 for any scalar k.


The union W1 W2 is generally not a subspace. For example, W1 = {x, y  y = x} and W2 = {x, y  y = 2x}
are subspaces of R2 . Now 1, 1 is in W1 and 1, 2 is in W2 but 1, 1 + 1, 2 = 2, 3 is not in W1 W2 .

393