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KI= B H =I @A E BAH ?E= @A @ E B H = A E JKEJEL IA GKA JA D= IE@ BAEJ= GK= GKAH = EIA FH LE= @AIIAI FH ?A@E A J I 1II A J= J JA = IK= H= @A IAH F EI ANECEHE= @ ?EA JEIJ= GKA =F E?= J @ =NE JE? = K = @AJAH E =@= HA= ? = B IE?= K = >E CE=  K AI =JA JE?= K = HACHAII GKA A KEJ @AILE=HE= @A IAKI FH F IEJ I )IIE GK= @ IA B= = =?E = GKA =@= FHAIIKF IJ GKA JA D= IE@ ANF E?EJ= A JA @A? =H=@ I F IJK =@ I @ALA IA B= AH ?AHJ=I ? ?AII AI 6 A I K ANA F + IE@AHA K IEIJA = =NE JE? ?K I ? ?AEJ I FHE EJEL I IA = F J A HAJ= # I F IJK =@ I I  6 @= HAJ= K = ? A ? K J  @A F J I   0 FA A I @ EI F J I ! 5A p A q I F J I @EIJE J I A J D K = A I A JA K = HAJ= GKA I ? J " 5A r K = HAJ= A J D FA A I K F J GKA FAHJA ?A = r >LE= A JA JA I =GKE K = E@ E= E JKEJEL= @ GKA F J A HAJ= IEC E GKA GKA FH L=LA A JA JH= A I @A II=I =K =I @A CA AJHE= @= AI? = A A A J=H + ABAEJ @= @ = AIIAI ? ?AEJ I FHA?EI= A JA AIIAI IEC E ?=@ I K E JAHFHAJ= AI F @A IA LAHE ?=H IA KEJ= @E ?K @=@A GKA I F IJK =@ I  = " I LAH@=@AI CA JHE?=I GKA IEC E ?= GKA F @A IAH @AHEL=@ I @ I F IJK =@ I @= CA AJHE= AK? E@E= = A J= J AIF HEJ @ J @ =NE JE? @AH K =>IJH=J F @A I @=H = AIIAI ? ?AEJ I KJH=I E JAHFHAJ= AI 2 H ANA F E =CE A K = K ELAHIE@=@A GKA ?D= =HA I @A U GKA JA D= FA A I @ EI = K I @A J= B H = GKA ?=@= K @ I = K I @A U ?KHI= FA A I K = @EI?EF E = =I @A I HJA GKA F=H= ?=@= p A U D K = A K = I @EI?EF E = GKA A A ?KHI= )C H= @AENA F J  IEC E ?=H = K @A U  A HAJ= IEC E ?=H @EI?EF E = GKA I = K I @A U ?KHI=  1II F IJ I F IJK =@ I  = " J H = IA ECK= A JA LAH@=@AEH I  = " I LAHE ?=@ I F=H= = E JAHFHAJ= A L LA @ U A IAKI = K I > )?HAI?A JA = IEIJA = =?E = IACKE JA F IJK =@ # 5A r K = HAJ= A p K F J GKA = A = FAHJA ?A A J ANEIJA K = A I A JA K = HAJ= ? JA @ p A GKA F=H= A = = r + LA = IA GKA I F IJK =@ I  = # @ JANJ I JA HA =I @= CA AJHE= AK? E@E= = A J= J JA @ A LEIJ= = IACK @= E JAHFHAJ= = @ I = K I A @EI?EF E =I # B= D= -NF EGKA F HGK I ANA F I @=@ I =?E = IJH= GKA =E @= GKA F II= I @=H = I ? ?AEJ I FHE EJEL I @A K IEIJA = =NE JE? L=HE=@=I E JAHFHAJ= AI D ? EI=I GKA =E @= ?= IK>A JA @E@=I ?  I F IJK =@ I  = # =?E =
# -IJA

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I ? ?AEJ I @A ? K J @ EI @EIJE J I ? J FAHJA ?A A F=H= A = ) CK I @AIIAI ? ?AEJ I ? @A HAJ=I F=H= A =I >LE= A JA @E A HAIFAEJ = FH FHE IEIJA = =NE JE? GKA IA AIJ KJE E = @ A F @A IAH E JH @K E@ I = F=HJEH @ I ? ?AEJ I FHE EJEL I @ IEIJA = F H ANA F F @A I ? ?=H = IACKE JA @A E @K=I HAJ=I I F=H= A =I IA D F J GKA FAHJA = = = >=I KJH I A J= J ? I @A =EI =?E = HABAHE@ I FAHJA ?A = K KJH LA @A @EI?KHI @= CE?= A @= =JA JE?= IK> =?A JAI = IEIJA = =NE JE? + ?AEJ I ? J @  = CK  @EIJE J I ECK=EI FAHJA ?A AJ? IA I GKEIAH I AIFA?E ?=H A A JA @AH ANECA GKA JH=JA I ? K IEIJA = =NE JE? J= J = CE?= GKA @AJAH E = I @ I FA I GK=EI HA= E = I =I @A IJH= AI I II I IEIJA =I GK= J = =JA JE?= KJE E =@=I 5A B IIA I ANECEH ANF E?= AI @AJ= D=@=I =?AH?= @AIIAI @A =EI ? ?AEJ I =JA JE? K I B @EHE= GKA JH=J= IA @A ? ?AEJ I @= CE?= A @= JA HE= @A ? K J I ? IIE?=I GKA LAHA I A = CK @AJ= DA GKA IA IACKA GKA I E JAHAII= FHA?EI= A JA AIJK@=H  K E E?E=H AIJK@  @AII= F=HJA ? ?AEJK= > IE?= =JA JE?= A I @EI?EF E =I ?EA J ?=I GKA ANECEH K F=II =@E?E = HK =>IJH= HA =?E =@= = I IEIJA =I =NE JE? I  I= I @ I IEIJA =I ? ?HAJ I F=H= I =>IJH=J  A =C H= EHA I F=H= K KJH F=J= =H =E @= =EI =>IJH=J @ I IEIJA =I B H =EI  2=H= @=H I AIIA F=II =@E?E = HK ?HAI?A JA =>IJH= @ALA I = H= FA = GK= = FH FHE= CE?= A = =JA JE?= IK> =?A JA = K IEIJA = @A@KJEL @ALA IAH J H =@=I ANF ?EJ=I 2 H ANA F GK= @ IA @AIA = I=>AH GK=EI I I FHE ? FE I > IE? I @A E BAH ?E= @A @AJAH E @= @EI?EF E = GK= = ?=F=?E@=@A @A ANFHAII K =I E EJ= AI @= E CK=CA GKA KJE E = K A J IE F AI A JA F HGKA @AIA = IA BK @= A J=H K @AJAH E =@ IEIJA = A K = CE?= @EIJE J= @=GKA = GKA D A @A E = I @A ? IIE?= K JH=@E?E =  1II ?=H ? =H BHA JA -IJA F=II =@E?E = IA JE@ @= =>IJH= HK = F=H= GKA IA @A E = @A IEIJA = B H = CH II @ JH=J= IA @= ? JH=F=HJA B H = @A K IEIJA = =NE JE? + LAHA I =>=EN = FH FHE= CE?= F @A IAH JH=J=@= ? K IEIJA = @A@KJEL A EII I A JA F @A IAH BAEJ F H AE @A IEIJA =I B H =EI ) JAI F H @A LAH A GKA ? IEIJA AIIAI IEIJA =I L= I = = EI=H K KJH ANA F = @A HAB H =H = CK I F J I A ?E =@ I =?E = IACKE JA ANA F GKA > AJEL= IEIJA =JE =H =I HACH=I KIK=EI @A =@E

-NA F

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Z = {. . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}.
I =NE =I I >JE@ I = F=HJEH @ ? DA?E A J @A = CK =I @=I FH FHEA@=@AI > IE?=I ? B=J @A GKA ! # # ! ) F=HJEH @A B=J I ? AIJA GKA FHAJA @A I =?AEJ=H I I AL=@ I = CA AH= E =H F=H= E JAEH I =H>EJH HE I m A n F IJK = @ F H ANA F GKA F=H= GK=EIGKAH E JAEH I m A n IA JA m+n=n+m )@ EJE @ A J GKA A Z F II= I HA= E =H @K=I FAH= AI = =@E m + n A = K JEF E?= mn I F IJK =@ I K =NE =I I I IACKE JAI  2=H= J @ I m A n A Z JA IA GKA m+n = n+m A mn = nm? @= =@E A @= K JEF E?=  KJ=JELE@=@A

  2=H= J @ I m, n A k A Z JA IA GKA m + (n + k ) = (m + n) + k A m(nk ) = (mn)k =II ?E=JELE@=@A @= =@E A @= K JEF E?=  ! 2=H= J @ I m, n A k A Z JA IA GKA m(n + k ) = mn + mk @EIJHE>K JELE@=@A @= K JEF E?= A HA = =@E  " -NEIJA K E JAEH 0 A Z J= GKA F=H= J @ m A m + 0 = m ANEIJ ?E= @A K A A A J AKJH =@EJEL  # -NEIJA K E JAEH 1 A Z J= GKA F=H= J @ m A ANEIJ ?E= @A K A A A J AKJH K JEF E?=JEL  $ 2=H= J @ E JAEH m ANEIJA K E JAEH k A

Z JA

IA GKA

Z JA

IA GKA m1 = m

Z J= GKA m + k = 0

% 2=H= J @ I m, n A k A Z IA k = 0 A J km = kn E F E?= m = n  AE @ ?= ?A = A J  3KA = JAH =JEL= A JA F @A IAH =IIE A K ?E=@= IA mn = 0 A J m = 0 K n = 0 2=HJE @ @AIIAI =NE =I GKA ?=H=?JAHE = GKA I =JA JE? I ?D= = @A @ E @A E JACHE@=@A F @A IA >JAH F H @A IJH= KI= @ IA =I AEI @= CE?= ? IIE?= GKA LAHA I =>=EN  J @=I =I @A =EI FH FHEA@=@AI @= =HEJ JE?= @ I E JAEH I + ANA F @AHEL=HA I K =I @A =I ? IA B= I JANJ I KIK=EI @A =JA JE?=

6A HA =   2=H= J @ I m, n A k A

Z IA k + m = k + n A J

m=n

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,A IJH= )IIK = GKA k + m = k + n =>=EN LAHA I ? = CK @AJ= DA AIJA JEF @A FH ?A@E A J GKA ? IEIJA = FH L= @EHAJ= @A K ? @E ?E =  , =NE =  >JA I m + k = n + k 5A = r K AH E JAEH J= GKA k = r = 0 GKA ANEIJA FA =NE = $ )@E?E = @ r = = > I I A >H I @= AGK= FHA?A@A JA >JA I (m + k ) + r = (n + k ) + r - J FA =NE =   >JA I m + (k + r) = n + (k + l) =I A J @ALE@ AI? D= @A r ?= I ? m+0 = n+0 A A J B= A @ KI @ =NE = " >JA I = A JA m = n

-NAH? ?E  
I

2A IA K F K? GKA B E BAEJ GKA KIJE ?= F @AH =H r = = > I I A >H I @= AGK= m+k =n+k

ANA F FHA?A@A JA AHA?A = CK = ANF E?= =@E?E = I =NE =I  % ALE@A JA A JA IKHCEH= @ =@= D J @ CAH= = IACKEH F=H= IA AIJ=>A A?AH K ? K J @A F IJK =@ I I =NE =I =?E = B H= F IJK =@ I F=H= @=H ? J= @=I FH FHEA@=@AI KIK=EI @ I E JAEH I A LEAH= @= ANFAHE ?E= A D=>E E@=@A @ I =JA JE? I BK @ EII GKA ? J= I =NE =I =?E = HECE =@ I = F=HJEH @= =HEJ JE?= @ I E JAEH I J KJH I @A I KJH=I E JAHFHAJ= AI F II LAEI EIJ D KJH I @ E I @A E JACHE@=@A = @A Z ? =I FAH= AI KIK=EI 2 H ANA F I H=?E =EI I HA=EI A I AH I ? F AN I K E@ I @=I HAIFA?JEL=I FAH= AI I ECK= A JA @ E I @A E JACHE@=@A 1II GKAH @E AH GKA I =NE = =?E = GK= @ JH= I?HEJ I F=H= = E CK=CA @A ?=@= K = @AII=I AIJHKJKH=I J H = IA FH F IE AI LAH@=@AEH=I AII=I AIJHKJKH=I ? B ?E FAH?A>AH ) E I ? @EJ AIJA K @ I JHK B I @ J @ =NE JE? 7 @=@ ? K J @A =NE =I F @A JAH =EI @A K @A K IA = =I =NE JE?=I I =EI ? ?HAJ=I =I =>IJH=J=I 5ACK @ * KH>= E = ? IJ=J= @AIJA B=J ?=H=?JAHE = =I?E A J @=  =JA JE?= @AH = LAH H= F %  2 @A I =C H= FH ?A@AH FA ?= E D E LAHI @= IACKE JA = AEH= ,E A I GKA K ? K J L= E A K E@ @A @K=I FAH= AI >E HE=I GKA IA =F E?= = @ EI @A IAKI A A A J I HECE = @ K A A A J GKA =E @= FAH JA ?A = ? K J  @EC= I A K @ E @A E JACHE@=@A IA I IACKE JAI =NE =I B HA I=JEIBAEJ I  2=H= J @ I m A n A A JA ? KJ=JELE@=@A @=I FAH= AI IA GKA m n = n m A m n = n m

  2=H= J @ I m, n A k A A JA IA GKA m (n k ) = (m n) k A m (n k ) = (m n) k =II ?E=JELE@=@A @=I FAH= AI

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5EIJA =I . H =EI

! 2=H= J @ I m, n A k A A JA IA GKA m (n k ) = (m n) (m k ) @EIJHE>KJELE@=@A @A A HA = =  " -NEIJA K A A A J e A A J= GKA F=H= J @ m A A JA IA GKA m e = m ANEIJ ?E= @A K A A A J AKJH HA =JEL FAH=  # -NEIJA K A A A J p A A J= GKA F=H= J @ m A ANEIJ ?E= @A K A A A J AKJH HA =JEL =  $ 2=H= J @ m A

A mp = m

A ANEIJA K

AA A J k A

A J= GKA m k = e k m = k n E F E?= m = e K n = e AE @

% 2=H= J @ I m, n A k A A IA k = e A J m = n K = JAH =JEL= A JA IA m n = e A J ?= ?A = A J 

.E?= ? =H =C H= GKA IEC E ?= @E AH GKA Z K E@ @=I FAH= AI @A =@E A @A K JEF E?= K @ E @A E JACHE@=@A K @A @= =N E JE?= FHA?A@A JA ,A @ =EI CAH= F @A I A J A JA @AH GK= @ K = ?AHJ= AIJHKJKH= A, , AIJ= J= GKAH @E AH A HAIK GKA IA AIJ ? IE@AH= @ ? K J A K E@ @A @K=I FAH= AI A  K @ E @A E JACHE@=@A JA HA = =?E = @ALE@= A JA =@=FJ=@  F @A =C H= IAH @AHEL=@ = F=HJEH @ I =NE =I  % L= A @ F=H= J @ I I @ E I @A E JACHE@=@A

-NAH? ?E   !

A J @=I =I AIJHKJKH=I B H =@=I F H K ? K J L= E K E@ @A @K=I FAH= AI >E HE=I A J= J I @A I @= =N E JE?= =?E =  K IA = D AIJHKJKH=I =JA JE?=I GKA I @ E I @A E JACHE@=@A = E I = =E HE= @A =I 8 ? F @A ?EJ=H = CK =I

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I ANA F I FHA?A@A JAI A AIFA?E= = @A IJH= @ JA HA =   @AEN= ? =H GKA D L HE=I GKAIJ AI GKA I @A CH= @A HA AL ?E= A GKA B H= A ?E =@=I @A? HHAH @= @A IJH= 2 H ANA F IEC E ?=@ @= ECK= @=@A A ?=@= K = @=I AGK= AI GKA ANFHAII= I =NE =I  % K = KIJE ?=JEL= F=H= ?=@= F=II=CA @= @A IJH= @ JA HA = GKA =I KIJE ?= ) HAIF IJ= ? @ALA IAH AIFAH=@ GKA A =I >A@A?A =I HACH=I @= CE?= ? IIE?= GKA =JA JE? AI GKA E ? I?EA JA A JA JA A A JA 2 H F=H= ?AHJ JEF @A AIJK@ E F HJ= ? DA?AH GKA

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HACH=I I AII=I A GK=EI I I FH ?A@E A J I @A E BAH ?E= FHE ?EF= A JA IA AIJELAH I @EIF IJ I = =?AEJ=H GKA D CE?=I @EIJE J=I @= ? IIE?= GKA @A JAH E = HACH=I GKA @EBAHA @=I HACH=I ? IIE?=I LAHA I = CK I ANA F I F HJK = A JA 2=H= J= J FHA?EI F=HJEH F=H= K LA @A =>IJH= =E @= =E H @ I IEIJA =I B H =EI


7

5EIJA =I . H =EI
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S = F , A, R ,
@A E F K ? K J L= E ?K I A A A J I I ?D= =@ I @A B H K =I A @A J=@ I F H AJH=I CHAC=I E I?K =I . . . ALA JK= A JA ? IK> @E?AI AJH=I CHAC=I =E I?K =I ? A  @A J=H ? K J I @A B H K =I EE A @A S K IK> ? K J @A F ?K I A A A J I I ?D= =@ I @A =NE

=I

EEE R K IK> ? K J @A P (F ) F ?K I A A A J I I ?D= =@ I @A HACH=I @A E BAH ?E= @A S )I HACH=I GKA I E JAHAII=H =GKE I J=EI GKA IAKI A A A J I I F=HAI H@A =@ I @ JEF {1 , . . . , n }, F=H= = CK AH =JKH= n 6=EI HACH=I I @EJ=I EJ HE=I AH n rank @= HACH= 5A F=H {1 , . . . , n }, FAHJA ?A = K = HACH= Ri AI?HALA I

1 , . . . , n (Ri ),
A @EHA I GKA ? IAG ?E= @EHAJ= FA = HACH= Ri @=I FHA EII=I K DEF JAIAI 1 , . . . , n - CAH= ? I ?=I I GKA =GKE I E JAHAII=  ANECA IA GKA IA F II= @AJAH E =H F H K FH ?AII ABAJEL A HAIK GKA F II= IAH FH CH= =@ A K ? FKJ=@ H IA K = @=@= B H K = K ? IAG ?E= @EHAJ= @A K ? K J @A FHA EII=I F H K = ?AHJ= HACH= @ KIK= @A IA @AI?HALAH K IEIJA = B H = IACKE JA 2HE AEH= A JA AIFA?E ?= IA = E CK=CA L @ IEIJA = S 1II IA B= B H A?A @ IA



5EIJA =I . H =EI

 L ?=>K HE > IE? @A L GKA A CAH= ? IJ= @A K = GK= JE@=@A ? J LA  EJ= K A K AH LA  @A I > I FHE EJEL I @A L 7 = ANFHAII @A L K = IAG ?E= EJ= @A I > I @A L A ? LA ?E = IA GKA I AI?HEJ I = D HE J= @= AIGKAH@= F=H= = @EHAEJ= AJ? IACKE @ II=I ? LA AI KIK=EI @A AI?HEJ=   B H A?E@= = CH= JE?= @A L K IA = K ? K J @A FHAI?HE AI GKA FAH EJA @AJAH E =H A CAH= F H K FH ?A@E A J ABA JEL GK=EI @A JHA =I ANFHAII AI @A L IAH =I >A B H =@=I GKA IAH =I B H K =I @A S  = LAH@=@A @= E CK=CA L @A S  =EI BHA JA LAHA I = CK I ANA ? =IIE?=I L E@=I = CE?= ? IIE?= 6 AI  6 A = 4A@K = )>IKH@ IA J=@=I BHA JA 5EJK= AI A L LA IAH @=@=I =>=EN = IA " F I -NA F I @A HACH=I @A E BAH ?E= I @KI 2 A I  2 @KI 4) @A JHA KJH=I GKA IAH =FHA @ E BAH ?E=I KI= @ IA AII=I HACH=I

?=I @=I B H K =I IAHA @=@=I ? =?E = K IA = IA @ AHECE@=I = F=HJEH @A ?AHJ I I > I > IE? I @A K = @=@= E CK=CA =I HACH=I @A E BAH ?E= HABAHA IA =FA =I AIJHKJKH= IE J JE?= @AII=I B H K =I A = GKA ALA JK= A JA A =I IEC E GKA -IJ= = FHE ?EF= ?=H=?JAH IJE?= @= F= =LH= B H =  KI=@= =?E = F=FA @= E JKE J H =@ E @A B H = GKA =I @AHEL= AI HA= E =@=I >EJ @A K IEIJA = S KJE E A =@= = @ GKA ANF E?EJ= A JA @A? =H=@ = @AI?HE @A S 3K= @ D K FH ?A@E A J ABAJEL F=H= IA I=>AH IA K = @=@= B H K = @A L K K =NE = @A S A J IEIJA = S @EJ IAH K = JA HE= =NE JE?= $ > AJEL FHE ?EF= @ AIJK@ @ I IEIJA =I B H =EI @A @=H K IEC E E ?=@ FHA?EI @A FH L= K @A IJH= )GKE IACKEHA I =HC KIK= A @A E =HA I ? ?AEJ = IAH @=@ =>=EN >EJ @A K IEJA = B H = @A FH L= HAIAHL= @ JAH @A IJH=  F=H= =HCK A J I A => H=@ I = E CK=CA ? GKE= ALA JK= A JA IKF A A J=@= F H I > I =@AGK=@ I GKA AIJ=>A A?A = CK HAIK J=@ I ?=I I ANA F E ?=@ I =>=EN @AEN=H AII= @EIJE ? =H=

=EI FHA?EI= A JA K = JA HE= =NE JE?= K E =I HA?KHIEL A K = JA HE= =NE =JE LA IA IEL= A JA A K AH LA 2=H= @AJ= DAI I >HA AIIAI ?

IEIJA = B H = ?K ? K J @A =N ? K J @A IAKI =NE =I B H HA?KH ?AEJ I LAH A &% F 

?AEJ @A FH L=



?AEJ B H = @A FH L=

7 = FH L= A S K = IAGK ?E= EJ= 1 , . . . , n @A B H K =I @= E CK=CA @A S % J= GKA ?=@= K = @A =I K K =NE = @A S K ? IAG ?E= @EHAJ= F H AE @A K = @=I HACH=I @A E BAH ?E= @A B H K =I FHA?A@A JAI @= IAG ?E= 7 JA HA = @EJ J= > JA HA = B H =  @A S K = B H K = F=H= = GK= ANEIJA K = FH L= J= GKA = JE = B H K = @= IAGK ?E= @A J= FH L= FHA?EI= A JA 2=H= B=?E EJ=H KEJ=I LA AI AI?HALAHA I K = FH L= @EIF @ =I B H K =I A IAG ?E= @ IACKE JA @ 

1 2

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@A F K ? K J @EJ @ E @= CE?= L ?K I A A A J I I @A E =@ I @A B H K =I A F K = HA = I >HA P (F ) F @EJ= HA = @A @A@KJE>E E@=@A K HA = @A ? IAG ?E= GKA IAH @A J=@= F H I A JA GKA E F HJ= GKA JA D= I ? @E AI @A ?=H=?JAHE =H GKA IA @ALA A JA @AH F H K = B H K = A A A J @A F  IAH @A@KJ LA = F=HJEH @A K ? K J @A B H K =I @ FA GK= IA AIFA?E ?= EII A AII ?E= GKA @EIJE CKA K IEIJA = CE? @A KJH " - IK = @ @A IA ?=H=?JAHE =H K = CE?= @AFA @A @A ? IA @A A FAH=@ H @A ? IAG ?E= )E @= GKA ANF HA I AIJA F J =GKE J= LA E F HJA = AEJ H I=>AH GKA I @ I =EI ? K I I  @ @ @=I FH L=I FH B JDA HAJE?= AJD @   J @ @ I @A I  @A JDA HAJE?= AJD @   @ @ @ FAH=@ H @A ? IAG ?E= ? IAGKA ?A FAH=J H AJD @  A I J @ I @A /A J A  A =GKE E ? K I = ?D= =@= @A@K =JKH=  ?=@= K @A AI ? F HJ= @ L HE I IK> J @ I J @ GKA AIJ= I =@ J= @ AIJA JANJ J @ @=I FH L=I J= > @EJ J @ = AIJE 0E >AHJ J @ @ I @A I AIIA ?E= A JA @ALE@ = 6=HI E LAH 6=H&! 6=H&!=  KI= = @A E @A @A@KJE>E E@=@A IACKE JA JH=J= IA @A K = @A E IA JE?= ? = FH FHE= F= =LH=  @A  IKCAHA @A@KJ LA @A IA A I A JA IA J @ @A @A @A @A AIJA K @ I IA JE@ I @= F= =LH= E F E?= LEIJ = JAHE H A JA J @ @ FAH=@ H @A ? IAG ?E= F=H= = CE?= ? IIE?= E JH @K FAH=@ H Cn @ @ ? LE I  K @A B H = AGKEL= A JA A GK= J GKA I J @ I @A /A J A >=IAE= IA = @A IAG A JAI GKA ? A J=HA I =GKE # AIJA ? JANJ K = AE CE?= IE F AI A JA K = ? @E GKA IA @ I >HA FAH=@ H @A @A@KJE>E E@=@A 2 H ANA F =I AEI @=@=I =?E = F=H= FAH=@ H Cn I AEI CE?=I 5A JEL IIA I ?=H=?JAHE =@ FAH=@ H @A @A@KJE>E E@=@A ? A I = JAHE H A JA F H AE @A =NE =I A @= @A @AJKJE>E E@=@A F @A I HA >JAH B=?E A JA FAH=@ H Cn @ IACKE JA @ F=H= X F ? ?= I
FH ?A@E A J FAH EJA K = => H@=CA AI?HALA @ K ELH = HAIFAEJ # 2=H= K = ANF IE E JH @KJ HE= @= @A@K
" -IJA

KEJ CAH= =JKH= LAH

CE?=

I =KJ HAI AIJ K

H +=F "

GKA

K =

CE?=

"'

X F=H= =>HALE=H X, A @A E I Cn(X ) =def { F : X } GKA JA =I FH FHEA@=@AI E @E?=@=I =?E = ? IA F @A IJH=H B=?E A JA

-NAH? ?E

4AB= AH A

@AJ= DAI

GKA =?=>=

I @A @E AH

+ IA F @A FAH?A>AH A D L HE I @ I @A IA B= JAHE =H = F=HJE?K =H CE?= ? @ I IEIJA =I CE? I @AIJ= B H AEJ HAI E JAHAII=@ I E @E?=

E F HJ= JA K = LA @=@ F ?=H=?JAHE =H AH EII )I AEI CE?=I GKA E FKIAH I ?=H=? = GK= AIJ=HA I FAH= @ AIJK@ CAH= = ? IJEJKE J FE? HA AL= JA A =JK= 2=H= I I + I*A '"

#

) >=IA E JKEJEL= @=

CE?= ? IIE?=

+=F JK + ?K )

! 2H F IE?E = + IIE?

FHAIA J=HA I =C H= K IEIJA = B H = GKA ?D= =HA I @A + ?K 2H F IE?E = + IIE? I > AJ I AIJK@=@ I F H AE @AIJA ? ?K I @A E =@ I @A FH F IE AI A GKA E B H = A JA E F HJ= GKA E JKEJEL= A JA B= = @ ?=@= K = LAH@=@AEH= K B= I= =I = >=I =I ? EI=I IA JE@ @=I F= =LH=I <LAH@=@A A <B= IE@=@A IAH AI? =HA?E@ BHA JA + ?K 2H F IE?E = HAFHAIA J= I =I FH F IE AI @A K ?AHJ @ AI IA I ?KF=H I ? IAK IEC E ?=@ I ? AA J I ?K F=HA I @A ? >E =H =I FH F IE AI LEI= @ >JAH KJH=I FH F IE AI =EI ? F AN=I F H AE @ I ?D= =@ I ? A?JEL I CE? I = AC= IE > E =@= F H  = ? K  = @EI K  ? @E?E =  A = AGKEL= ?E=  + LAHA I = IAG ?E= A?AII HE J =H J @ I I ? A?JEL I ? FHE EJEL I AI? DAHA I @ EI @A AI A I @A =EI F @AH IAH E JH @K E @ I F H @A E 7 ? ?AEJ E F HJ= JA AIIA + ?K GKA = LAH@=@A  K <L= H LAH@=@A GKA ?=I @A K = FH F IE ? F AN= @AFA @A @ I L= HAI LAH@=@A @=I FH F IE AI =J E?=I GKA = ? F A B=J AIIA GKA ? DA?E@ ? 2HE ? FE @A .HACA =@ AJEL <? IIE?  KI=@ =?E = F=H= @AIEC =H IEIJA = A AIJK@ HABAHA IA CE?= ? IIE?= A ? JH=F IE I CE?=I ? IIE?=I I GK=EI B=HA I HABAH ?E= F HJK = A JA

!

? ?K

+D= =HA I @A C = JA HE= B H = GKA ? HHAIF @AH = + ?K 2H F IE ?E = + IIE? ) E CK=CA @A C IAH @A J=@= F H L + B H A GKA IA AIJ=>A A?AK ?=F JK = JAHE H E E?E=HA I @AI?HALA @ = B=>AJ > IE? #

# @A L E + II > I FHE EJEL I @AIJ= E CK=CA I

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

I IACKE JAI

A?JEL I FHE EJEL I A =EI A, B, C, . . .

EE 8=HE LAEI FH F IE?E EEE 5 >

I =KNE E=HAI   F=H JAIAI

,=H = B=>AJ @A L IA A D= JA = @E AH GK=EI I > I @ALAH ? IJ=H @ JA? =@ @A K ? FKJ=@ H ? GK= @AIA = I AI?HALAH A FHE ? FE  =JA JE?= A J= J >=IJ= @EIF H I @ = B=>AJ K = ?HE= = = B=>AJE =@= ? K JA? =@ @EIF IE F K? B=H FA A IA  JA F D >E FHA?EI =FHA @AH = AI?HALAH K IA = ? DA?AH =I HACH=I CH= =JE?=EI @= E CK=CA II ?=I A =I IAH @=@=I =>=EN ) JAI K AI? =HA?E A J = =FHAIA J= @A K = JA HE= B H = =@= @EJ =?AH?= @ IEC E ?=@ @A IAKI I > I > IE? I  GKA ?=H=?JAHE = = JA HE= ? B H =  EII LE @ F IJAHE H A JA GK= @ IA =II ?E= IK= E CK=CA K = E JAHFHAJ= A J= J JA @A I = H=?E ?E =H E JKEJEL= A JA ?=HHAC= @ = IE > CE= ? IEC E ?=@ I ? F H ANA F GK= @ = H = I =?E = GKA HAFHAIA J=L= = AC= D FH > A = GK= J = EII @AI@A GKA I FHA @= I = IEC E ?=@ E JKEJEL @ I I > I GKA KI= I GKA J I A JA F=FA IA?K @ HE @A CKE=H = II= E JKE LAH@=@AEH IEC E ?=@  FAH=?E =  @AIIAI ? ?AEJ I N=@ FA I =NE =I GKA AI? DAH I ? IA LAH ?=I F=HJE?K =H @ I I > I EIJ=@ I =?E = ? @EJ CAH= A JA A I ? AC= A ? E F E?= =I FHE ?EF= A JA GK= J = AIJA JE @ALAHA I J =H = CK ?KE@=@ ? E IEIJE I = JAHE H A JA

) F= =LH= E F E?=H @A

I = IA  GKA D E F H J= JAI @EIJE AI = IAHA ? IE@AH=@=I GKA @E HAIFAEJ F= =LH= E F E?=H + LE I = E CK=CA KIK= CAH= A JA A JA @A I E F E?=H IA JE@ @A =?=HHAJ=H )IIE F H ANA F AIJK@=H IK ?EA JA CAH= A JA =?=HHAJ= E F E?= FH > A =I ? = =FH L= )FAI=H @AIJ= = H = JEL= IAH A CAH= LAH@=@AEH= HAA? H@A I GKA AIJA IEC E ?=@ @= E F E?= KI=@= GK= @ GKAHA I B= =H =C H= @= E F E?= =JAHE=  I >  HAFHAIA J=H B H = A JA ? @E?E = =JAHE= 5A . . . A J 
CEJ= IA A = CK I ? JANJ I GKA ? F @AHE= JA? = @ = AI  HAFH @K EH =J
+

LE

JA F IK ?EA JA  KEJ JA F  K AI =I >H=I @A 5D= AIFA=HA

=?=?

? ?K

#!

A IAK ?=H JAH FAH=?E = IAH AIFA?E ?=@ FA I =NE =I GKA LEH I GK=EI FH ?KH=H HA AJEH GKA = CE?= JH=@E?E = =HEIJ J E?= ? DA?E@ ? ? @E?E = @A .E  =JHE>K @ = .E @A C=H= ? LAHA I =>=EN  BHA JA LAHA I K = KJH= B H = @A ?=H=?JAHE =H I ? A?JEL I B= A @ KI @A  =JHE AI CE?=I 7 = LA @AI?HEJ = B=>AJ > IE? @A II= E CK=CA F=II=HA I = IACK @ F=II = @AI?HE @A K = JA HE= B H = GK= IA = @A =FHA @AH = AI?HALAH ? = E CK=CA L K IA = @A EH =I ANFHAII AI >A B H =@=I  K B H K =I  @A L A >HA I GKA K = ANFHAII K = IAG ?E= EJ= @A I > I @= E CK=CA II ?=I ANA F I @A ANFHAII AI I

((( ABA((

AAA))))

(A (A B ))
) @A E @A B H K = @A L = IACKE JA @=@= E @KJEL= A JA = K =B H K=

E 7 = L=HE LA FH F IE?E

EE 5A A I B H K =I A J () A ( ) I B H K =I AIJ= B H K = @EJ IAH = JA?A @A JA A ? IAG A JA @ ? @E?E = EEE 7 = ANFHAII K = B H K = IA A I @K=I ? KIK =I FHA?A@A JAI -NA F I @A B H K =I I A JA IA B H >JE@= F H K = @=I

=I IACKE JAI ANFHAII AI A

A, B, (A (A (B )))

(((B ) (A)) (((B ) A) B )).

5 >HA AIJA JEF @A @A E LAH )F @E?A *

#"

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

,A J=HA I F H F ? K J @=I B H K =I @A L JA GKA A GKA =F=HA?A = @A E FHA?A@A JA B= A F=HJA @A II = B=>AJ FHE EJEL AJH=I CHAC=I E I?K =I I KI=@=I =GKE ? AJ=L=HE LAEI F=H= B H K =I K IA = I I > I @= AJ= E CK=CA GKA @A J= B H K =I ) @EIJE A JHA E CK=CA A AJ= E CK=CA E F HJ= JA L ? F @A FA I=H ? IA AIJELAIIA =FHA @A @ K = L= CK= ? E C I )IIE = FH BAII H= A JH= = I= = A @E 2ACKA K = B D= @A F=FA A AI?HAL= = IACKE JA IA JA = ?KHJ= D EI I =HJ  JA GKA D @K=I CK=I A L LE@=I E C I GKA AIJ= I =FHA @A @ = ?D= =@= E CK=CA > AJ  A F HJKCK I GKA KI= I ? AJ= E CK=CA ? = GK= ANFHE E I =IIAH AI I >HA = E CK=CA > AJ F H ANA F GKA K = ?AHJ= IA JA = ?KHJ= ? BA = FH BAII H= II ?=I = CK=CA > AJ L A = AJ= E CK=CA =E @= F H JKCK I IKF A A J=@ ? I > I =@E?E =EI ? AJH=I CHAC=I A KJH I I > I ? LA EA JAI ? =def AJ? ) @A IE F E ?=H I = AI?HEJ= E JH @K E I = CK =I ? LA AI A @A E AI ? IACKA 1 E?E= A JA =@ J= I K = ? LA F=H= = A E E = @A F=H JAIAI F=H JAIAI ANJAH I IAH AI?HEJ I =IIE AN?HALAH A I A LA @A () A A LA @A ( ) ,AF EI =@ J= I = ? LA @A GKA IA =F E?= B H K =  =EI ?KHJ= E A@E=J= A JA IK= @EHAEJ= ,AIJA @ =>HALE= (() ) A (( )) )@A =EI IKF I GKA A J FHABAH ?E= I >HA A IACKE JA IA JE@ =>HALE= (( ) ) 5A D ? A?JEL I @A ECK= B H = ? LA ?E = IA = =II ?E= AIGKAH@= F H ANA F A =>HALE= HAIFA?JEL= A JA (( ) ) A ( ) ) 3K= @ GKEIAH I AI?HALAH = C ? ( ) K ( ) F=H JAIAI I A?AII HE I ! .E = A JA A =@ J= @ = ? LA =?E = @A E I

E CK=CA

AJ= E CK=CA

=def ( ) =def =def ( ) ( )

JA GKA J= F K? A B= A
!

F=HJA @ = B=>AJ > IE? @A L

K = J= GKA FHAI?E @A KI @A F=H

JAIAI

CE? I F

AIAI

A J= J

KJE E =

? ?K

##

!   ,ECHAII

,A

E AI

8E I =?E = GKA = @A E @A B H K = @A L K = @A E E @KJEL= ? ANF E?=@ )F @E?A * )?E = A J= J B E KI=@= K = KJH= B H = @A @A E A= I > =def @ALA IAH A JA @E@ ? K IE = AJ= E CK IJE? GKA IEC E ?= ECK= F H @A E  . H =I = JAH =JEL=I @A AI?HEJ= I def A ? JH=@=I ? BHAG ?E= ? =D := K = @A JHA KJH I -IJA JEF @A @A E ?D= =@= @A @A E E = K =>HALE=JEL= A JA = IACKE JA B H = CAH= ,-.1 1- ,7 @A

=def ,-.1 1- 5.

EA @K ? J K I > L GKA B= F=HJA @= E CK=CA > AJ =I KI=@ F=H= GKA = ANFHAII @ @A EA @K =>HALEA @= A @AIIA JEF @A @A E  = ANFHAII @ @A EA I AII= IE K = B H K = @= E CK=CA > AJ -IJA JEF @A @A E KEJ ? K A =JA JE?= F H ANA F GK= @ E JH @K E I ? ?AEJ @A IK>? K J AI?HALA @ A B F=H= =>HALE=H x(x A x B ) K limxa f (x) = l F=H= =>HALE=H (0 < |x a| < |f (x) l| < ) 0 @ I @A @A =?HAI?A J=H I > I E CK=CA > AJ >JA @ IA GKA IA @A E = @A ANJHA I AI F H @A E AI =I ?AHJ=I ? @E AI @ALA IAH >A@A?E@=I @A @ GKA I L I I > I ?HEA IJH I A ?=EI E @AIA =@ I A F II= IAH A E E =@ I IA A?AII HE 2=H= @AJ= DAI I >HA EII LAH +=F JK & @ ELH 5KF#' K ?=F JK " @A 5D $% IACK @ JA @= @A = CK =I B H K =I GKA IAH A J LA = I ? E @A K = JA HE= B H = ANECA GKA ANF E?EJA I I =NE =I @ ? ?K C .=HA I EII BHA JA IA F @A E JAHFHAJ=H = E CK=CA L

!

>IAHL=

I >HA =

J=

I I > I GKA AIJ= I A FHAC= @ ?  A  I KI=@ I F H J @ I I =KJ HAI = LAH@=@A D J= F=@H A CE?= ) J=>A = =>=EN >=IA@=@= A A$! F &% IJH= >A EII 9DEJ 4KII HAFHAIA J= = J= @A 9DEJADA=@ A 4KIIA 0E >AHJ = @A 0E >AHJ A AI? =

#$
+ ?AEJ 9DEJ 4KII
X AB A B AB AB

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

0E >AHJ
X X AB

KJH I

X A K B A A B A IA A J B A IA A I IA B


AB AB AB

N X X AAB K AB A B C AB E AB

5A

JE?=

5A = V K ? K J GK= GKAH @A L=HE LAEI F=H= FH F IE AI +D= = I @A L= H= K E JAHFHAJ= @A V = K = =F E?= v @A V ? K J {0, 1} " L= H v (X ) F=H= X V @EJ L= H LAH@=@A @A X 5A V (X ) = 1 @E A I GKA X LAH@=@AEH= ? HAIFAEJ L= H= v A GKA B= I= A ?=I ? JH HE  K IA = IA v (X ) = 0 5A V ? K J @=I B H K =I @A L CAH=@ = F=HJEH @=I B H K =I @ ? K J V A@E= JA = @A E =?E = EIJ =F E?= @ IA I ? A?JEL I # CE? I A J F @A I @A EH K = =F E?= v @A V A 2 = {0, 1} @ IACKE JA @ $  5A X V A J

v (X ) = v (X ) V
JA IA GKA J= ? F A A J @A x = CA>H=

  2=H= J @=I A A

E v (()) = (v ()) @A * A 2 EE v (( )) = (v ())

@A x @A

v ( )

2 @A IA FH L=H GKA D K = E?= v GKA FHAA ?DA =I ? @E AI =?E = % 5A v () = 1 @E A I GKA = L= H= v I=JEIB= = B H K = A AI?HALA I
= LAH@=@A ? JH= @ E @A v = CA>H= @A * A 2 I >HA HAJE?K =@ I A CA>H=I @A * A LAH )F @E?A ) ) AI? D= @A J= CA>H= ?=H=?JAHE = II= CE?= = @ EI L= HAI F @AH = I JAH AI? DE@ KJH ? K J E =CA  KJH= CA>H= @A * A ? F AJ= AI K = ? JA @ K = E E@=@A @A L= HAI # 2=H= @AJ= DAI LAH )F @E?A * $ 5A AEJ H =E @= AK )F @E?A ) K IA ? DA?A =I CA>H=I @A * A F @A H=?E ?E =H ? IACKA FA IA GKA I L= HAI @A v () A @A v () F=H= GK= GKAH I IA FHA  K  1II F IJ x = 0 IA A I A JA IA x = 1 x y =E H @A JHA I L= HAI @A x A y A GK= J GKA x y =E H @A JHA I L= HAI @A x A y % ) FH L= BAEJ= B= A @ IA KI @ ?D= =@ 6A HA = @= 4A?KHI 8AH )F @E?A *
"

5A

JE?=

#%

v sat A GKA v nsat A ?=I ? JH HE )E @= IA K ? K J @A B H K =I A J AI?HALA I v sat IA v sat F=H= J @= @A AIJA ?=I @E A I GKA v K @A @A ? ?AEJ @A v nsat E JH @K E@ @A @ >LE ANEIJA FA A I K = B H K = @A J= GKA v nsat  6A @ A LEIJ= = @A E =?E = @ I ? A?JEL I A HAIK J= GKA v ( ) = v () v ( ) = v () v ( ) v ( ) v ( ))
I ?

v ( ) = ((v ()) @A B H K =I A AI?HALA

(v ()
IAGK

(v ( )) )
?E= J=KJ CE?= @A K ? K J

,A

! 7 = B H K=

|=
IA J @= L= H= @A E@= ? K J @=I L=HE LAEI FH F IE?E =EI GKA ? H HA =I B H K =I @A  GKA I=JEIB= =I B H K =I @A I=JEIB=
KJH=I F= =LH=I J @ @A @A A |= AI?HALAHA I = JAH =JEL= A JA @A @A 5A = {1 , . . . , n }

1 , . . . , n |= .
?=I F=HJE?K =H @A = A J

|= GKA AI?HALA |=

I IE F AI A JA

GKA GKAH @E AH GKA J @= L= H= I=JEIB= AIJA ?=I @E A I GKA K = J=KJ CE= KJH ?=I @A E JAHAIIA GK= @ A DK = L= H= I=JEIB= AIJA ?=I |= F=H= J @= 2 H ANA F J A I = {, } GKA I=JEIBAEJ F H A DK = L= H= AIJA HAIK J=@ JA K = ? JH=F=HJA IE J JE?= GKA IAH LEIJ= JA HA = "  " 5A I=JEIBAEJ= F H A DK = L= H= A J K = ? JH=@E ? F H ANA F -I?HALA I |= F=H= @A J=H GKA {} |= A @EHA I GKA E F E?= J=KJ CE?= A JA 5A |= A |= A J A I J=KJ CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JAI

-NAH? ?E !
= A JAI

 2H LA GKA ( ) A I

J=KJ

CE?= A JA AGKEL

8AHE GKA IA ? K J I @A B H K =I IACKE JA JA @A  =EI J=H@A LAHA I GKA EII E F E?=H GKA HABAHE@ ? K J ? IEIJA JA  = { }

-NAH? ?E !

#&

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

! ! 8= E@=@A 6=>A =I 8AH@=@A

A@E= JA ? ?AEJ @A L= H= LEIJ = JAHE H A JA F @A IA FH L=H = AN EIJ ?E= @A K FH ?A@E A J ABAJEL K = C HEJ  F=H= IA I=>AH @=@ I K ? K J = {1 , . . . , n } @A B H K =I A K = B H K = IA

1 , . . . , n |=
K - F=HJE?K =H J = @ = J= = C HEJ IAHLEH F=H= GKA F II= I @AJAH E =H IA K = @=@= B H K = K K = J=KJ CE= J @ GKA A FHAC=HA I @=I J=>A =I LAH@=@A + A?A I ? K ANA F = I=>AH IJH=H GKA

A B |= A B.
2=H= J= J ? IE@AH= IA J @=I =I F II LAEI L= H= AI ? @ E {A, B }  JA GKA A A B I L=HE LAEI FH F IE?E =EI IA B IIA B H K =I A?K =HAI @ E @ALAHE= IAH ? K J @A J @=I =I L=HE LAEI FH F IE?E =EI GKA ? HHAIIA =I B H K =I A L LE@=I ? B H A = @A E LEIJ= @A <L= H=  >LE= A JA D 4 BK AI F II LAEI @A J= ? K J A {0, 1} GKA ?D= =HA I @A vi i = 1, . . . , 4 )I L= H= AI F @A IAH @EIF IJ=I K = J=>A = ? = =>=EN ?=@= E D= HAFHAIA J= @ =I E =CA I vi (A) A vi (B ) @A ?=@= L= H=

v1 v2 v3 v4

A B        

-IJ= J=>A = F @A IAH = F E=@= @A I HJA = E ? KEH =I B H K =I A B A A B )>=EN @A ?=@= K = @A =I I E @E?=@ I I L= HAI GKA =IIK A F=H= ?=@= K = @=I F II LAEI L= H= AI 6=EI L= HAI I >JE@ I ? IA LEK = JAHE H A JA @ @ IACKE JA E @E?=HA I = CK I ?=I I ?D= = @ @A vi i = 1, . . . , 4 HAIFA?JEL= A JA =I L= H= AI @AI?HEJ=I FA =I E D=I @= J=>A = =?E = 6A IA F HJ= J F=H= v1

8= E@=@A 6=>A =I 8AH@=@A

#'

v1 (A B ) = = = = =
,A @ IE E =H A

v1 (A) v1 (B ) (v1 (A)) v1 (B ) 1 1 0 1 1

EJE @ = CK I @AJ= DAI >LE I

v2 (A B ) = v2 (A) = 0 0 = 0

v2 (B )

B ?E LAH GKA >J IA = J=>A = IACKE JA @A =I E D=I @A  = " @A I L= HAI @=I B H K =I ? HHAIF @A JAI F=H= =I L= H= AI v1 , . . . v4

J=

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,A IJH= 5KF D= GKA |= A F H =>IKH@ GKA D= = K = L= H= v GKA IA = @A F=H= { } - J v () = 1 A v ( ) = 1 =I ? |= @ALA I JAH v ( ) = 1 GKA ? JH=HE= HAIK J=@ IJH=@ ANAH? ?E ! "  4A?EFH ?= A JA =IIK = GKA { } JA @A 5A = v L= H= GKA IA = @A @A > AJEL= I IJH=H GKA v ( ) = 1 + { } JA @A v F @A IAH @A F=H= AIJA ? K J @A B H K =I C ? A J= J @A @A IACKA IA GKA v ( ) = 0 A @ ANAH? ?E ! "  LA GKA v ( ) = 1 ? GKAH = I FH L=H
7 KJH HAIK J=@ E F HJ= JA J= > ? + F=?E@=@A IAH KI=@ =>=EN F H =GKE I IACKE JA DA?E@ ? 6A HA = @= A JA A K ?E=@ ,E A A

K J EJ @A JA @A  K IA = ANEIJA K = L= H= v J= GKA v () = 1 F=H= J @= B H K = X ? X EJ  A J JA @A

AJ=JA HA = " ! +

F=?E@=@A 1 5A J @ IK>?

AJ=JA HA = " " +

,A JA - J F HJ=

EJ J= GKA |=

F=?E@=@A 11 5A |= ANEIJA K

IK>?

K J

IJH= )IIK = GKA |= - J FA A = =?E = { } @A 2A 6A HA = @= + F=?E@=@A 1 D K IK>? K J EJ { } GKA JA @A 5A = =def { : } K IK>? K J EJ @A A { } JA @A 5ACKA IA J @ A = =?E = GKA |= ? GKAH = I @A IJH=H

5A = 1 , . . . , n =I L=HE LAEI FH F IE?E =EI GKA ? HHA A K = ?AHJ= B H K = ,=@= K = L= H= v @A = I Bi ? IA @ Bi i = 1, . . . , n IA v (Bi ) = 1 A Bi Bi A ?=I ? JH HE ,A = I =E @= ? IA @ IA v () = 1 A A ?=I ? JH HE - J 1 , . . . , n
) @A IJH= @AIJA A = AIIA ?E= F=H= GKA @AIA = I AEJ H E JAHAII=@ F @A ? IK J=H A &% F " A J= J A A =KNE E= = FH L= @ IACKE JA E F HJ= JA JA HA =

A ="

&

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

IA = IA |= A J

AJ=JA HA = " # +

F AJK@A 6 @= J=KJ

CE=

JA HA = @A C

,A IJH= )IIK = GKA K = J=KJ CE= A GKA 1 , . . . , n I =I L=HE LAEI FH F IE?E =EI GKA ? HHA A 2=H= GK= GKAH =JHE>KE @A L= HAI LAH@=@A F=H= =I j FA A = = JAHE H JA I GKA 1 , . . . , n =GKE F EI IA @ K = J=KJ CE= =IIK A IA FHA L= H  3K= @ n =IIK A L= H  JA I 1 , . . . , n1 , n A GK= @ n =IIK A L= H  FA JA HA = @= @A@K 1 , . . . , n1 JA I 1 , . . . , n1 , n - J n A 1 , . . . , n1 n )IIE FA JA HA = "  A @KI 2 A I JA I 1 , . . . , n1 5E E =H A JA n1 F @A =IIK EH I L= HAI  K  @A @ GKA F @A IAH A E E =@= ? B E n 2H IIACKE @ @AIJA @ >JA I
J @ @A FH L= @ JA HA = =?E = ABAJEL E JKEJEL= A JA EII IEC E ?= GKA A A F @A FH F H?E =H K @ @A IA @A EH K = C HEJ F=H= IA >JAH K = FH L= @A K = J=KJ CE= GK= GKAH

-NAH? ?E "
F=H= = J=KJ

7I= @ J @ @= FH L= FHA?A@A JA =?D=H K = FH L= CE= ( )

+ H + H

HE " HE "

5A |= A J

JA HA = @A C

! 5A

K = ? =IIA @A JA HE=I @A C A IA |= A J

1 F HJ= JA ? IAG ?E= @ JA HA = =?E = = FH L= @= ? IEIJ ?E= @ II ? ?K C A >HA I GKA K = JA HE= B H = T ?K = E CK=CA ? JA D= K I > @A AC= ? IEIJA JA IA D KLAH B H K = J= GKA A IA = = >=I JA HA =I @A T KJH=I F= =LH=I JA IA F=H= ?=@= B H K = GKA T K 6 +=I EII ? HH= T @EJ= IAH E ? IEIJA JA 6A I A J

+ H

HE "

" +

IEIJ

?E=

? ?K

IEIJA JA

,A IJH= 2A JA HA = @= ? HHA J @ JA HA = K = J=KJ CE= + = AC= @A K = J=KJ CE= F @A IAH K = J=KJ CE= E F II LA GKA D= = K = J= GKA = >=I A IA = JA HA =I @A C

+ H

HE "

# 0 B H K =I @A C GKA

JA HA =I @AIJA ? ?K

J @ @=I

=JHE AI

&! @A E @A ? IEIJ ?E= IE

-IJA HAIK J=@ KEJ=I LA AI J =@ ? J JE?= A IEIJA =I B H =EI A CAH=

-NAH? ?E "

K = J=KJ

IJHA GKA CE=

JA HA = @A C *=IJ=

IJH=H GKA

AJ=JA HA = " $ ,A?E@E>E E@=@A 2 IJ '  ) ? =IIA @A JA HA =I @A

@A?E@ LA

) @A?E@E>E E@=@A @= ? =IIA @A JA HA =I @A C IEC E ?= GKA D K FH ?A@E A J ABAJEL F=H= IA @AJAH E =H IA K = @=@= B H K = K K JA HA = ?=I @A C JK@ GKA FHA?EI= I B= AH ? IJHKEH K = J=>A = LAH@=@A A LAHE ?=H IA = @=@= B H K = K = J=KJ CE= 5A JH=J=H I  J @ @=I J=>A =I LAH@=@A =@AGK=@= A JA F @AHA I ? IJ=J=H GKA A A ABA JEL  CH II @ F @A IA A => H=H K FH CH= = @A ? FKJ=@ H J= GKA A JH= @ IA ? K = B H K = @ ? ?K C ? E FKJ FH CH= = @ ? KJFKJ K 51 KK @AFA @A @ IA = B H K = K K JA HA = - IK = GKA FH CH= = L=E B= AH = J=>A = LAH@=@A ? HHAIF @A JA A LAHE ?=H IA @ K = J=KJ CE= F H AIIAI @AJ= DAI ANJH=F = II I > AJEL I

"!

J @ @=I

=JHE AI

I ?=F JK I = JAHE HAI ?=H=?JAHE = I ?= ?K C F H AE @A K IEI JA = =NE JE? ? JA @ =NE =I  = LAH@=@A II ?=I AIGKA =I @A =NE =I A HACH=I @A E BAH ?E= 0 K KJH @ @A ?=H=?JAHE =H K IEIJA = FH F IE?E = @A CE?= ? DA?E@ ? J @ @=I =JHE AI  CE ?=I >=IJ= JA @AIA L LE@ A ANF H=@ F H 6=HI E =E @= GKA A A HA AJ= = HECA @AIJA J @ = + 5 2AEH?A LAH 6=H&!=  J @ =I =JHE AI K IA JE? F @A IAH CA AH= E =@ F=H= K AH =E H @A ? A?JEL I @A @ELAHI=I FAI I =I =GKE IACKEHA I 6=HI E =FHAIA J= @ K ?=I F=HJE?K =H @EHECE@ F=H= = CE?= FH F IE?E = ? IIE?= A A @ =I IACKE JAI @A E AI =GKE ANE>E@=I ? = CK = = JAH= = J=

,A

" 7 =

=JHE  CE?=

K = GK @HKF = H@A =@=

M = A, B, f, g ,

&"

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

@A = A A B I ? K J I @EI K J I GK=EIGKAH > f K = BK @A @K=I L=HE LAEI A g K = BK @A K = L=HE LA = >=I @A A B A A B I A A A J I @A B I ?D= =@ I @A @AIEC =@ I  K @EIJE CKE@ I "

,A

E " 7 = BK h K = L= H= @= =JHE M IA I=JEIB= =I ? @E AI IACKE JAI = h K = BK @ ? K J F @=I B H K =I @A K IEIJA = B H = S A A B K IA = F=H= ?=@= M JA IA GKA h() A B > IA A AIJ A F A J h( ) = f (h(), h( )) A ? IA F A J h() = g (h()) ) B H K = I=JEIBAEJ=  K LAHE ?=@= FA = =JHE M IA h() B F=H= ?=@= L= H= h
7 IEIJA = F=H= ? ?K FH F IE?E = ? IIE? F @A IAH ? IJHK @ F H K = =JHE =@AGK=@= @ IACKE JA @ J A A = {0} A B = {1} ,A = f A g @ IACKE JA @ f (0, 0) = f (0, 1) = f (1, 1) = 1 A f (1, 0) = 0 A g (0) = 1 g (1) = 0 - J 1 L= H @AIEC =@ F=H= @A J=H LAH@=@AEH  JA GKA =I BK AI f A g HAFH @K A =I J=>A =I LAH@=@A @= E F E?= A @= AC= HAIFA?JEL= A JA B ?E FAH?A>AH GKA I =NE =I @A C J L= H @AIEC =@ F H GK= GKAH L= H= h A GKA @KI 2 A I FHAIAHL= L= HAI @AIEC =@ I K IA = IA = >=I A J L= H @AIEC =@ A J JAH )IIE F @A IA @A IJH=H GKA IEIJA = B H = M =IIE ?=H=?JAHE =@ ? IEIJA JA A ? F AJ )GKE ? IEIJ ?E= IEC E ?= GKA K ?= K = B H K = A IK= AC= JAH L= HAI @AIEC =@ I F H K = AI = L= H= A ? F AJK@A IEC E ?= GKA K = @A =I JAH L= H @AIEC =@

IEIJ

-NAH? ?E " !  KIJE GKA A

?E= A @= ?

@AJ= DAI GKA B E @EJ =?E = =?AH?= @= ? F AJK@A @ ? ?K C F H AE @ J @ @=I =JHE AI

+ @EJ = JAHE H A JA = @A =JHE CE?= @=@= =?E = F @A IAH CA AH= E =@= F=H= GK= @ KJE E = IA KJH I ? A?JEL I CE? I ? FHE EJEL I >=IJ= @ GKA IA @A = KJH=I BK AI I @AI @A f A g ,=I AI = B H = KEJ=I LA AI IA ANECA GKA A A B IA = @EI K J I =I GKA B IA = K IK>? K J FH FHE @A A F H ANA F = =JHE =?E = F @AH = I JAH ? ?=@ A = {0, 1} A B = {1} =@=FJ= @ IA ? LA EA JA A JA I @A =EI ? ?AEJ I
" 5ACK

@ 6=HI E AIJ= JAH E

CE= IA @ALA = 2=K *AH =OI

J @ @=I

=JHE AI

&#

"!

CE?=I F EL= A JAI

) J ? E?= @=I =JHE AI KEJ JE F=H= @A ?=H=?JAHE =H IEIJA =I F EL= A JAI K IA = CE?=I J=EI GKA I L= HAI LAH@=@A IA HAIK = = @ EI LAH@=@AEH  A B= I  )IIE = CE?= JHEL= A JA @A K =IEAME? F @A IAH @A E@= @ @ @=@ =>=EN @A B H = HAIK E@= F H AE @A =JHE AI IEIJA = @ I >E F I ? IE@AH=@ ? = FHE AEH= B H K = @A K = CE?= ?HEIEFE= = = KI CE?= ? IIE?= A =E HE= @=I CE?=I # A CAH=  GKA =@ EJA =FA =I @ EI L= HAI @A LAH@=@A 2=H= A JA @AH A D H J @ @=I =JHE AI A I=>AH K F K? I >HA CE?=I F EL= A JAI L= I @A EH IEIJA = @A K =IEAME? ? IE@AH= @ = =JHE IACKE JA L = A, B, f, g , @A A = {0, 1/2, 1} B = {1} A f A g I @=@=I FA =I J=>A =I =>=EN GK= AI?HALA I Cp A N F=H= f (, ) A g () HAIFA?JEL= A JA =

1 1/2 0 0 1/2 1

1 1 1

1 1 1/2 1/2 1/2 0 1 1/2 1/2 0 1 1

1/2 0 0 1 1/2 1

0 0 1/2 0 1 1

2 @A IA A J @A EH O ? HHAIF @A @ = K  ? (C )C A F=H= A  ? N (N ON ) A = AGKEL= ?E= E @A = AEH= >LE= AIJ= CE?= ? JH=HE= A JA = IEIJA = ? IIE? GK= J = IA FHA L= H  =GKE F=H= =IIK E @ L= H 1/2 JA I ON =IIK E @ L= H 1/2 ? B ?E LAH )IIE = AE @ JAH?AEH AN? K @ L= A F IJ GKA D K = JAH?AEH= F IIE>E E@=@A +=>A ? A J=H GKA K =IEAME? CA AH = E K IAK IEIJA = F=H= CE?=I = E EJ I L= HAI @A LAH@=@A 5AK IEIJA = B E =F E?=@ B IE?= GK JE?= =I AIJA KJH =IIK J  AEJ H E JAHAII=@ F @A ? IK J=H ?=F JK & @A = %"  ) HA= @= CE?= ? DA?E@= ? CE?= F EL= A JA ANJHA = A JA @AA L LE@= D A A @E= A ? IJEJKE K = @A IK=I =EI E F HJ= JAI LAHJA JAI
#+

LE

I = JAHE H A JA

F CE = 

&$

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

"!

1 @AFA @

?E= @A =NE

=I

)I CE?=I F EL= A JAI ?=H=?JAHE =@=I F H AE @A =JHE AI J =E @= K = KJH= KJE E@=@A 2 @A IAH KI=@=I F=H= = FH L= @= E @AFA @ ?E= @A =NE =I @A K @AJAH E =@ ? ?K @AIA L LAHA I AIJA J FE? =GKE  AEJ H ?KHE I F @A LAH A &% FF "!II  =I @=HA I =FA =I = E JKE > IE?= 2=H= IJH=H GKA K =NE = @A K IEIJA = B H = S E @AFA @A JA @ I @A =EI IA A?E = I K AH =JKH= n A ?D= = I I AH I 0, 1, . . . , n @A L= HAI LAH@=@A -IJAI B H = ? K J A @= IA = JAHE H = IACKEH AI? DA I K AH 0 m < n A B H = I ? K J B @A L= HAI @EIJE CKE@ I =GKE AIJ= I IKF @ GKA B IK>? K J @A A ? AIIAI A A A J I ,A E I A J =JHE AI J=>A =I LAH@=@A GKA I BK AI @A Ak A A F=H= ?=@= K @ I ? A?JEL I FHE EJEL I =@ J=@ I = =NE =JE = 7I= @ AIIAI ? A?JEL I A L=HE LAEI FH F IE?E =EI F @A I ? IJHKEH B H K =I A ?=@= K = @A =I ? JA @ t L=HE LAEI @AJA E =H K = BK LAH@=@A L= H= = IA = JAHE H @A At A A )GKA = GKA J =H L= H A B IAH @EJ= @EIJE CKE@= 7 IEIJA = B H = S ?K = E CK=CA B H =@= F H L=HE LAEI FH F IE?E =EI A ? A?JEL I @A E@ I F H K = A =JHE M =@ AGK=@ F=H= = =JHE IA A I A JA IA I IAKI JA HA =I I J @ I =@AGK=@ I J = L= HAI @EIJE CKE@ I 2 H ANA F J A I II ? ?K C =NE =JE =@ ? E @E?=@ = F CE = % 8= I IJH=H GKA ) E @AFA @A JA @ I @A =EI 2=H= EII J A I n = 3 A m = 1 )IIE A = {0, 1, 2} A AI? DA I B = {0} K IA = 0  E?  L= H @EIJE CKE@ + I ? A?JEL I FHE EJEL I I A @A E I =I =JHE AI =>=EN

A A

0 1

1 2 1 0

A B AB
)C H= >=IJ= LAH GKA CKE@ 0 E @AFA @A JA ?E =EI GKA I ? F A @ I =I ) =IIK

0 0 0

1 2 0 0 2 0

0 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 0

0 1 2 2 2 2 2 0 0

I =NE =I )  A )! J = IA FHA L= H @EIJE A JA @ I L= HAI =IIK E@ I FA =I L=HE LAEI FH F IE A GKA @KI 2 A I FHAIAHL= I L= HAI @EIJE CKE A L= H @EIJE CKE@

KJH=I =NE

=JE = AI

&%

2=H= FH L=H F H AIJA FH ?AII GKA )  A )! I E @AFA @A JAI @ I @A =EI KJH=I =JHE AI FHA?EI= IAH @A E@=I LAH A &% ? ?EJ  ) @A E @=I =JHE AI @AFA @A KEJ @= A CA D IE@=@A @ I CE? I ?=F JK IACKE JA AIJ= J ? E?= IAH KJE E =@= F=H= FH L=H I GKA = CK =I B H K =I I JA HA =I @A ?AHJ I ? ?K I A GKA KJH=I I

""

KJH=I =NE

=JE = AI

2 @A IA =FHAIA J=H KJH=I =NE JE?=I F=H= + ?K 2H F IE?E = + IIE? AGKEL= A JAI GKA = LEIJ= =?E =  IA JE@ @A GKA IAKI =NE =I @ = AI = ? =IIA @A JA HA =I = LAH@=@A B H= =FHAIA J=@=I L HE=I @A =I = C @ I ?K :: + = CK =I @AII=I =NE JE?=I I BHAG A JA A JA KI=@=I A L HE I ? JANJ I ? LA EA JA GKA JH=LA I ? J=J =E @= GKA F H = J ? = CK =I @=I FHE ?EF=EI

" "  )NE

JE?= = = 9DEJADA=@ 4KIIA

IEIJA = =>=EN >=IAE= IA =GKA A FH F IJ HECE = A JA F H 9DEJADA=@ A 4KIIA = FHE AEH= A@E @ I 2HE ?EFE= =JDA =JE?= ' A JA ? ? A?JEL I FHE EJEL I A vee = ANFHAI I KI=@= F=H= =>HALE=H I =NE =I I I IACKE JAI = B H = GKA F IJAHE H A JA DAI @AH= 0E >AHJ A )? AH = =E @= GKA =GKE KIA I AIGKA =I @A =NE =I = E?= HACH= @KI 2 A I    ! " ( ) ( ) = LAH@=@A 9DEJADA=@ A 4KIIA KI=H= =E @= K GKE J =NE = = I=>AH ( ) ( ) GKA A J= J B E IJH=@ IAH HA@K @= JA F H 2=K *AH =OI A ' $  K IA = A A F @A IAH @AHEL=@ = F=HJEH @ I @A =EI

&&

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

""

)NE

JE?= A = .HACA K =IEAME?

IEIJA = FH F IJ HECE = A JA F H / .HACA A IAK *ACHE II?DHEBJ AN ?AJ FA = J=  JA I ? A?JEL I A ? FHE EJEL I A I IACKE JAI =NE =I = E?= HACH= @KI 2 A I LAH 6=H&! F "!   ( )   ( ( )) ( ) ( )) ! ( ( )) ( ( )) " ( ) ( ) # $ 2 IJAHE H A JA A= K =IEAME? IJH K GKA AIJ= =NE JE?= HA@K @= JA  I =NE =I I E @AFA @A JAI F EI JAH?AEH @A AI F @A IAH @AHEL=@ @ I @ EI FHA?A@A JAI ) @EII =E @= IJH K GKA I JE I JH I F @A IAH IK>IJEJK @ I F H K E? =NE = ?= @ IA ? = IACKE JA =NE JE?=  ( ) (( ) ( ))   ! ( )

" " ! )NE

JE?= @A

AA A
'# JA @KI 2 I IACKE JAI ? A?JEL I A I I =NE =I I

IEIJA = =FHAIA J=@ F H 5 + AA A A FHE EJEL I A A = E?= HACH=  ( )

  ( ( )) ( ) ( )) ! "

KJH=I =NE

=JE = AI

&'

# ( ( )) $ % & ( ) (( ) ( )) ' ( ) (( ) ) 

" " " 5EIJA =I ?

E? =NE

7I= @ IA I ? A?JEL I @A 5DA AH LEIJ I =?E = F @A IA =FHAIA J=H IEIJA =I @A =NE =I F=H= ? ?K FH F IE?E = ? K E? =NE = 2 H ANA F E? @ =FHAIA J K A '% = IACKE JA =NE JE?= GKA JA | ? E? ? A?JEL CE?

(A|( | ))|(( |( | ))|(( | )|((| )|(| ))))

) E?= HACH= @A E BAH ?E= = IACKE JA IACKA @A @A @A |( | ) 5A KI=H I A ? FHE EJEL I F @A I JAH K IEIJA = ? K E? =NE = = I=>AH  AHA@EJD '#! ?K = E?= HACH= @A E BAH ?E= @KI 2 A I

(((( ) ( )) ) ) (( ) ( ))

-NAH? ?E " "  ,E AH A -NAH? ?E " "

GKA IA JE@

I IEIJA =I =?E = I

AGKEL= A JAI

)IIK = IEIJA = = = 9DEJADA=@ A 4KIIA =?E = ) F=HJEH @ I IAKI =NE =I IJHA GKA =I IACKE JAI ANFHAII AI I JA HA =I @AIIA IEIJA =  ( ) (( ) ( ))   ( ) ! " # $ ( ) % & '  ( ) ( )

'

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

= + IIE?

+=F JK

# =

+ ?K 2H F IE?E 2=H=? IEIJA JA

# 2=H=? IEIJ ?E=

8= I E E?E=H ? A J= @ @ EI B=J I E F HJ= JAI FHE AEH GKA A ''% HA= E K IA A /A J = * CE?= 2HE AEH + CHAII K @E= I >HA 2=H=? IEIJ ?E= IACK @ ? CHAII B E HA= E =@ A 5 5A>=IJE 5 2=K A =E @A  A JAH?AEH A 6 K KIA .H= = A K D @A ! ?=@= K @A AI =JH=E @ K AH =E H @A FAIGKEI=@ HAI A @A =EI E JAH AII=@ I BA A @= F=H=? IEIJ ?E= K GK=HJ ? CHAII AIJ IA @ FH CH= =@ F=H= = )KIJH E= A BKJKH >HALA  KJH B=J AIJ EC=@ = ? A>HA FAHE @E? =JDA =JE?= 4ALEAMI ) F=HJEH @A '' AIJ= FK> E?= A I= @= ) AHE?= =JDA =JE?= 5 ?EAJO GKA JH= HAIA D=I @AI?HEJEL=I K ?H JE?=I @A =HJEC I @=I =EI E F HJ= JAI FK> E?= AI HALEIJ=I ELH I =J=I @A ? CHAII I @ GKA IA ? IE@AH= =JA JE?= FHAIA JA A JA A GKA =FHAIA J= K = @AJ= D=@= IK>@ELEI @= =JA JE?= =I IK=I @ELAHI=I HA=I F=II K = ? J=H ? = IA I >HA CE?= F=H=? IEIJA JA )F I  = HABAHE@= IA B E E ? HF H=@= = K = =EI = F = E JEJK =@=  CE?=I =@ EJE @ E ? IEIJ ?E=I  CE?=I F=H=? IEIJA JAI CE?= @EI?KIIEL= AJ?  =CHAC= @ K = L=HEA@=@A =E H @A IEIJA =I +=>A AI? =HA?AH GKA K@= =I @AIJA JEF I ? K I @A JA F I A JA F I ? EJ A@EJ HE= @A =JDA =JE?= 4ALEAMI
AEJ H E JAHAII=@ F @A ? IK J=H A @AHA MMM ? A K E?= F >H M?F! ?AEH + CHAII GK= D H J=I F=H= =I F CE =I @ I @A =EI 2=H= LAH =I @ELAHI=I HA=I @= =JA JE?= ? JA F H A= ? IK J=H MMM = I


@ 6AH

HC I?

'

'

+ ?K

2H F IE?E

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C1  K

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o o ( )o
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o o ( )o .
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'
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AJ=JA HA = #  5A 1 , . . . , n I

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I ? F A JAI FHE I @A K = B H K = I IK> B H K =I @A GKA K @A A I B H K =I  F  
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C1 JA

( ).
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,A

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#" 7

6A HA = #  3K= GKAH B H K = @= B H = JHELE= E = C1

,A ? IJH= = AC=
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C0 , C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn , . . . , C ,
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# " ?=H=?JAHE =@ I

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##

E (1) =def o EE (n) =def n1 ((n1) )o 2 n .



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- J ? ?K Cn 0 < n <  E @ELE@K= E =@ FA I F IJK =@ I 1 =J 3  =?E = =EI A A I F IJK =@ I IACKE JAI n1  (n) (( ) (( ) ) n2  (n) (n) (( )(n) ( )(n) ( )(n) ).

C JA ? F IJK =@ I 1  =J 3  =?E = =EI A 2 @A I LAH GKA A Cn , 1 n F @A IA IK>IJEJKEH AIGKA = (n) FA F IJK =@ n1  J= > B ?E LAH GKA I HAIK J=@ I =?E = L E@ I F=H= C1 ? @E ?= AI =@AGK=@=I I ECK= A JA L E@ I F=H= Cn , n = 2, 3, . . . ) FH F IEJ L HE I @AIIAI HAIK J=@ I L= A J= > F=H= C

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JAH IFE 72 = @EHA : LA = =>=EN @ IA B= = =EI I >HA IFE  GKA F @A IAH =F E?=@= = K = ?AHJ= ? A @A A JH I A J F @A I @AJAH E =H ANFAHEA J= A JA GK= J I I I A JH I @= ? A GKA J J= FH FHEA@=@A =I K ?= GK=EI I A AI )I IE = ANJA I @ FHA@E?=@ ?= >A ?=H=?JAHE =@= 6= =IIK J A J= J B CA = I > AJEL I @AIJ= J= .AEJ= = ? LA =?E = @A GKA =I FH F IE AI =?AH?= @ AIJ=@ @A K IEIJA = A? E? ? IIE? F @A IAH BAEJ=I F H HABAH ?E= = K AIF= @A B=IA =@AGK=@ GK= ?=@= AIJ=@ HAFHAIA J=@ F H K <F J  P 7 = FH F IE ANFHAII= @ HAIK J=@ @A K = A@E@= AIJ=>A A?A A GK= @ I IK>? K J I S F J P F @A IAH A ? JH=@ )IIE ?=@= FH F IE p GKA F II= IAH =II ?E=@= = K = A@E ANFAHE A J= ? HHAIF @A = K

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x y x (sy e = + se = +) (se = + se = ).

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##

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= @ F H = J K IEIJA = = C >HE? ? IJEJK @ F H ? K J I A F H HA = AI A BK AI A L LA @ AIIAI ? K J I 2 H ANA F CA>H=I @A * A A HAJE?K =@ I I IEIJA =I = C >HE? I KJH=I AIJHKJKH=I ? =I @A AIF= J F CE? =F=HA?A ECK= A JA HA =?E =@=I = IEIJA =I @A@KJEL I =I AIJA @AHA I AIJA F J =GKE
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xi B K xi = f (xj , xk ) ? xi = g ( xj ) ?
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0 0, 1 0, 1, 2
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KJH=I F= =LH=I N  A H ? K J AH  = LAH@=@A = F=HJEH @ ? K J ?K AE @= BK IK?AII H KJH=I F= =LH=I ? E @KJEL A J N  A H ? K J @A AH A IK?AII H @A ?=@= K @A IAKI A A A E B H = A JA N = {0, 1, 2, . . .}.

8A = I K KJH ANA F KJE = @ =GKE GKA =FHA @A I = JAI )GKE X ? K J @A J @=I =I ANFHAII AI @= E CK=CA @ + ?K 2H F IE ?E = + IIE? AIJK@=@ = JAHE H A JA 3KAHA I ?=H=?JAHE =H ? K J C @A IK=I B H K =I 2=H= EII L= I ? IE@AH=H K ? K J E E?E= B @A J @=I =I L=HE LAEI FH F IE?E =EI A, B, C, . . . GKA ? L ? @ALA A >H=H I B H K =I - J F=H= F J = I ? K J ?K I A A A J I I =I BK AI =>=EN @A E@=I F=H= A B H K =I GK=EIGKAH

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,A IJH= 7 = BK @A N A X K ?AHJ ? K J @A F=HAI H@A = @ I @= B H = n, x ? n N A x X +D= A I @A C = ? A @A J @ I I IK>? K J I A @A N X F=H= I GK=EI 0, a A A GKA Sn, h(x) A IA FHA GKA n, x A -LE@A JA A JA AIJ= ? A L= E= F IJ GKA = A I N X JA AIJ=I FH FHEA@=@AI 5A = f = E JAHIA @A J @ I I ? K J I @AIJ= ? A = GK= FAHJA ?A = C K IA = JA J= > =I FH FHEA@=@AI @AIA =@=I 5A IJH=H I GKA f K = BK JAHA I >JE@ GKA I E?EJ= JA HA = .=HA I = FH L= F H E @K D= @ = @ IACKE JA @ GKA AIJ= I JA J= @ FH L=H GKA IA n, x f A IA n, y f A J x = y K IA = = <FH FHEA@=@A L= I @AIEC = <P  @A AH I =JKH=EI = IAH E LAIJEC=@= IAH K = FH FHEA@=@A @A J @ I I AH I =JKH=EI = IACKE JA
F=H= ?=@= n N ANEIJA K E? x J= GKA n, x f  1 E?E= A JA LAHA I GKA 0 JA AIJ= FH FHEA@=@A JA I GKA 0, a f F H @A E @A f HAIJ= FH L=H GKA D KJH b = a J= GKA 0, b f + ABAEJ IA D K J= b F @A I ? IE@AH=H ? K J f { 0, b } GKA =E @= ? J 0, a A ? J Sn, h(x) IA ? J n, x ? ABAEJ ? F=H= J @ n JA IA GKA Sn = 0 A J 0, b = Sn, h(n) K IA = A A A J A E E =@ @A f F H ?AHJ
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