Introduo

Hoje em dia, os computadores esto presentes em nossa vida de uma forma nunca vista
anteriormente. Sejam em casa, na escola, na faculdade, na empresa ou em qualquer outro lugar,
eles esto sempre entre ns. Ao contrrio do que parece, a computao no surgiu nos ltimos
anos ou dcadas, mas sim h mais de 7 mil anos.

Muitos povos da antiguidade utilizavam o baco para a realizao de clculos do dia a dia,
principalmente nas reas de comrcio de mercadorias e desenvolvimento de construes civis. Ele
pode ser considerado como a primeira mquina desenvolvida para clculo, pois utilizava um
sistema bastante simples, mas tambm muito eficiente na resoluo de problemas matemticos.
basicamente um conjunto de varetas de forma paralela que contm pequenas bolas que realizam a
contagem.

Seu primeiro registro datado do ano de 5.500 a.C., pelos povos que constituam a
Mesopotmia. Contudo, o baco tambm foi usado posteriormente por muitas outras culturas:
Babilnia, Egito, Grcia, Roma, ndia, China, Japo etc. Cada um desses povos possui uma verso
de especfica dessa mquina, entretanto, preservando a sua essncia original. Seu nome na Roma
Antiga era "Calculus", termo de onde a palavra clculo foi derivada.

O fato deste instrumento ter sido difundido entre todas essas culturas se deve
principalmente a dois fatores. O contato entre povos distintos o primeiro deles, o que fez com
que o baco fosse copiado de um lugar para vrios outros no mundo. Por outro lado, a necessidade
da representao matemtica fez com que os sistemas de contagem utilizados no cotidiano fossem
implementados de forma mais prtica.

Sobre as operaes matemticas, ele bastante til para a soma e subtrao. J para a
multiplicao e diviso, o baco comum no muito recomendado, somente algumas verses mais
complexas que a padro.

Durante vrios sculos, o baco foi sendo desenvolvido e aperfeioado, se tornando a

principal ferramenta de clculo por muito tempo. Entretanto, os principais intelectuais da poca
do Renascimento precisavam descobrir maneiras mais eficientes de efetuar clculos. Logo, em
1638 depois de Cristo, um padre ingls chamado William Oughtred, criou uma tabela muito
interessante para a realizao de multiplicaes muito grandes. A base de sua inveno foram as
pesquisas sobre logaritmos, realizadas pelo escocs John Napier.

At o momento, a multiplicao de nmeros muito grandes era algo muito trabalhoso e

demorado de ser realizado. Porm, Napier descobriu vrias propriedades matemticas
interessantes e deu a elas o nome de logaritmos. Aps o fato, multiplicar valores se tornou uma
tarefa mais simples.

O mecanismo consistia em uma rgua que j possua uma boa quantidade de valores pr-
calculados, organizados de forma que os resultados fossem acessados automaticamente. Uma
espcie de ponteiro indicava o resultado do valor desejado.

Apesar da rgua de clculo de William Oughtred ser til, os valores presentes nela ainda
eram pr-definidos, o que no funcionaria para calcular nmeros que no estivessem presentes na
tbua. Pouco tempo depois, em 1642, o matemtico francs Bleise Pascal desenvolveu o que pode
ser chamado de primeira calculadora mecnica da Histria, a Mquina de Pascal.

O funcionamento da Mquina de Pascal era baseado no uso de rodas interligadas que

giravam na realizao dos clculos. A ideia inicial de Pascal era desenvolver uma mquina que
realizasse as quatro operaes matemticas bsicas, o que no aconteceu na prtica, pois ela era
capaz apenas de somar e subtrair. Por esse motivo, a tecnologia no foi muito bem acolhida na
poca.

Alguns anos aps a Mquina de Pascal, em 1672, o alemo Gottfried Leibnitz conseguiu o
que Pascal no tinha conseguido: criar uma calculadora que efetuava a soma e a diviso, alm da
raiz quadrada.

A programao funcional O grande passo

Em todas as mquinas e mecanismos mostrados, as operaes j estavam previamente

programadas, no sendo possvel inserir novas funes. Contudo, no ano de 1801, o costureiro
Joseph Marie Jacquard desenvolveu um sistema muito interessante nesta rea.

A indstria de Jacquard atuava no ramo de desenhos em tecidos, tarefa que ocupava muito
tempo de trabalho manual. Vendo esse problema, Joseph construiu a primeira mquina realmente
programvel, com o objetivo de recortar os tecidos de forma automtica.

Tal mecanismo foi chamado de Tear Programvel, pois aceitava cartes perfurveis com
entrada do sistema. Dessa maneira, Jacquard perfurava o carto com o desenho desejado e a
mquina o reproduzia no tecido. A partir desse momento, muitos esquemas foram influenciados
pelo tear, incluindo o que vamos explicar logo abaixo.

A Mquina de Diferenas e o Engenho Analtico

No ano de 1822, foi publicado um artigo cientfico que prometia revolucionar tudo o que
existia at ento no ramo do clculo eletrnico. O seu autor, Charles Babbage, afirmou que sua
mquina era capaz de calcular funes de diversas naturezas (trigonometria, logaritmos) de forma
muito simples. Esse projeto possua o nome de Mquina de Diferenas.

Houve um grande boom na poca por causa disso, pois as ideias aplicadas no projeto
estavam muito frente do seu tempo. Devido a limitaes tcnicas e financeiras, a Mquina de
Diferenas s pde ser implementada muitos anos depois.

Aps um perodo, no ano de 1837, Babbage lanou uma nova mquina, chamada de
Engenho Analtico (Mquina Analtica). Ela aproveitava todos os conceitos do Tear Programvel,
como o uso dos cartes. Alm disso, instrues e comandos tambm poderiam ser informados
pelos cartes, fazendo uso de registradores primitivos. A preciso chegava a 50 casas decimais.

Novamente, ela no pde ser implementada naquela poca, pelo mesmo motivo de
limitaes tcnicas e financeiras. A tecnologia existente no era avanada o suficiente para a
execuo do projeto. Contudo, a contribuio terica de Babbage foi to grande que muitas de
suas ideias so usadas at hoje.

A Teoria de Boole

O matemtico George Boole pode ser considerado o pai da lgica moderna. Boole
desenvolveu, em 1847, um sistema lgico que reduzia a representao de valores atravs de dois
algarismos: 0 ou 1.

Em sua teoria, o nmero 1 tem significados como: ativo, ligado, existente, verdadeiro. Por outro
lado, o 0 representa o inverso: no ativo, desligado, no existente, falso. Para representar valores
intermedirios, como mais ou menos ativo, possvel usar dois ou mais algarismos (bits) para a
representao. Por exemplo:

00 desligado

01 carga baixa

10 carga moderada

11 carga alta

Todo o sistema lgico dos computadores atuais usa a teoria de Boole de forma prtica.

Mquina de Hollerith

O conceito de cartes desenvolvidos na mquina de Tear Programvel tambm foi muito

til para a realizao do censo de 1890, nos Estados Unidos. Nessa ocasio, Hermann Hollerith
desenvolveu uma mquina que acelerava todo o processo de computao dos dados.
Em vez da clssica caneta para marcar X em sim e no para perguntas como sexo e idade, os
agentes do censo perfuravam essas opes nos cartes. Uma vez que os dados fossem coletados,
o processo de computao da informao demorou aproximadamente 1/3 do comum. Foi
praticamente uma revoluo na maneira de coleta de informaes.

Aproveitando todo o sucesso ocasionado por sua mquina, Hollerith fundou sua prpria
empresa, a Tabulation Machine Company, no ano de 1896. Aps algumas fuses com outras
empresas e anos no comando do empreendimento, Hoolerith veio a falecer. Quando um substituto
assumiu o seu lugar, em 1916, o nome da empresa foi alterado para Internacional Business
Machine, a mundialmente famosa IBM.

Computadores pr-modernos

Na primeira metade do sculo XX, vrios computadores mecnicos foram desenvolvidos,

sendo que, com o passar do tempo, componentes eletrnicos foram sendo adicionados aos projetos.
Em 1931, Vannevar Bush implementou um computador com uma arquitetura binria propriamente
dita, usando os bits 0 e 1. A base decimal exigia que a eletricidade assumisse 10 voltagens
diferentes, o que era muito difcil de ser controlado. Por isso, Bush fez uso da lgica de Boole,
onde somente dois nveis de voltagem j eram suficientes.

A Segunda Guerra Mundial foi um grande incentivo no desenvolvimento de computadores,

visto que as mquinas estavam se tornando mais teis em tarefas de traduzir as mensagens
inimigas e criao de novas armas mais inteligentes. Entre os projetos desenvolvidos nesse
perodo, o que mais se destacou foi o Mark I, no ano de 1944, criado pela Universidade de Harvard
(EUA), e o Colossus, em 1946, criado por Allan Turing.

Sendo uma das figuras mais importantes da computao, Allan Turing focou sua pesquisa
na descoberta de problemas formais e prticos que poderiam ser resolvidos atravs de
computadores. Para aqueles que apresentavam soluo, foi criada a famosa teoria da Mquina de
Turing, que, atravs de um nmero finito de operaes, resolvia problemas computacionais de
diversas ordens. A mquina de Turing foi colocada em prtica atravs do computador Colosssus.

Computao moderna

A computao moderna pode ser definida pelo uso de computadores digitais, que no
utilizam componentes analgicos com base de seu funcionamento. Ela pode ser dividida em vrias
geraes.

Primeira gerao
 A primeira gerao de computadores modernos tinha com principal caracterstica o uso de
vlvulas eletrnicas, possuindo dimenses enormes. Eles utilizavam quilmetros de fios, chegando
a atingir temperaturas muito elevadas, o que frequentemente causava problemas de
funcionamento. Normalmente, todos os programas eram escritos diretamente na linguagem de
mquina. Existiram vrias mquinas dessa poca, contudo, vamos focar no ENIAC, que foi a mais
famosa de todas.

A Primeira Gerao J.P. Eckert e John Mauchly, da Universidade da Pensilvnia,

inauguraram o novo computador em 14 de fevereiro de 1946. O ENIAC era mil vezes mais rpido
do que qualquer mquina anterior, resolvendo 5 mil adies e subtraes, 350 multiplicaes ou
50 divises por segundo. E tinha o dobro do tamanho do Mark I: encheu 40 gabinetes com 100 mil
componentes, incluindo cerca de 17 mil vlvulas eletrnicas. Pesava 27 toneladas e media 5,50 x
24,40 m e consumia 150 kW. Apesar de seus inmeros ventiladores, a temperatura ambiente
chegava s vezes aos 67 graus centgrados. Executava 300 multiplicaes por segundo, mas, como
foi projetado para resolver um conjunto particular de problemas, sua reprogramao era muito
lenta. Tinha cerca de 19.000 vlvulas substitudas por ano. Em 1943, antes da entrada em operao
do ENIAC a Inglaterra j possua o Colossus, mquina criada por Turing para decifrar os cdigos
secretos alemes. Possua 2.000 vlvulas, coincidentemente o mesmo nmero proposto por Zuse
alguns anos antes.

Em 1945 Von Neumann sugeriu que o sistema binrio fosse adotado em todos os
computadores, e que as instrues e dados fossem compilados e armazenados internamente no
computador, na seqncia correta de utilizao. Estas sugestes tornaram-se a base filosfica para
projetos de computadores. (Atualmente pesquisam-se computadores "no Von Neumann", que
funcionam com fuzzy logic, lgica confusa). A partir dessas idias, e da lgica matemtica ou
lgebra de Boole, introduzida por Boole no incio do sculo XIX, que Mauchly e Eckert
projetaram e construram o EDVAC, Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer,
completado em 1952, que foi a primeira mquina comercial eletrnica de processamento de dados
do mundo. Eles haviam tentado isso com o BINAC, computador automtico binrio, de 1949, que
era compacto (1,40 x 1,60 x 0,30 m) o suficiente para ser levado a bordo de um avio, mas que
nunca funcionou a contento. O EDVAC utilizava memrias baseadas em linhas de retardo de
mercrio, bem mais caras e lentas que os CRTs, mas tambm com maior capacidade de
armazenamento. Wilkes construiu o EDSAC, Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator em
1949, que funcionava segundo a tcnica de programas armazenados.

O primeiro computador comercial de grande escala foi o UNIVAC, UNIVersal Automatic

Computer, americano, de 1951, que era programado ajustando-se cerca de 6.000 chaves e
conectando-se cabos a um painel. A entrada e sada de informaes era realizada por uma fita
metlica de 1/2 polegada de largura e 400 m de comprimento. Ao todo, venderam-se 46 unidades
do UNIVAC Modelo I, que eram normalmente acompanhados de um dispositivo impressor
chamado UNIPRINTER, que, sozinho, consumia 14.000 W.

Outro foi o IBM 701, de 1952, que utilizava fita plstica, mais rpida que a metlica do
UNIVAC, e o IBM 704, com a capacidade fenomenal de armazenar 8.192 palavras de 36 bits,
ambos da IBM. Na Inglaterra surgem o MADAM, Manchester Automatic Digital Machine, o SEC,
Simple Electronic Computer, e o APEC, All-Purpose Electronic Computer. Entre 1945 e 1951, o
WHIRLWIND, do MIT, foi o primeiro computador a processar informaes em tempo real, com
entrada de dados a partir de fitas perfuradas e sada em CRT (monitor de vdeo), ou na flexowriter,
uma espcie de mquina de escrever (Whirlwind quer dizer redemoinho). Em 1947 Bardeen,
Schockley e Brattain inventam o transstor, e, em 1953 Jay Forrester constri uma memria
magntica.

Segunda Gerao

A Segunda Gerao Era a segunda gerao. Exemplos desta poca so o IBM 1401 e o
BURROUGHS B 200. Em 1954 a IBM comercializa o 650, de tamanho mdio. O primeiro
computador totalmente transistorizado foi o TRADIC, do Bell Laboratories. O IBM TX-0, de
1958, tinha um monitor de vdeo de primeira qualidade, era rpido e relativamente pequeno,
possua dispositivo de sada sonora e at uma caneta ptica. O PDP-1, processador de dados
programvel, construdo por Olsen, virou sensao no MIT: os alunos jogavam Spacewar! e Rato-
no-labirinto, atravs de um joystick e uma caneta ptica. Em 1957 o matemtico Von Neumann
colaborou para a construo de um computador avanado, o qual, por brincadeira, recebeu o nome
de MANIAC, Mathematical Analyser Numerator Integrator and Computer.

Em janeiro de 1959 a Texas Instruments anuncia ao mundo uma criao de Jack Kilby: o
circuito integrado. Enquanto uma pessoa de nvel mdio levaria cerca de cinco minutos para
multiplicar dois nmeros de dez dgitos, o MARK I o fazia em cinco segundos, o ENIAC em dois
milsimos de segundo, um computador transistorizado em cerca de quatro bilionsimos de
segundo, e, uma mquina de terceira gerao em menos tempo ainda.

Terceira Gerao

A terceira gerao de computadores da dcada de 60, com a introduo dos circuitos

integrados. O Burroughs B-2500 foi um dos primeiros. Enquanto o ENIAC podia armazenar vinte
nmeros de dez dgitos, estes podem armazenar milhes de nmeros. Surgem conceitos como
memria virtual, multiprogramao e sistemas operacionais complexos. Exemplos desta poca so
o IBM 360 e o BURROUGHS B-3500.

O primeiro chip de computador e Jack Kilby, seu criador. Em 1960 existiam cerca de 5.000
computadores nos EUA. desta poca o termo software. Em 1964, a CSC, Computer Sciences
Corporation, criada em 1959 com um capital de 100 dlares, tornou-se a primeira companhia de
software com aes negociadas em bolsa. O primeiro minicomputador comercial surgiu em 1965,
o PDP-5, lanado pela americana DEC, Digital Equipament Corporation.

Dependendo de sua configurao e acessrios ele podia ser adquirido pelo acessvel preo
de US $ 18,000.00. Seguiu-se o PDP-8, de preo ainda mais competitivo. Seguindo seu caminho
outras companhias lanaram seus modelos, fazendo com que no final da dcada j existissem cerca
de 100.000 computadores espalhados pelo mundo.

Em 1970 a INTEL Corporation introduziu no mercado um tipo novo de circuito integrado:

o microprocessador. O primeiro foi o 4004, de quatro bits. Foi seguido pelo 8008, em 1972, o
bastante difundido 8080, o 8085, etc. A partir da surgem os microcomputadores. Para muitos, a
quarta gerao surge com os chips VLSI, de integrao em muito larga escala. As coisas comeam
a acontecer com maior rapidez e frequncia.

Em 1972 Bushnell lana o vdeo game Atari. Kildall lana o CP/M em 1974. O primeiro
kit de microcomputador, o ALTAIR 8800 em 1974/5. Em 1975 Paul Allen e Bill Gates criam a
Microsoft e o primeiro software para microcomputador: uma adaptao BASIC para o ALTAIR.
Em 1976 Kildall estabelece a Digital Research Incorporation, para vender o sistema operacional
CP/M. Em 1977 Jobs e Wozniak criam o microcomputador Apple, a Radio Shack o TRS-80 e a
Commodore o PET. A planilha Visicalc (calculador visvel) de 1978/9, primeiro programa
comercial, da Software Arts.

Em 1979 Rubinstein comea a comercializar um software escrito por Barnaby: o Wordstar,

e Paul Lutus produz o Apple Writer. O programa de um engenheiro da NASA, Waine Ratliff, o
dBASE II, de 1981. Tambm de 1981 o IBM-PC e o Lotus 1-2-3, de Kapor, que alcanou a lista
dos mais vendidos em 1982.

Em 1960 existiam cerca de 5.000 computadores nos EUA. desta poca o termo software.
Em 1964, a CSC, Computer Sciences Corporation, criada em 1959 com um capital de 100 dlares,
tornou-se a primeira companhia de software com aes negociadas em bolsa. O primeiro
minicomputador comercial surgiu em 1965, o PDP-5, lanado pela americana DEC, Digital
Equipament Corporation.
 Dependendo de sua configurao e acessrios ele podia ser adquirido pelo acessvel preo
de US $ 18,000.00. Seguiu-se o PDP-8, de preo ainda mais competitivo. Seguindo seu caminho
outras companhias lanaram seus modelos, fazendo com que no final da dcada j existissem cerca
de 100.000 computadores espalhados pelo mundo.

Em 1970 a INTEL Corporation introduziu no mercado um tipo novo de circuito integrado:

o microprocessador. O primeiro foi o 4004, de quatro bits. Foi seguido pelo 8008, em 1972, o
bastante difundido 8080, o 8085, etc. A partir da surgem os microcomputadores. Para muitos, a
quarta gerao surge com os chips VLSI, de integrao em muito larga escala. As coisas comeam
a acontecer com maior rapidez e freqncia. Em 1972 Bushnell lana o vdeo game Atari. Kildall
lana o CP/M em 1974. O primeiro kit de microcomputador, o ALTAIR 8800 em 1974/5.

Em 1975 Paul Allen e Bill Gates criam a Microsoft e o primeiro software para
microcomputador: uma adaptao BASIC para o ALTAIR. Em 1976 Kildall estabelece a Digital
Research Incorporation, para vender o sistema operacional CP/M. Em 1977 Jobs e Wozniak criam
o microcomputador Apple, a Radio Shack o TRS-80 e a Commodore o PET. A planilha Visicalc
(calculador visvel) de 1978/9, primeiro programa comercial, da Software Arts. Em 1979
Rubinstein comea a comercializar um software escrito por Barnaby: o Wordstar, e Paul Lutus
produz o Apple Writer. O programa de um engenheiro da NASA, Waine Ratliff, o dBASE II, de
1981. Tambm de 1981 o IBM-PC e o Lotus 1-2-3, de Kapor, que alcanou a lista dos mais
vendidos em 1982.

Quarta Gerao

Surgiram em decorrncia do uso da tcnica dos circuitos LSI (Large Scale Integration) e
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration). Nesse perodo surgiu tambm o processamento distribudo,
o disco tico e houve ento uma grande difuso do microcomputador, que passou a ser utilizado
para processamento de texto, clculos auxiliados, etc.

1982 - Surge o 286 Usando memria de 30 pinos e slots ISA de 16 bits, j vinha equipado
com memria cache, para auxiliar o processador em suas funes. Utilizava ainda
monitores CGA em alguns raros modelos estes monitores eram coloridos mas a grande
maioria era verde, laranja ou cinza.
1985 - O 386 Ainda usava memria de 30 pinos, porm devido s sua velocidade de
processamento j era possvel rodar softwares grficos mais avanados como era o caso do
Windows 3.1, seu antecessor podia rodar apenas a verso 3.0 devido baixa qualidade dos
monitores CGA, o 386 j contava com placas VGA que podiam atingir at 256 cores desde
que o monitor tambm suportasse essa configurao.
 1989 - O 486 DX A partir deste momento o coprocessador matemtico j vinha embutido
no prprio processador, houve tambm uma melhora sensvel na velocidade devido o
advento da memria de 72 pinos, muito mais rpida que sua antepassada de 30 pinos e das
placas PCI de 32 bits duas vezes mais velozes que as placas ISA

Concluso

As aplicaes exigem cada vez mais uma maior capacidade de processamento e

armazenamento de dados. Sistemas especialistas, sistemas multimdia (combinao de textos,
grficos, imagens e sons), banco de dados distribudos e redes neurais, so apenas alguns exemplos
dessas necessidades. Uma das principais caractersticas dessa gerao a simplificao e
miniaturizao do computador, alm de melhor desempenho e maior capacidade de
armazenamento.

Tudo isso, com os preos cada vez mais acessveis. A tecnologia VLSI est sendo
substituda pela ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration). O conceito de processamento est partindo
para os processadores paralelos, ou seja, a execuo de muitas operaes simultaneamente pelas
mquinas. A reduo dos custos de produo e do volume dos componentes permitiram a aplicao
destes computadores nos chamados sistemas embutidos, que controlam aeronaves, embarcaes,
automveis e computadores de pequeno porte. So exemplos desta gerao de computadores, os
micros que utilizam a linha de processadores Pentium, da INTEL.

A principal tendncia do futuro a unio de muitas funcionalidades em um mesmo

aparelho. Por isso, aps alguns anos, vai ser muito comum que as pessoas tenham somente um
nico dispositivo porttil, que vai executar todas as tarefas desejadas.
 Introduction

Nowadays, computers are present in our life in a way never seen before. Whether at
home, at school, at college, at the company or anywhere else, they are always among
us.Contrary to what it seems, computing has not come about in the last few years or decades,
but for more than 7,000 years.

Many ancient peoples used the abacus to perform day-to-day calculations, especially
in the areas of trade in goods and development of civil constructions. It can be considered as
the first machine developed for calculation, because it used a very simple system, but also
very efficient in solving mathematical problems. It is basically a set of rods in parallel that
contains small balls that perform the counting.

Its first record is dated of the year of 5,500 BC, by the towns that constituted the
Mesopotamia. However, the abacus was also later used by many other cultures: Babylon,
Egypt, Greece, Rome, India, China, Japan, etc. Each of these peoples has a specific version
of this machine, however, preserving its original essence. His name in Ancient Rome was
"Calculus", term from which the word "calculus" was derived.

The fact that this instrument was widespread among all these cultures is mainly due
to two factors. The contact between distinct peoples is the first of them, which made that the
abacus was copied from one place to several others in the world. On the other hand, the need
for mathematical representation meant that the counting systems used in everyday life were
implemented in a more practical way.

On mathematical operations, it is quite useful for addition and subtraction. Already

for multiplication and division, the common abacus is not very recommended, only some
versions more complex than the standard one.

For several centuries, the abacus was developed and perfected, becoming the main
tool of calculation for a long time. However, the early Renaissance intellectuals needed to
find more efficient ways of calculating. Soon, in 1638 after Christ, an English priest named
William Oughtred, created a very interesting table for the accomplishment of very great
multiplications. The basis of his invention was the research on logarithms, carried out by
Scotsman John Napier.

So far, the multiplication of very large numbers was a very laborious and time-
consuming task. However, Napier discovered several interesting mathematical properties
and called them logarithms. After that, multiplying values became a simpler task.
 The mechanism consisted of a ruler that already had a fair amount of pre-calculated
values arranged in such a way that the results were automatically accessed. A kind of pointer
indicated the result of the desired value.

Although William Oughtred's ruler was useful, the values present in it were still pre-
defined, which would not work to calculate numbers that were not present on the
board.Shortly thereafter, in 1642, the French mathematician Bleise Pascal developed what
may be called the first mechanical calculator of History, the Pascal Machine.

The operation of the Pascal Machine was based on the use of interlocking wheels
which rotated in performing the calculations. The initial idea of Pascal was to develop a
machine that would perform the four basic mathematical operations, which did not happen
in practice, since it was only able to add and subtract. For this reason, the technology was
not very well received at the time.

A few years after the Pascal Machine, in 1672, the German Gottfried Leibnitz
achieved what Pascal had failed to do: create a calculator that effected sum and division, in
addition to the square root.

Functional Programming - The Big Step

In all the machines and mechanisms shown, the operations were previously
programmed and it is not possible to insert new functions. However, in the year 1801, the
couturier Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a very interesting system in this area.

The Jacquard industry was active in the field of textile designs, a task that took up a
lot of manual labor. Seeing this problem, Joseph built the first truly programmable machine,
with the goal of cutting fabrics automatically.

Such a mechanism was called the Programmable Tear, because it accepted punchable
cards with system input. In this way, Jacquard punched the card with the desired design and
the machine reproduced it on the fabric. From then on, many schemes were influenced by
the loom, including what we will explain below.

The Machine of Differences and the Analytical Engine

In the year 1822, a scientific paper was published that promised to revolutionize
everything that existed until then in the electronic calculation field. Its author, Charles
Babbage, stated that his machine was able to calculate functions of various natures
(trigonometry, logarithms) very simply. This project had the name of Machine of
Differences.
 There was a big boom at the time because of this, because the ideas applied in the
project were way ahead of their time. Due to technical and financial limitations, the
Differences Machine could only be implemented many years later.

After a period, in the year 1837, Babbage launched a new machine, called Analytical
Engine. She took advantage of all the concepts of Programmable Loom, like the use of
cards. In addition, instructions and commands could also be informed by the cards, making
use of primitive registers. Precision reached 50 decimal places.

Again, it could not be implemented at that time, for the same reason of technical and
financial limitations. The existing technology was not advanced enough for the execution of
the project. However, Babbage's theoretical contribution was so great that many of his ideas
are used today.

The Boolean Theory

The mathematician George Boole can be considered the father of modern logic. Boole
developed, in 1847, a logical system that reduced the representation of values by two figures:
0 or 1.

In his theory, the number "1" has meanings as: active, connected, existing, true. On
the other hand, the "0" represents the inverse: not active, disconnected, non existent,
false. To represent intermediate values, such as "more or less" active, it is possible to use two
or more digits (bits) for the representation. For example:

00 - off

01 - low load

10 - moderate load

11 - high load

The whole logical system of today's computers uses Boolean theory in a practical way.

Hollerith Machine

The concept of cards developed in the programmable loom machine was also very
useful for the 1890 census in the United States. At that time, Hermann Hollerith developed
a machine that speeds up the whole process of computing the data.

Instead of the classic pen to mark X in "yes" and "no" for questions such as sex and
age, census agents punched these options on the cards. Once the data were collected, the
information computation process took approximately 1/3 of the common. It was virtually a
revolution in the way information was collected.

Taking advantage of all the success of his machine, Hollerith founded his own
company, the Tabulation Machine Company, in the year 1896. After some mergers with
other companies and years in charge of the venture, Hoolerith died. When a replacement
took over in 1916, the company name was changed to International Business Machine, the
world-famous IBM.

Pre-modern computers

In the first half of the 20th century, several mechanical computers were developed,
and over time, electronic components were added to the projects. In 1931, Vannevar Bush
implemented a computer with a binary architecture per se, using bits 0 and 1. The decimal
base required electricity to take 10 different voltages, which was very difficult to
control.That is why Bush made use of Boolean logic, where only two levels of voltage were
enough.

World War II was a great incentive in computer development as machines were

becoming more useful in tasks of "translating" enemy messages and creating new, smarter
weapons. Among the projects developed during this period, the most outstanding was Mark
I, created in 1944 by Harvard University, and Colossus in 1946, created by Allan Turing.

Being one of the most important figures in computing, Allan Turing focused his
research on the discovery of formal and practical problems that could be solved through
computers. For those who presented solution, the famous theory of the "Turing Machine"
was created, that, through a finite number of operations, solved computational problems of
diverse orders. The Turing machine was put into practice through the Colossus computer.

Modern computing

Modern computing can be defined by the use of digital computers, which do not use
analog components based on their operation. It can be divided into several generations.

First generation

The first generation of modern computers had with main characteristic the use of
electronic valves, having enormous dimensions. They used miles of wires, reaching very high
temperatures, which often caused malfunctions. Typically, all programs were written
directly in the machine language. There were several machines of that time, however, we will
focus on ENIAC, which was the most famous of them all.
 First Generation JP Eckert and John Mauchly of the University of Pennsylvania
inaugurated the new computer on February 14, 1946. ENIAC was a thousand times faster
than any previous machine, solving 5,000 additions and subtractions, 350 multiplications or
50 divisions Per second. And it was twice the size of the Mark I: it filled 40 cabinets with
100,000 components, including about 17,000 electronic valves. It weighed 27 tons and a half
5.50 x 24.40 and consumed 150 kW. Despite its many fans, the ambient temperature
sometimes reached 67 degrees Fahrenheit. It executed 300 multiplications per second, but,
as it was designed to solve a particular set of problems, its reprogramming was very slow. It
had about 19,000 valves replaced per year. In 1943, prior to the commissioning of ENIAC,
England already owned Colossus, a machine created by Turing to decipher German secret
codes. It had 2,000 valves, coincidentally the same number proposed by Zuse a few years
earlier.

In 1945 Von Neumann suggested that the binary system be adopted on all computers,
and that instructions and data be compiled and stored internally on the computer in the
correct sequence of use. These suggestions have become the philosophical basis for computer
projects. ("Von Neumann" computers, which work with fuzzy logic, confused logic) are
currently being searched. From these ideas, and Boole's mathematical logic or algebra,
introduced by Boole in the early nineteenth century, is that Mauchly and Eckert designed
and built the EDVAC, Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer, completed in
1952, which was the first commercial machine Electronic data processing world. They had
tried this with the BINAC, a 1949 automatic binary computer, which was compact (1.40 x
1.60 x 0.30 m) enough to be carried aboard an airplane but never worked well. The EDVAC
used memories based on mercury delay lines, much more expensive and slower than CRTs,
but also with greater storage capacity. Wilkes built the EDSAC, Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Calculator in 1949, which operated according to the stored-program technique.

The first large-scale commercial computer was the UNIVAC, UNIVersal Automatic
Computer, American, 1951, which was programmed by setting about 6,000 switches and
connecting cables to a panel. The input and output of information was performed by a metal
tape 1/2 inch wide and 400 m long. In all, 46 UNIVAC Model I units were sold, which were
usually accompanied by a printing device called UNIPRINTER, which alone consumed
14,000 W.

Another was the IBM 701, from 1952, which used plastic tape, faster than the
UNIVAC metal, and the IBM 704, with the phenomenal ability to store 8,192 36-bit words,
both from IBM. In England come the MADAM, Manchester Automatic Digital Machine, the
SEC, Simple Electronic Computer, and APEC, All-Purpose Electronic Computer. Between
1945 and 1951, MIT's WHIRLWIND was the first computer to process information in real
time, with data input from drilled tapes and output on CRT (video monitor), or flexowriter,
a kind of To write (Whirlwind means swirl). In 1947 Bardeen, Schockley and Brattain invent
the transistor, and in 1953 Jay Forrester constructs a magnetic memory.

Second generation

The Second Generation It was the second generation. Examples of this time are the
IBM 1401 and the BURROUGHS B 200. In 1954 IBM commercializes the 650, medium-
sized. The first fully transistorized computer was the TRADIC, from Bell Laboratories. The
IBM TX-0, from 1958, had a first-rate video monitor, was fast and relatively small, had a
sound output device, and even an optical pen. The programmable PDP-1, built by Olsen,
became a sensation at MIT: students were playing Spacewar! And Mouse-in-Maze, through
a joystick and an optical pen. In 1957 the mathematician Von Neumann collaborated on the
construction of an advanced computer, which, for fun, was named MANIAC, Mathematical
Analyzer Numerator Integrator and Computer.

In January of 1959 Texas Instruments announces to the world a creation of Jack

Kilby: the integrated circuit. While a mid-level person would take about five minutes to
multiply two ten-digit numbers, the MARK I would do it in five seconds, the ENIAC at two-
thousandths of a second, a computer transistorized at about four billionths of a second, and
one Machine in less time yet.

Third generation

The third generation of computers is from the 60s, with the introduction of integrated
circuits. The Burroughs B-2500 was one of the first. While ENIAC could store twenty ten-
digit numbers, they can store millions of numbers. Concepts such as virtual memory,
multiprogramming, and complex operating systems arise. Examples of this time are the IBM
360 and the BURROUGHS B-3500.

The first computer chip and Jack Kilby, its creator. In 1960 there were about 5,000
computers in the USA. This term is the term software. In 1964, CSC, Computer Sciences
Corporation, established in 1959 with a capital of $ 100, became the first stock trading
company. The first commercial minicomputer came out in 1965, the PDP-5, released by the
American DEC, Digital Equipment Corporation.
 Depending on its configuration and accessories it could be purchased for the
affordable price of $ 18,000.00. The PDP-8 was followed, at an even more competitive
price.Following their path other companies launched their models, causing that by the end
of the decade there were already about 100,000 computers spread around the world.

In 1970 the INTEL Corporation introduced a new type of integrated circuit: the
microprocessor. The first was the 4004, four-bit. It was followed by the 8008, in 1972, the
fairly widespread 8080, the 8085, etc. From there arise the microcomputers. For many, the
fourth generation comes with VLSI chips, for very large-scale integration. Things start
happening faster and more often.

In 1972 Bushnell launches the video game Atari. Kildall launches the CP / M in 1974.
The first microcomputer kit, the ALTAIR 8800 in 1974/5. In 1975 Paul Allen and Bill Gates
created Microsoft and the first microcomputer software: a BASIC adaptation for
ALTAIR. In 1976 Kildall established the Digital Research Incorporation, to sell the CP / M
operating system. In 1977 Jobs and Wozniak create the Apple microcomputer, Radio Shack
the TRS-80 and Commodore the PET. The Visicalc (Visible Calculator) worksheet from
1978/9, the first commercial program, from Software Arts.

In 1979 Rubinstein begins to commercialize a software written by Barnaby: the

Wordstar, and Paul Lutus produces Apple Writer. The program of a NASA engineer, Waine
Ratliff, dBASE II, 1981. Also from 1981 the IBM-PC and Lotus 1-2-3, from Kapor, which
reached the best-selling list in 1982.

In 1960 there were about 5,000 computers in the USA. This term is the term
software. In 1964, CSC, Computer Sciences Corporation, established in 1959 with a capital
of $ 100, became the first stock trading company. The first commercial minicomputer came
out in 1965, the PDP-5, released by the American DEC, Digital Equipment Corporation.

Depending on its configuration and accessories it could be purchased for the

affordable price of $ 18,000.00. This was followed by the even more competitive price of the
PDP-8. Following their path other companies launched their models, causing that by the end
of the decade there were already about 100,000 computers spread around the world.

In 1970 the INTEL Corporation introduced a new type of integrated circuit: the
microprocessor. The first was the 4004, four-bit. It was followed by the 8008, in 1972, the
fairly widespread 8080, the 8085, etc. From there arise the microcomputers. For many, the
fourth generation comes with VLSI chips, for very large-scale integration. Things start
happening faster and more often. In 1972 Bushnell launches the video game Atari. Kildall
launches the CP / M in 1974. The first microcomputer kit, the ALTAIR 8800 in 1974/5.

In 1975 Paul Allen and Bill Gates created Microsoft and the first microcomputer
software: a BASIC adaptation for ALTAIR. In 1976 Kildall established the Digital Research
Incorporation, to sell the CP / M operating system. In 1977 Jobs and Wozniak create the
Apple microcomputer, Radio Shack the TRS-80 and Commodore the PET. The Visicalc
(Visible Calculator) worksheet from 1978/9, the first commercial program, from Software
Arts. In 1979 Rubinstein begins to commercialize a software written by Barnaby: the
Wordstar, and Paul Lutus produces Apple Writer. The program of a NASA engineer, Waine
Ratliff, dBASE II, 1981. Also from 1981 the IBM-PC and Lotus 1-2-3, from Kapor, which
reached the best-selling list in 1982.

Fourth Generation

They arose because of the use of the LSI (Large Scale Integration) and Very Large
Scale Integration (VLSI) circuits technique. In that period, the distributed processing, the
optical disk, also appeared and there was a great diffusion of the microcomputer, which was
then used for word processing, assisted calculations, etc.

1982 - 286 Using the Memory appears RIA 30 - pin and 16-bit ISA slots, j mem was
equipped with RIA cache to assist the processor in their fun gs. CGA monitors still
used in some rare models these monitors were colorful but the vast majority were
green, orange or gray.

1985 - 386 still used mem RIA 30 - pin, for it is m due to s a processing speed j was
poss ble t run software GR physical more advanced O ata as in the case of Windows
3.1, its predecessor could run only version 3.0 due to the low quality of CGA
monitors, 386 j will count on VGA cards that can reach is at 256 colors since the
monitor is also m bear this sets ction.

1989 - 486 DX From this moment the coprocessor kill the jig j embedded coming in
pre PRIO processor, there also is m an improvement sens level speed because the
advent of mem RIA 72 - pin, more R is Order your 30-pound ancestor and 32-bit PCI
cards twice as fast as ISA cards

Conclusion

Applications increasingly require a greater capacity for processing and storing

data. Expert systems, multimedia systems (combining texts, graphics, images and sounds),
distributed databases and neural networks are just a few examples of these needs. One of the
key features of this generation is the simplification and miniaturization of the computer, in
addition to better performance and greater storage capacity.

All this, with prices increasingly affordable. VLSI technology is being replaced by
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI). The concept of processing is starting for the parallel
processors, that is, the execution of many operations simultaneously by the machines. The
reduction of the production costs and the volume of the components allowed the application
of these computers in the so-called embedded systems, which control aircraft, boats,
automobiles and small computers. Examples of this generation of computers are the
computers that use Intel's Pentium processor line.

The main trend of the future is the union of many functionalities in the same
device. So after a few years, it will be very common for people to have only a single portable
device that will perform all the tasks they want.


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