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01314BM
Original Article
*e-mail: esther_shekinah@hotmail.com
(With 5 figures)
Received: May 19, 2014 Accepted: October 24, 2014 Distributed: August 31, 2015
Abstract
In artisanal fishing, the techniques used by a community reflect the characteristics of the natural environment, in
particular the distribution and availability of resources, as well as local traditions and customs. However, economic
development may result in the loss of these traditions. The present study documents the fishing techniques used by
the communities on the Xingu River in the Brazilian state of Par (Maribel, Altamira, Belo Monte, Vitria do Xingu,
Vila Nova, Senador Jos Porfrio, Porto de Moz, and Gurup). Interviews were used to investigate traditional local
knowledge and the distribution of the different fishing methods within the study area. The local fishers described the
use of 12 different types of net, 10 hook and line techniques, and eight kinds of spearfishing. Free diving and scuba
diving are also used for the capture of ornamental fish.
Keywords: fishing gear, traditional knowledge, Brazilian Amazon basin, small-scale fisheries.
1. Introduction
Artisanal or small-scale fishing generally involves single
individuals or small groups of fishers who use relatively
simple equipment and techniques, and market their catches
locally through intermediaries (Furtado, 1981; Bayley and
Petrere, 1989; Pauly, 2006; Carvalho Jnioretal., 2011a).
The small scale of this activity normally means that it has
a reduced degree of impact on the environment. Artisanal
fishing is the principal activity practiced in the Amazon
basin, where it targets an enormous range of fish species,
and provides an essential source of animal protein and
economic income for riverside communities.
The diversity of fish species, considered to be the greatest
of any freshwater system in the world, is at least partly
responsible for the prominence of Amazonian artisanal
fisheries in the national scenario (Furtado, 1981; Lowe138
Figure 1. Map of the Xingu River in the Brazilian state of Par, showing the communities in which the interviews were
conducted.
140
3. Results
3.1.1.3. Piabeira
Small net set close to the surface of the water and
along the river margins, almost exclusively used for the
capture of small bait fishes (known as piabas), used for
line fishing or as a subsistence resource. This type of net
is used throughout the year;
3.1.1.4. Flexeira
Net placed close to the surface of the water or in the
middle of the water column, and used throughout the year,
except for the closed season. These nets are set along the
margins of rivers, backwaters, and streams to catch flexeira
and other small-bodied fishes that are known as salad
due to their low commercial value;
3.1.1.5. Buoyed net (culho or bubuia)
Net used in the middle of the water column or close to
the surface (see Figure2b). Two guide buoys permit the
identification of the position of the net from the surface,
for the retrieval of the catch. This type of net is placed
Figure 2. Fishing nets used on the Xingu River: (a) fixed net; (b) buoyed net (bubuia); (c) cast net; (d) hand net.
Braz. J. Biol., 2015, vol. 75, no. 3 (suppl.), p. S138-S157
141
3.1.2.2. Canio
Home-made fishing pole made of bamboo (Bambuseidae),
taboca (Guadua weberbaueri) (see Figure3a). A nylon
line is tied to one end of the pole, with a hook (generally
small in size) and lead weight at the opposite extremity.
These rods are used in swamps and marshes to catch
species such as piau and pacu;
3.1.2.3. Commercial fishing rod (varas de pesca)
Consisting of a graphite or glass fiber rod with a small
reel and nylon line, which allows the hook to be cast over
longer distances and facilitates its retrieval (see Figure3b).
This equipment is used occasionally by artisanal fishers,
but more commonly in sport fishing;
3.1.2.4. Unbarbed hooks (anzol p chato)
These hooks are tied to a nylon line waxed with
a substance extracted from alkaline batteries, which
prevents it slipping in the hands of the fisher. To this art
is preferably used carbon fiber line. This equipment is
used to catch river turtles. In this technique, the fisher
uses groundbait consisting of a sack containing pieces
of cassava, which is placed in the water, together with a
number of hooks baited with cassava (Manihot esculenta)
or mucaj palm fruits (Acrocomia spp.). This technique
is only used in the months following the turtles nesting
period (DecemberJune), when they feed more intensively;
3.1.2.5. Gulepa
Consists of a nylon line with two hooks with a lead
weight between them, which are separated by a spacer which
prevents the nylon from tangling. The line is agitated in
the water by the fisher, to attract the attention of predator
fishes, thus avoiding the need for bait. This technique is
used on the river throughout the year, and has no specific
target, catching whatever fish happens to get hooked.
However, this technique is work-intensive and relatively
inefficient, so it is rarely used;
3.1.2.6. Spoon (currica)
Artificial lure made of steel, lead or copper
(seeFigure3cand3d) which imitates the fusiform shape
of a small fish, with one to three hooks attached, depending
on the model. Different sizes are used according to the
Braz. J. Biol., 2015, vol. 75, no. 3 (suppl.), p. S138-S157
Figure 3. Types of fishing lines used on the Xingu River. (a) Homemade fishing pole (canio); (b) fishing rod; (c) spoon;
(d) artificial lures; (e) float lines used at different depths; (f) Camurim; (g) Atiradeira; (h) Surface espinhel; (i) Half-water
espinhel; (j) Bottom espinhel.
Figure 4. (a) Bow and arrow; (b) Trident; (c) Harpoon; (d) Tapu; (e) Details of the different types of tip, showing (left to
right), sararaca, single arrowhead, harpoon, tapu, and trident; (f) catapult; (g) gas-powered speargun.
145
4. Discussion
In the Amazon basin, the distribution and ecology of
fishery resources are determined by a set of environmental
factors, including climate, habitat type, and the characteristics
of the annual flood pulse. Local fishing communities are
generally able to adapt to local conditions and resources,
Figure 5. Diving equipment. (a) cast net; (b) mask; (c) weight belt with plastic containers; (d) vaqueta; (e) Compressor used
to feed the airline: (1) fuel tank, (2) motor adapted to pump air and produce electricity, (3) valves connected to the airline,
that control the flow of air to the diver, (4) air compressor, (5) mouthpiece, (6) flashlight.
146
Table 1. Distribution of different types of fishing gear in the communities surveyed on the Xingu River in Par, Brazil.
Screen gillnet
Gillnet
Piabeira
Flexeira
Buoyed net
Pirarucu net
Nets
Catfish net
Seine
Seine trawl
Beach trawl
Cast net
Hand net
Hand line
Fishing pole
Fishing rod
Unbarbed hook
Gulepa
Hook and
line
Spoon
Float lining
Camurim
Long Line
Atiradeira
Bow and arrow
Trident
Sararaca
Harpoon
Spearfishing
Tapu
Catapult
Wooden
catapult
Speargun
Diving
Vaqueta
Number of different types
of gear recorded per site
Total
number of
communities
8
5
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
3
2
8
6
1
1
1
1
3
1
6
1
2
6
1
4
1
1
Mar
Alt
BM
VX
SJP
VN
PM
Gur
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
13
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
3
8
15
12
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the entities that financed this research
CAPES, Leme Engineering Ltd., FADESP, and Norte
Energia. We would also like to thank our friend Marcos
Vinicius da Silva for the drawings of the fishing equipment,
and Danusa da Rocha for producing the map.
References
AGOSTINHO, A.A., JLIO JNIOR, H.F. and PETRERE
JUNIOR, M., 1994. Itaipu reservoir (Brazil): impacts of the
impoundment on the fish fauna and fisheries. In COWX, I.G.
Rehabilitation of freshwater fisheries. Bodman: Fishing News
Books. p. 171-184.
AGOSTINHO, AA., JLIO JNIOR, HF. and BORGHETTI,
JR., 1992. Consideraes sobre os impactos dos represamentos
na ictiofauna e medidas para sua atenuao. Um estudo de caso:
reservatrio de Itaipu. Revista Unimar, vol. 14, p. 89-107.
AGOSTINHO, AA., OKADA, EK. and GREGORIS, J., 1999.
A pesca no reservatrio de Itaipu: aspectos socioeconmicos e
impactos de represamento. In HENRY, R. Ecologia de reservatrios:
estrutura, funo e aspectos sociais. Botucatu: FUNDIBIO/
FADESP. p. 281-319.
BARTHEM, R. and GOULDING, M., 1997. Os bagres balizadores:
ecologia, migrao and conservao de peixes amaznicos Tef.
Tef, AM: Sociedade Civil Mamirau; Braslia: CNPq. 140 p.
Braz. J. Biol., 2015, vol. 75, no. 3 (suppl.), p. S138-S157
150
Appendix 1. Common and scientific names for the fish and others species mentioned in the text.
Common name
Acar
Alligator
Amarelo/apapa/sarda
Amazonian turtle
Aracu/piau
Ariduia/ariru
Arraia
Aruan/ uruan
Barba-chata/ piranambu
Bararu
Bicuda
Black cutia pleco
Brao de moa
Branquinha/ mocinha
Cachorra
Car-au
Carapitinga
Caratinga
Common pleco
Cuiu
Curimat
Dourada
Erana/flexeira
Fidalgo
Filhote/piraba
Jacund
Jandi
Jaraqui
Jau
Jeju
Little yellow pleco
Mapar
Matrinx
Old black pleco
Orange tipped pleco
Pacu
Pataca
Pescada branca
Piaba
Pintado
Piramutaba
Piranha
Piranha preta
Pirapitinga
Pirarara
Pirarucu
Scientific name
Retroculus xinguensis (GOSSE), Caquetaia spectabilis (STEINDACHNER),
Satanoperca sp
Caiman crocodilus (LINNAEUS); Melanosuchus Nger (SPIX); Paleosuchus
palpebrosus (CUVIER)
Pellona spp.
Podocnemis expansa (SCHWEIGGER)
Anastomidae
Semaprochilodus brama (VALENCIENNES)
Potamotrygon spp.
Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (CUVIER)
Pinirampus pirinampu (SPIX & AGASSIZ)
Uaru amphiacanthoides (HECKEL)
Boulengerella spp.
Scobinancistrus sp
Platystomatichthys sturio (KNER)
Potamorhina spp.
Hydrolycus armatus (JARDINE)
Astronotuscrassipinnis (HECKEL)
Lutjanus sp.
Geophagus altifrons (HECKEL)
Peckoltia vittata (STEINDACHNER)
Doradidae
Prochilodus nigricans (SPIX & AGASSIZ)
Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii (CASTELNAU)
Hemiodus spp.
Ageneiosus inermis (LINNAEUS)
Brachyplatystoma filamentosum (LICHTENSTEIN)
Crenicichla spp.
Leiaurius marmoratus (GILL)
Semaprochilodus spp.
Zungaro zungaro (HUMBOLDT)
Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus (SPIX & AGASSIZ)
Baryancistrus spp.
Hypophthalmus marginatus (VALENCIENNES), H. fimbriatus (KNER)
Brycon cephalus (GNTHER)
Ancistrus ranunculus (MULLER, RAPP PY-DANIEL & ZUANON)
Baryancistrus chrysolomus (RAPP PY-DANIEL, ZUANON & RIBEIRO DE
OLIVEIRA)
Mylossoma spp.
Tetragonopterus argenteus (CUVIER)
Plagioscion squamosissimus (HECKEL)
Astianax spp.
Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum (LINNAEUS)
Brachyplatystoma vaillantii (VALENCIENNES)
Serrasalmidae
Serrasalmusrhombeus (LINNAEUS)
Piaractus brachypomus (CUVIER)
Phractocephalus hemioliopterus (BLOCH & SCHENEIDER)
Arapaima gigas (SCHINZ)
151
Appendix 1. Continued...
Common name
Sardinha
Surubim
Tainha
Tambaqui
Trara
Tucunar
Tucunar-pitanga
Zebra pleco
152
Scientific name
Triportheus spp; Anchovia spp; Anchoviella spp;
Pseudoplatystoma punctifer (CASTELNAU)
Mugil spp.
Colossoma macropomum (CUVIER)
Hoplias malabaricus (BLOCH)
Cichla spp.
Cichla monoculus (AGASSIZ)
Hypancistrus zebra (ISBRCKER&NIJSSEN)
Spoon
Canio
Currica
Gulepa
Pasternoster with
Long line
hooks of differing
(espinhel)
sizes.
Homemade fishing
pole with nylon line
to which a hook
and lead weight are
attached.
Fixed line
Nylon line with
(Camurim) hook.
Float lining
(boiete,
Nylon line with hook
boieira or
and float.
pesca de
culho)
100-400
Small
1-2.5
Large
Large
Medium
Medium
0.60-140;
144; 2.5
0.7
0.2- 0.4
0.2-0.35
0.4-1.5
0.3
0.3
Large
Medium
Large
0.35-0.90
Large
2-3
2 -4
0.60-0.90
0.50-0.60
Line
Medium
Medium
Modified espinhel
(paternoster)
Atiradeira
Hook size
Medium
Length
(m)
Unbarbed hook
Description
Unbarbed
hook
(anzol p
chato)
Type/ Local
name
2-3
30-270
11
1
1
1-2
N of
hooks
Appendix 2. Different configurations of hook and line equipment used in the study area.
Bait
Amarelo; tucunar
Arraia; barba-chata
tucunar
None
No bait
No bait
Matrinx; pacu
Amazonian turtle
Target species
Arraia; barba-chata;
dourada; filhote; jau;
1.87-11.65
pintado; piramutaba;
pirara; tambaqui
Distance
between
hooks
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Weighted
153
154
Description
Hand line
(Linha de
mo)
Type/ Local
name
Appendix 2. Continued...
1.5-2
Length
(m)
0.3-0.4
0.25-0.3
Small
Large
0.30-0.9
0.30-0.70
Large
Medium
Line
Hook size
N of
hooks
Distance
between
hooks
Amarelo; tucunar
Piranha; sardinha
Aracu; arraia;
branquinha; jacund
Tucunar
Pacu
Barba-chata; piranha;
tucunar; bicuda;
pescada branca;
surubim; dourada;
filhote; piramutaba;
pirarara
Target species
Bait
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Weighted
1.7-2.5
1.6-4
Trident
(zagaia)
0.6
2.5
Tapu
0.6
Catapulta
(seta)
Sararaca
Ip (Tabebuia
spp.); maaranduba
(Minusops huberi);
Itauba (Mezilaurus
itaba)
Taboca (Guadua
weberbaueri); bamboo
(Bambuseidae);
Ip (Tabebuia
spp.); maaranduba
(Minusops huberi);
Iron
Flexeira (Gynerium
sagittatum)
Amazonian turtle
Pirarucu; pirarara.
Ip (Tabebuia
spp.); maaranduba
(Minusops huberi).
Gas-powered
speargun
Wooden
catapult
(espingarda de
madeira)
2.5-3
Flexeira (Gynerium
sagittatum)
Target species
Wooden shaft with an iron tip, to which a 1530 m long cord is attached.
Pau-santo (Kielmeyera
spp); ip (Tabebuia spp.);
maaranduba (Minusops
huberi)
Harpoon
(arpo)
Length of
the arrow or
spear (m)
Technique
Type/Local
name
155
156
Fixed or
drifting
Rectangular monofilament
nylon gillnet.
Flexeira
Fixed
Fixed or
drifting
Fixed
Rectangular monofilament
nylon gillnet.
Piabeira
Rectangular monofilament
nylon gillnet.
Rectangular gillnet woven
from dyed cotton fiber.
Fixed or
drifting
Multifilament nylon or
cotton gillnet
Gillnet (nylon)
Buoy net
(bubuia)
Pirarucu net
(Pirarucuzeira)
Beach trawl
(rede de arrasto
de praia)
Fixed or
drifting
Tipo
Rectangular monofilament
nylon gillnet
Format/Material
Screen gillnet
(tela)
Type/ Local
name
0.5
20-26
5-7
2.5-8
7-9
14-16;
50-70
48 -72;
120-144
-
60-70
55-75
12 -60
69;
112.5
60112.5
30- 60
60-75
30-75
55-70
Length
(m)
0.30-0.40
0.30-0.35
0.20-0.35
24; 36
14; 16;
18
0.25-0.30
5; 8;10
12; 24
0.35-0.70
14-19
12; 13
0.35-0.60
0.30-0.40
6- 9
10-13
Line (n)
Mesh
(cm)
Appendix 4. Different types of net used for fishing in the study area.
1-1.5
2-4.5
2.5-3.5
1.5-2.5
1-3
1.5-4.5
3-4.5
2-3.5
2.5-5
2.2-6
1.5-4.5
Height
(m)
5-6
0.5; 2; 6;
8; 10
2-3
1-3
0.9-7
1.5
1 -3.5
1-14
1-5
Weight
(kg)
5, 20,
32, 35
12-40
25-45
12-15
20-40
40
30
12-58
20-50
12-58
Buoys
Mapar; dourada
Format/Material
Catfish net
(douradeira)
Rectangular multifilament
gillnet.
Rectangular multifilament
trawl.
Rectangular seine net
Seine (rede de
adapted from gillnets
cerco)
made of monofilament or
multifilament nylon.
Seine trawl (rede Seine-trawl net adapted
de arrasto de
from gillnets made of
cerco)
multifilament nylon.
Small conical net made of
Cast net
multifilament line with small
(tarrafa)
pieces of lead attached to the
whole outer border.
Circular frame with handle
Hand net (pu to which a funnel-shaped
de mo)
net is attached. Net made of
multifilamento nylon.
Type/ Local
name
Appendix 4. Continued...
Trawl /
seine
4; 30
1.5-5
0.3-0.5;
0.4
0.5-0.4
24
24-36
Line (n)
10-12
12-14
Trawl
Seine
14-18
Mesh
(cm)
Fixed
Tipo
12
70-300
510-525
60-75
Length
(m)
1.0-2.5
4.5
5.25-6
1.5-2.5
Height
(m)
2-5
4-6
60
0.9-5
Weight
(kg)
15-20
40
20-37
Buoys
Dourada
157