E L E M EN T S O F

M I N ER A L O G Y

F R ANK R U TL E Y
L E C T U R E R O N M I NE R A LOG Y I N TH E R OY A L C OLL EG E OF SC I EN C E , LO N DO N

R EVI SED BY

H . H . R E AD
E sc H o N s
. . . F G S
. . .
( LO N D ) .

F O R M E R L Y A SS I STA N T D E M O N S T RATO R I N T HE D E A R T M EN T O G E OLOG

P F Y

I M E R I A L C OLL E G E O SC I EN C E A N D T E C H N OLOG
P F LO N DO N
Y,

I NT R O D U C T I ON BY

G . T H O LLOW AY
.

CO N S LT I N G M ETA LL R G I ST
U U

N I N ET EEN T H EDI IIO N

'
’

L ON D O N

T H O M AS M U K EY é CO .

6 , B O U VER IE S TR EET ,
EC .

1916
 R E V IS E R S P R E F A C E
’

IN th e p re p ar atio n of t h e r e vi s e d e di t i on o f thi s boo k it ,

h as b e en con s id e r e d a dv a n t ag e o u s t o m a k e s om e w h a t
f un d am e nta l a l t er a t i on s in se v er a l pl ac es Th e a dv an c e
.

o f M i n e r a l ogy in r e c e n t yea r s t h e c h a n g e d p oi n t s o f vi e w
,

of ec on o m i c m i n e r a l o gi s t s a n d t h e n ee d s o f t h e p r e s e n t
,

d a y s t u d e n t h a v e a ll b ee n d e e m e d t o j u s t ify s u c h c h an g es ;
,

i n d ee d on e i n di c a t i on of t h e n e e d f or s om e s u c h r e vi sion
,

was s h own in t h e e v e r i n c r e as i n g c o ll ec t i o n o f a ppe n di c es

-

t h a t w e r e t o be f o u n d in t h e fo r me r e di t i o n s N e ve rt h e
.

l es s it ha s b e en t h e r e vi se r s e n d e a v ou r t o c on s e r v e a s
,
’

mu c h a s po s s ibl e o f t h e or igi n a l a n d a ll a l t e r at i on s h a v e
,

b een c a r e fu lly c on s id e re d .

P art I t rea t s o f t h e P r op e rt i e s of M i n er a l s Th e
. .

o r igi n a l c h a p t e r on C r ys ta ll o gr a p h y h a s b ee n e n t i r e l y
r e wr i tt e n a n d a c h a p t er o n O p t i c a l P r o p e r t i e s h a s b ee n
,

a dd e d whi c h
,
it is h op e d wil l b e f o un d u se f u l t o t h e
, ,

s tud en t .

P a rt I I c on s i s ts of th e d es cr ip t i on of M i n er a l S p ec i e s
. .

H er e th e or igi n a l a rr an ge men t h a s b e en fo ll owe d e x c ep t ,

in r eg a r d t o t h e s ili c a t es N e w i n t r od u c t i on s t o t h e
.

e l e m e n t s h a v e b e e n giv e n ; s p ec i a ll i m po r t a n t a mon g
y
t h es e a r e i n t r o d u c t i on s t o t h e p r i n c ip a l m e ta l s whi c h , ,

t og e t h e r w i t h c e r t a i n s t a t i s t i c s h a v e b ee n s u ppli e d b y
,

M r W G W a g n er
. . . I n t h e d e t a il e d d e s c r ip t i on o f t h e
.

mi n e r al s t h e m a t t e r h a s b e e n b e t t e r di s pl aye d c h e m i c a l
,

344443
 vi R EVI S ER S P R EF A C E ’

fo r mul ae e m b odi e d ,g re at er s tr es s h a s b e e n l a id on
an d

occ u r r e n ce s a n d u s e s Ty p es o f o c c ur r e n c e s r a t h er th a n
.

li s ts of l oc a li t i e s h a v e b een giv en A G l os sa ry o f .

Ec on o m i c G eol ogy Te r m s a n d a Ta b l e o f th e G eol ogi ca l

S ys te ms h a v e b e e n a dd e d .

Th r oug h o u t it h a s b ee n th e a im o f th e r e vi ser to b r i n g
t h e b ook i n t o li n e wi th m od e r n t en d en c i e s in e c on om i c
m i n e ra l ogy a n d t o ma k e it a n i n t rod uc t i on t o th e s c ie n
,

t ifi c p r os p e c ti n g a n d d e t e r m i n a t io n of m i n e ra l d e p os i ts .

Econ om i c m i n e r a l og y is a you t hf u l s c i e n ce bu t it s ,

s c op e li t e ra tu r e a n d i m p or tan c e a r e e v er i n c r ea s i n g
, ,
.

If t h i s b ook b ut h e lp s to g u id e t h e s t u d e n t a n d t h e p ra c
t i ca l m a n i n to a p r op e r a pp r e c i a t i on o f t h e v a l u e o f
s c i e n t ifi c m e th o d in p r o s p ec t i n g v a l u a t i o n a n d d e te r , ,

m i n a t i on o f m i n er a l s t h e wor k o f t h e r e vi s er w ill n ot
,

h a v e b een in v a i n .

Th e th a n k s of th e re vi s e r are d ue t o M r G T . . . H ollo
wa y f or h is i n t r od uc t i on to M r W G W a g n er f or
,
. . .

s u ppl i n g i n t ro d u c t i o n s t o c e r t a i n
y of t h e m e ta l s to ,

M r F R owl e y a n d to M r G S S w ee t i n g f or g r e at h e lp
. . . . .

in t h e p r e p a r a ti on o f t h e m a n u s c r ip t
'

W h e n t h e r e vi s er wa s or d er e d a b r oa d M r H G ,
. . .

S m i t h v e r y ki n dl y u n d e r t ook t h e p r oo f r ea di n g i n d e xi n g -
, ,

a n d o th e r m o n ot on ou s t a s k s a n d f o r t hi s a n d f or m a n
, y
h e lpf u l s u gg es t io n s t h e g r e a t es t t h a n k s a r e d u e .

H H
. . R EAD .

Sr . A NDR E W S ’
B A RR A C K S ,

MA L T A ,

1915.
 P R EFA C E

TO TH E T H I R T E E NT H E DI T I O N

TH E a l tera t i on s ma d e in th i s e di t i on c on s i s t c hi e fl y in
th e i n s e r t i on o f a b r i e f o u t li n e of t h e r e c e n t l y a d o p t e d

t r ea t m en t o f c rys ta l sy mm e t r y t h e a ddi t i o n o f m o r e
-
,

th an a d o z en fig ur e s of c r ys ta l s t h e c o m pl e t e r e vi s i on
,

of t h e c h e m i c a l f o r m u l ae , an d th e p r i n t i n g o f s uc h
c o r r e c t i o n s a n d a ddi t i on s a s s e e m e d n ee df u l . Th e ta bl e
o f t h e t h i r t y t w o g r o u p s o f s y mm e tr is ma i n ly a d a p te d
y
-

f r om t h a t gi v e n by P r of e s s or s P e n fi e ld a n d B r u sh in th e i r
D e t e r m i n a t iv e M i n e ra l o g y a n d B l o w pip e a

wor k w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t m a y c o n s u l t wi t h g r e a t a d
v a n ta g e .

F . R .

L O ND O N , I goz ,
 C O NTE NTS

PRE A E F C BY RE I SE R
V

P REF AC E ToT H I R T EE NT H ED I TI O N ,
BY F R A NK R TLEY
U

I N T R O D C TI O N
U G T HO LL O W AY
BY . .

PAR T I

PROP ER TI ES OF M INER ALS

CH APT ER I
C H E M I ST R Y OF MI E RA LS
N

CH APT ER I I
PH Y S I CA L PRO E R T IE S
P OF MI E RALS
N

C H APT ER I I I
C R Y S T A LL O G R A H Y P

C H APT ER IV

I M P O R T A NT C RY ST A L G RO S UP

C H APT ER V

O P T ICAL PR O E R T I E S
P OF M I ERALS
N
 C ONT ENT S

PAR T I I

DESCRI P TI ON 0 1 M I NERAL SPECI ES

"

NO N -
M E T A LL I M I E R A L S
C N

C a rb on B ar iu m
B or on S tr o n t i u m
S u l p h ur M a g n e s iu m

S e l e n iu m Al u min iu m
Am mon iu m S il ic on
S o d iu m B ia x ia l S il ica te s
P
o tas s iu m U n ia x ia l S ilic a t e s

C alc ium Is o t r o ic S il ic a t e s
p

M E T A LL I M I E R A L S
C N

G L O SS A YR

G E O L O GI C A L SY S T E M S
I ND E X
 INT R O D U C T IO N

BY G EO R G E T . H O L L OW A Y

TH E g en er al i ti on O f R u t ley s M i n e r a l ogy in its

r ec ogn
’

Old for m as a h a n d y b oo k Of r e fer e n c e is s h own by th e

‘

fac t t h a t it p a s s e d t h r o u gh th i rt een e di t ion s d u r i n g it s

a u t h or s lif e a n d t h a t t h e e ig h t e e n th e di t i on h a d b ee n
’

i s s u ed b efor e th e p r e s en t re vis i on wa s u n d e rta k e n .

W h il e th e g e n e ra l ar ran ge men t a n d c o mp a c tn es s of
t h e w or k h a v e b e en r e t a i n ed as f a r a s p oss ibl e t h e ,

a ddi t i on s ma d e by t h e e di to r an d t h e m o difi c a ti o n s w h i c h

h a v e be en i n t ro d u c e d b y h im a n d his c o ll a bo r a t or s a r e
i n t en d e d a s a s te p tow a r d s a fu ll e r r ea li s a t i on of t he
wid e s c op e i n ter est a n d u t ili ty of a ppli ed or ec on omi c
, ,

m i n e r a l og y
. AS a d e v e l o p m e n t of t h i s fe a t u r e it is to
,

b e h o pe d t h a t R u tl e y m a y l a t e r on fi n d a w o r t h y c o m
p a n i on in a w or k d e a li n g fu ll y wi t h t h e b u s i n es s a s p e c t
o f m in e r a logy if a n a u t h or w h o ca n d e v o t e t h e t i m e a n d
,

e n e r g y n ece s sa r y f o r so diffi c u l t a n d r es p on s i b l e a t a s k

c an be f o u n d .

Al t h ough m i n er a log y is g en e r all y a n d r ig h t l y r e ga r d e d

a s a s c i en c e t h e s t u d y o f m i n e r al s w i t h a vi e w t o t h e
,

d et er m i n at i on of t h ei r c o mme rc ia l v al u e is an a rt .

As a p u r el y s c i en t ifi c ma n t h e m i n er a l ogi s t r eg a r d s a
,

m i n e r a l as a h om og e n eou s s u b s t a n ce of d e fi n i t e c om p o s i
x i
x ii I NT R O D UC T I ON

t i on , an d u su a ll y Ofl e s s d efi n i t e for m a n d whil e

m or e or , ,

r e c og n i s i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f wid e v ar i a t i on s in b oth
r es p e c t s c o n s id e r s c h a n ge in c o m p os i t i on t o b e d u e t o
,

r e pl ac e m en t s w h i c h a r e e xpl ai n abl e on d efi n i te an d
s c i en t ifi c li n e s To h im or e s a n d r oc k s a r e m ix tu r es of
.
,

d e fi n i te mi n er a l s each to b e c on s id er ed a s a se p a ra t e
,

e n t i ty a n d wh e n e x a m i n i n g m i n e r a l s
, ,
h e is m o r e c on ,

c e r n e d wi th t h e c o m p os i t i o n fo r m a n d gr o u pi n g Of t h e
, ,

p u r es t s p ec i m en s ob ta i n a bl e th a n wi th th e i r c omm e rc i a l
v a l ue .

B y t h e or di n a r y g e ologi s t t h e m i n e r a l s c on s t i t u t i n g
,

t h e r oc k m a ss e s a n d m i n era l d e p os i t s wi t h whi c h h e
is c on c e r n e d a r e r eg a r d e d fr o m a b r oa d e r poi n t Of vi e w .

Th e m i n e r a l s a s s u c h a r e c on s id e r e d by h im t o be
, ,

d e fi n i te com p oun d s a s d e fi n ed b y t h e mi n er al ogi s t b u t

,
’

a r e d ea l t w i t h by h im ma i n l y a s u n i t s o n l y o f p r i ma r y ,
‘

i mpo rtan c e a s for m i n g p a r ts of t h e m ix tu r e s whi c h

c o n s t i tu te t h e v a r io u s po r t io n s Of t h e e a r t h s c r u s t He
’
.

r e g a r d s g e ology as a s c i e n c e a n d is n ot di r e c t l y c o n
,

c e r n e d wi t h t h e c omm e r c i a l v a l u e of t h e r o c k s a n d or e

b odi e s or of t h e i r p r od uc ts .

Th e b u s i n e s s a s p e c t Of m i n er alog y or g e ol og y is h ow ,

ev er , n ow r ec e ivi n g i n c r e a se d a tt e n t i on a n d t h e t e r m s ,

ec on om i c m i n e r a l ogi s t a n d e c o n o m i c g e o l ogi s t a r e a ppli e d

t o th os e wh o w h il e fu ll y a liv e t o t h e s c i en t ifi c p a r t o f
,

t h e i r w or k d e v ot e t h em s e lv e s m or e p ar t i cu l a r l y t o th e
,

a rt . It is t o b oth a n d e s p e c i a ll y t o t h e for m e r t h a t th e
, ,

m i n i n g man an d p r os p ec t or m u s t l ook f or g u id a n c e in
c a r r y i n g o u t a p o r t i o n o f t h e i r w o r k w h i c h wa s for m er l
y
r e g ar d e d a s p a r t o f t h e i r r o u t i n e d u t y b ut w h i c h t h e
y ,

h a v e c o mm on l y n e i t h er t i m e n or tr a i n i n g t o e ffi c i en t l y
c a r r y ou t .

Ec o n o m i c g e ol og y is c ommon l y c on s id er e d i nc lude
to
e c on o m i c m i n e r a l og b u t i t is m or l o i l t o r e g ar d
y e g , c a

th e l a t t er as an i n d e p e n d en t su bj ec t l arge en o u g h t o
 I NT R O D U C T I ON x i ii

s ta n d a l on e , i mp or ta n t t o a ll wh o sea r c h f or or
an d so

m i n e o r h a n dl e or es a n d m i n e ra l s th a t it s h ou ld f or m a n
,

e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e i r e a r l y t r a i n i n g a n d o f t h e i r life s
’
.

”
w or k G ood p rop er ti es a re of ten t u r n e d d o w n or
.
“
,

w orth l e s s on es r e p or te d u po n fa v ou ra bl y by th e p ro s
p e c t or or
, e d r es s
-
i n g Op e r a t i on s a r e w r o n gl y con d u c t e d ,

a n d p r o d u c t s i n e ffi c i e n t l di s p os e d o f t h r o ug h a w a n t o f
y ,

k n owl e dg e b ot h of th e ma i n p r i n c ipl es a n d of t h e d e tail s ;

on t h i s k n o w l e dg e d e p en d s t h e s u c c e s s f u l e xpl oi t a t i on of

m i n e r a l s a n d it f or m s t h e b as i s of ec on o m i c m i n er a l og y
,

a n d o f it s b r a n c h t h e v a l u a t io n of m i n e ra l s a n d o r es
,
.

Al t h ou gh t h e w or k of t h e e con o m i c m i n era l o gi st a n d
g eol ogi s t f or m i m p or ta n t adj u n c ts t o m i n i n g a n d m et al
l u r g y m i n era l og y a s a n a r t
, ec on o m i c m i n er
“

a l og y —h a s u n t il r e c e n t l y b e en al mos t ig n or e d a t .

c o ll e g e s a n d t ea c h i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s t h r o ug h ou t t h e w or ld ,

a n d h a s b ee n b u t li t t l e s t udi e d b y t h e m e t a ll u r gi s t
a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y b y t h e m i n i n g m an Th e e c on o m i c
.

m i n e ra l ogi s t s wo r k h a s c o m mon l y b e en reg ar d e d a s

’

i n c l u d e d in t h at of t h e ec on o mi c g eol ogi s t bu t it w o uld ,

b e wi s er t o c o n s id e r t h at h e h as a fi e ld whi c h is e n t i r e l y
h is own b u t w h i c h o v er l a p s th a t of t h e g eo logi s t a t a n
,

e v er i n c r ea s i n g r a t e
-
.

Th e c o ll ec t i on s s h own in o u r m u s eu ms a re ma i n l y
c o m p o s e d O f fi n e s p ec i m e n s an d ar e lik e l t o l ea d t h e
, y
p r os p ec tor to s ea r c h f or m i n er a l s Of s p ec i a l a pp ea ra n c e
s u c h a s a r e n o t c o mm o n l y t o b e fo u n d e x c e p t by l uc k , ,

in t h e a c t ua l d e p o s i t s a n d m a y r es u l t in h is p as s i n g o v e r
,

a n d ig n or i n g o r fa ili n g t o r e c o g n i s e w o r k a b l e d e p os i t s .

It m u s t b e r e m e mb e r e d t h a t t h e b u lk of ou r en o r mo u s
o u t p u t of b ot h b a s e a n d p re c i ou s m e t a l s is n ow d e r iv e d

from low g r a d e a n d r e fra c tory a n d m ix e d or es Th e .

d e p os i t s of r i c h or c om p ar a t iv el y p u r e or e h a v e b e en
l a rg e l y w or k ed ou t an d or es wh i c h w er e worthl es s on l y a
,

f e w yea r s a go a r e now m i n e d a n d d r e sse d a t a p r ofi t ,

x iv I NT R O D U C T I ON
t h rou gh i mp r ov emen ts in pl an t a n d p roc es s es a n d a
g rowi n g e x p e ri en ce a s to mar k e t r eq u i r e men ts M ix e d .

o r es c a r r i n g t wo o r m or e m e ta l s s u c h a s r e f r a c to r y
y ,

zi n c l ea d or es u s ua ll y con ta i n i n g s ma ll q uan t i ti es of g old

-
,

a n d s ilv er a re t h e s o u r c e o f a l a rg e p r o p or t i o n Of t h e
,

t o ta l p r o d u c t i on Of t h o s e fo ur m e ta l s a n d a r e b ec o m i n g
,

mor e a n d m or e i m po r ta n t a n d e s s en t i a l a s a s ou r c e Of
t h em .

Th e mos t en t h u s i a s t i c nu n er a logis ts a r e t h o se w h o ,

whil e f u ll y a liv e to t h e b eauty of f orm or t h e p u r i ty of a

s p e c i m e n r e g a r d m i n e r a l s a s b e i n g s t ill m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g
,

f r o m t h e e c on om i c poi n t of Vi e w Th e s c i e n t ifi c k n ow
.

l e dg e Of t h es e ec on om i c mi n era l ogi s ts n ee d n ot be l e ss
t h a n t h a t of t h e p u r e m i n e r a l ogi s t b u t t h os e w h o s t u d y
,

m i n er a l s fro m t h e b r oa d e s t p o i n t o f Vi e w s e e s e r m on s in
,

s t o n e s a n d r oc k s ,wh i c h a r e m e r e cr u d e m ix t u r e s o f
m i n e ra l s t o t h e u n di s c e r n i n g e ye Th ey fi n d a n i n te r e s t in
.

t h e i r s t u dy whi c h t h e n on t e c hn i ca l ma n c a n n e v e r e nj oy
-
.

Ec on omi c m i n e r a l og y is in fa c t on e Of th e f e w c a s e s
, ,

w h ere th e i n tr us i on of t h e b u s i n es s e l emen t i n tr od u c e s a
b ea u ty a n d r oman ce to a s t ud y whi c h may ot h er wi s e
t en d t o b e c o me li t t l e mor e t h a n a ma t t e r of c a t a l og u i n g
an d of a r r a n g e m e n t .

Th e e xp e r t k n owl e dg e of m i n er a l s r e q u i r e d of th e ore
valu er of t h e e c o n o m i c mi n e ra l ogi s t a s a b u s i n e s s

ma n — di ff e r s f r o m t h a t Of a n y oth e r c l ass of m a n wh o
d ea l s wi t h m i n e r a l s an d or e s W h il e t h e p u r e l y
.

s c i en t ifi c s id e of m i n er a l o g y is v a l u a bl e t o h im ,

a l t h ou g h p er h a p s c r s t a ll og r a p h i s o f l ess i m p o rt a n c e
y y
t h a n a n y o th er b r a n c h it is e s s e n t i a l t h a t h e s h o u ld b e
,

a bl e t o r e c og n i s e a t s ig h t or by s i m pl e t e s t s
,
man y
,

m i n e r a l s in a d m ix tu r e wi t h oth e r s wh er e a s th e m a n
,

e q u ipp e d w i t h on l t h e o r di n a r li m i t e d m i n e r a l ogi c a l
y y
t r a i n i n g w o u ld m i s s t h e m by i n s p e c t i on a n d w ou ld c o m
, ,

m on ly f a il to fi n d t h e m by th e t es ts w h i c h h e h a s b ee n
 I NT R O D UC T I ON xv

ta ug h t to a ppl y l e c t e d s p e c i m e n s on w h i c h h e
to th e se
h a s b e e n a c c u s t o m e d t o w or k .

Th e p r os pe c t o r s h ould h a v e be e n t r a in ed in a n d
'

ha v e s tudi e d on his own be h alf t h e e x a m in at i on o f ,

c r u d e m i n e r a l s s u c h as h e se ldo m s e e s in m u s e um s ,

bu t w h i c h a r e t h e mos t lik e l y t o b e f oun d a fi e ld .

Al th ou gh h e c ann o t d ur i n g his p r e li mi n ary s tu di e s

, ,

s ee o r e x a m in e th e m i n e r a l s as t h e y oc c u r in s i tu ,

h e c a n c ommo n l y ob tai n an d ma k e t ri a l s u po n t h e
c ru d e or e as it is d e liv e r e d fr o m t h e m i n e an d of t h e ,

pi c k ed o r e dr e s s e d p rod u c ts a n d w as t e Th e br o a d
, , .

g eol ogi ca l as p ec t of t h e oc c u rr e n c e an d as s oc i ati on o f

m i n er a l s c a n o n l y be g a i n e d in th e fi e ld a n d m i n i n g ,

c a n n ot b e t a u g h t in our c o ll e g e s A tr a in i n g in ec on o mi c
.

m i n e r a l og y s u i t a bl e f or m i n i n g m e n a mon g w h o m Of , ,

c o u r se ,
is i n c l u d e d t h e p r os p ec tor a n d wi th w h om ,

is c om monl y i n c l u d e d a l t ho u g h p r o b a b l y wr on gl y t h e
, ,

or e d r e sse r ca n h ow e v e r b e v e r y e f fi c i e n t l y giv e n a n d i s
, , , ,

o n e of t h e mos t es s e n t i a l a l t h ou g h m o s t n e gl ec te d p ar t s
, ,

of a m i n in g ma n s ed uca t io n F r om t h i s poi n t Of vi ew a s
’
.
,

w ell a s fr om th a t of t h e m e tall u r gi s t t h e t ra i n i n g s ho u ld ,

in c l u d e n ot m ere ly t h e id en t ifi c a t i on an d d e t er m i n at i on
,

o f t h e n a t u r e Of t h e i n divid ua l min e r a l s whi c h a r e a ss o

c ia t e d t og e th e r b u t t h eir g e n er a l ph ys i c a l C ha r a c t e r i st i cs
,

an d t h e p r os p e c t o f b e i n g a bl e t o s e p ara t e t h e m e i t h e r

m e c h an i c a ll y or b y m etal l ur gi ca l m e an s C oll ec t i on s .

o f r o u gh m i n e r a l s or e s a n d p r o d u c t s ca n e as il
, , y b e m a d e

by a s t u d en t an d h e ca n giv e hims e lf if h e ca n n o t
, ,

Ob ta in it o t h e rwi s e t h a t gr ou n di n g whi c h is a b sol u t e l

, y
es s e n t i al f or h is f u t u r e w e lfar e .

It is a c u r io u s fa c t an d on e o f t h e mo s t in j u r i o u s to
,

t he fu t u r e of m i n i n g e n t er p r i s e t h a t p ros pe c t i n g is ,

u s ua ll y e n tr u s t e d t o a o u n g n d i n e xp r i en d m a n an d
y a e c e ,

t h a t it a pp ea r s t o be r eg a r d e d as t h e l ea s t i m p or t a n t p a r t
o f m i n i n g w or k i n s tea d of b e in g c on s id e re d on e of th e
,
x vi I NT R O D UC T I ON
m os t es s en t i a l Th e i n e xp er i en c e d ma n is mor e lik e l y
.

t o m i ss or c on d e mn a g oo d p r op e r ty t h a n to r e c o mmen d a
ba d on e a n d a p rop er ty t h u s ov er l ook e d m ay b e l os t f or
,

g en era t i on s th r ou g h t h e mer e fa c t t h a t it h a s on c e b een

e x a mi n ed a n d
“
t u rn e d d ow n
”
Th e i m p or ta n c e of a n
a d e q u a t e k n owl e dg e o f m i n er a l og y is g r e a t t h r o u gh o u t

a ll t h e s t a g e s o f m i n i n g a n d or e d r es s i n g , a n d it is

f
u n or t u n a t e h at whil e u n dert a ki n g th e re s p on s i b ili ty
t ,

o f d e a li n g wi t h m i n er a l s a n d o r es a p a r t f r o m a c t ua l

m i n i n g an d of r ec omm en di n g e r e c t i n g a n d r un n i n g
, , ,

pl an t s f or t reat i n g t h em m i n i n g m en c o m mon l y k n ow
,

l es s of e i t h er p u r e or econ o m i c m i n era l ogy th a n of an y

o t h e r b r an c h of t h e i r w or k .

Th e or e v a l ue r m u s t c o n s id er sev er a l q u es t i on s in
a ddi t i o n t o t h e a c t u a l c o m po s i t io n of t h e or e H ow .

c an on e d e a l wi t h t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s w h et h e r v a l u a bl e or
,

h u rt f u l ? Wh at is t h ei r va l ue ? H ow f a r will th e p re sen c e
of s o me l ea d t o p en a li s at io n if t h ey are n ot re mov e d
,

from th e i r a s s o c i at es ? It is i mp or tan t t o r e me mb er
t h at m a r k et c o n di t i o n s c h a n g e a n d t h a t a n or e m i n er a l
, , ,

o r p r od u c t w h i c h is u s e l e s s t o o n e b u ye r m ay b e muc h
, ,

s o u gh t a ft er by an o t h e r a n d t h a t s o u rce s of r e v e n u e
,

ma y e xi s t ev en wh en di sa s t er s e em s i mmi n e n t .

A k n owl e dg e of e c on om i c m i n era log y is of s up re me

i mp or t a n c e t o t h e mi n i n g man as p rod u c e r a n d s e ll er ,

a n d t o t h e m et a ll u r gi s t as b uye r a n d u s e r ; b u t t h e t wo

o c c u p y e n t i re l y di ff ere n t p o s i t io n s a s reg a r d s t h e b u s i n es s

a s p e c t s of t h e s u bj e c t .Th e l a t t e r o r t h e b uye r f or
,

whom h e a c t s c an r e fus e to p urc h as e wha t h e d oe s

,

n ot w a n t an d c a n
, i m p os e h is own li m i t s as to p e r
c e n t ag e v a l u e s w h i c h m u s t b e r e a c h e d a n d i m p u r i t i es
,

w hi c h m u s t b e r e mo v e d or wh os e a m , o un t m u s t n ot

e x c ee d a d e fi n i t e p r o po r t io n H e i n s er t s p e n a li sa t io n
.

a n d ot h er C l a u s e s whi c h p r otect h im fr o m l os s a n d ,

e x c e p t f o r t h e g r o wi n g c o mp e t i t i on b e t we e n t h e mo r e
 I NT R O D U C T I ON x v ii
co m p e te n t ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y b e t wee n th os e wh o a r e o n
an d

th e l o ok o u t f or b y p r o d u c t s h e is i n d e p e n d en t o f b a d
- -
,

wor k in t h e m i n es or on th e d re s s i n g fl oo r s H e p ays .

on l y f or wh a t h e wa n t s a n d is Oft e n a bl e t o Ob ta i n his
,

mat er i a l f or m u c h l e s s t h a n h e wo u ld pa y if th e p r od uc e r s
po ss e s s ed mor e t h an th e el em en ta r y k n owl edg e of
m i n e ral og y a n d t h e c ru d e id ea s a s t o ma r k et con di t i on s
,

a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s wi t h whi c h t h ey a r e g e n e ra ll y e q u ipp e d .

Th e m i n i n g m an or or e d r e ss e r h ow ev er d e p e n d s f or , ,

h is p r ofi t on w h a t h e s e ll s a n d it is t o h is i n t ere s t t o
'

k n ow ev eryt hi n g po ss i b l e a bo u t h is or es or m i n er a l s in
o r d e r t o m i n i m i s e l o s ses an d t o s e c u r e t h e b e s t p r i c es
,

f or h is p rod u c t s Th e l osse s d e p en d p a r tl y on h is
.

m e c h an i ca l e fii c ien c y an d on t h a t of h is s t a ff b u t a re ,

l a r g el y d e p en d e n t al so on a ca re fu l s t ud y of wh at h e is
t r e at i n g a n d p r od u c i n g a n d on h is own s p e c i a l k n owl e dg e
,

o r o n w h at h e c a n l ea r n fr o m o t h e r s as t o t h e r e q u i r e

m e n t s o f t h e m a r k e ts Wh a t is on l y j u s t sa l ea bl e
.

t o on e fi rm ma y b e p ar t i c ul ar l y s u i t a bl e t o t h e r e
,

q u ir e m e n ts of a n ot h e r a n d a
,
h ig h e r p r i c e o r a t an
y,

r a t e a g r ea t er fa c ili t y o f sa l e ma b e se c ured b se l ec t
y , y '

in g d r e ss i n g or bl en di n g o r es or p r od u c t s o r by bea r ing
, , ,
.

in min d h ow t h e p u r c h a se r is lik e l y t o b e a b l e t o hi m s el f
d eal wi t h t h e qu es t ion of bl en di n g a n d if it is p oss ibl e to , ,

k n ow w h a t ot h er ma te r i a l s s u i t a bl e f or s u c h pur po s e a r e
a v a il a bl e a t t h e pl a c e w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t s a r e t rea t e d .

S u c h m a t t e r s a s t h e c os t of t r an s p or t a n d t h e b es t ,

m e t h od Of c on v ey i n g t h e or e f r om pl a ce t o pl a c e a r e ,

a m o n g t h e m an y i t e m s of i n f o r m a t io n w h i c h s h o u ld

be k n o w n by t h e m i n i n g m a n a n d mu s t b e bo r n e ,

in m i n d by t h e v a l u e r ; a n d t hi s fa c t e m p has i s es t h e
n e c es s i t n o t o nl f or a k n o wl dg e O f m i n e r a l s a n d
y , y e

o re s ,
a n d t h e m e th od of t r ea t m e n t a s a c o m mer c i a l

p ropo s i t i on b ut f or a b road vi ew an d c on s id e ra bl e
,

k n o wl e dg e of b u s i n es s c on di t i on s en ti re l y i n d e p e n d en t of
 x v iii I NT R O D U C T I ON
t h os e whi c h m ig h t or di n ar il y b e c on s id er e d a s i n c l u d e d
a m on g h is d u t i e s .

Th e i n t i mat e r e l a t i on a n d c o op er a t io n w h i c h s ho u ld
-

e xi s t b e t w een t h e m i n i n g ma n a n d t h e m e t a ll u r gi s t is of ,

c o u r se m or e or l e ss a d m i tt e d a l th o ugh c omm on l y
, ,

ig n o r ed by bo th b u t t h e a dvi s a bili ty of as s o c i a t i on
, ,

b e tw een t h e m eta ll urgi s t a n d t h e C h e mi c a l te c h n ol ogi s t

is l e s s u n d er s tood a n d e v en wh e n rea li s e d is s c a rcel y
, ,

regar d e d a s h a vi n g th e e x tr e me i m p or tan c e whic h it

r e a ll
y po s s e s s e s .M a n
y i n s t a n ce s m igh t b e c i t e d wh e re

a m i n e r a l w h i c h wa s fo r me r l
y u se d on l
y yb t h e c h e m i c a l
man u f a c tu r e r is n ow ma i n l y e mpl oye d by th e met allur
gi s t Th i s is f or i n s tan c e esp ec i a ll y t h e c a s e wi th
.
, ,

m a n g an es e or es a n d wi t h t h os e of t u n g s t en a n d c h ro mi u m
, ,

a n d t o a g r e a t e x t e n t w i t h t h e o r e s Of n i c k e l a n d c o b a l t .

M an y m i n e ra l s or o r es whi c h a r e s p e c i all y p en ali s e d or ,

p er h ap s r e fus e d f or on e p u r p ose ar e t ho ro ughl y s u i tab l e

,

a n d s o me t i m e s p re f er a b l e f or an o t h e r .

Th e p u r c h a se a n d t reat men t b y t h e c h e mi s t of by
p r od u c ts fr o m or e d ress i n g an d meta ll u rgi ca l op erat io n s
h a s of t en b een t h e s a lv a t io n o f a m i n e an d h a s s om e ,

t i m e s form e d t h e fo u n d a t i on of a n ew or p r ev en te d th e
d eath of an old b ran c h of c h em i c a l i n d us tr y ; an d on e Of
t h e mos t i m po r ta n t fun c t io n s of t h e e c o n o m i c m i n e r a
l og is t is t o i n di ca t e t o t h o s e who r u l e t h e d es t i n i e s of a n
or e t h e opp or tu n i t i es an d pi t fa ll s whi c h e xi s t H is .

i n fl u e n c e is fe l t di r ec t l y o r i n di rec tl y th rou gh o ut t h e
hi s t ory Of t h e d e v e lop men t of an y m i n i n g p r op erty fro m
it s bi r t h t o it s d eat h .

It will n o d ou b t be c o n te n d e d t h a t f or th e or e v a l ue r
o r p r os p ec t o r t o c on s id e r s u c h d e t a il s is t o en c r o a c h u p on

t h e w or k of ot h er s bu t it is b e tter t h a t t h e y s h ou ld b e
,

d eal t wi t h a t on c e C a ses Oft en o c c ur w h ere a p roper t y

.

c an b e t h u s p r o v e d t o b e h op e l es s u n d e r th e e xi s t i n g c o n

d ition s e v en t h o u g h it s a ssa y v a l u e may b e e x c e ll en t

“ ”
, .
xx I NT R O D UC T I ON

to n ote t h at ,
in ser p en t i n e
k s on e c omm on l y fi n d s
r oc ,

a s b e s t os,
c h r om e i ron o r e n i c k e l or e a n d c o b a l t o r e
, ,

w h i c h may b e ac tu all y a s soc i at ed tog eth er or m a y occ ur ,

in di s t i n c t d e p os i t s a s t h ey d o in Ne w C a l e d on i a
,
.

It is e x t r e m e l y i m p or t a n t t o k n o w w h e th e r th e a s so
c ia t e d m i n e r a l s in c a s e t h e i r p r esen c e t og e t h er is Oh
,

j ec t io n a b l e c
, a n b e s e p a ra t e d s u ffi c i e n tl
y f r o m e a c h o t h e r

by c om merc i a l m ea n s to m e e t ma r k et r e q u i r e m e n t s
, .

Th i s s h ou ld b e s p ec i a ll y b o r n e in m i n d by th e p r os pe c t or
in t h e c a s e o f zi n c bl e n d e a n d g a l en a w h i c h a r e c omm on l y ,

a ss o c i a t e d t og e t h er I n s om e c a s e s t h e zi n c bl en d e a n d
.
,

th e g a l e n a are s u f fi c i e n t l y i n d e p e n d e n t t o b e Obvi ou s l y
e a s y o f se p a ra t i o n in a c oa rs e c o n di t i o n b j iggi n g or o th e r
y
wet d r e ss i n g p r oc es s es
-
In ot h e rs it is e vid en t t h a t
.
,

a l t h o u g h a p o r t i on Of e a c h m i n e r a l m a y b e s e p ar a t e d in a

c on di t i o n Of c o n s id e r a bl e p u r i t y t h e r e will b e o t h e r p o r
,

t i on s e i t h e r l a r g e or s ma ll w h i c h will r e q u i r e fi n e g r i n d
, ,

in g a n d wh os e d r es s i n g w ill r es u l t in h e a vy l o ss e s or in
,

th e p ro d uc t i on of a l a rg e p r opo r t i on of i n te r me di a t e p r o
d u c t whi c h may h a v e to be di s c a r d ed or c a n on l y be
, ,

s old a t a n e x t r e m e l y low r a t e In s om e c a s e s t h e v a l u
.

a bl e m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e s o fi n e l divid ed o r so
y ,

i n t i m at el y mix e d or in t er crys tallis ed t h a t th ey c a n n ot b e ,

s e p a r a t e d fr o m e a c h ot h er or a r e a s s oc i a t e d wi t h o t h e r
,

m i n e r a l s from whi c h sep a ra t i on is s o di ff i c u l t or e x p e n

s iv e t h at e v e n a l ar g e d e p os i t m u s t b e c on s id e r e d of

d oub tfu l v a l u e or p erh a p s un tr eat ab l e by p r es en t

,

m eth od s . Th e p h ys i ca l s ta t e o f bo th th e v a l u a bl e a n d
h u r t f u l m i n e r a l s is in fa c t a p o i n t o f vi t a l i mp or ta n c e
, ,

in c o n s id er i n g t h e v a l u e o f m os t m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s a n d in ,

d ec idi n g a s t o t h e p os s ibili t y Of w orki n g th e m u n d er th e

c on di t i o n s w h i c h e xi s t in t h e l oc a li t
y .

Th e a s s oc i a ti on o f g old a n d s ilve r a n d e v e n of pl at i n u m ,

a n d p a ll a di u m wi t h c o pp e r c opp e r n i c k e l
,
a n d m an
y
-
,

oth er o r es ,
o fte n in s u c h s m a ll a m o u n t s a s t o a pp e ar t o
 I NT RO D U C T I ON
b e wo r t h l e s s t o j u dg e fr om an a s s a y o f t h e or igi n a l or e ,

is o f t e n s u ffi c i e n t l y i mp or ta n t on a c c o u n t o f t h e c on c en ,

t r a tion w hi c h oc c u r s in t h e d r e s s i n g or s m e l t i n g Of s u c h
o r es t o r e n d e r v a l u a b l e a d e po s i t w h i c h o n t h e r es u l t o f
, ,

a m e r e a n a l ys i s m ig h t a ppe ar to b e w or t hl e s s
, Not .

o n l y a r e t h e se v a l u a b l e me t a l s c on c e n t r a t e d b u t c e rt a i n ,

o t h er c on s t i t u e n t s s u c h a s bi s m ut h
, s e l e n i um etc are , , .
,

a l s o c on c e n t r a t e d wi th t h e m in t h e e l e c t r o l yt i c r e fi n i n g o f

cr u d e coppe r . Th e mu d l e ft a s t h e an od e s di s so lv e
“ ”

c on t a i n s g o ld s ilv e r Of t e n pl a t in u m a n d p a ll a di u m a n d

u s u a ll y bi sm
, , ,

u t h a n d se l e n i u m w h i c h w o ul d be l os t if t h e ,

e l ec t r o l yt i c p u r ifi c a t i o n w e r e n o t c ar r i e d o u t .

Th e as s oc i a ti on of c er ta i n m i n era l s in a ll u vi a l d e p o s i ts
is of p ar t i c ul ar i n t e r e s t a n d o f g rowi n g i m p or ta n c e on ,

a c c ou n t Of t h e e n o r mo u s q u a n t i t i e s o f m a t e r i a l w h i c h a r e

n ow d r e s s e d b d r e dgi n g a n d o t h e r h y d r a u li c m e t h o d s
y
f or t h e r ec o v e r y o f g o ld pl a t in u m tin m on azi t e a n d
.
, , , ,

o t h e r v a l u a b l e m in er a l s S om e o f t h e s e w e r e f o r m e r l y
.
,

li tt l e m or e t h a n c u r i os i t i es Th ey be co me c on c e n t r a t e d .

in th e fi n a l p r o d u c t fr o m t h e d r ed g e a n d m us t be r e m o v e d ,

e i t h e r in o r d er t o t r id f t h m t v r t h em
g e o e o r o r e c o e

wh il e th e m e ta l or m i n e ra l whi c h is t h e a c t u a l a im o f t h e
,

w or k e r is b e i n g s e pa r a te d
, Z i r c on s a r e n o w t h u s .

ob t a i n e d b t h e h u n d r e d s o f t o n s t i t a n ife r o u s i r on o re
y , ,

r i c h i n t i ta n i u m b t h e t h o u sa n d s of t o n s t o g e th e r w i t h
y , ,

to p a z g a rn e t s e t c
, , Th e i r o u t p u t e x c ee d s t h e p r e se n t
.

d e ma n d s o f th e m a r k e t a l t h o ug h s uc h d e ma n d s a r e r a pidl y
,

i n c r e a s i n g In m a n y c a se s th es e m i n e r a l s wh i c h ma y
.
, ,

be c a ll e d by p r o d u c t s f a r e x c e e d in q ua n t i t y t h e m i n er a l
-
,

f or w h i c h t h e s ea rc h is be i n g m a d e an d a r e Oft e n c o m ,

p e te ly u n s a l ea bl e
l Th e b u ye r s a re Of t e n b u t li t t l e
.

i n t er es te d in t h em or a r e d ou b t fu l a s t o c on t i n u i ty o f
,

s u ppl a n d r e a l s o f r e q u en t l t w f t h f t t h t
y , a y n o a a r e O e a c a

t h e s u ppl y c ou ld be m a i n ta i n e d if t h e p r o d u c e r s k n e w ,

t h a t a n y d ema n d e xi s t ed o r w a s lik e l y to e xi s t , .
x xii I NT R O D U C T I ON
Th e g e in m a r k e t c on di ti on s is w e ll s h o wn
e ff e c t o f c h a n

b y t h e c a s e o f b a u xi t e a t p r e s e n t t h e on l y c o mme rc i a l
,

sou r c e o f t h e m e t a l a l u m i n i u m Th e d e m an d f or t hi s
.

m a ter i a l is l a rg e l y i n c r e a s i n g b u t t h e c l ass o f o r e s old f o r

,

m a ki n g m eta lli c a l u m i n i u m is v e r y di ff e r e n t f r om t h a t
u s e d t w e n t y o r t hi r ty y ea r s a go Th e p r oc e s s n ow e m
.

ployed f or p rod u c i n g a l um i n a f or s u c h m an u fa c tu r e h a s r e
s u l t e d in c e r t a i n q u a li t i e s of b a u xi t e w h i c h w e r e f o r m e r l
, y
u n s a l e a b l e b e i n g l a rg e l y u s e d
, a n d ot h e rs w h i c h we r e
,

f or me r l y c on s id ered of g ood q u a li ty f or makin g t h e m etal ,

b ei n g n ow e m pl oye d f or en t i r el y di ff er en t p u r p os es .

S ili c a a n d t i t a n i um a r e highl y Ob j e c t i on a bl e t o t h e m a n u
f a c tu r e rs of a l u m i n i u m bu t i r o n m ak e s v e r y li t t l e di ff e r
,

en c e . On t h e o th e r h a n d t h os e wh o e m pl oy b a u xi te
,

f o r t h e p r od u c t i on o f a b r a s iv es or o f r e f r a c t or y m a t e r i a l ,

whi c h u s e is v er y l ar g e a n d ra pidl y i n c r e a si n g p r efer or ,

ar e a t l e a s t willi n g t o u se t h e c l a s s of or e t o w h i c h t h e

a l u m i n i u m m an u fa c t ur e r s o bj ec t .
’

Th e n on m eta lli c m i n e ra l s in a n o r e d e p os i t a r e oft e n

-

a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e me t a lli c Th e y may as s i s t t h e
.

s me l t i n g o r m a y be s a l ea bl e w h e n r e m o v e d by d r ess i n g
, ,

o r t h e y m a y b e i n j u r i o us a n d p e r h a p s i n c a p a bl e of
re m o v a l .Th er e a r e m a n y ca se s w h e r e a m i n e r a l d e p os i t
is u s e l es s o n a c co u n t of t h e p r e se n c e Of p e r h a p s a s m a ll
a m o u n t o f ot h e r ma t e r i a l w h i c h b e c o me s c o n ce n t r a t e d

wi th th e v a l u a bl e m i n e ra l S u c h is s o me t i me s th e c as e
.

wi t h zi n c bl e n d e a s s oc i a te d wi th b a r ytes or fl uor s p ar -
,

w h i c h a r e di ffi c u l t to r e m ov e by we t d res s i n g a n d m a y ,

b ec om e c o n c en tr a te d in t h e d r ess ed p rod uc t t o a n e x t en t
w h i c h r e s u l t s in s o h ea v y a p en a li s a t i on a s to r en d er t h e
w h o l e p r op os i t i on u n re mun era t iv e .

191 5 .
ELEM ENTS O F M I NER A L O GY

I N T R O DU C T O R Y

TH E NA T U R E OF M I N E R A L S

Th e —
M ineral K ing d om Nat ur e . h as bee n divid e d‘

i n t o th r e e gr eat d e partmen ts c , al l e d t h e an i m a l v eg et a b l e
, ,

an d m i n e r a l ki n gdo m s . It is t o th e l as t e x c l u s iv e l y th at
th e s c i e nc e of M in er al ogy r e l at es W h et h er or n ot an y
.

de fin i t e bo un dary li n e e xi s t s be tw een t h es e kin gdo ms is

a poi n t whi c h r e ma i n s t o b e i n v e s ti ga t e d .

Th e d iff er en t me m b e rs of th e an i ma l an d v eg e ta b l e
kin gd oms ar e c h ara c te ri se d by t h e d e v elopm en t of s pe c i al
o r gan s or of c ert a i n pec u li ar i t i es of s tr uc t ur e by m ean s of
, ,

whi c h t h ey pa s s t h r o ugh a s er i e s of c han g e s kn own a s life

an d g r owt h . Thi s l a tt er ph e n om e n o n ta k e s pl a c e by t h e
a b s o r p t i on or t a ki n g in of v a r i ou s ki n d s of m a tte r whi c h
,
-
, ,

t h en u n d e r go e s a s s i m il a t i on ( or c o n v e r s i on by c h em i ca l
p r oc es se s i n to Su bs tan c es s i m il ar t o t h os e of whi c h t h e
a n i ma l o r pl a n t is c o m po s e d ) an d s er v es t o r e pl a c e t h e
,

w as t e whi ch a c c omp an ies lif e Th e bo n e s an d s h ell s of

'

an i m a l s c o n s i s t , t o a gr ea t e x t en t of m i n er a l m a tt er
, ,

P l a n t s ar e c a p a bl e of d e r ivi n g eart h y s u b stan ces fr om

t h e s o il on whi c h t h ey gr ow . B ut m i n era l m att er whi c h ,

has t h u s be e n ut ili se d by or g an i s ms p asses in t h e m os t , ,

ri gid i n t er p r e ta t i on of t h e t erm beyo n d th e p al e of

,

Min era l ogy ; f or it as s um e s a str u c tur e gov ern e d by th e ,

n a tu r e a n d r e q uir e me n t s Of t h e a n i ma l or pl a n t s u c h as ,
2 ELE M ENTS OF M I N ER A L O G Y
it WOul d
’ “
not der or di n a r y c on di t i on s In t hi s
”

p o s s e S S v uh .

wa y th e p e a r l w ou ld be re g ar d e d a s a n org an i c s u b s tan c e
a n d n ot a t r ue m i n e r a l a l th ou gh it con s i s t s of m i n e ra l ,

matter Aga i n c o a l b e i n g a s u b s tan c e d er iv e d fr om

'

.
, ,

d ecom pos i t i on o f v eg e ta bl e mat ter wo u ld n ot r igidl y be ,

c l a ss e d wi t h m i n e r a l s Th us e v e n a t t h e ou t s e t th e .
, ,

di ffi c u l ty Of givi n g an y s at i s fa c t or y d e fi n i t ion of a m i n era l

i s a pp ar e n t Th e m o s t i m p or tan t c h ar a c t e r i s t i c of a
.

m i n era l a n d t h e on e u p on whi c h a n y d e fi n i t i on s h ould be

,

b a se d is t h e p os s e s s i on of a d e fi n i te C h em i c a l c om p os i
,

t io n a n d in o r d e r t o fi x id ea s th e foll owi n g d e fi n i t io n m ay
,

b e s ta t ed
D e fi nit ion of a M in e r a l — A miner al is a substance hav
ing a defi nite che mical co mposition and f or med by inorganic
p rocesses .

Al tho ug h t hi s m ay be ga r d ed a s a s uffi c i en t d e fin i tio n

re ,

t h er e a r e ye t ot h e r di ff e r en c es b et w ee n t h e m i n er a l a n d
t h e or g an i c ki n gdo m s F or i n s t a n c e a m i n e r a l i n c r eas es
.
,

by t h e a ddi t i on Of mat te r t o its e x t er io r whil e a n i ma l s ,

a n d pl a n t s g r ow a s h a s a l r ea d y b e e n p o i n t e d out by t h e
, ,

a s s i m il at io n o f fr es h matter whi c h is t ak en i n to t h e i r
i n t er i or Aga i n an i ma l an d v eg eta b l e form s a re bo un d e d
.
,

by c ur v e d s ur fa c es whil e m i n er a l s in t h e i r m os t hig h l y
,

d ev e lop e d or crystallised s ta te ar e wi t h on e or two ex c ep ,

t io n s b o un d e d by pl a n e or fl at s ur fac es
,
I f we f oll ow .

r igidl y t h e a b ov e d e fi n i t io n of a m i n e r a l we a r e bo u n d t o ,

i n c l ud e ga ses in th e m i n era l ki n gdo m S i m il ar l y w ater .

, ,

s n o w an d ic e a r e m i n e r a l s s i n c e t h e y c on s i s t Of th e t wo
, , ,

gas es hydrog en a nd ox yge n c h e m i ca ll y c om bi n ed an d

, , ,

a re t h e r e f o r e h o mog e n e o u s Air on th e oth er h an d .

, ,

m u s t n ot be r egar d e d a s a m i n er a l F or t h ou gh it c on .
,

s i s t s o f t wo g as e s n i t r og e n a n d o x yg e n yet a s t h ey a r e
, ,

n ot c h e m i c a ll y c om b i n e d but e x i s t s i m pl in a s ta t e Of
y ,

me c h an i c a l a d m ix t ur e it is n ot h omog en e o u s ,Th e s o .

c a ll e d m i n er a l Oil s a r e m i x t u r e s of s e v e r a l h d ro
“ ”
y
 TH E NAT UR E OF M I N ERA LS J

ca r bo n s an d th er e fore c an n ot be c on s id er ed a m in eral
,

s pe c i e s t h ou gh it is n ec es sar y f or c o m pl et e n es s t o tr e a t
,

Of t h e m in a t e x t b ook of m in e r al ogy .

B odi es in n o way t o b e di s t i n gui s h ed fr o m a c t ual

m i n er a l s h a v e a t v ar i ou s t i m es b een art ifi c i al l y for me d ,

e i t h er p u r po se l y in th e l a bo rato ry or by acc id en t in ,

i n d us tr i a l p r oc es s es ; b u t al t hou gh iden t i ca l ( e x c ept in

m od e o f oc c urr en c e ) wi t h tr u e m i n eral s of lik e c h e mi c a l
c om po s i t i on in c rys t a lli s a t i on a n d in o t h e r ph ys i ca l
, ,

p ro pe rt i e s t h ey ar e th e o utc ome of p roc ess e s c on tr oll ed

,

by h u ma n ag e n c y an d c ons eq u e n t l y a r e n ot i n c l u d e d
,

a m on g m i n e r a l s Th ey h a v e n e v e rt h e l es s a p r ofou n d
.
, ,

i n ter es t f or th e m i n era l ogi s t i n as muc h as t h ey se r v e to a

c ert ain d e gr e e t o e l u c ida t e t h e c on di tion s un d e r whi c h

c o rr es po n din g m in e r al s h a v e be e n fo r med .

R oc k s — Th er e i nn u mera b l e mec han i ca l

ar e in n a tur e

m ix tur es of mi n era l s whi c h ar e ca ll ed r ocks ; h en c e ,

r oc k s a r e n ot m i n e ra l s be ca us e t h ey ar e n ot ho mog en e o u s .

F or e x a mpl e c o n s id er t h e w e ll kn own r oc k gran i t e

, It -
.

C an be se en by in s pec t io n of a han d s pe c i men Of t hi s r oc k -

t ha t it is ma d e u p Of t hree c o n s tit u en t s — o n e whi t e or pi n k

an d c l ea va b l e whi c h is t h e min e r a l or thoclase ; an o t h er

, ,

c l ear gl ass y an d wi th n o c l ea v ag e whi c h is th e m in e ra l

, , ,

q u a rtz ; an d a t hi rd gli s t en i n g sca l

y an d s o
, f t whi c h is , , ,

th e min era l mica H en c e th e thr ee miner als ort hoc l as e

.
, , ,

quart z an d m i ca are aggr e ga t ed t ogeth er to fo r m th e

, ,

r ock gr an i t e a n d t h e th r ee c o n s t i t uen t s oc c ur in v ary i n g

,

p r oport ion s in di ff er en t gr an i tes an d ev en in di ff erent

part s of th e sam e gran i te ma ss .

S cop e of t h e t e rm M in er a l — Th e . t er m “
m i n e ra l ”

is capa bl e of di ff e r e n t e x p r es s i on s ac co r din g to th e po in t
o f Vi e w TO th e u l tra s c ien ti fi c pe r so n a min era l is a
.
-
,

s u b s tan c e o f d e fi n i t e c h e m i ca l com po s i t io n for med sol e l y

by th e p r oc esse s Of in or gan i c n a t u re ; t o t h e m i n er a
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER A L O G Y
mi nera l is a nyt on o mi c v al ue th at can be
hi n g of ec

ex t ra c t e d fro m th e e a r th an d t h ese t wo d e fi n i t io n s ar e
,

n ot a lw ays c omp a t i b l e on e wi t h t h e ot h e r F or e x a m pl e .
,

th e H ome Of fi c e l i s t of M i n era l s r a i s ed in th e U n i t e d
”
Ki n gdo m i ncl ud e s C h alk c l ay a n d ig ne ou s r oc k s In
, , , .

thi s b o ok it is p r o p ose d t o di s c us s n ot On l y t h os e s u b
"

s tan c e s whi c h f ulfi l t h e t e r ms of t h e r igid d e fi n i t i o n b ut

i
,

al so s ome f e w ma t er i a l s whos e o r igi n m ay n o t a lw ays b e

f r ee f r om organ ic cause s b ut whi c h n e v ert h e l ess c an n ot
' '

, , ,

be e x c l ud ed f rom a n y b ook on mi n e ra logy

a
C oal mi n era l
.

.
,

Oils li mes to n e a n d s o me pho s ph a te a r e e x a mpl e s Of s u c h

, , ,

s ubs tan c e s It m as t t h e r e f or e be r e me m be r ed t h a t a n y
.
:

d e fi n i tio n of a min eral is m o re or le ss w r on g or mor e or

’

les s r ig h t ac c o rding to me c r i t i c but t ha t mos t d e fin i t ion s

x

,
-
,

c o n ta i n th e ess e n t i als fo r m o st m i n er a l s
i -
.
 C HAPT ER I
TH E C H E M I S T RY OF M I N E RA L S

El e ments S u b s tan c es whi c h ha v e hit h ert o d e fi ed

-

t h e e ff ort s of th e c he m i s t t o d e c om po s e ar e t er m ed
El ement s Abo ut s e v en ty e l e men ts ar e at p r e se n t
”
.

kn own , but man ylar e ex tr eme l y r ar e an d of li ttl e i mp or

ta n c e t o t h e m i n e ra l ogi s t It h a s be en es t i ma te d th a t .

th e cr us t of th e ear t h is c o m po s ed 47 of p e r c e n t . ox yg en ,

28 pe r c en t . s ili c o n , 7 8 p e r c e n t a l u min i u m , 4 4 pe r
.
-
cen t .

i r on , 34 p e r c en t . Ca c u l i m , 25 pe r ce n t .
p o t as s u i m ,

24 pe r c en t . s odi um ,
23 pe r ma gn es i um
c en t . Th us .
,

9 8 pe r c en t . of th e ea rt hs ’
c r u st is c o m po se d o f bu t e igh t

e e l m e n ts , an d m os t of th e e l e men ts of ec o n o m i c v a l ue ar e

a bs en t from t his li s t .

—
At om It . po s s i b l e to b r ea k down th e matt er of an
is
e l e men t in to s ma l l e r an d s ma l l e r pa r t i c l es b ut t h e r e is ,

a li m i t t o t hi s p r oc es s an d th e fin a l mi n ut e i n d e s tr u c t i b l e
, ,

part i c l e is cal l e d an a to m Ch emi ca l c o mb i na t ion is

“
.
”

th e b i n din g t og et h er of a t o ms an d h en c e a u se fu l d e fin i ,

t i on is : A n a tom is the smal lest p a rt of an element that can

enter into a che mical co mbination with a nother ele men t .

l l —
M o ecu e To . the h e m i ca l c om
su bdivi s i on Of a c

p oun d s uc h as t h e m i n e ral ca l c i te t h er e is al so a l imit

, , ,

be yon d w hi c h an y f u rth er s u b divi s i on wo ul d d es tr oy th e

id e n t i ty of th e c o m po u n d Thi s smal l es t p art of a c om .

po un d is c all e d a mol ec ul e whi ch ma y be d e fin e d as ,

”

the s ma l lest p ar t of a s ubs ta nce tha t ca n ha ve an independ ent .

ex is tence a nd s til l reta in the cha r acters o

f the s ubs tance . S ub
divi s i on Oi a mol e c u l e b r ea k s it up i n to it s c on s t i t uen t
8 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER A L O G Y
a to ms . M ol e c u l e s may
o n s i st of a toms a ll of on e ki n d
c

or of di ff er e n t ki n d s ; t h us a m ol e c u l e o f o x g e n is c om
y
po s ed Of two ato ms of th a t e l emen t an d a mol ec u l e Of
c a l c i t e c o n t a i n s fi v e a t o m s—on e
,

of c al c i u m on e of ,

c ar b o n a n d t h r e e of o x g e n
, y .

Ato ms u n i t e wi th on e an o th er in d e fi n i t e p ropo rt io n s ,

t h o ugh th e s am e a to m may un i t e wi t h any giv e n a to m in

t wo or m o r e di ff er en t p r op ort io n s F or e x a m pl e th e . ,

c a r b o n a t o m c o mb i n es wi t h t h e o x g en a t o m to f or m t wo
y
diff eren t mol e c ul es in on e t h er e b e i n g on e ato m of
,

o x yg en c o m b i n e d wi t h O n e of c ar b on a n d in th e o th er ,

t wo a t om s o f ox yg en wi t h on e of c ar b o n .

S y b o s a n d F ormu a
m l l — F or c o n v en i e n c e an ato m
.
,

of e v er y e l emen t is r ep re s e n te d by a l e tt er c a ll e d a
s ymb ol whi c h is u s uall y th e i n i t i a l l e tter of th e
”
,

En gli s h or L a t i n n ame of th e e l e men t Th e mol ec u l e

, .

of a s ub s tan c e is r ep res e nt e d by a for mula Th us O is .

,

t h e s ymb ol of an a tom of o x yg en 0 2 is t h e for mu l a of a ,

m ol ec u l e of ox yg e n a n d C a C O3 t h e fo rm ul a of a mol e
,
.

c u l e of cal c i t e .

At omic a n d M ol ec ul a r W e ig h t Th e ato mi c .

w e igh t of an el emen t is t h e w e igh t of its atom c o mp ar e d

wi th th e w e igh t of an ato m of h yd r og en .

Th e mol ec ul ar w e igh t o f a s ub s t a n c e is th e s u m of th e
a t o mi c w e igh t s o f t h e a t o m s c om po s i n g t h e s u b s ta n c e .

F or i n sta n c e t h e at om i c w e igh t of c a l c i um is 4 0 of
, ,

c ar b o n is 1 2 an d of ox yg e n 18 1 6 ; t h e r e fo r e t h e m ol e c u l ar
,

w e igh t of c al c i t e ( C a C Os) is (4 0 1 2 3 x I 6) 1 0 0 .
: .

Val e n cy — Th e v a l e n c y o f a n e l em en t is mea s ur ed by
.

t h e n u mb er of it s at oms w h i c h will c o mb i n e wi t h or
r e pl ace on e at om of h yd r og e n Th us c hl or i n e c o m bi n es
.
,

wi th on e ato m Of h yd rog en an d is t h er e fo r e mon ova l en t ;

,

c a l c i u m r e pl a c es t wo a t o m s of h yd r og e n an d is t h er e fo r e ,

diva l en t a n d s o on
, .
 TH E CH EM I S T R Y OF M I N ERA L S 9

M on ova le n t l
e e men ts H Cl , , B r, I F K
, , , Na .

D iv al en t C a, B a, S r , Mg , Hg ,

0 , Z n, F e .

Tr iv al en t Al , S b, As , B i, B , N, P , Fe .

Q d
ua r iv a l e n t C , Si .

P e n ta v a l e n t P , N , et c .

I NT ER NAT I ONAL A T OM I C W EI G H T S ,
1 9 1 5.

( The as ter i sks denote cha ng es niade by the I n ter n a ti ona l Comm ittee on

A tomic I9I I .
)
E LE M E NT . SY M BO L .
IO EL E M ENT S OF M I N ER A L O G Y

I NT ER NAT I ONAL A T OM I C W EI G H TS — Continued .

E LE M E N T S Y M BOL
AT OMI C
WE I G HT
.

0 I6 .

Man gan e se Mn 54 9 3
M er c ur y"
Hg 200 6
M ol ybd e n um MO
Ni c ke l Ni
Ni obi u m (se e C ol umbi um)
Ni tr ogen
Osmi um
Oxyge n
P a ll a d i um
P h os p h o r u s
l i
P at n um
Po tass um i
Ra d umi
R h o d um i
bi i
Ru d um
R uth en u m i
l i
S e en u m
ili
S c on
S ilv er
i
S od u m
S tr on t um i
lp
S u h ur
Tan ta l um "

Te ll ur i um
Th alli um
Th or i um
Tin
Ti tan i u m
Tu n gste n
U r a n i um
Van a d iu m "

Y ttr i u m
Z inc
Z ir c on i um
M et a l s an d N 0n -
M et al s —Th e e l e men t s
. ar e divid ed
i n to t wo l
c a s s es , m eta l s an d l
n on -m e t a s . Th e re is no

h ar d -
f
a n d- a s t li n e of divi s io n b e tw een th e t wo c l as s es ,

an d th e s e m i m e t al s
-
or me ta ll oid s c o m b i n e c h ar ac
 TH E CH EM I S T R Y OF M I N ERA L S I I

t er is t ic s b ot h divi s i on s Th e ph ys i ca l di s ti n ct ion
of .

be tw een th e t wo c l as s e s is rea dily un d e r s tood wi t h r e f er

e n c e t o l u s tr e m a ll ea b ili ty C on d u c t i on Of h ea t an d
, ,

e l e c tr ic i ty e t c l ; bu t as will be s e e n l a t e r
, , th i s divi s io n ,

is of gr ea t C h e m i c a l i m po rt an c e a l so .

M eta ls : Al , S b , As , B a , B i, Cd , C a , C r , C o, C u ,
Au F e Pb, M g, M n
, , , Hg , M O Ni P t
, , , K ,
Ag,
Na S r , S n Ti W , Z n
, , , .

Non M eta ls -
: B , B i, c , C I, F H I
, , , N O , ,
P , 5,
S i, et c .

Th e l m en ts c an be f u rt h e r divid e d i n to
e e

whi c h h a v e t o a c erta i n d e gr e e s i milar c h e m i ca l

, ,

t i es. Ex am pl es of s uc h gr o u p s ar e

1. Na , K Li
, .

2. Ca , S r, B a .

3 . F e , M n , C o, Ni, C r , U , e tc .

Th e e e l h gr ou p ar e foun d r e p la c i n g on e
m en t s in ea c

an o th e r in v ar y i n g d e gr e e in m i n eral s Co m po un d s Of .

ea c h e l em e n t in a n y o n e gr ou p t e n d t o c rys ta lli s e in

s i m ila r for m s an d t o h a v e s i m il a r m ol e c u l ar ar r a n g e
,

men ts ; t h ey oc c u r t og et h e r in n at ur e an d se e m to be ,

for me d by s i m il ar p r oc e s s e s .

Ac id s -
An form e d by th e c o m b i n a t i on of
ac id is
hydr og en wi th a n on m etal or wi t h a g r o u p of n on -
,

m e ta l li c e l e m e n t s t h e h y d rog e n be i n g ca p a b l e Of r e
,

pl ac e men t by a m eta l Th e gr o up of mol ec u l es c om .

b in ed wi t h t h e h yd r og en is t e r m e d t h e a c id r a di c l e
“ ”
.

Exa m pl e s Of ac id s ar e— H y dr oc h l or i c a c id ( H C l) s ul ,

h u r ic a c id ( H S O ) o r t h o s ili c i c a c id ( H S i O )
p Z 4 4 ,
4
.

B ase s —B as es may be c on s id ere d to b e co m b i na tion s

Of th e m e ta l s wi th o x yg en an d h y d r og en , or of the
I2 EL E M ENT S OF M I N ER A L O G Y ‘

m e ta lli c xi des wi t h wate r Ex a m pl e s of b ases a r e

o .

c a u s t i c s o d a Na O H c a l c i u m h d r at e
( ) , y
S a tsl — B y t h e c omb in a t ion of a n a c id a n d a b a se th e
r
=

hyd rog en of th e ac id is r e pl a c ed by t h e m et a l Of th e ba se ,

a n d t h e r e s u l t is t h e f o r m a t io n o f a s a l t Th u s th e r es u lt
i .

o f t h e a c t i on o f h d r oc hlo r i c a c id H C l n t h e b as e
y ( ) o

ca u s t i c s od a ( Na OH ) is t o p rod u c e t h e sa l t so di um ,

C hlo r id e
( N a Cl
) an d w a t e r
,
H
( 2 )O .
as s h o w n in th e
,

e q ua t i on b e l o w

H Cl Na OH Na C l H zO .

Ac id s and S a l ts in M ine ra l og y . Th e gr ea t
m a j o r i ty mi n eral s a r e sa l ts ; a n d t h e mo s t i m po rt ant
of :

ac id s a n d sa l t s f r o m t hi s poi nt of vi ew a r e ta b u l a te d

b e l ow

H yd hl i ( Hc l )
roc or c R k oc ( Na C l )
sa l t

H yd b mi ( H B )
ro ro c r B ro myrite ( Ag Br )
'

H yd i d i ( H I)
r o c I od yr ite ( Ag I)
Hyd fl roi (HF)
uor c F l uor spa r ( Ca )
-

Nitri c ( H NOa) Nitre ( K NOa)

S ul ph uric ( H28 0 4 ) Ba ryt es ( Ba S O4 )
S ul ph ur et ted hyd rog en Galena ( Pb s )
H
( aas )
C a r bon ic ( H2OO3 ) C a l cite ( C a C O3 )
Pyrobo ric ( H2B4 O7 B ora x ( Na2B4 O7 )
Ph osph or ic ( H3 PO4 ) Apa tit e [ C a3 ( P0 4
Orth osilicic ( H4 SiO4 ) Wille m
M e t as il ic ic ( HQ SiO )
3 R h od on it e ( M RQSiOg)
P
.

olys il icic ( H 4 S i 0 8 ) Orth oclase ( KAl Si3OB)

3

It wi l l be fro m th e c o m p os i t i on o f orth oc l a s e f or
s ee n ,

i n stan c e th at it is n ot n ec es s ary t hat th e hyd r og en of an

, ,
‘

a c id s ho uld be r e pl a c e d b o n e m e t a l a lo ne
y .

Ox id es —Co mpo un d s of ox yg en wi th a no th er e l ement

a r e c a ll e d ox i d e s a n d a r e a v er
, y i m po rt an t c l a ss of
14 EL EM ENTS OF M I N ER A L O GY
.
~ —
I s omor p his m It is fo un d t h at c er ta i n mi n era l s hav e
a v e ry s i m il ar mol e c u l a r c o n s tr u c t io n an d c ryst all i se in ,

forms Showi n g c lo s e r el at ion on e wi th an o th er S uc h .

m i n er a l s a r e s a id t o be i s o mo r ph ou s an d t o ex hi b i t ,

i somo r phi sm Th e ca l c i t e gr ou p of m i n eral s is a n

.

e x a m pl e o f a n i s o m or ph ou s g r o u p c on s i s t i n g Of th e
,
.

foll owi n g mem b er s C al c i t e ( C a C O3 ) d olo m i te ,

a n k e r i te magn es i t e
M
( g C 0 3)
,
m e s i t i t e s id e r i te
( F e C O 3)
.

Thi s li st s h ow s t h e p res en c e o f li n k s or i s o mor p h ou s

m ix t ur es b e t w e e n t h e S i m pl e c ompo un d s Th e pl agio .

c l a s e f e l s p a r s (s ee p ar e an o th e r e x c e ll en t e x a m pl e
1 91.
)
o f an i s om or ph ous s e r i es whi c h sh ow s a g ra d at i on in
,

c h e m i ca l c o mpo s i t io n c ry s ta lli n e fo r m s pe c ifi c g r a vi t y
, , ,

an d r e f r a c t iv e i n d e x f r o m on e e x tr eme ( a lbi t e) t o t h e
,

oth e r
(a n o r thi t e .
) T h u s in i s o m
,o r pho u s m i x t ur e s on e

e l e me n t r e pl aces an o t h e r a n d t hi s fi n d s e xp r es s i on in th e
,

fo rmul a f or s uc h mix tur es Th e olivi n e g roup v a r i e s .

fr o m p ur e magn es i um S ili cate fo rster i te ( Mn iO4 ) to , ,

p ur e i r o n S ili cat e fayali te ( F eaS iO4 ) A s light l y ferr i

, .

f er o us olivi n e wo uld b e wr i tten as

wh e r ea s a n olivi n e in whi c h i r o n p redo mi nat e d wo u ld
be w r i t t e n
Th e m em b e r s of i s o mo r pho u s gr o up s a r e s a l ts of t ho s e
met a l s whi c h ar e c o n ta i n e d in th e s ame c h emi c a l g ro u p
as e sta b li s h e d on p 1 1 . .

S yn t h es is a n d An a ys is
l — Th e b u ildi n g up of a

co m po un d by t h e of on e e l emen t wi th oth er s is
un on i
t er me d s yn t h es i s t h e s pli tt i n g u p of s u c h a c om po un d
i n to its c on s t i t ue n t e l emen ts is c a ll ed a n a lys i s It is “
.
”

by m ea n s of syn t h e s i s a n d a n a l ys i s t h at a ll th e op e ra
t io n s o f t h e c h e m i s t a r e c a r r i e d on .

An a lys is — Th e fi r s t s t e p in an a l ys i s c o n s i s ts in
d e ter m i n i n g t h e n a tu re of th e el e mentary s u b s tan c es
 TH E CH EM I S T R Y OF M I N ER A L S 1 5

c on tain e d in a c omp oun d th e n ex t in d et er m i n i n g th e

,

a moun t of th e s e c o n s t i t u e n t s Th e for mer is cal l e d

.

qua li ta t iv e an d th e l atter q uant i ta t iv e an al ys i s

, ,
”
.

In ma ki n g a q ua li ta t iv e an a lys i s th e r ec ogn i t i on of t h e ,

c on s t i t u e n t s hi n g e s u p o n t h e f a c t th a t ce r t a i n b a s e s an d

c e rta i n a c id s p r od u c e w e ll m a r k e d ph e n o m e n a in t h e
-

p r e s en c e of k n o wn s u b s ta n c es or p r e p ar a t i on s t e r m e d
,

r ea g e n t s Th e c h ar a c t er i s t i c e ff e c t p r od u c e d by r e
“
.

a g e n t s is s po k e n o f as a r e a c t i on Th u s h y droc hl o r i c
.

a c id is a r e a g e n t a n d in c l e a r so l ut io n s c on t a i n in g sa l t s
,

o f l e a d s ilv e r o r m e r c u ry p r od u c e s a d e n s e w h i t e p r e
, , ,

c ip ita t e c on s i s tin g o f t h e c hl o r id e s o f t h os e m eta l s a n d

, ,

t h er e fo r e d en ot i n g at on c e th e p r e s e n ce of on e or m ore of
t h em . Thi s is a r ea c t i on a n d it m u s t be s u ppl eme n t e d
,

by ot h er r eac t io n s in o r d er t o d et erm i n e whi c h of t h e

t h r ee s u b s tan c e s is p r e s en t .

S uc h i n v es ti g a t i on s c on d uc ted in s ol u t io n s ar e ca ll e d
ana l ys e s by th e we t way Th er e is how e v e r a dry
”
.
, ,

way whi c h is e x tr e m e l y co n v en i e n t f or th e p u r p oses o f

”

th e m in er alogi s t a l tho ugh p r a c t i c e an d s kill ar e r eq u i s i te

,

be fo re ac c ura te r esul ts ar e l ik ely to be o b tain ed .

THE B L OW P I P E .

D es cr ip tion — F or ex ami n i n g a m in era l in th e dry

way t h e b lo w pip e is an i n val ua bl e i n s tr u men t
, It c on .

s i s t s es s en t i al l y o f a t u b e b e n t a t r igh t an gl e s on e ,

ex tr e m i ty ha vin g a m o u t hpi ec e t h e o th e r t er m i n a t e d in ,

a fin e l y pe r fo r a t e d j e t T
.h e t u b e S h o u ld b ulge ou t
be t w een th e two e x tr em i t i es i nto a ca vi ty in w h i c h th e ,

c o n d e n s e d moi s t u r e f r o m t h e b r ea t h m a d n t
y o g e s o a s o ,

t o be c ar r i e d t h r ou gh th e j e t in t o t h e as sa I t is i m po r
y .

t an t th at th e a p ert u re o f t h e n ozzl e of th e bl owpi p e

s h ou ld b e s ma l l a n d c i r c u l ar Th i s can be Ob ta i n e d by
.

n ear l l i g e a p e rt u r e b
y c o s n t h y g en t l y t a ppi n g on an i r o n
 16 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER A L OG Y
f
s ur ace and h en i n s ert i n g a s q uar e n e edl e an d by r o ta
t ,

t ion p r oduc in g a hol e o f t he r e q u i r e d s iz e a n d s h a p e .

P r od uct ion of B l as t — In us i n g t h e blowpip e t h e

ope rator w ill p roba bl y e x p er i en c e a t fi r s t some diffi c u l ty
in kee p in g up a s t ea d y c o n t i n uo us b l a s t
i P r ac ti c e will
, .
,

h ow ev e r soon en a b l e h im to us e th e i n s tr um en t ea s il y
, .

Whil e b l owi n g th e c h e ek s s ho uld be k e p t i n fl a ted a n d

,

t h e a ir e xp e ll e d by t h e i r a c t i on on l y f r e s h s u ppli e s of a ir ,

be i ng d ra w n in t h rough t h e n os e Tr i a l will t eac h f ar

‘

b ette r t h an any d esc r ip t i on a n d p ra c ti c e s hou ld be ,

re s or te d t o un t il a s tea d y a n d un i n t e rr up t e d b l a s t c a n b e

k e p t up f or a s p ac e o f s ome m i n utes A ga s fl a me is
‘

.
-

v ery c on ven ient f or b l owpipe e x p e r ime n t s but th e fl a me

‘

,
‘

of a s pi r i t l amp an oil l a mp a pa raf fin wa x l a mp or a

, ,
-
,

ca n dl e wi l l a l s o a n s w e r th e p ur pos e
,
”

Wh en a l amp or .

a ca n dl e is u s e d th e wi c k s ho u ld be b en t in th e di re c t io n
,

in whi c h t he fl ame is b low n M an y po r ta b l e b l owpip e .

l amps ar e on th e mar k e t f or us e in th e fi e ld .

Th e Two K ind s of F l a mes — In b l owpip e an al ys i s

it is n ec ess ary t o be a b l e t o p ro d u c e a n d t o r ec og ni s e t wo
i

typ e s of fl a me in on e of whi c h oxid a t io n of th e s u b s tan c e

,

un d er e x am i n at io n is b r o ugh t a b o ut a n d in th e o t h e r ,

r e d uc t io n .

1 . The Ox i dising F la me .
—A
fla me is pr od uced wh en th e
o ox id ising

n ozzl e of th e b l owpipe is in t rod u c ed in t o t h e fl ame t o a bo u t o n e th ir d -

th e b rea d th o f th e flame I t is a d isa b le t o b l ow som ewh at m ore

. v
st ro ngly th an in th e p rod uct ion of th e r ed uc in g flame Th e ox idising .

fla me is b l ue a n d f e ebly illuminat ing , a n d in it th e a ir f ro m th e b l ow

i e is w ell m ix ed with th e gas es f r om th e fl a me, a n d c o m pl et e c om b us
p p
- ;

t ion e nsues Th ere are t wo po sition s in th is fl am e a t which ope ra tions

.

us ef ul t o th e e x p erimen ter ar e pe r f or med Th e h ott est par t is j ust out .

”
sid e th e in n er b l ue con e , a nd is ca l l ed t he p oin t o f f u s ion Th e bes t
sition f or o x id a tio n—th e po in t of o x id a t io n —is j ust b eyond t h e isibl e v
.

p o
a r t, f o r a t th is po in t th e as sa y is h ea t ed su rr oun d ed by a ir , a n d h en ce
p
ox id a t ion t a es p la c e k Th e ox id isin g fl a m e is sh own in Fig 1 , in
. .

wh ich th e p osition of th e po in t o f f usion ( F ) an d th e p oin t of ox id a tion

( 0 ) are seen .

2 . The Reducing F la me Th e r ed ucing fla me is prod uced wh en th e

.
-

n ozzl e o f th e b l owpipe is pl ac ed a s ma ll d ista n ce f rom t h e flame

,
Th e .
 TH E C H E M I ST R Y OF M I NE R ALS 1 7

red uc in
g fla me is brigh t yell o w a nd l umin ous , ragge d a n d n o isy In
v
.

th is fla me th e s t rea m of a ir d ri es th e wh ol e fla m e ra t h e r f e eb ly be f or e
it , a n d th er e is l it tl e mix t ur e o f a ir with th e gase s f ro m t h e fl a me Th e .

r es ul t is t ha t th es e
ga se s a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y b ur n t , a n d h e n ce th e
y
r ea di ly co m bin e with t h e ox e n Of an u b t a in t d u ced in to th e ir
yg y s s n ce r o
mid st . It will be seen , th eref o re , th a t th e as say mu st be compl et ely

FIG . I .
-
Ox 1 D IS I NG F L AM E SH O WI NG
, P O S IT I O N OF B L O W P I PE ,

AND PO I NT S OF O X I D AT I O N (0) A ND O F F U SI ON (F ) .

s urro u nd ed by th e red uc ing fla me , b ut ca re sh oul d be ta e n n ot t o

.
k
in t rod uce th e assay t oo far in t o th e fla me , or a d e pos it of soot wil l be
f o r med wh ich in te r f e re s wit h th e h ea ti n g o f t h e s ubs ta n ce Th e .

r e d ucing fla me is sh o wn in Fig 2 , an d th e
poin t of red uction is at ( R )
. .

FIG . 2 .
—RE D U C I NG F L AM E H O W I N G PO S I T I O N
, S OF BL OW I E P P

AN D P O I NT OF R E D U CTI O N .

S u p p o r ts — Th e su b s ta n c e u n d e r e x a m i n a t i on m a y b e
su pp ort e d in v a r i ou s ways a c c o r di n g t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s

o f ea c h p ar t i c u l a r c as e .

C h a rcoal — Ch a r c oa l for ms a g ood s u pp o r t by re aso n

of it s in fu s i b ili ty f eebl e ca p a c i t y f or c on d u c t i n g h eat
, ,

2
1 8 EL EM ENTS OF M I N ER A L O GY
an d i ts d uc i n g a c t i on Th e c a r b on of whi c h t he c h ar
re .
,

c oa l c o n s i s t s r e a dil y c o m b i n es wi t h t h e o x g en whi c h th e
, y
a s sa y m ay c o n ta i n . Th e r e d uc t io n of m an y me talli c
oxid es t o th e m eta l s m ay be eff e Cted by h ea t i n g on c har
coal in th e r e d u c i n g fl a m e . In o t h er c a s e s C h a r c oa l may
be u se d a s a s u ppo rt f or o xid a t i on p r ovid e d th a t it s ,

r e d uc i n g a c t i on d oe s n ot ma t e r i a ll i n t e r f e r e wi t h t h e
y
r es u l ts whi c h th e op er a t or d es i r e s t o e ff e c t .

In o r d er t o ob ta i n t h e ma x i mu m of i n fo r ma t i on f r o m
th e b eh a vio u r o f a n a s s ay wh e n h ea t e d on c h ar c oa l it is ,

n e c e s sa r y t o o b s e r v e s e ve r a l p r e c a ut io n s Th e a ssa y
.

s ho u ld be pl ace d in a s ma ll h o llow s c r a p e d in th e c ha r

c o a l a n d t h e r e s h ou ld b e a l a rg e a r ea of coo l c ha rc o a l
, ,

b eyon d t h e h oll ow s o th at the b est c on di ti on f or t h e

,

d e p os i t io n of a n y en cru s ta t io n may be p r ovid e d S hou ld .

th e a s sa y c ra c kl e or fl y a b out a f r e s h a s sa y mus t be
,

ma d e by p owd e r i n g th e s u b s tan c e an d m i x i n g it i n to a
t hi c k p a s t e wi t h w a t e r . F l ami n g or ea sy b urn i ng of th e
a s s ay s h ou ld be n o t e d , t og et h er wi th e asy fu s io n or ,

a b s or p t i on of t h e f use d a s sa y by t h e c h a rc o al .

Th e n a tur e colo u r s m ell an d di stan c e fr o m t he a s say

, , ,

of th e en cr u stat i on ar e a ll i m p or tan t i n di ca t ion s as t o the

n a t u r e of t h e e l e m e n ts p r es en t Th us a r s e n i c c om
.

po un d s giv e an en c r us tat ion f ar f ro m th e as say wh er eas ,

a n t i mo n y c o m po un d s giv e on e n ea r t h e as sa y Whi te
.

e n c r u s ta t io n s or r e s id u e s ,
wh en moi s ten e d wi t h c obal t
n i tr at e an d s t ro n gl y r e h ea t e d giv e va r i ou s c o l our s
,

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c e r ta i n e l e m e n t s C o m p o u n d s c o n ta i n
.

in g s om e f e w m e ta l s — l ea d me rc ury a n d bi s mu th — giv e
, ,

c ol o u r e d e n c r u s ta t i o n s w h e n h eat e d on c h a r c oa l wi t h
p otas s i u m i odid e an d s ulph ur .

P l a t in u m Tipp ed F or cep s —Th e se fo r c ep s ar e us e

-

f ul f or holdi ng s ma ll s pli n te r s of m i n e r a l s in t h e b lo w pip e

fl a me Wh en s ub s ta n c e s a re e x a m i n e d in t hi s wa y th e
.

c o l o u r o f t h e fl a me s h o u ld be n o t e d a n d t h e d e g r e e o f
 TH E CH EMI ST R Y OF M I N ER A L S 1
1 9

f us ibili ty of th e m i n eral c o mpar ed wi t h Von Kob ell s '

S ca l e of F u s ibility ( se e a f ter p , A pl a t i n um wi r e
.

may be use d wi t h e x c ell en t resul t s f or n ear ly all t h e

operat io n s u s ua lly carr i ed out by th e fo r c ep s In the . .

u se of p la t i n um ,
wh eth er fo il fo rc e p s or wi r e ca re
, , ,

s ho uld be ta k en t ha t m i n e ra ls c o n ta i n in g i r o n l ea d an t i , ,

mony an d o th er meta l s t ha t fo rm al lo ys wi t h pla t i n um

, ,

s ho uld n o t be s uppo rt e d by its mean s .

P la t in u m W ir e —P la t i n u m wi re is an ex tr e me ly
.

u s e fu l s u ppo rt. S e v er al e l e men ts giv e c ol ours to th e

blowpip e fl a me an d t hi s fl ame tes t is pe r fo r med by
,

i ntr od uc i n g so me of t he fi n e ly powd ered a ssa y e i th er ,

a lo n e or moi s te n ed wi t h h y dr oc hl or i c a c id i n to t h e fl ame ,

on a p la t i n u m wi r e . Th e se v era l v e ry i m po r ta n t b ead
t es t s ( s ee p 2 3) ar e ca r r i e d out by f us in g a fl ux in a
.

loop at th e en d of th e pl a ti n um wi r e .

l
F u x es — C e rta i n s u b s tan c es are add ed to th e assa y
f or th e p ur po se of eff e c t in g a m o r e r a pid liq ue fac t i on t ha n
c o u ld b e o b ta in ed by h ea t a l on e an d ar e es pec i all y u se f u l
,

w h e n th e c on s ti tuents of th e as say form a c haract eris tic

c olo u r e d c o m po un d wi th t h es e s ubs ta n ce s S uc h s ub .

s t an ces ar e ca ll e d fl ux e s and th e c hi e f ar e bo rax

,
”
,

mi c r oc o s m i c sa l t an d s odi um car bo n at e
, .

B or ax e — B o r ax h as th e c h e mi cal c o mpos i t io n of a
h yd ro us b i bo rate of s odi um ( N3 2B 4 O7 I OH20 or , ,

B ora x wh en u se d as a b lowpipe
,

r ea g e n t
, s h o u ld be fi n e l y po wd e r ed a f t er h a vi n g b een
.

d e p r iv ed by h ea t o f th e gr ea ter pa r t of its w ater To .

ma k e a bo rax hea d th e Op era tor s ho uld fi r s t be n d on e e n d

o f th e p la t i n um wi re i n t o a s ma ll l oo p The l oop s h ou ld.

t h en be h ea te d to r e dn es s in t h e b l o wpipe fl a me a n d ,

i mmedi atel y dipp ed i n to th e powd ered bo ra x so me of ,

whi c h will adh e r e to th e wi r e U po n h ea t i n g th e l oo p in

.

th e b l owpip e fl a m e t h e po w d er f r o t h s u p o r i n tu m e sc e s
, ,
20 EL EM ENT S OF M IN ER ALO G Y
o wi n g t o th edi s en g ag e men t of th e w ater s til l r e ma i n i n g
in it and g r a d ua ll y f u s es t o a c lea r t ra n s p ar e n t hea d
, ,
.

I f n ow so me o f th e powd ere d s u b stan c e to be e x ami n e d

is a l l ow e d to t o u c h th e h ot h e ad it s t i c k s t o it
,
Th e .

b ead s ho uld be h eate d agai n by a w e ll s us ta i n e d b l a st ; -

it s c o lo u r an d ot h e r c h ara c ter s n oted bo th wh e n h ot an d

,

c o l d ; an d t h e se o b ser v a t io n s s h ou ld be ma d e b ot h wi t h

th e o x idi s i n g an d th e r e d uc i n g fl a m e s S o m e m i n er a l s
.

s ho u ld be add e d to th e b e a d in v e r y m i n ute q ua n t i t i e s ,

o th er wi se th e reac t ion may be mas k e d or r e n der ed

o b sc ur e an d di ffic ul ty be ex p er i en c e d in d eter mi n i n g
,

th e c ol o ur B o r a x s e r v e s p r i n c ipa ll y to r e d uc e s ub
.

s ta n c e s t o t h e s ta t e of o x id es a n d it is by th e c o l o ur an d
,

o th e r p r op e r t i e s whi c h t h e s e o xid es i m p a rt to t h e b o r a x

h ea d t h at we a r e a b l e t o as c er ta i n t o a c er ta i n e x ten t the
n at u r e o f th e s u b s ta n c e u n d e r e x a m i n a t io n .

B o r a x a l s o s e r v es t o r e duc e meta lli c o r es in s uc h a way

t h at a m i n ut e gl ob u l e o f th e p u r e m eta l may b e s e p a r a t e d
from t h e o th e r s ub s ta n ces wi t h whi c h in t h e s ta te of or e
, ,

it is c o mb i n e d a n d m ix e d It is a l s o u s e f u l in t hi s way
.

f or th e s epar at i on of c e rta i n meta l s wh e n t h ey ar e c om

bin e d wi t h s u lph ur a r s en i c e tc
, ,
Th es e c o m po un d s
.
,

how ev e r mo s t l y di ssolv e wi th di ffi c u l ty in bora x Th e

, .

b eha vio ur of s uc h s ulphid es an d arsen id es in th e bo ra x

b ead di ff ers ma ter i ally from t hat of th e o xi des of th e
sa me me tals an d h e n c e it is a dvi sa b l e t o r o a s t t h e s ub
,

s ta n ce on c h ar c o a l in t h e o xidi s i n g fl a m e b e fo r e a ppl y i n g

th e u s ua l b o r a x b ea d te s t .

—
M icr ocos mic S a t M i c r oc o s m i c s a l t is a hyd r a te d
l
s o di u m a mmon i um h yd r og e n ph os ph a t e Na N H H P O
( z 4 4
+ 4 H zO) M i c r oc os m i c s a l t is s o fl u id w h en it fi r s t f u s e s
.

t h at it g en er a ll y d r op s f r o m the pl a t i n u m wi r e It is .

b e st th er e for e e ith er t o h eat it on c h a r c oa l or plat i n u m

, ,

foil u n til t he w at e r a n d a mm on i a a re e xpe ll e d wh en it ,

ca n be e a s il y t a ke n u p o n t h e pl a t i n u m loop whi c h s h o u ld ,
22 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER A L O GY
th e ex p ul s io n of water whi c h c oll ec ts on th e c ool er part s
of th e t u be .

b
In th e t u e , op en a t b o th en ds ox idi s ed
, th e as say is ,

an d e i t h er c h ar a c te r i s t i c s me ll s or s u b li mat e s a r e f or m e d .

R eact ions Th e d etec t io n of s e v era l of th e ac id

.
-

r a di c l e s p resen t in mi n era l s d e p en d s on th e u se of
re ag e n t s s uc h a s th e us ua l a c id s powd ere d magn e s i um
, , ,

gr an u l at e d t in etc F or i n stan c e c ar bo nates giv e Off

, .
,

c ar b o n dio x id e on b e i n g t r eat e d wi t h h d r o c hlo r i c ac id ;

y
s o me s ili c a t e s g el a t i n i s e on b e i n g h eat e d wi t h t h e s a me

a c id . Th es e an d ot h e r r eac t ion s a r e giv en in th e Ta b l es

of B l owpip e An a l ys i s .

TAB L E S OF B L O W P I P E AN ALY S I S .

F LAM E TES T .

S u b s ta n c e h eate d a lon e on th e pl at i n um wi re or

moi s ten e d wi th H C l , H N0 3 , or HzS O, .

C alcinm B rick r ed

C r i ms on
Y ellow
iolet ( mas k ed by Na u s e i n digo ,

gl as s)
B ar ium Y e llow gr een -

Em e r a ld gr een wi t h H NOa ; s ky
-

b l ue wi t h H
I n d e fi n i te b l ue fl ames giv en by l ead ar s e n i c an d
ar e , ,

a nt i mon y ; a n d i n d e fi n i t e gr e en fl a mes by zi nc pho s ,

p h o ru s b ,o r o n a n d m ol
, y b d e n um T h ese e l e m e n ts a r e
.

mo re s at i s fa cto r il y d et ect ed by o t h e r t e s ts .
 TH E C H EMI STRY OF M I NER AL S 23

B OR A X B EAD TES T .

ELEM ENT . OX I D I S I N G F LA M E R ED U C I NG F LAM E

. .

Y e llow B ott l e -
g r e en
B l ue Op a q ue r ed

G r een G r e en
Re ddi s h -
viol et C ol our l e s s
Dee p b l ue D ee p b l u e
R e ddi h b r own
s -
Op a q u e gr e y
Ur ama m Y e llow P al e gr een
'

M I CR OCOS M I C B EAD TES T .

ELEM ENT . O XI D I S I NG F A M E RED U C I N F LAM E

L . G .

C o l ou r l e s s t o R eddi s h
b r own i s h r ed -

B lue Op a q u e re d

G r ee n G r e en
V iol et C olo ur l es s
B l ue B l ue
Y el low R eddi s h ye ll ow
-

Y e ll o w -
gr e en B r igh t gr ee n
C ol our l e s s B l u e gr e e n
-

M oly bdenum B r igh t gr e en G r e en

Colo ur l es s Viol et
R e ma in s u n di s s o lv ed in m i c r o
c o s mi c bea d
C hlorzm S at ur ate m i c r o c o s mi c be a d wi t h
'

c oppe r oxid e Ad d powd e r e d

.

c h l or id e R i c h bl u e fl a m e s u r
.

r o un d s b ea d
 24 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL OG Y

S ODI UM CARB ON/ 1TE B EAD TES T .

ELEM ENT . OX I D I SI NG F LAM E .

Op a q u e b lu e g reen
-

Op a qu e ye llow -
g r ee n

REAC TI ONS ON CH A R COA L .

.
—
I Ox id at ion Sub stan c e h eat e d
. a lon e in o x idi s i n g
fl a m e on c h a r c o a l

ELEM ENT . ENC R U STATI ON .

Aysgnzc
‘

Whi te ; f a r fr o m as s a y ;
s me ll o f g a r li c
z
Antimony W h i te ; n e ar a ss a
y

Whi te c old ;
, y e llow h ot

Y e ll ow , c old ; d ar k ye ll ow

B ismuth Or a n g e, c old ; d a rk er ,
hot

S ulphm ’
S me ll of s u lph ur dio x id e
Whi te or p a l e yell ow c old ,

d ar k er ye ll ow h ot ,

M oly bdenum Whi te ,

cold ; ye ll ow hot ; ,

in r e d uc i n g fl am e b l ue ,

Whi t e en c r us tati on s an d r e s id u es m o i s t e n ed wi th
c o b a l t n i tra t e a n d s t r on gl y r e h ea t e d
 TH E C H EM I STR Y OF MI N ERA L S 25

ELEM ENT . COLOU R .

En c r us tat ion g ra s s ,
gr e en
bl u e g ree n
-

di rty g r een
R e s id u e, pi n k
bl u e an d un f us e d
b l u e f us e d a n d
, ,

pka tes , and bor a tes gl a s sy

Su bs tan c e h ea t e d in oxidi s i n g fl ame wi th po tas s i um

i od id e an d s u lph ur

ELEM ENT . EN C R U STATI ON .

B r illi an t yel l o w
S car l e t , yell ow n ear assa y
G r ee n i s h yell ow an d
-

gr een i s h yell ow f umes

-

2 .R e d u ction — S u bs t an c e m ix e d wi t h c h ar c oa l an d

s odi u m car bo n a t e an d h ea t ed in oxidi s i n g fl a m e :

ELEM ENT . B EA D .

S oft, ma ll ea bl e , m etall i c
b ea d ; e as il y f u se d ;
ma r k s p a pe r
Tin whi te b ea d ; so f t a n d
-

m a ll ea b l e ; n ot m ar ki n g
pa p er
S il ver S ilv e r whi te b ea d ; ma ll e
-

a bl e
26 EL E M ENTS O F M I NER AL OG Y

ELEM ENT . BEA D .

Y e llow b ea d ; s oft and

ma ll ea b l e

B ismuth S ilv er -
whi te b ea d ; br i ttl e
R ed , s pon gy mas s
S tr on gl y mag n et i c re s id ue
F ee bl y

S P ECIAL RED UC TI ON TES TS F OR TI TA N I UM AND

TUN GS TEN .

F use wi th s odi um c ar b o n ate an d h ar c o a l ;

c b oil
res id ue wi t h H Cl an d f ew g ra i n s of g r an u l ated tin

M ETA I ON
’

L . C OLOU R OF SOL U T .

Viol e t
P r u s s i an b l u e

F use wi t h s odi u m car b o n at e

h ar c o a l ; di ss olv e
an d c

r e s id u e in c o n c e n tr a t e d H zS O4 wi t h e q u al v ol u m e of

w ater add ed Cool ; add wa ter ; t h en a dd h yd r og en

.

p ero xid e

M ETAL . C OLOU R OF SOL U T I ON .

Titanium Amb e r l
c o ou r e d so ut l ion
 TH E C H EM IS TR Y OF M I NER ALS 27

CL OS ED TUB E TES TS

Assay h eated in c lo se d t ub e , ei th er a lon e or wi th ,

s odi u m ca r bo n a t e a n d c har c oa l or , wi th magn es i u m

ELEM ENT . O B S ER V TI ON
A .

S ulp hur Ora n g e su b li mat e

B lac k su bli mate ; s m e ll of

gar li c
M er cury (wi th su lph ur ) B l a c k s u b li mat e r ed on
r u bb i n g
A rsenic ( wi t h su lph ur) R e ddi s h ye ll ow s u b li ma t e ;
-

d ee p r ed whi l e f use d
Antimony ( wi t h sulph ur) B r o wn i s h r ed s u b li ma t e ;
-

b l ac k whil e h ot
H ea t wi t h s odi um car bon
at e a n d c h ar c o a l ; gl o b
ul e s of merc u ry as en
c r u s ta t io n
Arsenic H ea t with sodi um c ar bo n
at e an d c h ar c oa l ; bl a c k
mirr o r of ar se n i c
H ea t wi th ma gn es i u m ; a d d
water . Ch ar a c ter i s ti c
s m e ll of pho s pho r etted
h ydr og en

OPEN TUB E TES TS .

Assa y h ea t ed in p
O en b
tu e . Natur e of en c ru s ta t io n
n o te d :

ELEM ENT . ENC R U STATI ON .

S ul ph ur ous f um e s of s u l
ph ur dio x id e
W h i t e s u b li mate f ar fr o m ,

as sa y ; g a r li c Od o ur
Whi t e s u bli ma t e n ear as sa y
28 EL EM ENTS O F M I NER ALOG Y

REAC TI ONS F OR ACID R ADI CLE .

AC I D R A D I C LE
. TEST .

C ar bonate Wi th h yd ro c hl or i c ac id car bo n ,

dioxid e e volv ed
S ulphide (s o me) Wi t h h yd r o c hl or i c a c id s u lp h u r e tte d ,

hydrog en evolve d Al s o i n di ca t e d .

by c l os ed tu b e Op en t ub e a n d c h ar
, ,

c o a l tes t s q v , . .

F luoride Wi th s ulph ur i c ac id grea sy b ubb l e s ,

of hydrofl u o r i c a c id evolv ed .

Whi t e fi lm of s ili c a d e po s i t ed on
d rop of w ater h e ld at mo uth of
tu be
C hlor ide Wi th s u lph ur i c ac id an d man g an e se
dio x id e gr een i s h c hlo r i n e e volv ed
,
.

Al s o d et ec t e d by c opp er o x id e
m i c r o c o s m i c b ea d tes t ou , . .

B r omide Wi th s u lph ur i c ac id a n d man gan es

dioxid e br own b ro mi n e e volv e d
,

W i t h s u lph ur i c ac id an d man gan ese

dio x id e vi ol et iodi n e ev olv e d
,

Nitrate Wi t h s u lph ur i c ac id b row n n i tro us ,

f u mes e v olv ed
S ilicates (s o me ) W i t h h yd r o c hlo r i c a c id g e l a t i n i s e .

S ili i n s o l u b l e in m i cr o c o s m i c
( ca

b ead )
S alpha te H eat s ub s tan ce on c har c oal wi th
s odi u m ca r b o n a t e an d c a r bo n ;

pl ace on S ilv er c oi n an d moi s ten .

B l a c k s ta i n
P hosp ha te H eat wi t h mag n es i um in c lo se d
t u b e ; a dd w a t er ; pho s pho r ett e d
hyd r ogen evolv ed Al so d etec te d .

by givi n g f u se d b l u e m a ss in c o b a l t
n i t ra t e c h a r c oa l t es t g v , . .
30 EL EM ENTS OF MI NER AL O GY
S UM M A R Y OF TES TS F OR M ETALS —C on tinued .

R e d uc t io n on harcoa l —mall eab l e

c

b ea d mar ki ng p a p e r
R oa st wi t h K1 a n d S—ye llow e m
,

c r u s t at io n

Co b a l t n i tr ate t est—pi n k r es id ue
B or a x b ea d —viol e t t o c olo ur l es s
M i c r oc o s mi c b ead —viol e t t o c olo ur
l es s
—
S odi u m c a r b on at e b ea d b l ue gr ee n -
,

opa q ue
M ercury Cl os e d t ub e wi th Na2C 0 3 a n d C
meta lli c mer c ur y m i rror
M oly bdenum M i c r oc o s mi c b e ad in r e d uc i n g
fl a me di rty g r een h ot ; fi n e r i c h
, ,

gr een c old
,

B o ra x b ea d vi ol e t b row n hot ,

opa que gr ey c old ,

R e d u c t io n on c h ar c oa l s ligh t l
y
ma gn et i c r e s id u e
Fla meit es t—viol et
R e d u c t io n on c h a rc o al —s ilv er b ead
F lame test—yellow
F l ame te st—c r i mso n
R e d uct io n on c h ar c oa l —t in b ead
M i c r oc o s mi c b e a d vi ol et in r e
d uc ing fl a me
R e d uct i on wi th t in — Vi ol e t so l u t i on
H yd rog en pe ro xid e t es t a mbe r

s ol u t i on

Tungs ten M i c r oc os mi c b ea d — b l ue g r een -

R e d uc t i on wi t h t in —bl u e so l ut i on
C oba l t n i trate t es t—gr een e n c r us ta
t i on
— w
H eat i ng ye ll o h ot ; whi t e c old
, ,
 C H APTER II
TH E P H Y S I C AL P R O P ERTI ES OF
M I N ERA L S

INTRO D UC TION
B ES I D ES t h e h e mi ca l c h ar ac ter s d es c r i b ed in th e pre
c

di n g pa g es
ce , min e r a l s po sse s s c e rta i n o th e r p r o p ert i es
whi c h may be c las s ifi e d as fo llow s :

I Colo u l ustr e
. r, par en c y t ra n s l ucen cy r ef r ac
, tr a n s , ,

t i on ,
p ola r i sa ti on pl eoc h r oi s m an d pho s p h or
, ,

es c e n c e .

II . Tas t e ,
do ur an d fe e l
O ,
.

III . S ta te o f a ggr e ga ti on (fo rm p s e ud omo rp hi s m har d , ,

n es s b r i tt l en es s , mal l ea bili ty fl ex i b ili ty elas

, , ,

t ic ity f r a c t ur e c l ea v ag e s ur f ac e t en s io n
, , , ,

IV . S pe c ifi c gra vi ty .

V . F u s i b ili ty .

VI . Magn e tis m e l ec tr i c i ty an d r adio ac t iv e p r opert i es

, ,
- .

R L U STR E ETC
I . C O L OU , , .

l
C o o ur — Colo ur d e pe n d s on th e e x t i n c t i on of so me
.

an d r e fl e c t io n Of o t h e r of t h e c olo ur e d r a ys or vi b r a t io n s

w h i c h c o mpos e o r di nar y whi te ligh t Wh en a body .

r e fl e c t s ligh t t o so s mall an ex te n t a s n o t t o af fe c t t h e

e ye it a ppea r s b l a c k ; but if it r e fl e c t all t h e vi b ra t i on s

,

o f th e di ff er e n t c olo ur s whi c h c o m po se whi te lig h t t h e ,

bod y wi ll a ppea r whi te Aga i n if it r e fl ec t t h e r ed .

,

vi brat i on s o f or di na ry light a n d ex t in gu i s h a ll th e oth er

vi bra t ion s it will a ppea r r ed ; an d so on f or th e oth er
,

c o l ou r s .
 32 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O GY
Th e l m i n era l s v a ry v ery g r ea t l y e v e n in th e
c o o ur s o f ,

s a m e s p e c i e s s p e c i m e n s b e i n g f o un d h a vi n g v e r di ff e r e nt
y
c olo ur s
Q u a
. r t z i s c o m m o n l y c o l o u r l e s s o r whi t e , b ut it
is l
a so fou n d of pi n ki s h ye ll ow g r e en b rown a n d -
, , ,

a met h s t i n e c o l o u r s a n d s om e t i m es q u i te b l ac k C or u n
y , .

d u m is a l so fo un d o f ma n y c o l o ur s v a ry i n g fr om p a l e ,

br own to d e ep r e d an d d a r k b l u e ; th e t wo l a tter va r i et i e s
b e i n g k n own by t h e n ame s of r ub y a n d sapphi r e Th e .

s am e c r s t a l
y e v e n m , a y e x hi b i t
,
di ff e r e n t c olo u r s a s in ,

s o me s p e c i men s o f t o ur ma li n e .

Th e str eak of a m i n e r a l is th e colo u r o f it s p owd e r ,

a n d ma b e q u i t e di ff e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e mi n e ra l in
y
ma ss . F or i n s ta n ce b l a c k m i c a c eou s h e ma t i te giv e s a
,

r e d po wd e r .

S o me mi n er a l s wh en t urn e d a bo ut or look e d a t in
,

di ff e ren t di rec t io n s di s pl ay a c h an gi n g ser i e s of p r i s ma ti c

,

c ol o ur s s uc h a s a r e s e e n in t h e r a i n b ow or o n l ooki n g
, ,

t h r o ugh a gl a s s p r i s m Thi s is c all e d a p lay of colours

.
,

t h e c olo ur s b ei n g p r od u c e d by t h e s pli t t i n g u p of a r ay
o f ligh t a s it e n t e r s a n d e m e r g es f r o m a m e di u m d e n s e r

t h a n t h e a ir Th e s pli tt i n g of t h e ra y is ca u se d by th e
.

u n e q u a l b en di n g of th e c ol o u r e d c on s t i t u e n t s of whi te

ligh t to whi c h un d e r t h ese c i rc u ms tan c es it is s ubj ec t

, , , .

Th e di amon d a n d Op a l a ff or d e x am pl es C hange of colour .

is a s o me wh at S i m il a r ph e n o m e n on ex t e n di n g ov e r
br oa d er s ur f ac es th e s uc ce s s i on of col ours taki n g pla c e
,

s l o wl y wh e n t h e s p ec i me n is t u rn e d as in l a b ra ,

dor it e .

sconce is wh at p ea r l y or m ilky a pp ea ran c e

a s om e .

Op a l a n d moon s ton e a r e e x a m pl e s .

I r idescence is a di s pl ay o f c o l o u r s d u e t o t h e r e f r a c t i on
a n d i n t e r f e r e n c e o f r a ys o f ligh t in m i n u t e fi s s u r e s w h i c h

w a ll in t hi n fil ms of a ir or liq uid Th e s e fi ss ur es a r e .

Of t e n t h e r e s u l t Of i n c ipi e n t f r a c t ur e I r id e s ce n c e m ay .

s o me t i m es be s ee n in q u a r t z c a l ci t e a n d m i c a , , .
 TH E P H Y S I C AL PRO P ERTI ES OF M I NER AL S 33

S chiller is t h e n ea r ly m eta lli c l us tr e o bs erv e d in i

c e r ta n

di r ec t i on s in h yp er s th en e et c an d is d u e t o th e r e fl ec t i on ‘

fr o mm i n ute parall e ll y ar r an g e d en c l os e d pl at es or c a vi t i es
,

S o m e m i n er a l s tar n i sh on t h e s u r f ac e w h en e xpos e d t o
t h e a ir s o m e t im e s e xhi b i t i n g i r id e sc en t co l ou r s
,
Th i s .

t a rn i s h m a y r es u l t e i t h e r f r o m o xid a t i on or fr o m t h e ,

C h e m i ca l a c t i on o f s ul p h u r an d o t h e r e l e m e n t s w h i c h ar e

g e n e r a ll y p re s en t in t h e a t mos ph e re in m in u te qua n t i t i es .

l
Ta rn is h m ay be di s t i n g u i s h e d f rom th e tr u e c o lo u r by
c h ippi n g or s c r a t c h i n g t h e m i n e r a l w h e n t h e s u p e r fi c i a l ,

n a t ur e o f t h e t ar n i s h wil l b e a t o n c e r e v ea l e d C oppe r .

pyr i tes Of te n tarn i s h e s to an i r id e sc e n t m ixtur e of col o ur s ,

an d is t h e n c a ll e d p eacoc k C opp er or e Er u b es c i te .

ta r n i s h e s r ea dil y o n e xp os u r e to th e a ir .

Th e p r op e r ty p os s e s s e d by s o me c ry s ta l s of di s pl ayi n g
di ff e r en t c ol ou r s w h en vi e w e d in differ en t di r ec t i on s b y
t r an s m i tt e d lig h t an d m or e p a rt i c u la r l y by po l ar i s e d lig h t
, ,

is ca ll e d p leochr oism ( s e e p S om e c rys ta l s un d e r.

t h es e d i ff er en t c o n di t i on s e xhi b i t t wo c ol ou r s oth e rs ,

t h r ee th e for me r b e i n g di c h ro i c t h e l att er t r i c h r o i c
, ,
.

C or di er i te is an e x ampl e of a pl eoc h ro i c m i n er a l A .

f u ll er c ons id e rat i on of pl eoc h roi s m i s r es erv ed f or

Cha p t er V .

L us tr e —Th e l u s tr e of min er a l s di ff e r s b ot h in in
‘

t en s ity
‘

an d in ki n d . Th er e ar e s ix ki n d s of l u s t r e
I . M eta llic —Th e ordi na ry l us tr e o f m e ta l s . When h o we er , it is
, v
f e eb ly d ispl a yed , it is t e rm ed s ub meta l l ic G o l d , ir on
py r it es , a n d

v
.

ga le na h a e a me ta ll ic l ustr e ; Ch r o m it e a nd c upr it e a s ub meta l l ic

l us tr e .

2 . Vitreous — Th e l us tr e g l ass Wh e n l es s of
pe r f e c t it is t e rm ed

v
.

sub i t r eou s l us tr e
”
Q uartz , sa n idin e , a n d roc sa l t a ff or d exa mp l es k
v v
.

of itr eous , ca l c it e of su b itr eo us , l us tr e .

3 . R es in ous — Th e l ust re Of r esi n . Zin c bl end e , o pal , a mbe r , a re

e xa mpl es .

4 P ear ly — Th e l us t r e of a
pea r l Tal c, bruc it e , and sel en it e

v
. . .

ha e a pear ly l us tr e .
34 EL EM ENTS OF M INER AL OG Y
5 . S ilky -
Th e l us t re of s il k
This l ustr e is pe cul ia r t o min eral s
.

v
.

h a ing a fi bro us structure Th e fi brous f o rm of gypsum, sat in spar ,

.

a n d th e v ariet
y o f asb es to s t er med amian th us,
”
a re
good exa mpl es o f
k
sil y l ust re .

6 . Adamantin e .
—Th e lustr e of the d iamond .

Th e l us t r e
m i n era l s may be of
Of di ff erent d eg rees Of
i n ten s i ty, a cc or di n g to t he a mo un t of ligh t r e fl ecte d fro m
t h e i r s ur f a c e s Th u s wh e n t h e s ur fac e of a mi n e r al is
.
,

s u ff i c i e n t l
y b r illi a n t t o r e fl e c t o b j e c t s di s t i n c t l
y a s a ,

looki n g gl as s wo u ld do it is sa id to be s pl en d en t Wh en
-
, .

th e s ur f ac e is l ess b r illi an t a n d Obj ec ts a re r e fl ec te d

i n di st i n c tly it is d es cr i b e d as s hi n i n g Wh en th e s ur fac e
, .

is s t i l l l es s b r illi an t an d i n c a p a b l e of a fl or d ing a n y i ma g e ,

it is t erme d gli s t en i n g a n d gli m me r i n g d e scr i b es a s t ill

,

m o re f ee b l e l u st re .

—
Tr ans p a r en cy A m i n e ra l is t ra n s p ar en t wh en th e
.

o ut li n e s of Ob j e c t s s e e n t h ro ugh it a pp e a r s h a r p a n d

di sti n c t R o c k c rystal (q uartz ) an d se l en i te are go od

.

e x ampl e s .M i n era l s ar e sa id to be s u b t ran s p ar en t or

s em i tran s p ar en t wh en t h e o b j ec t s see n t h r o ugh t h e m

a pp e a r i n di s t i n c t .

Tr an s ucen cy
l — If it is i m po s s i b l e to s ee t h ro ugh a
.

m i n er a l whi c h, n ev er t h el e s s is c a p ab l e of tran s mi tt i n g ,

ligh t t he m i n era l is tran s l u c en t Thi s c o n di t io n is v ery

, .

c omm o n a mon g m i n e r a l s Wh en n o ligh t is tr an s mi tte d

.
,

a m i n e r a l is op a q u e but it mu s t be n oted t h a t t hi s r e f ers

'

o n ly to th e a pp earan c e a s o rdi nar ily s een A l ar ge .

n u mb e r of a ppa r en t l Op a q u e m i n e r a l s b e c ome t r an s
y
l uc ent wh en C ut i nto v ery t hi n s ec t io n s an d t hi s p r operty ,

is l ar g e l y use d f or th e id en t i fi c a t io n of m i n e ral s in r o c k s

( see Ch a p ter M a n y m i n e ra l s whi c h a r e op a q ue in

t h e m a s s a r e t ran s l uc en t on th e s h ar pl y b r ok en e dg es
,

a n d in s pli n t e r s a s f or e x a m pl e th e c o mm o n b la c k fl in ts
, , ,

fr o m th e Chalk .

R e f ra ct ion a n d P ol ar is at ion — Th e s e p r op e r t i e s to .

eth er wi t h p l ec c h roism will be c o n s id er ed in Ch a p ter V .

 TH E P H Y S I C AL PR O P ER TI ES OF M I N ER AL S 35

P h os p h or e s ce n ce a n d l o e s c e n c e P h os p h or
F u r —
e sc en c e is t h e p r o p e r t y w h i c h s om e s u b s t an c es p os s e s s o f

em i t tin g ligh t un d e r c erta i n c on di t i on s a s w h en h ea te d or ,

r ub be d . P i ec es of q uart z wh en r u bb e d tog eth er in a

dar k r oom e m i t a p h os p h or e s c en t light S om e v ar i et i es .

o f fl uor s p a r wh en po wd e r e d a n d h e a t e d on a n i r on pl a t e
-
, ,

di s pl ay a b r igh t p h os ph or es c en c e Exp os ur e t o s un li g h t .

or e v e n or di n a ry di ff us e d lig h t will e li c i t a p h o s p h or

e s c en c e f r om man y m i n e r a l s w h i c h m a y b e o b s e r v e d b
‘
, y
t r an s fe rr i n g th e m r a pidl y t o a d a r k r oo m .

S om e m i n e r a l s wh en e x p o s e d t o c e rt a i n e l ec t r i c a l
r a dia t i o n s e m i t lig h t Thi s p h e n om e n on is b es t e xhi b i t e d
.

by fl uor s p a r wh e n ce t h e t e r m fl uor e sc e n c e
-
, .

I I TASTE O D O U R AND F EEL

. , ,
.

—
Tas t e C h a r a c t er s of m i n e r a l s d e p e n d en t u p on ta s t e
a r e o n l y pe r c e p t ibl e w h en t h e m i n e r a l s a re s o l u bl e in

Th e ta ste o f co mmon sa l t .

Th e tas t e of
po tas h an d sod a .

Th e tas te o f n it r e ,
potass ium
ch lo ra t e , et c

vit i
.

As t ring ent Th e tas t e of gr e e n r ol .

S weet ish astr in ge nt Th e tas te of a l um .

Bitt e r Th e tas te of Epso m sa l ts .

S our Th e tas te of s ul ph uric a cid .

Od our — S o me m i n er a l s h a v e C h a r ac t er i s t i c odo u r s
.

wh en s tr uc k ru bb ed b r eat h e d u po n or h eated
, , ,

Al l iace o us Od o ur of garl ic
—ar se n ic
H
.

ors e r ad ish -
Od our of d eca yi ng h or se -
ra d i sh

sel e n iu m .

S ul ph ur ou s Od o ur o f b urn ing s ul ph ur — sul ph u r

an d s ul hid e s
p .

F oetid Od o u r of ro tt en egg s— sul ph ur e tt ed

h yd r og e n a n d so me q uar tz a n d li me
s t o n es .

Argil l aceo us Od our o f c l ay wh e n b r ea th e d u

po n .

Al l , with th e e x ce ptio n o f t h e l as t , m a y be el ic it ed
by h ea t or f ri ction .
 36 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER ALOGY
F ee l
'
— S moo t h g re a sy or un c tuou s h ar s h or mea gr e
.
, ,

or r o ugh a r e k i n d s o f fe e l o f m i n era l s t h a t ma id in
- '

, y a

id ent ifi cation .

I II . S TATE O F A GGR EG ATION .

G as es Liq u id s —Ox ygen , n itr ogen a n d c ar b on

a nd ,

d iox ide a r e e x am pl es of n a t ur a l g ases a n d w a te r , me r c u ry ,

p e t r ol e u m , a r e exa mpl es o f n a t u r a l liq u id s .

So Wi th th e ex ce p tio n of m er cu ry an d th e
l id s .
-

n at ur a l m i n er a l oil s a ll th e m in e r a l s wi t h whi c h w e h a v e,
'

to d eal a r e foun d in t h e s o lid s t a t e a n d t h e p rop er t i es ,

d ep en d en t on th e i r s tat e of aggr eg a tion a re now con

s id ere d .

F or m .
—
fa vo ura b l e C i rc umstan c es m i n era l s
U n d er
as su me c e r ta i n d e fi n it e g e o me t r i c a l f o r m s cal l e d crys ta l s ,

t h e r e c og n i t io n of whi c h is a va l ua b l e a id in th e id e n t ifi c a
t io n of m in era l s C ry s ta l s ar e c o n s id er e d in Ch ap t e r I I I
. .

Th e f ollowi n g g en e ra l d esc r ip t iv e t er ms a re as soc i at ed

wi th th e c rysta l C h ar acter of th e m i n era l .

Cry sta ll zsed —Wh en d e n ite g eometrical f orms ar e d e e l o pe d fi v

’

—
.

Cry sta ll in e Wh en no d e n ite crystals are d e el ope d , but merely a

. fi v
conf used a gg r egat e o f impe r f e ctly f or med c rysta l s .

Cryp tocry sta l l ine A gen eral t erm t o d en ot e th e po ssession of m ere

.
- ~

traces of crystall In e str ucture or of micrOSCOp ic crys ta l l in e

. ,

struct ure.

Th e i n d eter mi nate for ms n ot n ec e s sar il y d e p en d en t on ,

c rys ta l C h ar a c te r whi c h mi n e r a l s a s su me a r e d esc r i b e d

, ,

b y v ar io u s names whi c h ar e giv en in t h e foll owi n g li s t ,

A u l
‘

czc
—Wh th mi
ar . l i t f fi d l l ik
en y t l e n era co ns s s o n e n ee e- e cr s a s

n atr ol it e

m — —
.

A mo / mu s W ith o ut a n y d e fi n it e f o r m o
pa l
viti
. .

A myg da loza a l — Al mon d sh ape d , occupyin g th e m in

’
’
st ea
—
.
-
ca es

l v
a as , e ta z eo l ites
—
.

B laded C ya n ite .

B otry oida l C onsistin g of sph er o id a l aggr ega ti on s , so m ewh at

—
.

r ese mb i g
l n a b un ch o f r
g pa e s c h al ced ony .
 38 EL E M ENTS OF M IN ER AL OG Y
and gr a d ua l s u b s t i tu t i on o f p art i c l es o f n ew an d di f fe r e nt
mi n er a l ma t t er f or th e or igi n a l p a r t i c l es whi c h a r e ,

s uc c e s s iv e l
y r e m o v e d by w a t e r o r o t h e r s olv e n t s T hi s
.

ki n d of p seudo mo rphi s m di ff er s fr om th e p r ec e di n g
me r e l y in t h e C i r c u ms ta n c e t h a t t h e n e w t en an t e n t e r s
b e fore th e Old ten an t ha s en t i re ly e va c ua te d h is quar ter s .

4 . A p se ud o mo rph by a l te ra t i on is d u e to g ra d ual
c h e m i ca l c h a n g e whi c h c ry s ta l s som e t i m es un d e r go ,

t h e i r com p os i t i on b eco m i n g s o a l t e r e d t h a t t h e a r e n o
y
l on g er t h e s ame m i n era l s a l t ho ugh th ey s t ill reta i n th e
,

Old for ms .

P s e ud omo rph s may g en era lly be r ec ogn i s ed by a w a nt

of s ha rp n es s in th e a n gl es of the c rys ta l s whil e t h e i r ,

fac es us ua lly p r e s ent a d ull an d s o m ewh at g r an ul a r or

e ar t h y as p e c t .

D imor p his m Wh en th e sa me C h emi c a l c o mp oun d

.
-

is c a p a b l e o f c r ys t a lli s i n g in two di ff e r en t s ys te ms it is ,

s a id t o b e di mo r pho u s c a r b on a t e of li m e whi c h a s ,

c a l c s p a r is r ho m b oh e d ra l whil e a s a ra g on i t e it is or t ho
-
,

r h om b i c in c r s ta lli s a t i on S u lph u r is a l so di m o r pho u s

y .
,

s i n c e it c r s ta lli s e s b o th in t h e o r tho r ho m b i c an d mon o

y
C li n i c s ys te m s .

Wh en a c o mpo un d is c a p ab l e of c r ys ta lli si n g in th ree

di ff er en t typ es of c rysta l s it is t h en s a id to be t r i
,

m or pho u s t i ta n i c o xid e C rys talli sa t i on of an y

.

c om p oun d in a s t ill g r ea t e r n um b e r o f s s t em s is s pok en

y
of a s pol ymo r phi s m .

H a r d n es s —H a r d n e ss va r i e s v e ry g r eat ly in m i n er a l s
. ,

an d is on e o f the m os t i m po r t an t t e s ts — in fa c t th e fi r s t
whi c h s h ou ld b e m a d e in d eter m i n i n g a m i n e ra l H a r d .

n e s s s h ou ld b e t es t e d b r u bb i n g t h e s p e c i m e n ov e r a
y
t ol er a bl y fi n e c u t fi l e a n d n ot i n g t h e a mou n t Of powd e r
-
,

an d th e d e g r ee of n oi s e p r od u c e d by s o doi n g .

Th e l e s s th e pow d e r an d th e g r ea ter th e n oi se , th e
 TH E P H Y S I C AL PR OP ERTI ES OF MI NER AL S 39

har d er will be th e m i n eral On th e oth er h an d a soft .

,

m i n era l will y i eld m u c h powd er an d b ut li tt l e n oi s e .

Th e n oi s e a n d amoun t o f powd er s ho uld b e c o m p ar e d

wi th th at p r od uc ed by m i n era l s whi c h ar e use d as
s tan da r d e x a m pl e s f or h a r dn ess t e s t s Th e sc al e in .

g en eral us e an d k n own by th e n ame of M oh s s ca l e is

,
’

h ere a p p en d ed an d t h e s t ud en t wo uld do we ll to commi t

,
‘

it to m e mo ry It is i mpo rt an t t o n ot e h o w e v er t ha t
.
, ,

t h es e m in e r a l s do n ot a dv a n c e in an y d e fin i t e or r eg u l ar
r a t io of h ar dn ess .

I. Tal c C ommon foliated v ar i ety .

2 . R oc k sa lt Or gyp s um .

3 . C al c s p ar
-
Tr an s par en t v ar i e ty .

4 . F l uo r s pa r
-
C rys talli s e d v ar i e ty .

5 . Ap at i te Tran s p ar e n t c ry s ta lli s ed va r i e ty .

Ort hoc las e C l ea v a b l e var i et

( ) y .

Tr an s p ar en t v ar i ety .

Tr an s par e n t cr ys ta l .

9 . S a pphir e . Cl eava b l e v ar i ety or co run d um , .

I . D i amon d .

Th e i a l may al so be made by en d ea vo urin g to sc ra tc h

tr
th e s pe c i m en s en u mer at ed in th e li s t wi t h th e m i n er a l
u n d er e x am i n a t io n I f f or e xampl e th e m i n eral w ill
.
, ,

sc r a t c h f e l s p a r an d will n ot sc r a t c h q uar t z it will ha v e a ,

har dn ess betw een 6 an d 7 whi c h would be w r i tt en 6 2 5 , ,

6 5 6 7 5 a c c o r din g t o wh et h er it a pp r oa c h e s mo r e
°

, ,

n ear l t o f e l s p ar o r q u a rt z i n h ar dn e s s
y .

H ar d n es s may a l s o be t es te d by m ean s of a p enkn ife ,

or e v e n t h e fi n ge r n a il ; t h e fo r m e r s c r a t c hi n g up t o 6
5
'
-
,

a n d t h e l att e r t o 2 5 ( F i n g e r n a il s
. how e v er-
v ar y ,in ,

ha rdn es s ) .

W i n d ow gla ss ma y be u s ed in an e merg en c y as a
-

s u b s t i t ut e f or a p a t i t e an d fli n t f or q uart z
, D ur i n g t h e se .

t rial s th e c ol our an d l u s t r e o f th e s tr ea k o r sc r a tc h a n d
40 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER ALO G Y
the l
c o ou r p owd er s h ou ld a l so b e n ot i c e d To
of the .

d e ter mi n e th e l at te r in d ou b t f u l c a s es it is w e ll to r u b
, ,

s om e o f t h e p o wd e r o n a pi ec e o f w h i t e p a p e r o r s c ra t c h ,

th e m i n e r a l u p on a pi e c e o f un gl a z e d p or c el a i n or
r ou gh e n e d gl a s s .

Te n a c ity — M i n e ra l s po sses s i
p r op ert i es
c e r ta n de
p en d e n t u p on th e i r t e n a c ty, i oi whi c h th e foll owi n g ar e

t h e m o s t i m p or ta n t

( )
a S ectility .
— A mi n e ra l is sa id t o be s ec t il e wh en it
may be c ut wi th a k n if e but is n ot ma ll eab l e , . Ex a m pl e
g r a phi t e , s t e a t i t e e t c ,
.

()b M a llea bilit

y
— M i n e r al s a r e m a ll ea b l e wh e n s li c es
.

c ut fr om t h e m m a b e fl a t t e n e d o ut u n d e r a h am mer
y .

Ex a mpl e : n at iv e gold S ilv er copp er pl at i n um e tc , , , ,

.

D cti lit —M i n e ra l s a r e d uc t il e wh e n t h e be
( )
c u y .
y c a n

d raw n out i n to wi re s an d t h e s e p r op e rti es b e l on g on l y

,

t o m e t a lli c min eral s an d of t ho s e o n l y t o n at iv e met a l s

, , , .

D u c t il e mi n er a l s a r e a lw ay s m al l ea b l e .

( )
d F l ex i b ili ty is t h e p r o p e r t y of b e n di n g In s o m e .

m i n era l s it c a n be Ob s e r v e d by e x p er i men t i n g upo n t h e i r

pl a te s or l am i n ae on l y A fl ex i b l e m i n eral r e ma i n s b e n t
.

a f t e r t h e p r ess ur e is r e mov e d Ex am pl e : t a l c s el en i t e
.
, ,

e l a t er i t e e t c
, .

( )
e E la sticit
y di ff er s o n l y f r o m fl e x i b ili t y in t h e po r t io n

b en t s p r i n gi n g b ac k to its f or mer po s i ti on Ex a mpl e : m i ca . .

(f ) B l i h m m o m m i l
’

r i tt e n es s s a C a r a c t e r c o n t o a n
y n e r a s ,

a n d is s how n b t h e i r C r um b li n g or fl i n g t o p owd er
y y
i n s tea d of yi eldi n g a s li c e Ex am pl e : i ro n pyr i tes n a tiv e .
-
,

a r s e n i c a p a t i t e a u gi t e fl u or s p a r e t c
, , ,
-
, .

F r a c t u r e — It i s, v ery i mp ortan t to n ote th e c h aract er

of frac tur e a s di s pl aye d on t h e b rok en or c hipp e d
,

s u r f a c e s of m i n e ra l s It is a l so e q ua ll y i mp or ta n t t h a t
.

t h e s t u d e n t s ho u ld di s t i n g u i s h b et w e en t h e s mooth fla t ,

s u r f a c e s r e s ul t ing f r om t h e c l e av a g e o f a m i n er a l and
’

, ,
 TH E P H Y S I C AL PR O P ER TI ES OF M I N ER AL S
the i rr eg ul a rf C h a r a c te r i s i n g t r u e f r a c t u r e
s ur a c e s an d ,

w hi c h a r e t o ta ll y i n d e p en d e n t o f C l ea v a g e .

Th e o bs e r v e r may h e r e n ote th e c o l our Of th e m i n e r a l ,

wh i c h s h o u ld a lwa ys be j u dg e d fr om a r ec e n t fra c t u r e ,

an d n ot fr o m a s u r fa c e whi c h h a s b ee n l on g e xpo s e d t o

t h e ac t i on o f t h e a ir B y t h i s h o w e v er it is n ot i m pli e d
.
, ,

t h a t h e s h ou ld b r ea k or C h ip g ood c r ys t a l s a s c r ys t a lli n e ,

for m is a f ar m or e va l u a ble a n d con s tan t C h a r ac ter by

wh i c h t o d e t e r m i n e a min e r a l t h an it s co l o u r an d in , ,

m an y ca s e s t h an its f rac tur e

, .

F rac tur e is sa id to be
I .Con choid a l—wh en t h e min era l s b rea with a cur ed co n ca e o r k v v
v
con ex fr ac t ur e I t o ft e n sho ws con ce ntric and gra d ua l ly d iminish in g
.

un d ul a ti o ns t o wa rds th e o in t of e c ussi o n , s o me wh a t re se mb li ng t h e
p p r

l in es o f gr owt h on a s h ell C on ch oidal f ra cture is well sh o wn in

.

q uar tz , fl in t , an d ob s id ia n
—
.

z . Even when th e fr ac t ure sur f a ce is fla t or n ea rly fla t, as in

-

Ch e rt
—
.

3 .U n e v en w h e n th e f r a c t u r e s u rf a ce -
is r o ug h b y reas o n o f m in ut e

v
el e a tions a n d d e p ress io ns Exa mple : co ppe r pyr it es , e tc
—
-
. .

4 Haelely
. wh e n t he s ur fa ce is st udd ed W i th sh a rp a nd j agged
v
el e a tions , as in cast iro n wh e n b r o e n
-
k
r t h —as in th e fr ac tu r e o f Ch a l , m e e r sc h a um , r ed dl e , e t c
.

5 E
. a y k .

l
C e av ag e —
Cl os e ly . l d to c rys ta lli n e f or m is th e
r e at e

t en d en c y t o s pli t a lo n g d e fi n i t e pl an e s po s se s se d by man y
m i n e r al s whi c h in e a c h C l ea va bl e m i n e ra l s pe c i es b ear s
,

a c on s t a n t r e l a t i on t o a c e r t a i n fa c e o r t o c e rta i n f a c e s , ,

of t he f or m in w h i c h t h e m i n e r a l c r s t a lli s e s I t is im
y .

po r tan t t o di s t i n g u i s h b e tw e en f rac t ur e a n d c l ea v a g e a s ,

t h e fo r m e r is i rr e g u l a r a n d n o t c on n e c t e d wi t h th e C ry s
t a llin e f or m o f th e m i n era l M i n e r al s m ay c l ea v e in
.

o n e t wo th r e e o r mor e di r e c t i on s b u t on e C l ea v ag e is
, , , ,

ge n er a lly to b e ob ta i n e d wi t h g r e ate r eas e t h an t h e ot h e r s .

In th e pl an e o f C l ea v ag e th e mol e c ul es c om po s i n g th e
m i n er a l a r e c lo s e l y p ac k e d tog e t h e r w h il s t a t r ig h t an gl es ,

t o t hi s pl an e th e pa c ki n g is n ot so C l os e Thi s las t .

di r ec t i on is th e re for e a di r ec t i on of l east c oh es i on
, , ,
 42 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OGY
and h en ce s pli tt i n g or C l eavag e e a s il y oc c u r s a l on g it .

Cl ea vag e is o ften of g reat a s s i s tan c e in d e ter mi n i n g

m i n er a l s whi c h C l ose l y r e s em b l e on e a n o th e r in c rys tal
li n e for m a n d in oth er ex tern al C h ara c ter s In g eology
, .
,

c er ta i n r o c k s s uc h a s s l a t e whi c h s pli t a c r o s s t h ei r
, ,

pl an es of b eddi ng a re s a id to be c l ea v ed but thi s c l eavag e ,

is t h e r e s ul t of mol e c u l a r c h an g e p r od uc e d by p res s u r e ,

a n d h a s n o c o n n ec t i on wi t h th e c l ea v a g e whi c h e xi s ts

in mi nera l s R o c k s a l t g al en a c a l c s p ar fl uor s p a r
.
-
, ,
-
,
-
,

s el en i te , m i ca ho rn b l en d e fe l s p ar et c
, , aff or d good
, .
,

e x a mpl e s of c l e a v a g e .

G lidi n g pl an es a n d s ec o n d a r y twi n n i n g a r e r e l ate d to

C l e a va g e a n d a re p r od u c e d in a m i n e r a l b p r e s s ur e
, y
c
g , d ur i ng th e pre p aratio n of a t hi n s li c e of cal c i te th e ,

pr e s s ure of g r i n di n g t he mi n er al always caus es th e

m i n era l to S how an e x c ell en t c l eavag e an d s o me sec o n d ary
t wi n n i n g .

S ur f a ce Te ns ion .
—Th e diff erence in adh es iv e pow er
of v ar io u s li qu id s to di ff erent m i n era l s h a s fo r m e d th e
b as i s f or n umer o us p roc ess es of or e s eparat i on an d c on
c en t r a t io n .Th e s u r fac e t en s i on b etw e en v ar io u s m eta lli c
s u lphid es a n d oil is g r ea t e r t h a n t h a t b e t w ee n t h e g an g ue

m i n era l s q uartz c a l c i t e e tc an d t h e s ame m e di u m

, ,
.
,
.

In th e o r igi n a l El more P r ocess a p a s t e o f s u lphid e a n d

g an g ue is m i x e d wi t h oil a n d w ater an d a gi tate d th e oil
s e t t l es i n t o a l a er a b ov e t h e w a t er a n d c arr i e s wi t h it
y
t h e s ulphid es .S om e wh a t of th e s ame p r i n c ipl e un d er
li es th e met h o d of e x trac t i ng di a m o n d s from b l ue gr o u n d -
,

by c a us i n g t h e m to a d h er e t o g rea s e u po n s h a ki n g ta b l e s .

Th e va r i ou s Flota tion P r ocesses d e p en d on s ur f ac e t en s io n .

In t h ese b u bb l e s o f gas or a ir a t t ac h t h e ms e lv e s to zi n c
,

b l en d e an d flo a t thi s mi n er a l to th e s ur face l ea vi ng o th er ,

s ulphi d e s a n d g an g ue m at er i a l at t h e b o t to m of th e
li qu id .
 TH E P H Y S I C AL PR OP ER TI ES OF MI N ER AL S 43

IV . S P EC IFI C GR AV I TY .

Th e p ec ific g r a vi ty o f a b o dy is th e r a t i o o f t h e
s

w e igh t of th e bod y t o th at of a n e qu al vol um e of w at er .

Thi s l a tt e r w e igh t va r i es wi t h t h e t e m p e r atu r e b u t s i n c e ,

it s v a r i a t i on is v ery s m a ll it is n egl ec t e d in d et er mi n a
, ,

t i o n s o f t h e s p e c ifi c gr a vi t y o f m i n e r a l s .

Th e c a r di n a l p r i n c ipl e e m pl oye d in m os t d et er m i n a
.

t i on s of s p ec ifi c g r a vi ty is th a t t h e l os s in w e igh t of a
body i mm e r s e d in wa te r is th e w e igh t of a v ol um e of
wa te r eq ua l to th a t of th e b od y S u ppo s e t h at W is t h e .
a

w e igh t of t h e b od y in a ir W w its w e igh t in w a te r ,

Th e r e for e W W is th e w e ig h t o f th e w at er di spl ac e d
a w

b y t h e b od y H en c e t h e s p e c ifi c g ra vi ty is given by
.

W ,
Ww

M e t h od s of D et er minin g S p ec ifi c G ra v ity .

I . B y m e an s di n ar y b a l a n c e
o f a n or .

2 . Wa lk er s s t e e l yar d (f or l a r g e s pe c i me n s )
’
.

J oll y s S p r i n g b a l a n c e f o r v e ry s mall s p ec i men s )

(
’

3 . .

4 . B y m e a s u r i n g t h e di s p a c e d w a te r .

5 . Th e p yc n o me te r .

6 . B y m ea n s Of h e a v y liq u id s .

7 . Of liq u id s by m e a n s o f t h e S p ec ifi c g r a vi ty bo tt l e
, ,

h y d r om e t e r e t c ,
.

I .By Mea n s of a n Or d i n a ry B a la n ce — For ta ing s pe ci c gra ities

.
’
. k fi v
with a ba la n ce on e o f th e s ca l e pa n s sh o ul d be r e mo ed , a nd a n ex a ct
-
v
co un t er o ise , t erm in a t in
p g be l o w in a s mall b oo k , sh ould b e sub s t itu te d
f o r it .Th e min e ra l to b e weigh ed sh oul d be suspe n d ed f r om t h e b oo k
o f t h is c o u n t e r o is e e it h e r b
p y a h a ir , a fi n e fi
bre o f s il , o r a p ie c e o f k
e x tr e m e l
y fi n e w ire T h e .w e igh t of t h e h a ir , s il , o r Wi r e s h oul d be k
k
ta e n in t o c on sid erat io n be f ore s us pe n din g t h e min era l , a n d a c o rr e
spo nd in
g c o u n t e r o is e sh o ul d be p l a ce d in t h e s ca l e p a n
p A f t e r ca re -
.

f ully we igh ing th e s us pe n d ed m in e ra l in th e a ir , a t u mbl er of wa t er

sh o ul d b e l a ce d s o t h a t th e m in e ra l is wel l im m e rs e d be n ea th th e
p
44 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y .

s ur f a ce o f wa t er , ta k ing c are t h a t n o b ubb l es o f a ir a re a d h e ring t o ,

th e
o r im r iso n e d b , t h e min era l
p y T h e w e ig h t w il l t h e n be f o u n d t o b e

v
.

l e ss . If n ow t h e we igh t o f th e m in e ra l in a ir b e di id e d by t h e d iff e r
e n ce o f it s we i h t in a ir a n d wa t er , th e r e s ul t will g i e it s s p e cifi c
g v
g v
ra it
y .

2 Wa lker s S teely/a r d — Th is in strum e n t is u sef ul f or d et ermin ing

’

v
.

t h e sp e cifi c g ra ity o f la rge sp ec ime n s , a nd is sh o wn in Fig 3 Th e . .

ess e n t ial a r t of t h e a a ra t us is t h e l o n g g r a d ua te d b e a m wh ich is

p pp
p v
i o t ed n e a r one e n d , a n d is c o u n t e r b a l a n ce d b
y a h ea y we igh t v
s usp e n d ed t o th e sh o r t ar m Th e s p ecimen is s uspe nd ed a n d mo ed
. v
a lon
g t h e b e a m u n t il i t c ou n t e r b a l a n c e s t h e co n s t a n t w e igh t Th e .

F IG .
3 —
.WALK ER S ’
STEELY AR D .

r ead i ng ( a ) is ta k en Th e s p ec i men is th en immersed in wa ter a nd

v
.

mo ed a l o ng th e b e a m u n t il th e c o n s ta n t we igh t is a a in ba la
g n c ed A
v
.

secon d r ea d in g ( b) is obta in ed .
(a ) a nd ( b) a re in e r se ly p ro
po r tio n a l

t o th e we igh ts of th e bo dy in a ir a n d in water r es
p e ct i ely v .

H en ce

S pecifi c gra ity v G s:

Th eref ore th e secon d r e a d ing , v

( b) di id e d by th e d iff er en ce b et ween
th e sec o n d a n d fi rst r e a d ing s , gi v es th e s p ec i fi c v
g ra ity
—
.

3 j ol ly s
’
Sp r ing B a l a n ce Th is inst r umen t c on sists o f a S pring
.

v
.

su sp e n d e d er t ical ly aga in st a g ra d uat e d sca l e To th e l ower en d of .

t h e sp r ing a r e a tta ch e d t wo sca l e pa n s , o n e b el o w th e oth er , th e l o we r

-

sca l e pa n be ing al ways imme rs ed in wat e r Fig 4 sh o ws a J olly

-
. .

b al a n ce Th e r eading ( a ) o f th e b ottom of th e spr ing o n th e sca l e is

.

Ob ta in ed Th e min era l ( a sma l l f r ag men t ) is pl ac ed in th e u ppe r pa n ,

.

a n d a seco n d r ea d ing ( b) t a en k
Th e sp ecimen is th en t ransf err ed int o
.

th e l o wer pa n , a n d a third r ea d ing ( c ) ta en k .

Th en b a is p ro p ortional to th e weigh t in a ir , a nd b c to th e l oss

o f we igh t in wa t er .

Th er ef ore
S p e cifi c g ra ity v G
46 EL EM ENTS O F M I NER AL O GY
Th e f ollowing ar e so me of th e mat erials used in th is p ro cess

Bromof orm 2
°

M e th l en e iod id e
D i luted WIth ben zme .

y
M erc ury p o tassium io d id e

( Th oul et s li uid )
’
q
C a d mium bo rotungstate
( Klein s sol ution )
’

M ercu r ous n it r at e ( cr s
y °
ta l lin e ) ( mel ts at 70 C )
.

v
S il er n itrat e ( R etge r s ’

( melts
°
sa l t ) at 75
45

Th e well -
kn o wn s e
pa ratin g f u n n e l is us ef ul f o r h ea y l i u id separa v q
t ion s , s in ce itws t h e
a l lo k
ma t erial wh ich has sun to be d rawn off f r om
th e fl oa tin g ma t erial .

D ifiu s ion Colu mn — Fo r testing s mall sampl es th e d iff usion col umn
is used . Two per f ect ly miscible l iq uid s of d iff eren t spe cifi c gr a ity a r e v
pl aced in a gra d uated t ube with out mix tur e , a n d a llowed t o st a n d f o r a
d ay or more until r egul ar diff usion of th e t wo l iq uid s h a s t a k e n pl a ce .

Th us is f ormed a col umn Of l iq uid in wh ich th e sp ecifi c gra ity arie s v v

r e ul ar l
g y f r om to p t o bo t tom Sma l l f ragments Of k n own spe cifi c
v
.

g ra it
y a re i n t r o d u c e d a n d c o m e t o r e s t a t pa r t ic u l ar p o in t s in t h e

v
,

col umn , th us s er ing a s in d ices Th e fi n ely powd ered sa mpl e is

v
.

int rod uced , an d its se eral c on st it uen ts a re sepa rate d in t o b an d s o f

v a rying s e cifi c
p g r a ity T v
h e s p
. ec ifi c g r a it y o f t h e se bva n d s c an be

tol d by t h eir p osit ion with r ega rd to t h e in d ic es Of k n own specifi c

v
gr a ity .

.
-
v
Westp ha l B a la n ce A h ea y liq uid is d iluted until th e min eral
v
wh ose s p ecifi c gr a ity is r eq uir ed j ust floats Th e spe cifi c gr a ity o f
. v
th e l iq u id ( a n d t h eref ore o f th e min er al ) is con en ien tly d et er min ed by v
th e West ph a l ba l a n ce In th is a sin k er is immersed in th e l iq uid a n d
.

ba lan ced by rid ers on a g rad uat ed ar m Th e arm is so gra d ua ted th a t

.

v
th e sp ecifi c gra ity of t h e l iq uid ca n be read off dir ectly
—
.

7. S p f
ec i i c G r a v i y Qf
t L i q u i d s Th e Specifi c gra it y of l iq uid s v
( p et ro l eum , etc ) ca n be st be d eter min ed by mea n s of th e spe cifi c
.

g r a v ity bott l e, Westpha l ba lan ce, or by th e u se o f th e common

hyd rometer .

V H AR AC TER S D EP END ENT U P ON H EAT

. C .

F us ib il ity —Th e r e l at iv e f u s i b ili ty of m i n e a l

. r s Is a

u se uf l C har ac ter a s a n a id in t h e i r d eter m i n at i on by t h e

blowpip e A s ca l e of s ix m i n er al s of whi c h t h e t em
.
,

p e r a tu r e o f f u s io n wa s s u ppo s e d t o i n c r e a s e by s o me wh a t
e q ua l s te ps was s u gg e s t e d by Von K obell
,
Th es e .

mi n er a l s ar e st i b n i t e n atr oli t e a l m an di n e a c ti n oli t e

°

, , , ,
 TH E P H Y S I C AL PR OP ER TI ES OF . M INER A LS 47

orth oc las e bron zi t e All th at can b e s aid of t h ese

, .

m ine r al s is t h a t s t i b n i t e is eas il y f us i b l e whil s t b r o n zi t e ,

ca n h ar dl
y b e fu s e d in t h e o r din a r y b l o wpipe .

VI . M AG NETI S M , EL EC T RI C I TY ,
AND R AD I O AC TI V I TY
- .

M ag n et is m — M ag n et i te . l e s s d eg r ee p yr
, an d in a

r h o tin e ar e t h e on l m i n er a l s a ff e c t e d b y an o r di n ar y
, y
m agn e t bu t a l a r ge n u mb e r of m i n er a l s ar e a t tra c t e d in
,

v ar y in g d e gr ee s by t h e el ec troma gn et M i n e ra l s c on .

ta i n i n g i r on a r e g en era ll y m a gn e ti c bu t n ot n e c es sa r il y ,

so an d th e d e gr ee o f m agn e t i s m di s pl a e d d o e s n o t in a l l
, y ,

c ases d e p en d on t h e i r on con t e n t
, M i n er a l s con t ai n i n g .

n o i r o n ma a l s o b e s u ffi c i e n t l y m agn e t i c t o p e r m i t of
y
t h e i r s e p a r a t i on fr o m n on m a gn et i c ma te r i a l — cg -
mona ,

zi t e a n d som e o th er c e r i um be ar in g m i n er al s -Th e .

e l e c tr om a gn e t i c s e p a r a t i on o f mi n e r a l s is an i m porta n t

or e d r e s s i n g p r oc e s s
-
B y v ar y i n g t h e s tr e n gt h o f t h e
.

e l e c t r om a gn e t m i n e r a l s of v aryin g ma gn e t i s m c an be
,

s e p a r a t e d f r o m on e an o t h er Ex a m pl e s o f s uc h se pa ra
.

t i on a re t h e p ur ifi c at io n of m agn e t i t e f r om a pa t i t e e tc ,
.
,

t h e se p ar at io n of p yr i t e s f r o m b l e n d e C h a l ybi t e f rom ,

bl en d e w olfra m f rom t i n s ton e an d mon a zi te f rom mag

, ,

n e t it e a n d ga rn e t It is so m e t i mes n ecessa r y t o r oa s t t h e
.

o r e in o r d e r t o c o n v e rt fee b l m a g n e t i c m a t e r ia l s s uc h
y ,

a s p yr i t e s an d C h a l yb i t e i n t o s tr o n gl y m ag n e t i c ma t e r ia l
, .

H ighly M ag netic — M a gn et i t e p yrr h ot i n e

.
, .

M oder a tely M agnetic — Ch a l ybi t e i ro n g a rn et, C h r o m i te ,

.
,
-

il men i t e , h emat i t e w olfra m , .

Wea kly M ag netic — Tour mali n e , s pi n e l s , mon a zi t e

. .

Non M agnetic — Q u ar tz cal c i te f el s p ar , t op az , c o r n n

-
.
, ,

d u m, c as s i t er i t e .

El ectri city — El ec t r i c i t y ma y b e d ev e l op e d in mi n eral s

e i t h er by fr i ct io n or h ea t , an d in th e l a t t er c a s e t h e
 EL EMENTS OF M INER ALO G Y
'

4s

m in er a l is Sa id to b py r o electr ic To u r m ali ne is a n
“
‘

e -
.

e x a m pl e of p yr o e l e c t r i c m i n e ra l Th e d e g r e e of
‘ ‘

a -
.

l
e ec t r ifi c at i on va r i e s wid e l y a mo ng mi n e ral s an d t hi s ,

v a r i a t i on h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n a ppli e d
p a r a t e by t h e to se

Electr osta tic S ep a ra tion P rocess In on e t yp e o f t hi s p roc e s s

.

th e fi n e c r u s h e d a n d d r i e d or e is dr o pp e d on t o a r o t a t i n g
i ron cy li n d e r e l ect r i ca ll y c h a r g e d G oo d con d uc tor s
, .

b e c om e C h a r g e d an d a r e r e p e ll e d f rom th e c yli n d er ba d ,

c o n d u c t or s a r e r e p e ll e d t o a l e ss d e g r e e a n d h e n ce t h e ,

s h ow e r of ore is s e p a r a t e d o u t i n t o s e v e r a l m i n or S h ow e r s

w h i c h ca n b e s e p a r a te l y c oll ec te d F or e x a m pl e b l en d e .
,

a b a d c on d u c t o r is se p a r a t e d fr om p r i t e a g ood c on
( ) y (
d uc tor) in thi s way .

Good C ond uctors — Nat iv e me ta l s ,

gr a ph i te ,
su lphid e s
(ex c e p t b l e n de) .

B ad Conductor s — B l e n d e .
, q u a rt z ,
ca c l i te , b ar
yt es ,

fl uo r .

R a d io Activ t y
-
i — M any m i n era l s C o n ta i n i n g e l emen t s
.

of high ato mi c w eigh t ar e ra d iO— a ct iv e a n d emi t a n ,

‘

e m an at i on t h a t will a ff ec t a p h otog ra phi c pl at e a n d ,

whi c h m a y be r en d ere d visi b l e by mean s of a se n s i t iv e ‘

ph os phor es c en t s cr een .

T h e C hi e f r a di o ac t iv e el e men t s a r e— r a di um i t s e lf
-
,

u ra n i u m
, a n d t ho r i u m P i tc hbl en d e is t h e mo st im
.
”

po r tant r a di o a c t iv e mi n er a l ; oth er s are a u tun i t e mon a

-
'

zi te t ho r i te a n d carn ot i t e
, , .
 C H APTER III
C R Y S TA L L OG R AP H Y
I nt r od u c tion .
—It was i d
n ot c e by th e i
a n c en t G re e k s
h c e rt a i n m i n era l z ll o d in f or m s
t at a Q ,u ar t , u s u a
y c c ur r e

ha vi n g a c h ar a c ter i s t i c s h a p e b e i n g bo un d ed by fl a t
,

fac es F r om th e tr an s p ar e n c y of t hi s m in era l a n d t h e
.

oc c u rr en c e in it o f i n c l u d e d m a t e r i al it wa s t h ou gh t th a t
,

r t z r es u l t e d f r o m t h e f r e e zi n g of w a t e r u n d e r i n t en se
Q u a

c o ld , a n d h en c e t h e n a m e C ry s tallos— m e an i n g clea r ice

— wa s giv e n t o t h e s u b s ta n c e H o w e v e r t h er e w e r e
.
,

n u m e r ou s ot h e r m i n e r a l s k n o w n t o t h e a n c i en t s w h i c h

o c c urr e d in f or m s bo u n d e d by fl a t f a c e s a nd s o
, by a ,

n a t ur a l e x t e n s i o n of t h e t e r m cr stallos c a me t o s ig n if
, y y
an y m i n e ra l li m i t e d by fl at f a c es .

B y t h e r es ea rc h es of S t en o D e l Is le an d H auy th e
’
, ,

s c i e n c e of c r ys t al l ogr a ph y g r a d ua ll y e volv e d fr om me r e

s p e c u l at i on. It is t o H a uy t h a t w e ar e i n d e b t e d f or an
ill u mi n at i n g th eor y of th e str ucture of c rys tal s H auy .

a r g u e d t h a t c r ys t a l s w ere b u il t u p of m i n u t e br icks of t h e

m i n era l di ff e r e n t m od e s of arra n ge m e n t o f t h e b r i c k s
,

p r od uc i n g differ e n t c r ys ta l for ms B y m or e r e c e n t
.

i n v e s t iga t i on s H a uy s n oti on of th e ar r an g e me n t of
‘ ’

mat e r i a l b r i c k s h a s b e e n r e pl a c e d by th at o f t h e a r r a n g e
m e n t of a t om i c g r ou p s o r m ol e c u l e s It is t h e r e f or e
.

a pp ar e n t t h a t C h e m i c a l c on s t i t u t i o n h a s an i mpor ta n t
i n fl ue n c e on c ry s ta lli n e f or m a n d i n d ee d Von F e d or ov h a s
, , ,

r e c e n t l y i s s u e d a li s t o f o v er t e n t h o u sa n d s u b s ta n c es t h e ,

c h e m i c a l c o m po s i t i on o f wh i c h h e is a bl e t o t e ll w i t h

a b s o l ut e c e r ta i n t y f r o m a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r c rys t a l s .

49 4
50 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER ALO G Y
P of e
r J udd in h is P r e s id en t i a l Add r e s s to th e
s s or ,

G e o l ogi ca l S oc i ety f or 1 88 7 i n s t i t ut e d a n i n t e re s t i n g
,

co mp a r i s o n b e t wee n c r ys t a l s a n d livi n g m a t t er Life .

h a s b ee n d e fi n e d a s a ser ies o
f d fi
e n
“
i te a nd s uccessive

cha ng es , both f
o str uctu re a nd co mp osition which take,
p lace in
an individual without chang ing its identity .
”
It i s O b vi ou s
t hat d e r t hi s d e fin i t i on c rys ta l s live
un C rys ta l s g row
“
.
”

by a s e r i es of d e fi n i t e a n d s u c c ess iv e C h an g e s b o t h of ,

s t r uc ture a n d com po s i t io n wi t h o ut a l t e r i n g t h e ir id e n t i ty
, .

C rys ta l s c an r e ta i n t h e i r vi ta li ty f or c oun tl es s ag es can , ,

un d er s u i t a b l e con di t io n s d e v e l o p i n t o S h a p e s e x a c tl y
,

S i m il ar t o t ho se o f livi n g o rgan i s ms c a n a b s o r b food ,

from t h e i r s urroun di n gs c an p r op ag a t e th ei r ki n d ca n
, ,

r e s po n d t o C h a n g es in t h e i r e n vi r o n m e n t C a n r e n e w a n d ,

r e p a i r t h e m s e lv es I n d eed it h a s b een s u gges te d th a t

.
,

t h e fi r s t f or me d o rg an i c ma tt e r wa s d ev e l op e d f r om a
c a r b on a c eo u s S li me whi c h h a d th e p r op er ti es of an
o r di n ar y c rys talli s i n g s ub s ta n c e .

l
C ry s t a l og ra p hy — C rys ta llogr aph y is t h e s tu dy of
.
‘

c r sta l s
y .C r s ta l s
y a re b odi es b o un d e d by s u r f ac es ,

us ua ll y fl a t a rra n g ed u po n a d e fi n i t e pl a n w h i c h is a n
,

e x p r e s s io n of t h e i n t e rn a l a rr a n g e m e n t o f t h e m ol e c ul es ,

a n d a r e f o r m e d by t h e c h a n g e o f a m i n e r a l f r o m t h e

gas eous or liq u id s tate i n to t h e solid s tate .

C h a r act e ris t ics of Crys t a l s .

Faces — C rys ta l s are b oun d ed

whi c h a re by s ur a c e s f
u s u a ll y pl a n e b u t m a y be c u r v e d a s in C h a l yb i t e d ia
, , ,

m on d e t c ,
Th e se s u r fa c es a r e c a ll e d faces
. Lik e fa c es .

h a v e th e s a m e p rop ert i es a n d un lik e fa c e s h av e diff er en t

,

p rop er t i e s .

Form —A c rys ta l h a vi n g a ll o f its fac es lik e fa c es is

.

t e r me d a simple for m F or e x a m pl e t h e c u b e a n d t h e
.
,

oc t a h e d r on a r e e a c h o f t h e m s i mpl e f or ms s i n c e al l t h e ,
 C R Y S TALL OG RA P H Y 51

f a c es o f e ac h have t he sa me p r op e rt i es A c r ys t a l w h i c h
.

c on s i s t s of t wo or m or e s i m pl e f or m s is ca lle d a combin a

tion . In F ig .
5 t h e cu b e an d th e oc ta h e d ron ar e s h own as

s i m pl e fo r ms an d al so a s a combi n ation s uc h as oc c ur s in
,

c r s t a l s o f g a l en a
y .

Edge —An edge is fo r me d by th e i n ter s ec t i on of an y

.

t wo a dj acen t f a c es .

F IG 5 —SI M PL E C UBE AN D
D
. .

I
S MP L E OC TA H E R O N A .

CO MB N AT O N I OF TH E I
C U RE AN D OC TAH E R O N D
As F O U N D
I N C R Y STALS O F
G ALENA .

S olid A ngle — A solid . a ng le is fo r me d by th e i nter s ec t io n

of three or mor e fa c e s .

I nter faci al Ang le — Th e a n gl e b et w e en an y two

. fa c es of
a c r ys ta l is t er m e d t h e interf acial angle, an d is in c rys ta l ,

l ogr a p h y, t h e an gl e b etw een th e n o rmal s t o t h e t wo f a c e s .

S ymmet ry egula r ity

Of po s i tio n of l ik e f ac es edg e s e tc , , .
,

and t hi s r e gu l a r i t y c on s t i tut e s t h e

sy mmetry o f t h e c r ys ta l .

Th e c r i t e r i a of s ymm e t r y a r e t h r e e
a Pl f y
S mm
a ne o e try ,
Ax is o
f Sy m
metry , an d Cen tr e of Sy mmetry .

P
lan e of Sy mmetry A p lane of .

sy mmetry divid es a c r ys tal i n t o two

F IG 6
s i m i la r a n d s i m il a r l y pl a c ed h a lv e s
. .

In o t h er w or d s , s uc h a pl an e divid es the c rys ta l SO t h at

on e ha lf is t h e re fl e c t i on of th e o th e r h a lf .
 52 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
F igh ow s th e pl an es of s ym metry of
6 be Th e se
‘

. S a cu .

di s sec ted pl an es ar e di s pl ayed in F ig 7 . .

3 plan es . 2 p lan es . 2
p l a nes . 2 p l a nes .

F IG .
7 .

Ax is of Sy mmetry .
-
If a c r ys ta l , on b e i n g r o ta te d ,

c o mes t o py th e sa me po s i t i on in s pac e mor e t h an

oc c u

o n c e in a c o m pl e t e t ur n t he li n e or a xi s a b o ut whi c h
,

r ota t i on h a s t a k e n pl a c e is c a ll e d a n a x is of sy mmetry .

An a x i s of s ymmetry is of t wof old t h r ee fold fou r fold or , , ,

s ixf o ld s ymm et r y a cc o r di n g a s t h e c ry s ta l c o me s t o
,

o c cu p y th e same po s i t io n two th r ee four or Six ti mes in , , ,

a c o m pl e te r ota t i on .

F IG . 8 .

Th u s in , b
t h e c u e, a s s how n in F ig 8 th er e a r e a x es .
,

of fo ur f old s ymmetry , of th r ee f old s ymmet ry a n d o f ,

t w o fo ld s ymm e tr y .

Centre of Sy mmetry A c rys tal .

-
h as a centre o
f s
y mmetry
wh e n lik e f ac es a r e arr a n g e d in p a Ir s In c or r es po n di n g
p os i t io n s a n d on oppo s i t e s id es of a c en tr a l poi n t .
54 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
C rys t a ll og r a p hic a n d G eome t r ic a l S ymmet ry .

C rys tal l ogr a p h i c symmetry mus t n ot be c on fu se d wi t h

g eometri c a l s ym metry C r ysta llogr a phi c s ymmetry d e
.

p en d s s ol e ly u p on th e m ol ec u l ar arr an gemen t of th e
cr ys ta l , a n d S i n c e t hi s a rr a n g e m en t is t h e sa me f or
p a rall e l pl an es it follow s th at th e a n g u l ar po s i ti on is t h e
,

o n l y factor con c er n e d a n d t hat th e s iz es of lik e fac e s and

,

t h e ir di s t a n c e f r o m t h e pl a n e or c e n t r e o f symm e t ry a r e of
n o i m por ta n c e in t hi s c on n e c t io n Thi s is ill u s t ra te d in
.

F ig 1 0 b el ow whi c h s hows a r eg ular an d a di s torted

.
,

oc t a h e d r on .

C rys tal s in whi c h lik e fac es a re e qua ll y d e ve l op ed

a n d a r e e q u a l di s t an c e s fr o m t h e c en tr e o f s ym met ry a r e

R egul ar Octah ed ron . D istorted Octa h ed ron .

FIG . IO .

v ery r are ; but f or th e c on v en i en c e of study an d of re

p r e s en tat io n by di agr a ms it is n ec es sa ry to d ea l wi th
,

c r y s ta l s in t h e i r s i m pl e s t a n d m o s t i n t e lligi b l e fo r m ,

an d t h a t is wh e n t h ey h a v e p er f e c t g e o me t r i c a l s ym

metr y .

M os t c r y st a s l o c c ur in distor ted fo m
r s, h a vi n g lik e
fac es n ot of th e sa m e s iz e or n ot in t h e same geo
metr i c all y s ymm e tr i c a l po s i t io n Th e c rys tal l ogr a phi c
.

s ymm e try c an how eve r be mad e out by th e fa c t th at

,

lik e fa c es h a v e lik e p rop er t i e s Et c h mar k s th e be .

-
,

h avio ur t ow ar d s h eat an d e l ectr i c i ty t h e h a r d n e ss l us tr e

, , ,

e tc . o f th e fa c e s will r e v e a l t h e t r ue s ym m e t ry of a d is
, ,

t or t ed c r ysta l Th i s is w e ll s e en in th e q ua r t z c r ys ta l
.
 C R Y S TA LLOGR AP H Y 55

in F ig I I .
, in w hi c h th e et c h -
mar k s ar e s i m ila r on lik e
fa ces .

ll
C rys t a og r a p hic A x es — lid g e o metr y th e In so

po s i ti on of a pl a n e in s pa c e is giv en by th e i n t er c ept s
t h at th e pl a n e ma k e s on t h r ee giv e n
lin es ca ll e d a x e s Th i s met h od of
,
.

t r ea t m e n t is e m plo ye d in c r y s ta l
l ogra p h y an d t h e a x e s a r e t e r m e d
,

cry sta llogr ap hic a xes Wh en ev er th er e .

is p r ese n t a s u i ta bl e n um be r o f a x e s
o f s ymm e t ry t h e y a r e a lw a ys c h ose n
,

as t h e c ry s tal l ogr a p h i c ax es Th e .

c r s t al l og ra p h i c a x e s may b e o f e q u a l
y FIG U AR T .
Z

or u n e q u a l l e n gt h a n d m a y or ma y , C R Y TA S H OW I N G S L,

n ot i n t e r s e c t a t r ig h t an gl e s Th e S I M I A R E TC H L
'

M A R K ON L I K E .

S
’

C r ys t a llogr a ph i c a x es I n t er se c t a t t h e F AC ES ,

or igin .

Th er e ar e c er t a n i
v en t i on s wi th re gar d to th e
c on

l ett e r i n g a n d o r d er of th e c rys tall ographi c ax es Taki ng .

th e m os t c o mpl e x c as e ,

in w h i c h t h e a x e s ar e
a l l o f un e qua l l e n gt h
an d n on e at r ig h t

an gl es th e ax i s wh i c h ,

is ta k e n as th e v e r t i ca l
a xi s is ca ll e d c t h at ,

r unn i n g f r o m r ig h t t o

l e ft is b an d th at ,

r un n m g f r o m f r on t to

— FI R E I LL STR ATI NG b a c k 15 a 0 11 8 en d
F I G 12 GU U

A x AL C O N V ENTI O NS
. . .

o f ea c h 20 08 IS p os rt l v e
. .

I . ,

an d th e ot h er en d is
negat iv e a n d t h e r u l e wi t h re ga r d to th i s is ill u s tra te d
,

in F ig I 2 . .

Th e a n gl e be t w een a an d b is call ed 7 t h at be tw een ,

ba n d c i s c a ll e d a n d t h a t b e t w e e n c
a,a n d a is B .
56 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL OG Y
If t wo of th e ax e s are e q ua l ,
t h ey are b oth ll ed a ca ,

an d th e t hi r d is c ; if a ll th r ee a x es ar e e q ua l t h e y a r e
,

all call ed a Th e . h ex a gon a l s yste m h as four

c r y s t a llo

gr a phi c ax e s ; e v ery oth er Sys te m h a s th re e .

Th e pl an e s in whi c h two of th e c ry st a ll ogr a phi c a x es

l ie a r e c a ll e d t h e a xial p lanes a n d divid e th e s p a c e wi t h
,

in th e crys ta l i n to e igh t octants .

Th e r e is a p os i t i on c a ll e d th e r eading p osition in whi c h ,

a c r ys ta l s h ou ld b e pl a c e d t o b e d r a w n or s t u di e d in ,

whi ch th e c ax i s is v ert i c al an d on e l atera l ax i s th e

-
, ,

a a xi s poi n ts t o w ar d s t h e o b s er v er
-
, .

P a r a met ers — Th e p ar ameters o f a c r ys t a l face a r e

th e r a t i os o f t h e di s tan c es from t h e o r igi n a t whi c h th e
fa c e c uts th e c rys tallog r a phi c a x e s — th at is th e p ara ,

m e te r s a re th e r at i os of th e i n ter ce p ts .

F IG . I3 —
.I LLU STR ATI N G PAR AM ETERS .

In F ig3 O
.X ,
1OY , O,
Z r e p r e s e n t t h e c r s ta ll og r a phi c
, y
a x es , a n d A B C is a c r s t a l f ac e m aki n i n t p ts of OA
y g e r c e

on OX , OB on OY a n d OC on OZ , Th e p a r a m et e r s o f.

t h e f a c e AB C a r e g iv e n by t h e r a t i o of OA , OB a n d ,

0 C , an d t h us th e po s i t i on of th e f ac e A B C is k n ow n .
 C R Y S TALL O GR AP H Y 57

I t is t h e r e f or e v e n i e n t to tak e th e r el at iv e i n t er c ep ts
co n

of t hi s f a c e a s s tan d a r d l e n gt h s f or t h e p ur po s e o f
r e p r es en ti n g t h e po s i t i on o f a n o t h e r f a ce s u c h a s D E F
y ,
.

In th e c as e of t h e fa c e D EF OD is e q u a l t o GA OE is , ,
,

t w ic e OB a n d OF is h a lf OC an d t h e r e f or e
, , 5 ar e

t h e p a ra m et er s of D EF wi t h r e f er e n c e t o th e s t an da r d
,

f a c e AB C .

Th e for m wh ose f ac e is ta k en as i n t er s ec t i n g t h e a x e s
a t u n i t l e n g t h s is c al l ed th e funda men ta l or uni t f orm .

Th e s e l e c t i on of a s u i ta bl e un i t f or m d e p e n d s on th e
p r op e r t i e s or n a tur e of th e c rys tal A for m w e ll .

d e v e l op e d or c o mmo n l y o c c ur r in g or p a ra ll e l t o whi c h
, ,

t h er e is a good C l ea v a g e is u s ual l y se l ec ted f or t hi s

,

p ur pos e .

Th e p ar a met er s of t h e un i t for m ca n be o b ta i n e d by
m ea s ur em en t a n d c a n be e xp r e s s e d a s mul t ipl es of on e
,

of t h e i r n umb er Tak e f or e x ampl e g yp s u m

.
,
It is , .

fo un d th a t th e mo st c o mmo n l y oc c u rr in g fo rm in gyp su m
c r s ta l s whi c h c u t s all t h r ee a x e s d oe s s o in t h e r a t io of
y
0 6 899 I O 4 I 2 4 Th i s e x p r e s s i on is c a ll ed th e ax ial
°
.

r a tio a n d s i m pl m ea n s t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d o r un i t f or m
, y
c u t s t h e a a xi s a t a di s t an c e r e p r es e n t e d b 0 6 8 99 t h e
y
-
,

b a xi s a t a di s ta n c e r e p r esen t e d by I a n d t h e c a xi s a t a
-

,
-

di s tan c e r ep r esen t e d by
I n dices —Th e rec ip r oc al s of th e p arame ter s a r e
.

c a ll e d t h e indices an d ar e o f u s e f or p u r po s e s o f c r s ta l
, y
logr a ph ic n o t a t i on .

C rys t a ll og r a p hic Not at ion —

C rysta ll og ra ph i c n o ta
t i on is a c on c i s e m e t h o d of w r i t i n g d own th e r e l a t io n of
‘

a n y c ry s t a l f a c e t o t h e c ry s t a ll og r a phi c a x e s Th e m o st .

wid e l y u s e d syste m s d ep en d u p on e i th er p a ra m et er s or
i n di c e s Of th e s e s ys tem s of n otat i on th e C h i e f a r e t wo
.
,

Th e P ar am e t e r S ys t e m o f W e i ss a n d t h e I n d e x S yste m ,

Of M ill er ( m odifi e d by B r a v ai s ) .
58 EL E M ENTS O F M I N ER AL OG Y
Th e P a ra met er S ys t e m of W e is s — In th i s s s t e m
y
of c r ys ta ll og ra phi c n o tat i on th e a x e s a r e ta k e n in th e
o r d er e xpl a i n e d abov e—th at is a b c f or un e q ua l a x es
,

, , , ,

a a c f or t wo a x e s eq ua l a n d a a a f or t h re e a x e s e q ua l
, , , , , .

Th e i n t er c e p t th a t th e c r ys ta l f a c e u n d e r di sc u s s ion
ma k es on th e a a xi s is t h en w r i tt en b e for e a th e i n te rc e p t
-
,

on th e b a x i s b e fo r e b a n d t h e i n t e rc e p t on t h e c a x i s
-
,
-

b e f or e c Th u s th e most g en era l e xp r ess i on f or a

.

cr ys t a l f a c e in t h e W e i ss n ota t io n is

na, mb, pc,

wh er e n , m p
, i n ter c e p ts mad e by th e fac e on th e
ar e th e
a b c ax e s
, , It is u s ua l t o r e d uc e e i t h e r n or m t o u n i ty
. .

I f a c rysta l fac e is p ar a ll e l to an ax i s it c an be ,

i magi n e d as c u tt i n g th at a xi s a t an i n fi n i t e di s tan c e an d ,

ac c or di n gl y t h e S ig n of i n fi n i ty 0 is pl ac e d a s it s p ar a
,
0,

m et e r b e for e th e c o rr es po n di n g a xi a l l et te r Th u s a .

fa c e c ut ti n g th e a a x i s a t a di s tan c e I un i t th e b a xi s at
-
,
-

a di s ta n c e 2 u n i t s an d whi c h is p a r a ll e l t o t h e c a x i s h as
,
-
,

t h e W e i ss symb ol
a , 2 b, 00 0 .

I n d ex S ys t e m o f M i e r
ll — ln . th is s ys t e m of n o tatio n
th e i n di ce s , or rec p a r a me t e r s
ip r oca l s of th e ,
a re u s e d .

Th e y a r e w r i tt en In t h e a xi a l o r d e r a b c an d a r e , ,
.
, ,

al w a ys giv en in t h e i r m o s t S i mpl e for m by c l ea r i n g of

f ra c t ion s F or ex a mpl e con s id er th e c rys ta l f a c e h a vi n g

.
,

t h e W e i ss s ym b ol
a , 2 b, 00 c .

Th e r e c ip r o c a l s of the p a ra m e t e r s ar e

I . l .

Cl ear i n g of frac t io n s th e M ill e r sym bo l is

22 I , 0,

whi c h is re a d as t wo, on e , n o ugh t .

 C R Y STALL O GR AP HY 59

A fac e pa ra ll e l wi th an a xi s w ill c on ta n i th e y m bo l O s ,

t h e r ec ip r oca l of i n fi n i t y Th e . m os t g en er a l M ill er
s y m bol is
h, k, l .

R e f e rr i n g a gai n i form of gyp s u m al t ho ug h

to t h e un t ,

t h i s f or m c u t s t h e t h r ee a x e s a t un e q ua l di s tan c es it s ,

M ill er s ym b ol will be ( I I I ) s i n c e t h e un i t f or m h a s b e en
,

d e fi n e d as c utt i n g t h e a x es a t th e s tan da r d di stan c e s .

Ag a i n in F ig I 3 t h e Sy m b ol s of A B C D EF will be
,
.
, ,

Weiss .

AB C a
,
b, c . III un i t f or m .

D EF a , 2 b,
l
a
e. 21
4 .

C on ve n t ions in N ota t ion v en t i on s in.

— S ev e ra l c on

c ry s ta ll og r a p h i c n ot a t i on a r e w o rt h y of con s ide r a t i on .

W h en it is r e qu i r ed t o i n di c at e a c ry s tal for m it is u s ua l ,

t o e n c l ose t h e s ym b o l s in a b r ac k et t h u s ( h k l) w h er e , , ,

a s if t h e c ry st a l fa c e is i n di ca t e d th e
, ,

b r a c k e t is r e m o v e d t h u s — h k l
, , ,
.

Th e c on v e n t io n wi th r eg a r d t o th e
S ign o f t h e en d s o f t h e c r ys t a ll og r a phi c

a x e s is o f gr ea t i m port an c e in n ota t i on ,

s i n c e b y a ddi n g t h e pr o p e r S ign t o t h e

s ym ol it is p os s i b l e t o i n di c a t e a n y
b ,

r e q u i r e d f a c e o f a c rys t a l f o r m C on
F G 4
— TH E I . I .

FOR M ( m ) .
.

s id e r t h e for m ( I I I ) Th i s is ma d e u p
.

of t h e faces I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I as
, , , , , , , ,

s h ow n in F ig . 14 .

L aw of R at ion a l I n dic es — The s tu d y of c rys ta l s .

h as e sta b li s h e d t h e l a w t h a t t h e i n t e r c e p ts t ha t a n y
c ry st a l fac e mak es on th e c rys ta ll ogr a phi c ax es ar e
e i t h er in fini t e ,
o r s ma ll r at i o n a l m ul t ipl es o f t h e in t e r

c e p t s o f t h e u n i t fo r m Th us t h e s ym bo l a J E 0 a
.
,
,
0 ,

is a n i mpo s s i b ili ty .
 60 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER ALO GY

Th e Th r ee L a ws of C rys t a ll og ra p h y .

I t is p os s i b l e to en un c i ate
n ow th e t h r ee f un d am en t a l
l aw s of c rys ta ll og ra p h y .

1 . L aw of C on s t a n cy o Sy
f m m et y
r — A11 l
c rys ta s

of an y on e m i n er al have th e s a m e s y m m e t r y .

II . L aw of —
C on s t a n cy of I n t e r f ac ia l An g l e Th e
an gl e b e tw een two lik e fac es of a giv e n fo r m is c on s tan t
f or a ll c r ys ta l s of a giv en m i n er a l Th e i n t er f a c i a l an gl e .

is t h er e for e of g r eat u se in th e d ete c t io n o f m i n er a l s .

I I I Law I n d ices — All

'

. of R a t ion a l y l f a c es cr s ta

mak e i n ter c e p ts on th e C rys ta ll og r a phi c a x es whi c h a r e ,

e i t h e r i n fi n i ty or s m a ll r at io n a l m u l t ipl es of t h e i n t e r ce p t s
,

m ad e by th e un i t fo r m .

C l a s s ifi ca tion o C rys t a s
f l — It h a s b e en mat h ema t i c
a ll y p r ov e d t h at t h e r e a r e p oss i b l e a m o n g C r ys ta l s o n l y

thir ty two typ es of s ymmet ry, di ff er i n g f r o m ea c h o th er in

-

th e d egr ee a n d n a tu r e o f t h e t h r e e e l em en t s of s ymme tr y
fo un d in eac h typ e Of th es e t hi r ty two typ es , some a r e
.
-

r e p r e s e n t e d by a r t ifi c i all p r e p a d o m p u n d o m b
y r e c o s s e y ,

v ery r ar e m i n era l s , an d s ome h a v e n o re p r e s en tat iv e at all .

Th e c ommon m i n e r a l s a r e fo un d in eleven group s on l y .

Th e fi r s t c l a s s ifi c a t io n of c r ys ta sl is t h er e fo r e i n to th e
sy mmetry group s .

In d yi n g c rys ta l s it is n ec e s sar y to r e fer th e fo r ms

s tu

t o t h e c rys ta ll og r a phi c a x es an d it is fo u n d t h at c r ys ta l s
,

of di ff er en t s ymm etry c an be r e ferr e d to th e s ame s e t of

c ry s t a ll og r a p h i c a x e s All th e c r ys ta l fo rm s of wh a t
.
,

e v er s ymme try t h a t ca n b e r e f e r r e d t o th e sa me s e t o f
'

a x e s f a ll in o n e cry s tal sy s tem .

Th e s e con d c l as s ifi c at io n of c rys tal s is t h er e fo r e i n to

.
th e cry s ta l s s te
y ms .
62 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O GY
fa c e s of t h e di ff e r e n t c r ys ta l s b e i n g p ar a ll e l a s in F ig I 5
, .
,

in w h i c h s e v e r a l c rys ta l s of q u a r t z a r e S h ow n a ll o f ,

whi c h h av e th e i r a x e s p ar a ll e l t o on e a n oth er .

3 T
. w i n C r y s t a l s — I n t er m e di a t e b e t w e e n th e a b s ol u te

a b s e n c e o f o r i en ta t i o n o f i r r e g u l a r a gg r e g a t e s a n d th e
,

p a ra ll e l or i en ta t i on of pa rall e l gr ow th s ,

t h er e a r e c r ys ta l s in whi c h th e or i e n ta t i on
is p a r t i a ll y t h e s a m e Th e s e a r e twin
.

cry stals a n d in t h e m o n e o r t wo a x es of
,

on e i n divid ua l are p ar a ll e l to th e c orr e

s p on d in g a x e s in t h e o t h er i n divid ua l In .

t wi n c rys ta l s o n e p a r t is in r e v e r s e po s i
t i on to th e o t h er p a r t an d t h e t wi n m ay
,

— b e c on c e iv e d a s p r o d u c e d by t h e r e vol a
F IG 1 5
. .G ROU P
O F Q U A R T Z t i on o f on e h a lf t h r ough a n a n gl e of
C RY STALS '

Th e t wi n of g yp s um in F ig 1 6 .

e x hi b i t s t h is .

F ig ; I 6 ; A s h ow s a c rys ta l of gyp sum vi ew ed fr o m th e

Si de . I f s u c h a C r ysta l w e re divid e d a l on g th e dotted
li n e an d on e h alf t urn e d th r o ugh P
t h e r es u l t wo uld zbe
th e t wi n c r ys ta l s h ow n in
F ig I 6 B.
, .

Twin P lane Th e pl an e of
-
.
-

r e v o l ut i o n is ca ll e d t h e twin

p lane (P P in F ig .

Twin A x is -
Th e a x i s a b ou t
.
-

whi c h r ota t i on h a s ta k en pl ac e
is t h e t win -
i
ax s, a n d is p e r p e n
d i c u la r t o t h e t wi n pl a n e (aa
-

in F ig .

C o mp osition P lane — Th e
-
pl a n e a l on g whi c h the t wo
h a l ve s o f t h e t wi n a re j o i n e d is c a ll e d t h e composition p lane -
.

Thi s is c oi n c id e n t wi t h t h e t wi n pl a ne in F ig 1 6 -
. .

Twi n c r ys ta l s c a n be r e c og n i s e d by r e en tr a n t an gl es -

,
 C RY S TALL O GR AP H Y 63

c orr es p on di n g e dg e s b e i n g n ot a ll pa ra ll e l a n d t h e s ym ,

m etr y o f t h e t wi n b e i n g h igh e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e i n divid ua l .

A pl a n e of s ymm e tr y c a n n e v e r b e a pl a n e of tw i n n i n g ,

S i n c e r e v o l ut i on o f o n e h a lf t h r o ugh 1 8 0 w ou ld s i mpl y °

l ea v e th e c r ys ta l a s it wa s a t fi r s t .

Th er e ar e v ar i o u s t ype s of t wi n s th e f ollowin g b e in g ,

t h e mos t i m po r tan t .

S imple Twin — On e h a l f of th e c r ys ta l h a s b e e n r o ta te d
t h ro ugh as a b ov e .

Penetr a tion Twin —Th e two h alv es of th e t wi n ar e c om

p l e t e ly i n t er p e n e t r a t e d .

R ep ea ted or P oly sy nthetic Twin —A t win p r od uc e d by

/

t h e r e pe t i t io n of t wi n n i n g a c c o r di n g to t h e sa me l a w .

Thi s is we ll s ee n in pl a gi oc l as e f e l s p ar .

Compound Twin —A t wi n in w h i c h twi n nin g h as tak en

p la c e on two or m o r e l aw s .

Th e S t u dy of a C ryst a l of Ort h ocl a se .

In o r d er giv e p r ec i s ion t o th e id eas of crys tal lo

to
gra phy se t out a bo v e it is a dvi sa b l e to s tu dy the c om
,

p l e te c r ys ta ll ogr a ph y of s o me s ui tab l e mi n er a l a n d f or ,

t hi s p ur po s e o r tho c l as e has be en se l e c ted

Ort h oc l as e .

S ys tem — M on oc li n i c
.
—t wo a x es at r igh t an gl es , th e
th i r d i n c lin e d .

Ax ia l R a tio — a
. b c = 0
'
65 8 5 : 1 B = 63
°
57
'

( S ee F ig .

Common H abit —Th e . co m m on s ha p e of a n or t ho c l as e

c r ys t a l is S h o w n in F ig . 1 8 .

F ms P r esen t . —m ( 1 1 0 b,
or
) ( a, 00 c
) .

c (0 0 1 ) ( ooa , 00 b, c ) .

b (0 1 0 ) ( 00 a ,
b, 00 c
) .

y ( 2 0 1 ) (a 00 , b, 2c ) .
64 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
F aces seen

F IG . I7 .
—TH E AXES OF OR TH O
C L AS E, I
S H OW NG TH E 3 AN G L E
[
A ND TH E L ENG TH S OF TH E F IG . 18 .
—
C O M M ON
A X ES C UT OF F BY TH E U NIT C R Y S TAL OF
P Y R AM I D ( III ) . O R TH OC LAS E .

Twinning .
—
Or tho c l a se t wi n s on t h ree c o mmo n l aw s
1 . Car lsbad Typ e .

C om po s i ti on pl an e b
Twi n a x i s c .

2. Baveno Typ e .

Twi n an d c o m po s i t ion pl an e n
3 . M anebach Typ e .

Twi n a n d c o m po s i t io n pl ane c

C arl sba d M a n eba ch

Twin . Twin .

F IG . 19 .
—OR TH OC LAS E TW I NS .
 C H APTER IV

IMP OR TAN T C R Y S TA L G ROU PS .

1

I I S O M ET I C
. R OR C U BI C S Y S TEM .

A xes — Thr e e
. eq u a l
gl es i n terc han g e
a x es a t r igh t an ,

a b l e an d a ll d e n o t e d by a
,
Th e readi n g pos i t i on is on e
.

a xi s v e r t i c al (a ) o n e r u n n i n g r igh t an d l e ft a n d th e
s ,

t hi r d f r o n t an d b a c k (a l ) .

Thi s syst em c o n ta i n s three sym m etry gr ou p s ea c h ,

c h a r a c t e r i se d by a comm on m i n e r a l

( I ) G a l en a G r o u p (2 ) P yr i te G r o u p ( 3 ) Te t rah ed r i te
, ,

Gr ou p .

1 . G AL ENA, OR NOR M AL TY P E .

S ymmetry — Th i s gr o u p c on ta n si cr
ys ta s l of th e
high es t sy mm etr y Thi s s ymm etry is ma d e
.
out fr o m
th e cu be , and m a
y b e s u m mar i s e d as fo ll o w s :

P lanes , 9 3 axi al .

6 di ag ona l .

3
1V
( c r ys ta ll ogr a phi c a x es ) .

Axes, I m
3 4
.

6 11 .

A centre o f sy mmetry .

F or ms .

C uba — A s ix fa c e d s olid fo rme d by f a c es whi c h

( )
i .
-

c ut on e a x i s an d ar e pa r all e l t o th e o t h er t wo Th e .

s ym b ol is t h er e fo r e

1 Th e in t ell igen t mann er of st udying th e c rystal sys te ms is With

o n ly

th e h el p Of a c t ua l crysta ls , m od els , an d d ra wings Th e st ud ent sh o uld .

cons ta n tl y r ef er t o th e di ag rams on p p 88 -93 , a n d t o th e dra wings of .

c rystals un d er th e min e ra l spe c ies in a rt I I o f this boo P . k .

65
66 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
ii
( ) . ha vi n g tw elv e r ho mb
R hombdodecahedr on — A s olid .

fac es eac h fac e c utt i n g t wo a x es a t e qu a l di stan ce s a n d

,

p ar a ll e l t o th e t hi r d a n d h a vi n g t h er e fo r e th e symbol
,

i) O
I IO

i cta hedron. —A
lid h a vi n g e igh t tr i a n g u l ar fa c es
( i so ,

e a c h f a c e c u tt i n g a l l t h r ee a x e s a t eq ua l di s ta n c es a n d ,

h a vi n g t h ere f or e th e s ym b ol ( 1
T etr a hex ahedron A s olid h a vi n g t w e n t fo
( )
iv . .
y u r -

fa c es ea c h fac e an i s o sc e l es t r i an gl e a n d fo rme d by a
, ,

f our fac ed pyr a m id on eac h fa c e of th e c ub e Eac h fac e

-
. .

is pa ra l le l t o on e a x i s a n d c u t s t h e o t h e r a x es at u n eq ua l
,

l en gt h s th e sym b ol b e i n g t h er e fo r e (h k o) an d a c om
, ,

m on ly oc c ur r i n g e x a m pl e b e in g S i n c e h an d k
c an v a ry t hi s f or m is ca ll e d a var iable for m
, Wh en e i th er .

h or k is z er o th e fo r m be c om e s a c u b e ; wh en h k t h e
,
=
,

f orm becomes a rh ombdode c ah e dron Thi s is e xp r e s s ed .

by sayi n g t h a t th e limi ting for ms o f t h e t e tra h e x a h e d r o n

ar e th e cu b e an d th e r hom bdod e c a h e d r on .

Tr isoctahedron — A s ol id h avi n g tw e n ty fo ur fa ce s
( )
v . .
-
,

eac h fac e an i sosc e l es tr i an gl e an d fo rme d by a th r ee ,

fac e d pyr amid on eac h fa c e of th e o c ta h e dr o n Eac h .

fa c e c ut s two a x es at a n e qua l l en gt h an d th e thir d ax i s ,

a t a grea ter l e n gt h Th e W é is s s ymbol f or t hi s fo r m is

.

t h er e fo r e (a a pa) t h e M ill er s y mb ol is ( h h l) an d a
, , , ,

c om mo n l y o c c urr i n g f orm is Th e li mi t i n g f or m s
a re t h e o c ta h ed r o n an d th e r h ombd od ec ah ed r on .

vi T r ap ez ohedron — A s olid h avi n g tw fo f

( ) . en t
.
y ur a c e s -
,

e a c h fa c e a tr a p e zi u m Ea c h fac e c uts two ax es at an

.

e qu a l l e ng h an d th e t hi r d a t a smal ler l en gt h T h
t , e .

M ille r symb ol is t h er e f or e (h l l ) an d a c o mmon e x amp le ,

is Th e li mi t i n g fo r ms ar e t h e c u b e an d o c ta
h edr on .

vi i H h d — A olid h vi n g fo rt ig
( ) ex o ct
.a e r on s a .
y e h t fa c e s -
,

e a c h fac e a s c a l e n e t r ia n g le Eac h f a c e c u ts t h e th r ee . .

a x es a t u n e q ual l e n gt h s Th e symb ol is t h er e for e ( k k l)

.
 I MPO R TANT C R Y S TAL G R O U PS 67

and a Comm n e xa m o pl e Th e h e x oc tah edr on is

'

is
th emost g en eral form of t h e gal ena typ e an d its li m i t ,

in g fo rms ar e th e c u b e , oct ah edr o n , an d rhombd od e

C ommon G a l ena Type M in er al s .

Galena —G al ena oc c ur s co mmo n l y as co mb i na t ion s of

th e cu be an d o c ta h ed r on, as S ho wn in F ig .
5 .

Fluor ,
Rock S al t, Sy lvine —Th es e mi n er al s oc c ur
. as

s i mpl e c u es b .

Leucite, —
Analcime
L e uc i te an d anal c i me oc c ur as
.

s i mpl e t r a p ez oh e d r a (s ee p
—
.

Spi ne l M ag ne
,
tit e T h ese min e.ra l s oc c ur as s i mpl e

o c ta h e d ra Th e c l ea vag e of fl uor is p arall e l to th e f a c es

.

o f t h e oc t ah e dr o n .

Gar net —C o mm o n Crys tal s o f gar n et ar e e i t h er th e

r h om bdod ec a h edr on o r t h e t ra pe zoh e dr o n
.
or c o mb i na ,

t io n s of t h e two (s ee Fig s 7 6 an d .

2 . PYR I TE TYPE .

S ymmetry — Th e sy mme tr y of t h e pyr i te type is h

t at
of the c har ac ter i s ti c f or m t he p yr i t ohe dr on ( F ig
, .

Thi s symmetry is
Planes , 3 axia l .

Axes 3
1h
( c rystall ographic ax e s) .

7 II I
4
.

F orms .

( i . P
) y r itohedr on . —A s olid bo un ded by tw e l ve p en
tagonal fac es . Eac h face c ut s t wo ax es at un e q ul
a
l en gt h s an d is parall el to th e thir d t h us ha vin g a
, , ty pi ca l
s ym b ol of s i mi lar to t h e t etr a h e xa h e d r on
( 210
)
f r om whi c h it is p r od uc ed by th e d ev e lopmen t of
al tern at e fa ces of e ac h py r am id as s h o wn in F ig 20 , . .
_
68 EL EM ENTS O F M I NER AL OG Y
Th e re will obvi ou s l y be two pyr i toh ed ra p r od u c ed fr o m
t h e t etr a h ex a h e d r o n by t h e d e v e lop men t of th e two s et s
of faces .

( ii ) D ip lo id —A s olid
. b o u n d e d b y .

t w en ty fo ur fa c e s Ea c h fa c e is a
-
.

tr a p e zi um an d t h e fa c es ar e gr o u p e d
,

in p a i r s Eac h fa c e c uts a ll t h r ee
.

ax e s a t u n e q ua l l en gt h s a n d a c om ,

mon ly oc c u rr i n g fo rm is t h at h a vi n g
F IG 2 0 . PY R ITOH E th e s ymb ol
- Th e diploid IS
D R ON S H OW I NG ITS p rod uc e d f r o m t h e
.

, h e xo c t a h e d r o n
(3 ) y e d ev elop men t of a l ter
2 1 b t h
n a t e f a c es .

The ot h er fi v e for m s— c u b e o c ta h edr on rh ombdo , ,

d e cah e d ro n tr i soc tah e d ro n an d trap ezoh e dr on

, , a re

g eo metr i c all y S i m il ar t o t ho s e Of th e g al ena typ e but ,

ha v e a low e r c rysta llog ra phi c sym

me try Thi s low e r symme tr y is ev i
.

d en t in th e cas e of t h e s tr i ate d c ub e
of pyr i tes s hown in F ig 2 1 It will . .

be n ot i ce d th at th e s tr i a t io n s on t h e
t h r ee p a i r s of f ac e s l ie in t h r e e d ir ec
t io n s a t r igh t a n gl e s p ar a ll e l t o t h e
,

c rys t a llogr a phi c a x es An y on e of . FIG 2 1 . ,

t h es e ax e s is an ax i s of twofold
s ymmetry wh er eas in th e c ub e of g al ena a c rystal lo
, , ,

g ra phi c ax i s is an ax i s of fourfold symmet ry A str i ated .

c ub e of p yr i t e r e s u l t s f r om wh at is k n ow n a s a n oscillatory

combina tion b o t h th e c u b e an d t h e p yr i toh e d r o n h a vi n g

,

en d ea vo u r e d a s i t w er e t o as s ert t h e i r r e s p ec t iv e fo r m s
, ,

d ur i n g c rys talli sat i on .

C ommon Pyrite Typ e M inera l s .

Py r ites— yr i t es P
o mmon ly o c c u r s in th e s tr i ated c u be
c ,

th e p yr i t oh e d r o n or c o mbi n at io n s of th e p yr i t oh e d r o n
,

wi t h t h e c ub e o ctah e d r o n or diploid
, , .
70 EL EM ENTS OF M IN ER AL OG Y
Deltoid Dodecahedr on
-
.
_
—
Thi s s olid h as t w e lv e face s ,
e ach face b e i n g a d el toid an d c u tt i n g two ax es at an ,

eq ual l en gt h a n d t h e t hi r d at a gr ea te r l e n g t h A typi c al .

s ym b ol i s a n d t hi s h emih e d ral for m is p r od u c e d

from the tr i s o cta h e d r o n by the d e velopmen t of alt ern ate

octants .

(iii ) .T r istetr ahedr on T hi s s olid is t he

. h e m-
ih e d r a l fo rm
b o un d ed by a t hr ee face d pyr a mid on eac h fa c e of th e
-

t etr a h e d r o n a n d is p r od uc ed f r o m th e t r a p ezoh ed r o n by
,

th e d e v e lop men t of a l t er n ate octants H en c e a typi c al .

s ymb ol is

iv
( ) H
. exa tetra hedron T hi s s olid h as t.w e n ty fo ur tr i
- -

a n g ular fac e s an d is p r odu c ed f rom t h e h e xoctah e dr o n

,

by th e d e v e lopmen t of alte rn ate octants A comm on .

s ymb ol Is

Th e oth er fo r ms oc c urr i ng a re the c u b e rho bd ode m

g 5

ca h e d r on an d t et rah e x a h e d r o n g ivi n g se v en f or ms In a ll , .

Thes e t etrah edr ite type for ms d iff er fr om the g ale n a

typ e f o r ms by t h e i r l ow e r symmet ry wh ic h fi nds e x ,

p res s ion by the di str i bution Of etc h mar k s ,str iations or -

,

by p yr o e l ectri c i ty .

It s ho u ld be n o ted t h at th e h em ih e dr al tetra h edri te

typ e c rys ta l s ar e fo r m e d f r o m t h e ga l en a typ e by
d ev elop men t of a l tern ate o c tan ts wh er ea s th e pyr i t e ,

typ e c rys ta l s are f o r me d by d e v e lop men t of a l t er n a te

f aces .

C ommon Tetr ah ed rit e Typ e M in er al s .

Tetrahedr ite —Tetrah ed r on. , t e tra h e d ro n a n d tr iste trah e

d ron , cu b e a n d te tra h e d r o n .

D iamond —D i amon d o c c urs in o c tah e dra whi c h a r e ,

p ob b y ad e p o
r a l m u f t h e po ‘

si t iv e an d n e g at iv e t e t ra

h edra
Z i nc B lende —T
.

etr ahed ra .
 IMP O RTANT C R Y S TAL G R OU P S 71

B or acite — Co m
. b in a t i on s of th e cu be , t e t ra h ed r on , an d

rho m bd od ec ah e dr on .

II . TETRAGO NAL S YS TEM .

Ax es — Two e qua l l a t era l a x es on e un eq ua l v e rt i c a l,

a xi s, a ll at r igh t an gl e s Th e l a te r al a x es ar e i n te r
.

bh an geabl e a n d a r e d en o te d ea c h by a th e v e rt i ca l a xi s
, ,

b y c Th e r ea di n g p os it ion is a v ert i c a l an d on e la teral

.
,

ax i s run n i n g r igh t an d l e f t Th e axia l ra tio is d e ter

.

m i n e d fro m t h e i n t er c e pt s ma d e by th e f un d a men ta l
fo r m on th e a x es Th e i n ter c ep t on th e c a xi s is giv en
.

in t e rm s of t ha t on a l a te ra l a xi s— cg f or zi rc o n t h e , ,

a xi a l r at io is e x p r e sse d by c o 64o 3 7
'
= .

Thi s sys tem c on ta i n s on e c o mm on s ym metry gr o u p ,

t ha t c har act e r i s e d b y Z ir con .

Z I R C ON G R OU P .

Sy m et ry
m —From . an e xa mi n a tio n of th e axes, t he
fol lowi n g sy mm e try ca n be ma d e o ut

2 diago nal .

Au s,
5 v.

A centre o f sy mmetry .

( )
i .B asa l P inacoid or F iona —Th is
fo rm c o n s i s ts of two
faces o n ly whi c h ar e par a ll e l to t h e plan e c ont ai n Ing the
,

l a tera l a x es an d is t h er e for e a n open for m s i n c e it c an n ot

, ,

oc c u r a lo n e in a c ry s ta l It s s ym bol is .

ii T etr agon al P r ism o tho S econd Order — T hi

( )
.
f s is a n .

ope n fo rm con si s t i n g o f fo ur f a ce s ea c h p a ra ll e l t o t he ,

v e rt i ca l ax i s an d to on e lat era l ax i s th e crys tal logr a ph i c ,

72 EL EM EN TS OF M I NER AL OG Y

a x es e m e r gi n g fr o m t h e mid d le o f t h e fa c es T h e s y m b ol .

is t h er e fo r e
iii etr agona l P m h F i O d — T h
( ) T . r is of t e r s t r er I s I s an .

op en fo r m of fo u r fac es ea c h fac e b e i n g p ar all el to th e ,

Pl a n
v e r t i ca l a x i s a n d c u t t i n g t h e

t wo l a t era l a x es Th e s ymb ol
.

is Th e a x es e mer g e
a t t h e centr es of t h e v er t i c al

edges .

iv D i etr agona l P r ism

( ) t
. .

Thi s fo rm h as e igh t fa c es ,

an d is an o p en fo r m Ea c h .

fa c e is p arall e l to th e v ert i c al
FIG 24
a xi s an d c u ts th e l a t e ral a x e s
. .

a t un e qual l eng th s . Th e s ymb ol is k k a

( ) an d a t ypi ca l
,

exa m pl e is
Th e r el at io n b et w een th e t h r e e p r i sms is s hown in
F ig . 24 .

( )
v. —
Tetragonal P yr a mid of theSecoiid Or derT hi s fo r m

c o n s i s ts of e igh t f a ce s ea c h f ace c utt i n g t h e v e rt i ca l a x i s

’

an d on e l at e r a l a x i s b e i n g p ar a ll e l t o th e o th e r l a t e r a l
,

ax i s . A c o mmo n s ym b ol is t h ere fo re
vi Tetragona l Py r amid o the F irst Or der —Thi s fo r m
( ) .
f .

c o n s i st s of e igh t fa ces ea c h f a ce c u t t i n g a ll t h r ee a x e s
, .

A typi ca l s ym b o l is
vii D i etragonal Py r a mid —Thi s fo r m c o n s i s t s of S ix
( ) t.

t e en f a ces ea c h f ac e c utt i n g a l l t h r ee ax es at un e q ua l
,

di s tan c es—th e s ymb ol b e i n g (h k l) a n d a typi ca l fo rm ,

b ein g

C ommon Z ircon Typ e M in eral s .

Th e co mmo n e s t m i n eral s of th e zi rco n typ e ar e

zi r c on ,
r ut il e c as s i t e r i t e
, a n a ta s e ido c rase an d a po
, , ,

phylli te . Th e c rys ta l s S how c omb i n at io n s of pyramid s ,

 IM P O R TANT C R Y STAL G R OUP S 73

p r i s ms ,
an d b as al pl an e , an d ar e e x e mplifi e d by t h e
c ry s ta l of idoc ra s e s hown in F ig . 25 .

F IG —IDOC R AS E
. 25 .
,

s H 0 wI NG T H E
FOR M S P R I SM S o r ,

FI RST AND SEC OND

OR D ER PY RA M I D ,

F I R T 0 R D ER s ,

BASAL P LANE .

I I I H EXAG ONAL
. S Y S TE M .

Ax es — Th r ee l ateral a x es mak in g an gl es of 1 2 0 °

'

wi th ea c h o th er a v er ti cal a x i s pe rp en di c u l ar to t h e
,

plan e c on ta i n in g th e l at era l a x es Th e a x i a l n o men .

c lat ur e an d polar i t ar e S hown in F ig 2 6

y . .

F IG . 26 .

Th e ax i al r at io is ex p r es sed as f or th e z ir c o n typ e .

Thi s sys te m c o n ta i n s fo u r i mpo rt a n t s ymmetry gr o up s

B ery l Ca lcite Tour maline, an d Quartz ty p es
, , Th e B ery l .

ty pe is n ot of i mpo r tan ce e x c e p t f or th e i ll u s tra

t io n of th e n o rma l h e x ago na l ty pe of symmetry Th e .

B e ry l ty pe is ex a c tl y s i milar t o t h e zi r c o n type e x ce p t , ,

of c o ur s e in its h ex agon al symmetry an d will n ot be

, ,

c o n s id ered in d eta il h ere ( s ee p .

74 EL E M ENTS OF M I NERAL OG Y
1 B ERY L TY P E .

S ymmet ry .

P lanes, 7 4. i
ax a l .

3 di a go n al .

II
Axes, 7 V
I I .

F or ms .

( i .
) B asal P inacoid —C uts v ert i ca l ax s i o n ly .

Two fa c e s .

( ii . H exagonal P rism ,
Fi st Ord
r er , or Unit P r ism
S ix fac es p ar all e l to v ert i ca l ax is an d on e l atera l ax i s
c ut s o t h er t wo l a t era l a x es .

iii H agona l P r ism S econd Order or D ia ona l P r is m

( ) ex .
g , ,

—S ix fac es p ar a ll e l to v er t i ca l 3 70 8 mee ti n g t wo ,

l atera l a x es at th e un i t di stanc e an d th e t hi rd at on e ,

h alf t hi s di s tance .

D ih exagona l P r ism —Tw e lv e fa c es p a r a ll e l t o t h e

( )
iv .

v ert i ca l ax i s and c utti n g th e t h re e l atera l ax es at un e qu al

,

l eng th s Th e symb ol is (h k i
. a n d a c o mmo n e x ampl e

is
Hexagonal P ramid F irs t Or der
( )
v .
y ( 1 0 i 1
) , .

vi H ex a ona l P r a mid S econd Order

( ) g
.
y ,

( vii ) D ihex a
go
.n a l Pyr amid

C ALC I TE TY P E 2 . .

s ymme t ry — Th e symmetry of t h e C a l c i te typ e is

iv e n by t h a t of th e c h a r ac t e r i s t i c fo r m e r h ombo
g th ~
o

h e d r on a n d is s u mmar i se d b e low
"

s tallogr a ph ic a x s i .

ax es .
 IM PQ R TANT C R Y STAL G R O U PS 75

O
u

( i .
) R hombohedron .
-
Th e rh mboh ed r on is a so lid
bo un d e d by si h omb face s Th e c a xi s joi n s th e t wo
x r .
-

s olid a n gl es for me d by t h e o b t u s e an gl es o f t h e r ho m b

fac es an d th e l a ter al ax es j oi n t h e middl es of t he pa i rs of

,

oppos i te e dges .

Th e posi ti on of th e a x es is s e en fr o m F ig 2 7 Th e . .

s ymbol of t h e c o mmo n rho m b oh e dr o n is Th e

r ho m b oh e dr o n is a h emi h e d r a l fo r m d e v e lope d f r o m t h e

h exagona l pyr amid as s hown in F ig 2 7 Th er e a re , . .

t h er e fo r e po s s i b l e t wo r ho m boh ed r a p os i t iv e an d n eg a ,

t iv e—th e po s i t iv e r ho m b oh e d r o n h a vi ng a f ac e u ppe r
mo st th e n e gati v e r ho mb oh ed r o n
, edge u p per mo st as ,

s hown in F ig 2 8 . .

F IG . 27 .
—PLU S R H OM
BO IIED R ON , S H O W N G I
ITS V E O M ENT DE L P F IG . 28 .

F R OM TH E H EXA O G
NA P AM I D
L YR .

II
( ) S lenohedr on T h s olid
'

.ca e .
-
a _ .

boun d ed by twelv e faces eac h fac e be in g a scalene ,

“

tria n gl e Th e term in a l edges ar e a l t e rnat el y bl unt a nd

.

s har p an d t h e la t era l e dg e s z ig za g ro un d t h e c rys ta l as

, ,

s hown in F ig A co mmon sym b l of th e scale n o

o
29 . .

h e dronIs Th e s ca l e n oh ed ro n IS d e v el oped f ro m
th e di h exagon a l pyr a mid as Sh o wn In Fig 30 , . .

Th e fi v e r emai n ing fo rms of th e ca l c i te typ e ar e

76 M
EL E ENTS OF M I NER ALOG Y
geo metr i call y s i mil ar to t ho se of th e b eryl typ e but hav e ,

a low er mol ec ul ar s ymme try Th ey are th e basa l plan e

.

F IG . 29.

FI G .
30 . TH E SCALENOH ED R ON
SH OWI NG D EV ELOPM ENT
F R OM THE D I H EXAGON AL PY RA
M ID .

th e t hree p r i s ms ( I O TO) , ( h k i o) , an d

pyramids lik e

C ommon C al cite Typ e M inera l s .

Calcite —C a l c i te o cc urs in v ar io us co mb i nat io ns of

p r i s ms r ho mb oh ed ra an d scal en oh ed ra F ig 3 1 S how s a
, , . .

c o mmo n c rys ta l in whic h ar e p re s en t th e p r i s m

v
,

th e s calenoh eh ron an d th e r ho mb oh e d r o n

C al c i te giv es by c l e avi n g th e un i t r ho mb oh ed ro n
( s ee F ig
.

D olomite .
-
D olo mi t e oc c urs in t h e un i t r ho mb oh edro n ,

c o mmo n l wi h c ur v e d fac e s se e F ig
y t ( .
78 EL EMENTS O F M INERALOG Y
alt er n at e faces of th e h exa go na l p r Is m . S ymb ol s
( I O IO
) , e tc .

iii
( ) D .i tr igonal P r ism —A s ix sid e d for m wi
. t
=
h t wo al t e r -

n a t e ki n d s of a ng le s .

iv
( ) H .e x a ona l P r ism o the S econd Or der
g f ( 1

( )
v .H em im orp hic H ex ag ona l Py ra m i d — Two fo r ms on e ,

of th e u pp er faces of th e h e x agon al pyram id on e of th e

'

low er fac es .

vi
( ) D i
. tr igonal P r am
y id F o ur forms whi c h c orr e s po n d
-

to t h e s c a l en oh e d r o n in th e s a me way a s th e t r igon a l
,

m
pyra ids c orr es po n d to the r ho mboh ed ron — th at is on e
form 13 mad e up of th e upper face s of th e po s i t iv e s ca l en o
,

had r on one of th e low er f ac es of the s a me sc a l e n oh e dr on

,

an d two O t hers of the c or r es pon di n g f ac es In th e n egat iv e

l
sca e ii ohe d ron

Plane —S i n ce t he re is n o ho r izo nt al pl an e of
.

( v ii .
) Basal
sy mme try in th e to ur ma li n e ty pe , th e
f ac es o f th e basa l plan e are
di ff er en t fo r ms .

( V I L a
) U pp e r ba s al pl an e

( v i i b) L
. ow e r ba sa l pl an e

C ommon Tourma li ne Type

M inera l s .

Tour maline T0 urmali n e mrn Onl y

‘

.
-
co
F I G 32 T '
TOU R M A p r i smatic c ryst al s h a vi n g t h e
oc c ur s in
LI N E
,

t wo t r igo n al p ri s m s ( 1 0 1 0 ) and
.

u s ua l l u n q ual l d v lop d d t m i t d di ff t l t
y e
y e e e a n e r n a e e,r e n y a

th e t wo en ds by th e se v er a l t r ig onal p yr ami ds, as s hown

,

4 Q U AR T Z TY P E . .

S ymmet ry —Th e c ommon e s t c rysta l s o f quartz Oc c ur

.

in t h e fo r m of a he x ag ona l p r is m b ou n d ed ab ov e an d
be low by h ex ag ena l pyr am ids Thu s it wou ld ap pea r .
 I MP OR TANT C R Y S TAL GR O U PS 79

t hat quart z be l on g e d to th e be ry l t ype an d th ere for e ,

o d th e high e s t symm etr y of t h e h ex a o n al s s t em

p s s e ss e
g y .

How e v e r qua rt z is p r ov ed t o h a v e a symma ry muc h

,

l ower than t hat of b eryl by t wo ma i n con s id era t i on s , .

F ir st e tc h mar k s p rov e t h a t t h e pyr a mid al or p r i s m

,
-

fa ces ar e n ot al l of th e sa m e ki n d ( s e e F ig f I I ) S eco n dl y
. '

.
,

th e oc c u rr en c e on s o me c ry sta l s; o f quar tz of f ac e s of
tetar tohedr al form s — t h e tr ig on a l p yra m i d an d t h e t r ig on a l
“

t r a p ez oh e d or n — s h ew t h at t he c h ara c te r i s t i c fo rm is n ot
'

a s i m pl e p r a m i d or pris m
y ,

Th e s ym metr y of qu ar t z is there fo r e giv en by t ha t of

th e lo w es t f orm t h e tr igo n al t r a p e zoh edr on
, .

P la nes, n on e .

Axe s
( 3 la t e r al c r
11
ys ta ll:o gr a phi c ax es .

4 m
Il r z v ertica l c r s tal logr a phi c axi s
y .

N o centreof sy mmetry .

Forrri s
( i ) Tr ig nl
o a Tr a
pezoked ron —This s ol id is bo un d ed by
s ix tr a pe zi um
. . .

s ha pe d f a ces an d t h e r e la t io n of it s f ac es
-
,

t o th e c r ys ta llogr a p hi c ax es is a p par en t fr om its g en eral

s ym b ol A c o mmonl y oc c urr i ng for m is

F IG .
33
. F IG .
34 .

s h ow s a p os ti i ve tr a pe z o
ha dron .
 80 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
ii
( ) . Tr igonal Py r a mid — Thi s fo r m is b o un d e d by th e
f ac es o f a do u b l e p yr am id t h e b a se o f whi c h is a n e q u i
,

l atera l tr i an gl e an d th e s id es ar e i s o s cel es tr i an gl es
, .

A t r igo na l pyra mid h a vi n g th e sym b ol ( 1 1 22 ) is s how n in

F ig 34. .

In q uar t z c ry s ta l s it is po s s i b l e to r ec og n i s e t h e se t wo
t etar to h e d ra l for m s b y t h e s h a p e o f t h e fa c es t h e tr igo n a l ,

t ra p e z oh e d r on fa c e b e i n g e i th er t r i an g u l a r or trap ez o
h edr a l th e t r igo n a l p yr a m id fa ce b e i n g di a mo n d s h a p e d
,
-
.

iii ombohedron T o r di n a r r h om b oh e d r o n
( ) R .h h e y .

In c ry s ta l s b o t h po s i t iv e a n d n ega t iv e r ho mb o
h ed ra o c c ur p r od uc i ng togeth er a fo rm lik e th at of th e
,

h e x agon al pyramid .

( iv ) T r.ig on a l P r is m A p r i s m of t h r ee .f a ces a

c o mmo n s ymb o l is

v ) D itr igonal P rism —A p r i s m of S ix fac e s a c o mmo n

( .
,

sym bol b e i n g

vi
( ) H e
.x ag o n a l P r ism o
f t h e F irst O r de r — A p r i s m of .

s ix f a ces a c o mmo n s ym b ol b e i n g ( I o i o )
, .

vii sa l P lane —Th e b as a l pl a n e

( ) B a . .

C ommon M ineral s In t he Q u a rt z Typ e .

Q ua r t z an d C n n a i b ar o mmon est q ua rtz ty pe

ar e th e c

m i n er a l s . F ig 3 5 s how s a c rys ta l of q uart z b e i n g a

.
,

c om b i n at i on of p r i s m po s i t iv e an d n e g a t iv e ,

r ho m b o h e dr a a n d t h e t r igo n a l p yr a m id a n d
,

t r a p e z oh e d r o n .

IV . O RTH OR H O M BI C S Y S TE M .

Ax e s — Th r ee un e q ua l a x e s at r igh t
a n gl e s Of t h e s e t h e shor ter l a te ra l a xi s
.
,

i s t h e a a x i s or br achy a x i s t h e l onge
-
r l at e r al -
F IG 35 . . ,

a x i s is t h e b a x i s o r macr o a x i s ; a n d t h e -
,
-

t hi r d is th e c a xi s or v er t i ca l a xi s
-
Th e i n te r c ep t t h at
, .

t h e fun d am en ta l f or m m a k e s on th e b a x i s is t a k e n a s -
82 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
are p ll
ar a e l t o th e b r ac h y
— a xis a n d c ut th e o th e r t wo ,

a x es A c o mmo n s ymb ol is ( 0 1
.

VII P r amid —A c lo s e d fo rm of e igh t fa c e s eac h face

( ) y . ,

c u t t i n g al l t h r e e a x e s Th e un i t .

p yramid ha s th e symb ol ( 1 1 I ) .

FIG 3 6 — C RY STAL o r
C ommon Ea m es TYDe
M i n era l s
. .

BARY TES S HOW I NG TH E ,

F OR M S P R I S M . M a ny
o mmon mi n eral s c rys tal c

gisf f £ 5253? $333;

1
li s e in t hi s typ e Ex a m pl e s a re
‘

AND M AC ROD OM E b arytes Olivi n e en stat i te an d a , , ,

l u s it e t op a z an h ydr i te arago n , , ,

ite s ulph ur s ta ur oli t e b r o o ki te e tc

, , F ig 36 s how s a
, , . .

cr s t a l of b ar t e s . Th e f or ms p r e s e n t are p r i s m
y y
b asa l pl an e mac rodo me a n d br a c h yp in a

ooid

V M ONOC L I NI C S Y S TEM
. .

—
Ax es Th r ee l ater al a x i s p er pen di cu l ar to
a x es , on e

th e v ert i cal a x i s th e o t h er i n c li n e d
, Th e c ax i s is .
-

v erti ca l ; th e b ax i s or ortko a x i s is at r igh t an gl es to th e

-
,
-
,

c a x i s ; an d th e i n c li n e d a x i s is t h e a a x i s or clino a x i s A
‘

- - -
.
,

mo n o c li n i c c rysta l is in th e r ea di n g po s i t io n wh en th e
c li n o a x i s run s up a n d a way f r o m t h e o b s er v e r
-
th e ,

o r tho ax i s r un s r igh t an d l e ft a n d th e v er t i cal a x i s is

-
,

v e rt i ca l Th e a c ute angl e b etw een th e c li n o ax i s an d

.
-

t h e v er t i c a l a xi s is o f i mp ort an c e an d is giv e n in th e ,

a xi a l fo r m u l a t h u s
'

Gyp s u m—a b c 6 90 1
4 1 2 =
' '

Th e n o r ma l a n d mos t c o mmon s ymme t ry g r o up of thi s

s ys tem is t h a t c h a r a c t er i s e d by Gyp sum .

G Y P S U M TY P E .

S ymmet ry Th e m me t r y of gyp s um ha s be
'

-
sy en

l
a r ea dy w or k e d o ut in F ig .
9 .
 I MP OR TANT C R Y STAL GR OU P S
Planes ,
1
( co n ta n s i v ert i ca l an d c li n o a x es)
-
.

Axis , I II o rtho
ax i s -
.

A centre of sy mmetry .

F orms .

B asal P inacoid — Two fac es pa ra ll e l o r tho

(i .
) to
i
a x s an d c lin o ax 1s -
.

ii C opinacoid 0 1 0 ) — Two f a ces p a ra ll e l to c li n o

( ) . li n
(
ax i s an d v e rt i ca l a xi s .

( )
iii O .r th op in aco id — T w o fa c e s p ar all e l t o o rt ho

a x i s an d v erti ca l a xi s
-
.

iv
( ) P r
. i sm — F o u r f a c es ea ch f a c e p a r a l le l to ,

v erti ca l ax i s an d c utt i n g bo th c li n o a xi s a n d ort h o a x i s

,
- -
.

( )
v C
. li n o d o m e — F o ur f a c e s ea c h fa c e p ar al l e l ,

to c li n o a xi s a n d c ut t i n g bo th v ert i ca l an d o r th o a x e s
-
,
-
.

vi
( ) H .emi Or tkodomes ( 1 0 1 - — N O fo rm whi c h is
,

p aral l e l to th e o rt ho a xi s an d c u ts th e ot h er a x es ca n
-

ha v e four faces s i n c e th e ort hopin ac oid,

is n ot a p lan e of s ymm etry On l y hemi

'

or tkodomes t h e re fo r e ar e po ss ibl e Th e s e .

ar e t wo in n um be r c o n s i s t i n g of two ,

fac es ea c h ea c h fac e be i n g p ar all el to

,

t h e o rt ho a xi s an d c ut t i n g bo th c li n o
-
,

a x is an d v ert i ca l a xi s A h em i o rt h o
'

-
.

d ome is posi tive if it li es in t h e a c ute FIG 37 . .

g l e b e t w e e n t h e v e r t i ca l an d c li n o

ax is — t ha t s i in t e an gl
h ,
e —
B a n d neg ative if it li es in
t h e ob t use a n gl e Th is is S how n in F ig 3 7
. . .

vii
( ) H emi y ramid s
.
p ( 1 1 1 — T h e s e ar e, fo r m s o f
fo ur faces whi c h c ut all t h r ee a x es an d t h e i r s ign ,

d e p en d s on t h ei r po s i tio n wi th r egar d to the 3 angle as ,

do th e s ign s of h emi o rt hod omes -

.
84 EL EM ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
C ommon G yp s u m Typ e M in era l s .

Gyp sum —Thi s mi n e ra l oc c ur s in c rys ta l s h a vi n g t h e

fo rms c li n opi nac oid p r i sm and p yramid

( ) (
1 1 1 F ig s ee

Orthoclase —S e e F ig
.

. . 19 .

Augi t e ho rn b l en d e
, , mi cas , s ph en e , e tc .
,
l
a so c ry s ta l
li se in t hi s g r o u p (s e e Fig s 6 2 . an d

VI TR I C LI NI C SY S TEM
. .

Ax es ,
-
Th ree a x es al l un e ua q l , and o
n ne a t r igh t
an gl es The a x e s a r e c a ll e d t he s ho rt or brac hy ax i s (a)
.
,

t h e l o n g or mac ro ax i s ( b) an d th e v er t i cal a x i s (c)

-
The, .

an gl e s b et w e en th e ax e s a r e giv en wi t h th e a x i al r at io as

be low
Axinite .
—a b c = o
°

4g 1

B
°
82
° °
a = =
9I y
= I 3I .

Th e di n g po s i t io n of a tr i c l i n i c c rystal is the
r ea

v er t i ca l ax i s v e rt i ca l th e mac r o a x i s lyi n g in th e pl an e
,
-

fac i n g th e ob ser v e r an d h avi n g th e an gl e on th e r igh t

,
a -

h an d Th e b ra c hy a x i s is pl ac ed s o that B is on the
.
-

l eft an d y on th e r igh t .

S ymmet ry .

Planes , n ne o .

Axes, n o n e .

A centr e of sy mmetry .

S i n c e t h e re is of symmetry th e p res en c e
on ly a c e n tr e ,

of a ny on e face n ec es s i ta te s o n l y the p r ese nc e of a n

oppos i te p arall e l fac e Eac h fo r m t h ere for e c on s i s ts of
.
, ,

two fa c e s .

F orms — Th e for ms ar e an al ogo us to t hose of t h e

.

o rtho r ho mb i c s ymmetry but eac h fo rm is li mi t e d to t wo ,

fa c e s .
86 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER ALOG Y
c rys ta l pl ac e d at th e c en tr e of th e g ra d u ate d c i rc l e
is
a n d p a r a ll e l wi t h th e h or izo n t a l a r m Th e i ma g e of a
.

di stan t s ign a l is o b ser v e d by r efl ec t io n fr o m t h e mi rr o r ,

an d al so b
y re fl ec t i on f rom th e c rys ta l fac e B y r ota t i n g
.

th e gr a d uat ed c i rc l e a n d wi t h it th e c r s ta l th e two
, y ,

i mag es ar e mad e to be in th e same s tra igh t li n e Th e .

F IG .
39 —C. ONTACT GONI OM ETER .

i l is th en r ota te d un t il a n i mage 15 o b ta i n e d by
c rc e
‘

r efl ec t io n fr o m th e a dj a c e n t face Th e amo un t of r o ta
.

t io n giv es th e an gl e b et w een th e n o r ma l s t o th e t wo
crys ta l fa c es a n d h en c e t hi s a n gl e i s t h e s u ppl e m en t of
,

t h e i n t er n a l a n gl e b et w ee n t h e t wo f ace s .

In a n ot h er w e ll k n o wn r e fl ec t i n g go n io met e r t h e
-
,

c rys ta l is pl a c e d a t t h e c e n t r e of a ho r izo n t a l gr a d ua t e d
 IMP O R TANT C R Y S TAL G R OU PS 87

i l
c rc e , a bo ut whi c h s wi n g two te l e scop es—an a r ran g e
men t S i m il a r to th e o r di nar y s p ec tr o me ter . On e t e l es
c o pe ( th e c olli mat or ) is c l a mpe d so t h at ligh t p as s i n g

a lo n g it is r e fl e c t e d f r o m b o t h f a c e s of t h e c rys t a l
. Th e
o t h er t e l e sc op e is m ov e d un t il t h e s ign a l f r o m t h e
c olli mat o r r e fl e c t e d f r o m on e f ac e of t h e c ry s ta l is o n
, ,

th e i n t ers ec t io n of th e c r oss wi re s
-
. Th e tel esc op e is n ow
mov e d un ti l th e s ig na l is se en r e fl ec t e d fr o m t h e o th er
face of th e c rysta l The an gl e th r ough whi c h th e t e l es
.

c ope h as be e n m ov e d is t wi c e t h e i n t eri o r an gl e b etw een

th e fa ces of th e c rys ta l .
88 EL EM ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y

CUBIC S Y S TEM .

I . G ALENA TY P E .

Octah ed ron ( 1 I Cub e

Rh ombd od ecah ed r on Trisoctah ed ron

Trap ezoh ed ron ( 2 1 Tet ra h exah ed r on ( 2

90 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER ALOG Y
H EXAG ONAL S Y S TEM .

I B ERY L TY P E. I I C ALC I TE
. TY P E .

D ihexagonal Prism Dih exagon al Negati e v

an d Basa l Pla n e. P yramid . Rh omboh ed ron .

z ud Ord er Prism I st Ord er Prism I st Order

an d Basal Pla n e . an d Basal Pl an e .

TETRAG ONAL S Y S TEM .

ZI RC ON TYPE .

D itet ra gonal D itet ra

g on al zu d Ord er I st Ord e r I st Ord er
 M a cr o .

Th e Two Domes .

Th e Th r ee Pinacoid s .

i P ina co i d .

Prism an d Basal Pinacoid .

Th e Pyra mid .
92 EL E M ENTS OF M INER AL OG Y

M ONOCL I N I C S YSTEM .

G Y PS U M TYPE .

m
Two He ipyramids . P m and Basal PinacO
ris id .

Clinodome .

C linod ome an d Two The Th ree Pinacoid s

.

Hemiorthod omes .
 C H APTER V

O P TI C AL P R OP ERTI ES OF M I NER AL S

Nat ur e of Lig ht —The i

of light is giv en to
sen s at on

th e r e t i n a of t h e eye by vi b r at i on s in th e et h er t ran s v er s e
t o t h e di r ec t i o n of p r op ag a t io n Th es e vi b r at io n s are
.

b e li e ve d to be d ue to t h e ra pid p er iodi c c h an ge of th e
e l ec t r o ma gn e t i c con di t io n o f t h e e th e r Th e w a v es p ro
.

d uc e d by t h e s e p e r i odi c vi b r at io n s a re S i m il a r in p r op e r
t i es t o o th er an d fa m ili ar ty p e s o f w a v e m o t io n
c on c en t r i c w a v es on t h e s ur f a ce o f w a t er etc Th e ,
.

wave leng th o f a wa v e is t h e di s ta n ce b e tw ee n on e
-

p ar ti c l e a n d th e n ex t whi c h a re movi n g in th e same

di r ec ti on wi t h th e sa me v elo c i ty—th at is whi c h ar e in ,

t h e s ame p hase . Th e t i me r eq u i red f or th e di s t ur ba n ce

t o t ra v e l on e w a v e l en g t h is c a ll e d th e periodic time
-
.

F or viol e t ligh t th e w a v e l en g t h is 0 0 0 0 40 mm a n d f or
-
.

r e d ligh t 0 ooo 7 6 mm R ed ligh t h as t h e r e fo re a lo n g er

°
.

w a v e l en gt h an d a l ow e r f r e q u en c y t h an vi ol et ligh t
-
.

R e fl ect ion — Wh en a r ay of ligh t s tr ik es u po n a

s u r f a c e s e p a r a t i n g on e me di u m f r o m an o th e r it is u s u a ll y
,

in p a r t refl ected Or b e n t b ac k i n t o it s origi n a l medi u m .

D ur i n g r e fl ec t i on ligh t ob e ys t wo l a w s
1
. Th e a n gl e o f i n c id en c e is eq u al t o th e an gl e o f
r e fl e c t io n.

2
. Th e I n c id en t a n d r e fl ec te d rays l ie in t h e sa me
pl an e as th e n o rmal to t he s ur face at the poi n t
o f r e fl ec t io n .

F ig 40 b e l ow s h ow s a r a y of ligh t A B i n c id en t on
.

t h e s ur fa c e XX a t B It is r e fl ec t e d a lo n g t h e p at h B C
.

94
 P
O TI C AL PR OPER TI ES OF M I N ER AL S 95

so h at th e an gl e betw een AB an d th e n orma l a t B

t , B N,
e q ua l s t h e an gl e b e t w e en B C an d th e n orm a l B N . Or ,
-

L AB N CB N F urth ermo re th e i n c id en t ray

.
, AB ,

F IG .
4o .
—R EF LECTI ON AT A S U R F AC E X X .

th e fl ec te d r ay B C an d th e n or ma l B N all lie in th e
re , ,

sa me pl a ne t h a t o f t h e p a pe r N XX
, ,

R e f ra ct ion —Wh en a r ay of ligh t passes o b liq ue l y

t hr o ugh m edi a of di ff e re n t d en s i ty it be comes be n t or ,

r e f ra c t e d . B ut if it fa ll p e r p e n di c u l ar l y u po n t h e s ur
face s of diff e rent me di a it u n d ergoe s n o r e fract ion .

S u ppo se A A ( F ig 4 1 ) to r e p r e se n t t h e sec t ion of a

.

pl ate of gl as s B B a ra y of ligh t fal li n g o b liq ue l y u po n

,
’

its s ur f a ce Th e ray B B
'
.
,

i n s tea d o f pas s i n g s traigh t

”
on ,
is r e f r ac te d t o B and B ,

o n e me r gi n g f r o m th e g las s is

ag ain r e fr a c te d to p ar all e l
t o t h e di r ec t i on it p urs u e d
b e fo r e e n ter i n g th e gl a s s .

Th e a moun t of r e fra c t i on
whi c h a ray of ligh t un d e r
goe s in di ff er ent me di a v ar i es F 4
— R EF RA CTI ON
IG . I .
‘

a c c o r di n g to th ei r d en s i t y ,

t h e di re c t i on o f r e f r a c t i on d e p e n di n g on t h e v e l oc i t y
96 EL EM ENTS O F M INER AL O G Y
wi th whi c h t h e m edi um p ermi ts th e ligh t to trav e l
t hr o u gh it .

Th e t wo followi n g are th e l aw s whi c h gov ern S i mple

r efra c t io n

I . Th e S In e s of th e an gl es m a d e by t h e i n c id en t an d
r e fr a c te d r a s wi t h a li n e p er p e n di c u l a r t o t h e s ur fa c e of
y
th e me di u m a l w a ys b ea r a d e fi n i t e r a t io t o on e a n ot h er .

Thi s r at io n ev er v a r i es f or th e sa me two medi a n o ,

matter wh at may be t h e obli q u i ty wi t h whi c h th e ligh t

fall s on t h e s urf ac e .

Th e li n e s D D an d B B in th e fi g ure r e p r esen t t h e
S i n es of t h e t wo a n gl es ; an d t h e r a t i o b e t w e en t h e S i n e

o f t h e a n gl e of i n c id e n c e D D a n d t h a t of t h e a n gl e
,

of r efr ac t ion EE c o n st i tutes wh at is te rme d th e index of

,

r efr action or a mo u n t of t h e r a div r g e n ce f or t h at

’
, y s e

p art i c ul ar me diu m Thi s law may t h e re fo re be math e

.

mat ically s tated as

o
c n s tan t i n dex of f
r e rac t io n .

2 . Th e
i n c id en t an d the refrac te d ray a re in th e same
pl an e whi c h is p er p en di c ul ar to th e s urfac e se pa rati ng
'
,

t h e t wo med i a .

Th e p a pe r upon whi c h th e p r ecedi n g fi g ure is p r i nted

r e p r e s en t s t hi s pl an e .

Th e f ollowi n g a r e a f e w o b s er v ed i n di ces of re frac t io n

Air I0 0 Oli in e v
Wa ter I 3 3. R uby

Fl uor -s pa r G a rn e t ( pyro pe )
C rown g la ss Zircon
C a nad a ba lsa m D iamond
Q ua rtz I
°

55 R ut il e

Cal cite C inna ba r

D oub l e R e f ract ion —Thi s is th e po w e r whi c h so me

.

mi n era l s po s sess of r e fr ac t i n g ligh t in t wo di r e c t i on s s o ,

t h a t a s i n gl e o bj ec t a pp e a r s d o u b l e w h e n s e en t h r ough
98 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER ALO G Y
e x trao r di nary Th e o r di n a ry r ays t r av e l in th e c rys ta l
.

wi th th e sa m e v el oc i ty wh at e v er th e di r ec t i on wh er eas ,

t h e e x t ra or di n a ry r a ys t ra v e l wi th di ff e r e n t v e l oc i t i e s
in di ff e r e n t di r e c t i on s .

Th er e is on e di r ec t i on in t hi s typ e of c rys ta l h ow e v e r , ,

a lo n g w hi c h th e o r di n a ry a n d e x t r a or di n a r y ra ys t r a v e l

wi t h eq u a l v e lo c i t i e s Thi s di r e c t i on is c a ll ed th e Op tic
.
-

A x is an d is p a r a ll e l wi th th e p ri n c ip a l c r ys ta ll og r a phi c
,

a xi s. Th e r e is on l y one di r e c t i on in t hi s ty p eo f c r ys ta l
a l on g whi c h n o d o u b l e r e f r a c t i on o c c u r s a n d t h er e f or e
,

s u c h cry s ta l s ar e sa id t o b e U niax i al An i n t er es t i n g
.

e x p er i m e n t wi t h I c e l a n d S p a r ill u s t r a tes t h es e .

I f a t hi ck b la c k li n e is d ra w n on a pi ec e of p a p er an d ,

a c l ea v e d r h om b oh e d r on of I c e l a n d s p a r pl a c e d o v er t h e

li n e two li n e s will t h en be seen i n s tea d o f on e I f th e

, .

c r ys ta l is s lowl y t ur n e d th e li n e s will g r a d ua ll y a pp r oa
, ch ,

un til on e of t h e m is ov e r th e o t h e r S u b s t i t ut i n g a dot
‘

f or a li n e two dots will b e s een a t di ff e ren t di s tan c e s

,
~

from th e s u r fac e ; an d as th e c rysta l is t urn e d on e d ot ,

will be s een to tra v e l r o un d th e o th er b ut th e d ot s will ,

n e v er c oi n c id e Th er e is howe v er on e di r ec t i on th ro ugh
.
, ,

t h e c rys ta l in whi c h th e d ots wo u ld be s e e n to c oi n c id e ,

n a me l t h e di r e c t io n of t h e p r i n c ip a l c r ys ta ll og ra phi c
y ,

ax i s . F or t hi s th e two s olid a n gl es of t h e r ho m b t h r ou gh
,

whi c h thi s c r ys ta ll ogra phi c a xi s passes mus t be g r oun d

d own i n t o t wo para ll e l fac es at r igh t a n gl es to th e a xi s
'

a n d t h e s e fa c e s mu s t be poli s h e d In t hi s di r e c t io n t h e
.
,

opti c ax i s t he or di n ary a n d e x t r aor di n ar y r a ys tr a v e l

, ,

wi t h e qual v e lo c i t i e s an d a s i n gl e i ma g e is s een
, .

B ia x ial M in era l s —C rystal s b e lon gi n g to th e ort h o

.
-

r ho m b i c mo n oc li n i c an d t r i c li n i c s ys te m s
, ,
t ho s e
c rys t a l s who s e l a t er a l a x e s a r e u n e q ua l ) e xhi b i t op t i c a l

c h ar a c t er s whi c h d iff er f r om t ho s e m e t wi t h in un i a xi a l

C rysta l s b e lon gi n g t o t h e s e s ys tem s h a v e two

'

c ry s ta l s .

di rect io n s a lo n g whi c h t her e is n o dou b l e r e frac t i on ,

 P I
O T C AL PR O P ER TI ES OF . M IN ER AL S ‘

99

t hat is, l
g whi c h ligh t c a n tr a v el wi th e q ua l
“ “ '

a on .

v el oc i ty s uc h c rys t a l s ar e t h e r e for e t erm e d B iaxial .

F or Su c h a c rys t a l t h e re a r e t wo di r e c t ion s a t righ t

a n gl es t o ea c h ot h e r f o r vib r a t i on s al on g whi c h t h e
,

r e fr a c t iv e i n di c e s ha v e r e s p e c t iv e l y a m a xi m u m a n d a

m in im u m v a l u e a n d in a th i r d di rec t io n a t r ig h t an gl e s
,

t o e ac h of t h es e di r ec t i o n s t h e r e f ra c t iv e i n d e x h a s a
,

c er ta i n i n t er me di a t e v a l u e .

B ir e f ringe nce— I Uniax ial M incrals —III un i a xi a l

.
'
.
_

m i n e ra l s t h e ma xi m um di ff er e n ce b et w e en t h e r e f r a c t iv e
i n d e x of th e or di n ary r ay a n d t h at o f th e e x tr aor di n ary r ay
Is c al l e d th e bi re f r i n g e nce Ta k e c a l c i te as an e x ampl e
.

R e fr a c t iv e
i n de x o f or di n ary ray
R e fr a c t iv e i n d e x of e x t ra or di n a ry r ay

B i r e f r i n g e nc e

2 . B iax ia l M iner a ls .
— If v al u e of th e
th e m xi m
a um

r efr a c t iv e i n d e x In a bia xi a l m i n e r a l b e d e n o t e d by 7 a n d

th e m i n i m um v a l u e by t h e bi re fr i n g e n c e i s giv e n
a
,

—
by r a
Tak e or t hoc l as e as a n e x a m pl e

a :

B i r e fr i n g en ce 0 0 05 .

P ol ar isat ion — P o l ar i sa t i on r e s u l t s fr om th e e xt i n c t ion

.

o f a c e rt a n s e t o fi
vib ra t i on s in a r a y of ligh t C a us i n g t h e ,

r ay of lig h t t o be t r an s m i t t e d b vib r at i on s whi c h l ie in

y ,

pl an e polar i se d ligh t a ll in on e pl ane Wh en a r ay of

,
.

lig h t f all s u p on a po li sh e d s ur fac e of glas s or wood a t a

c erta i n an gl e it ac q ui r es a n al t e r e d c h ar a c t e r an d 1 3 sa id
, ,

to be po l ar i s ed It is n o l on g e r c a p a b le of un d e r g o i n g
.
1 00 EL EM ENTS O F M I NER AL O GY
i
refle c t on indi r e ct io n s f or if th e pol a r i se d ray be
a ll ,

ma de to i m pi n g e u p on a s u rf ac e of gl a s s se t a t t h e sa me
a n gle as t h e s u r f a c e f r om whi c h it wa s p o l ar i se d it will ,

be f oun d u pon t ur n i n g t he gl a ss p l a t e s l owl y r ou n d

.
, ,

wit h ou t di stur b i n g it s i n c li n at i on t o t h e p ol ar i s ed r ay ,

t ha t t h e r e a r e t wo p os i t i on s ( n a m el y t ho s e i n w h i c h t h e ,

pl an es of i n c id enc e ar e a t r igh t an gl e s) wh en n o lig h t

will be r efl ec ted .

B ot h t h e or di n ar y an d e x tr a o r di n ar y rays whi c h
t r a v er s e d ou b l y re f ra c t i n g c r ys ta l s a r e p olar i se d an d ,

if s uc h c rys tal s be p r op er l y s li c ed an d e x a m i n e d t he .
,

l igh t pol a r i s e d by on e pl a t e m ay be an a l ys e d by th e
ot h e r in s u c h a wa y t h a t o n r ot a t i on o f t h e a na l ys i n g

pl at e (or a n a lys er as it is t erm e d) a gr a d ua l di m i n ut i on

, , ,

s ucc ee d e d by a t ota l e x t i n c t i on o f ligh t e n s u e s ; whil e

, ,

u po n c o n tin u i n g t h e r ot a t io n ligh t is on ce mor e t ran s

,

m itte d a n d aga i n giv e s pl a c e t o o b s c ur i ty a n d d ar k n e s s

,

a s the r e vol ut ion con t in ue s .

F or o r di na ry p ur po se s a li tt l e i n s tr ume n t t er m e d t h e
to ur mal i n e p in c e tt e is u s e d
.
Thi s c on s is t s of t wo pl at es
.

of t ourmali n e c ut para ll e l to th e p r i n c ipa l a xi s of th e

c rys t a l a n d mo un t e d in li t t l e di s cs w h i c h t ur n in c oll a r s
, ,

fo rmed by th e b en t e x tr emi t i e s of a pi ec e of wi r e Th e .

a r r a n g e m e n t is s u c h t h a t t h e t wo di sc s p r es s ag a i n s t

e a c h o t h e r but c a n b e s q u ee z e d a p a r t so as t o p e r mi t t h e
,

i n ter po s i t io n of mod erate l y t hi n pl a te s of an y mi n era l

wh ose op t i c a l p rop er t i es r eq ui r e i n v es tiga t io n S o l on g .

a s t h e t wo pl at e s o f t o ur ma li n e h a v e t h e i r p r i n c ip a l a x e s

a r a ll e l t he y t r an s m i t ligh t f r ee l b ut if o n e of t he m be
p , y
t u r n e d un t il it s p r i n c ip a l a x i s is a t righ t a n gl es t o t ha t
o f th e ot h er lig h t will n o l on g e r b e t r a n s m it te d wh er e
,

th e p l a t e s c r o s s I f w h il e t h ey a re i n t his po s i t i on a
.
, ,
"

ol a r i s i n g s u b s ta n c e be i n t er p os e d ligh t will a g a i n pass

p ,

t h r o u gh t h em ; b ut if t h e i n te r p os e d m i n e ra l s do n ot
pol ar i se d a r k n ess will c on t in ue a nd n o c h ange wi ll be
, ,

o b s er v ed .
 EL EM Eiq i s OI M I NE R AL O G Y
’
‘ 3
102

pph i r e s u c h as s a

a n d r ub
y ; whil e t r i c h r o i s m m a y oc c u r i n b i a xi a l c r y s t a l s ,

s u c h a s c o r di e r i t e C or di er i te a pp ea r s d eep b l u e wh en
.

vi ew e d In th e di r ec t i on of th e v er t i ca l a xi s a n d p al e bl u e ,

or
ye ll ow wh en vi e w e d i n t h e di r ec t i on of th e ot h e r t wo
a x es . Thi s p r op er ty of pl eoc h r oi s m is of s p ec i a l v a l u e
in t h e d e t er mi n a t io n of g e ms, f or whi c h p u r p ose u s e is
ma d e of a li t tl e i n s tr u m en t c a ll e d a di c h r osc op e whi c h ,

co n s i s ts o f a c l e a v a g e p r i s m Of I c e l a n d s p a r c on ta i n e d in

a t u b e p r o vid e d wi t h a s q u are a p er t u re a t on e e n d a n d a

l en s a t th e oth er On l ooki n g t h rough t h e l en s Of th e

.
‘

i n s trumen t a t a t ra n s p ar en t c rys ta l pl ac e d ov e r t h e
a p er t ur e a t t h e o t h e r e n d t wo i mag es o f t h e a p e r tur e
, _

a r e s e e n s id e b
y s id e T h e vib r a t i o n s. f o r m i n g t h e t wo

i mag e s a r e a t r igh t an gl e s to on e a n oth er an d in th e c a se ,

of a pl eoch roi c c rys ta l t h ey s h ow di ff eren t c ol ours ,

a c cor di n g t o t h e di re c t i on in whi c h t h e c r s ta l is pl a c e d
y .

I nt e r f e r en ce — If t wo wa v e s of ligh t of th e sa me
.

wa v e l en g th an d a m pli t u d e an d tra v e lli n g in th e s a me

-
,

di re c t i on me et c res t to c r es t a n d tr oug h t o tr ough th e

,
-

r e s u l t is t o giv e t h e p a r t i c l e s a ff e c t e d b t h e wave
y
do u bl e a mpli tu d e. I f , h ow e v er th e wa v e s m e et c res t ,

to t rough a n d t r o ugh t o c r e s t t h e p a r t ic les a r e m o t io n l e ss , ,

a n d th e w a v e s a r e sa id t o i nterfer e a n d e x t in u Ish on e
g
an oth e r . If or di n ar y w h i t e ligh t is u s e d th e w a v e s ,

Ov e r l a p by i n t e r f er e n c e an d t h e c o l ou r s o f t h e s p e c t r u m
,

a re s een .

—
Th e M icroscop e The typ e o f mi c ros c op e used in . _

th e s tudy o f t hi n s ect i on s of mi n e ra l s a n d r o c k s is
s how n in F ig 4 3 Th e es s en t i a l p art s of th e in s tru
. .

men t a r e E th e l en s o f th e eye pi ece O th e l en s of t h e

, , ,

o bj ec t iv e P th e po lar i s er a Ni col p r i s m pl ac e d bel ow

, , ,

th e s ta g e Z ; A t h e a n a l ys e r
,
w hi c h wh e n In u s e is p ut , ,

a b ov e t iie e e pi ece E T h e m i r r o r M is u s e d to t h r o w
y .
, ,

a b e a m of ligh t up t h r ough th e p ol ar i ser (if in u s e )

 P I
O T C AL PR OP ER TI ES OF MI N ER AL S 1 03

FIG .
43.
—TH E MI C R OSC OP E
.

thr o ugh th e thi n s li ce of th e mi n er a l on th e s ta g e a n d,

h en ce th r o ug h th e obj ec t iv e an d th e m i n e ral is vi e we d
,

by t h e eye pi ec e whi c h is f i tt e d wi t h t wo c r o s s W i r e s a t
,
-

r igh t a n gl e s
.
104 EL EM ENTS OF M I NER ALOG Y
Th in S ect io n s a nd P ol is h e d S u r f a c es — F or the

e xa m i n at i on Of m i n er a l s a n d roc k s un d er th e mi c roscop e ,

t hi n s e c t i on s a re r e q u i r e d A c hip of th e r oc k is g r o un d
.

p er fec tl y fl at on on e s id e wi t h e mery or c ar b orun d u m

,

powd er on a gl as s or m eta l pl ate Th e g r i n di n g is b eg un

.

wi t h a coa rs e p owd er an d c o n t i n ue d wi t h fi n er powd er s

,

un t il a p e r fe c t l y s mo o t h fl a t s u r f a c e is o b ta i n e d A gl as s
.

s lip ( 3 x is tak en a n d a s ma ll a m ou n t o f C a n a d a
”
,

ba l s a m p ut in it s c en tr e a n d h eated g e n t ly un t il s u ffi c i en t
t u r p e n t i n e h a s b e e n d r iv e n off to c a u se th e b a l s am t o
b ec o me h ar d an d c o mp a c t on c ooli n g Th e c or re c t .

mom en t t o c ea se h ea t i n g t h e ba l sa m may be j udg e d by

ta ki n g u p a s m a ll q u a n t i ty of it on f orce p s an d by ,

o p e n i n g t h e fo r c e p s c a u s e a b r idg e o r t h r ea d o f b a l s a m

t o b e fo r me d . I f th e b al sa m h a s b ee n s u ffi c i e n t ly h ea t e d ,

t hi s b r idg e will b e h a r d an d b r i t t l e on c ooli n g Th e.

c hip of r o c k is t h e n pl ac e d on t h e s lip wi t h th e fl a t te n e d

s u r f ace in con t a c t wi t h t h e b a l sa m a n d gl ass By .

p ress i n g th e c hip a ir b u bb l es may be r e mov e d f r o m th e

fi lm of b a l sa m bet w e en th e c hip a n d gl as s On b e i n g
.

c oo l e d th e c hip will be fi r m l y c e m e n t e d to t h e gl a s s s lip .

Th e n e x t op era t i on c on s i s t s in g r i n di n g down t h e thi c k

c hip a s in t h e fi r s t p r oc e s s b e gi n n i n g wi t h t h e coar s e a n d
,

e n di n g wi t h t h e fi n e s t powd er G r ea t c a r e is n e c e s s a ry
.

d ur i n g th e fin a l s ta g e s or t h e r oc k will be c ompl ete l y

,

r ub b e d a w a y . The t hi c k n e s s of th e s li ce c a n be j u dg e d
by t h e pol a r i s at io n co l ou r s giv e n by s o m e r e c o gn i sa bl e
mi n er a l s uc h as q ua r t z an d g r i n di n g mu s t be c on t i n u e d
, ,

un t il t hi s m i n e ra l s h o w s it s u s u a l pol ar i s a t i on c ol ou r s
f or qu a rt z g r ey a n d ye ll ow o f t h e fi r s t o r d e r
, Af t e r t h e
.

fi n a l g r i n di n g t h e s ec t i on m us t b e c ar e f ully was h e d a n d ,

al l re ma i n i n g b a l sa m s c ra p e d f r o m ar o un d t h e r oc k .

Th e Sli c e is th en c ov e r e d wi t h fr e s h b a l s a m a n d h eat e d
ag a i n t o a s ligh t l y l es s e x t en t t h an b e f or e
,
. Wh e n th e
bal s a m is of th e r ight c o n s i s ten cy a v ery thi n s h eet o f
,
 106 EL E MENTS OF
'

M I N ER AL O G Y

E XAM IN ATIO N O F M INER ALS U N D ER THE

M IC R OS C O P E .

The x ami n at i on of m In eral s in thi n s ec ti onun d er th e

e

m i c r o s c op e c on s i s ts f or a ll e l em en ta ry p ur pos es of th r e e
,
‘

op eratio n s n a me l y ,

1 Th os e c a r r i e d ou t by u s i n g o r di n a r y
. ligh t .

2 Th os e by u s i n g t h e pol a r i s e r
.
,
.

3 Tho s e by us i n g c ro s s e d n i col s
. .

1Or d in a ry L ig h t —In o r d e r t o e x am i n e t hi n s ec
.

t io ns o f m i n e ra l s in o r di n a r
y ligh t , b ot h p o l a r i s er a n d

a n a l s er a r e r e m ov e d
y Th e f ollowi n g p rop e r t i es o f t h e
.

mi n era l c an t h en be ob s e r v e d
a C r stal line F ar rie —
'

( ) y B y o b se r vi
r n g t h e f o r m o f t h e

m i n era l So me c o n c l u s i on s a s t o th e c rys ta lli n e f or m c a n

be m a d e Ac c u r a t e c o nc l us i on s a s to th e crys ta lli n e
“

n a t ur e o f a m i n e r a l c a n o n l b e a r r iv e d a t a f t er t h e
y
Ob s e r v a t io n o f a l ar g e n u m b e r of s e c t i on s .

As a n e x a mpl e n eph e li n e is a h e x a gon a l m i n era l a n d

‘ ‘

, ,

in t hi n ion s a ppea rs a s h e x agon a l c r o s s s ec t i on s a n d

"

sect

r ec ta n g u l a r lo n gi tudi n a l s e c t i on s c h a r a c t er s whi c h s u f fi c e
,

t o di s t i n g u i s h n e ph e li n e f r om o th e r m i n e r a l s in t hi n
s e c t i on s .

6
( ) C le a v a e — Cl ea v a g e in a m i n e r a l app e a r s a s o n e o r
g
more s ets of p ar a ll e l c rac k s in t hi n s e c t i on Th e n u m b e r .

of c l eava g e c rac k s th e n um b er of s e ts of c l ea v ag es a n d
,
'

t h e i r i n c li n a t i on on e t o a n o t h e r d e p en d on th e di r ec t io n
,

in whi c h t h e se c t i on is c ut .

Th u s t h e p r i s m at i c c l ea v ag e o f h or n b l en d e a pp ea rs
in t ra n s v er s e s ec t i on s a s two s e t s of li n es m eet i n g a t
a n gl es a pp r o xi ma t e l wh er e a s l on gi t u di n a l s e c t i on s
y
s how on ly on e s et of c l eav a g e s .

nclusi ons — In s om e m i n e r a l s i n c l u d e d m a t er i a l is
( )
c I
a r r a n g e d on a d e fi n i t e pl a n a n d s e r v e s a s a u se fu l
,
 P I
O T C AL P R OP ERTI ES OF M I N ER AL S
d ia gn ost i c c h ar ac t er In l e u c i te i n c l u s i on s oc c ur in
.
,

c on c e n tr i c a n d r a di a l p att e r n s Th e w e ll kn own c r os s
.
-

s h a pe d i n c l us i on s in c hi as t oli t e a r e a n ot h e r e x a m pl e .

( )
d T r a ns p a renc
y
— M o s t m i n e r a l s a r e tr an s p ar e n t in

th i n s e c t ion ; s om e f ew s uc h a s m agn eti t e an d p yr i t es

‘

, ,

a r e 0 p a ue
q
.
.

e
() C olour .
—T h e m i n e ra l m ay b e c ol ou r l e s s as in ,

q uar t z or c o l our e d a s in b io t i te a n d in most c a s e s

, , ,

t h e c o l ou r is di s t i n c ti ve o f giv e n m i n era l On e ‘

a .

m i n er a l m a y s h ow s ome t i me s s e v e r al c ol ou rs or s ev e r a l
s h a d e s of t h e sa me c ol ou r o wi n g t o it s be i n g a pl eo
,

c h r oic m i n e r a l Wh i c h h a s be e n c u t in s e v e r a l di ff er e n t

c ry s tal l og ra phi c di re c t i o n s in t h e sa me s lid e .

f em— If t h e m in er a l h a s a r e f r a c t iv e
(f ) R e r ac tive [ rede

i n d e x mar k e dly d ifl er e n t fr om th at of th e medi um in

‘
-

w h i c h it is m oun te d it will ha v e w e ll mar k e d b or d e r s ;

,
-

a n y c l ea v a g e c r a c k s it po s s es se s will be bo ldl y s h ow n ,

an d it s s ur f ac e will e xhibit a pi tt e d o r s ha gr ee n e d
a pp earan c e . Th us garn e t ( r e fra c t iv e i n d e x
m oun t e d in C an a d a ba l sa m ( r e fr a c ti v e i n d e x
”

s h ow s s tr on gl y mar k ed bo r d er s an d c r a c k s an d it s s ur ,

fa c e is pi tt e d .

W ith t h e P olaris er g In or d er to e xami n e

“

2.

m i n er a l s wi t h th e po l a r i se r t h e low er n i co l or pol ar i se r
,

is p u t i n t o pl a c e be t w ee n th e m i r r o r an d th e s t ag e .

Pleochroism — A m i n er a l is sa i d t o be pl eoc h r oi c wh en
it s h o w s c h a n g e in q ua li ty or q u an t i ty o f c ol o u r w h en
r o t a t e d in po l a r i s e d lig h t P l eoc hr oi sm is d u e to t h e
.

un e q ua l a b s or p t i on by t h e m i n e r a l o f li g h t vib r a t i ng

in di ff er en t pl a n es As a n e x a m pl e c on s id er a l on gi
‘

.
,

t u d in a l s ec t io n of b io t i t e I f th e po l a r i s e d ligh t vibr ate s

.

p ar a ll e l w i th th e c l ea vag es th e mi n er a l is a d e e p b r own
, ,

a n d s om et i me s a l mo s t b l a c k in c o l ou r ; if t h e p o l ar i s e d

ligh t vi bra t es a c ros s th e c l ea v ag es t h e mi n era l is a li g h t

.

br ow n P l eoc h roi s m is b es t ob s er ve d by r ota t i n g th e

.
108 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OG Y
p ol ar i s e r a nd wa tc hi n g f or c h a n g es of t i nt in t h e m i n er a l
u n d er e x a m i n a ti on .

An ot h e r ph en omen o n t h a t ca n be o b s e r v e d in pol a r i s ed
ligh t is t h at of t wi n kli n g w e ll s h own b y c a l c i te
“
,
”
.

F or ca l c i te th e v a l u e of th e r e f r a c t iv e i n d e x of t h e
o r di nar y ra y is 1 6 6 f or th e e x tra o r di n ary r ay is
,

Th e r e fra c t iv e i n d e x o f C an ad a b a l sa m is If a
g ran u l a r mo s a i c of ca l c i te is ex a mi n e d in pol a r i s e d ligh t ,

it is o b vio us t h at s o m e gr a i n s will t ra n s m it t h e o r di n ary

r a y a n d s om e th e e x t r a o r di n a r
y ra
y T h o s e g r a i n s t ra n s
.

m i tt i n g th e o r di n a r y r ay h a v e a re f ra c t iv e i n d e x muc h
g r eater t h an t h at of ba l s a m an d t h ere fo r e th e i r b o r de r s
,

will be w e ll mar k e d ; t h os e g ra i n s tr a n s mi tt i n g t h e e x tra

o r di n a ry r ay ha v e a r e fra c t iv e i n d ex a li tt l e lo w er th an
t h a t o f b a l s am a n d t h e i r b or d e rs will n ot b e so s t r o n gly
,

ma r k ed H en c e wh e n th e pol ar i ser is r ota ted b en eat h

.
,

t h e s li ce o f c a l c i te th e mi n eral h a s a l tern at e l y s t r o n gl y
,

mar k e d a n d s ligh tly ma rk ed bo r d e r s an d a twi n kli n g ,

“

e ff e c t is n ot i c e d .

3. C r os s e d N ico l s — F o r t
. h e e x a m i n a t io n of m i n e r a l s

b et w een c ros s ed n i c ol s both po l ar i s er a n d an al ys er ar e

u s e d a n d th e n i co l s a r e s o ar r a n g e d t h a t t h e i r vib ra t io n
,

pl an es a r e a t r igh t an gl e s on e to an o th er or a re crossed .

( )
a I sotrop ism a nd An iso t r o
p is nz I f a t
. ra n s p a r e n t

m i n era l r ema i n s b l a c k wh en r o ta t e d b e t we en c r os se d
n i c o l s it is s a id t o be isotr op ic A m i n e ra l w h i c h d oe s n ot
’

, .

r e m a i n bl a c k is a nisotr opic S i n gl y r e f r a c t i n g s ub st a n c e s
.

h a v e n o e ff e c t on po l ar i s ed ligh t whi c h th ey t ra n s mi t ,

un a l t e r e d S li c e s o f s i n gl y r e f ra c t i n g s u b s t a n c e s will
.

th ere for e h a v e n o e ff e c t on t h e Op t i ca l c on di t i on wh e n
pl ace d b et w een c ros se d n i c ol s S i mil ar l y t rans v e r s e .
,

s ec t io n s o f u n i a xi a l m i n e r a l s a r e s i n gl y r e fra c t i n g a n d ,

h en c e ar e i so tr opi c b etw een c ros se d n i c o l s .

b
( ) E x tinc tio n a n d P ol ar is a tio n C ol ours Wh en. a

s e c t i on o f a n an i sot r o pi c m i ne r a l is e x a m i n e d be twc en
 1 10 EL EM ENTS O F M IN ER AL O G Y E -

wh er e it is s pli t up in tO Vibr a t ion s a l ong t wo di r ec t i on s

'

th e Vi b r a t i on di r e c t io n s of t h e c r ys ta l Th ese two ra ys .

l ea v e th e crys tal a n d en te r th e an a l yser wh er e ea ch r ay ,

i

Is s pli t u i t di a r y a n d a n e x t r a o r di n a r y r a y
’

n o a n o r n
p .

Th e t wo or di n a ry r a ys a r e t h r ow n o ut by t h e n i c ol t h e
‘

t wo e x tr aor di n a r y r a ys i n t e r f e r e a n d p r o d uc e c o l o u r .

Th e c ol our p r od u c e d d ep e n d s o n th e a moun t of r e ta r '

d a t i on wh i ch oc c ur s a n d t hi s is d e p en d en t u po n th e
,
’

bi r e f r i n g en c e of th e m i n era l an d t h e t hi c k n e s s of the
s li c e An i n c r ea s e in t h e b i r e fr i n g en c e or in t h e t hi c k
.

n e ss of t h e s li c e c a u s e s g r eat er r e t a r d a t i on an d co l o u r s ,

high in Ne w ton s s ca l e of i n ter f er en c e c ol our s a r e

’

p r od uc ed F or e x ampl e in s li c es of u sua l thi c k n e s s

.
, ,

q u a rtz (b i r e fr i n g en c e 0 0 0 9) s h ow s lo w p ol a r i sa t i on
c ol o ur s — g r e ys a n d ye ll o w s ; wh e r eas o livi n e
( b ir e f r in

g en c e 0 0 36) sh ow s high po l ari s at io n c olo urs —br igh t

r e d s pi n k s a n d g r e e n s
,
.

()c T w inn in g
— T wi n n i n g c a n be b es t s e e n b e t w e e n

c r o s s e d n i c ol s .Th e t wo h a l v es of t h e t wi n or t h e t wo .

s et s o f t wi n l am e ll ae giv e diff e r en t p o l a r i s a t i on co l our s

,

a n d e x t i n g u i s h a t di ff e r e n t an gl es P l agi oc l as e fe l s pa r .

is u s ua ll y t wi n n e d an d b et w e en c ro s sed n i c ol s a n a pp ar
,

en t l y h omog e n eous c r ys t a l will s how t wo s et s o f t wi n ’

l ame l lae eac h set ex t i n gu i shi n g in a di ff er en t po s i t ion

,

f r orri t h at of th e ot h e r
'

A era tion —Al t e r a t i on c an b e o b s e r v ed in or di n a r

( )
cl l t y
ligh t but th e n a tu r e of th is al ter at i on c an b e s t b e a s c er
,
~

t a in ed b e t w e e n c r osse d ni c o l s An a l t er e d mi n era l is
.

u s u a ll y t u r b id o r c lo u dy a n d a l t e r a t i on p ro d u c t s ma y b e
,

d e v e l op ed a l on g c l ea va g e s c r ac k s ; or oth er wi se B e , . ,

t w e e n c ro sse d n i c ol s a l t e r e d m i n era l s u s uall y s h o w

aggr eg a te p olar isa tion b e c a u se t h e or igi n a ll y h omog e n eou s
,

c r y s t a l h a s b ee n c o n v e r t e d by a l t er a t i on i n t o a m u l t i t u d e

o f i r r e g u l a r l y a rr a n g e d c rys t a l s o f t h e a l t era t i on p r o d u ct
’

.
 I
OP T C AL PR O P ERTI ES OF MI NER ALS

TAB LE S H OW I N G TH E O P TIC A L P R O P ER TIES

O F C R Y S TA L S .

Ne v er pl eoc h r o i c
I s otr o pi c e x c e pt u n d er
, ab

n o r ma l c on di t i on s

D ou bl y r e fr a c t in g
D i c h r oi c if c o l ou r e d
Tra n s v e rs e i
s ec t on s

at r igh t a n gl e s t o t h e
o p t i c a x i s — ar e i s ot r o pi c

on g itu d ina l s e c t i on s a r e

J niax ial a n i s otr opi c giv e s t r a ig h t

,

e x t i n c t i on S ec t i on s of
.

t e t r a g on a l min er a l s u s u
a ll y h a v e m u l t ipl e s of

four s ides of h e x agon al

,

m i n er a l s u s uall y m ul t i
pl es of thr ee s id e s

D ou bl y f r e r ac t n i g
Tr i c h ro i c if c o l ou r e d

No s e c ti on s i so tr opi c
Orthor hombic . i
-
All s e c t on s

giv e s tr a igh t e x ti n c t i on
M onocli nic — T r a n s v e r S e
.

iax ia l a n d or t h o pi n a co id a l s e c

t i on s giv e s tr a ig h t e x t i n e
t i on ; c l i n o p i n a c o i da l
s e c t i on s giv e Obliq u e e x

t i n c t i on
Tr iclinie — Al l s ec t i on s giv e
.

Obliq u e e x t i n c ti on
 D ES C R I P TI O N OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES

C l ass ifi ca t ion of M in e r a l s .

M I NER AL S ma y be l ifi e d in s ev er a l w ays n earl y

c a ss ,

a l l o f w h i c h a re d e p e n d e n t h ow e v er e i the r u o n t h e ir
‘

, p ,

C h e m i ca l c om po s i ti o n o r t h e f or m s o f t h e i r c rys ta l s In .

t hi s w or k th ey ar e s i m
,

pl y divid e d i n t o metalli c a n d n on
m eta lli c gr o u p s an d t h en a r r an g e d in s ub divi s i on s
,

a cc or di n g t o t h e e l e me n t s whi c h fo r m t h e i r p r o m i n e n t

c o n s t i t ue n t s Thi s a r r a n g e me n t i n to t wo m ai n gr oup s
.
,

m e tal li c an d n on m e tal li c m e r e l y i m pli e s t h e p r e s e n ce of

-
,

m e ta lli c l u s tr e a n d of high s pe c ifi c gr a vi ty in th e fi r s t
~

gr ou p It s h ould be n ot e d m or eov er t ha t th e m i n era l s

.
, ,

o f c e r ta i n m e t a lli c e l e m e n t s — th e a lk a li n e ear t h s al um i n
-

iu
m ,e tC ar e m or e c o n v e n i en t l y c on s id e r e d in th e n on

meta lli c s ec t io n
.
-

Abb r eviat ion s u sed .

Co mpo s i t ion Camp .

C rysta l Sys t e m C ry stf Sy st .

C ommo n F orm C om or m
. F .

Cl ea vag e C loae .

F ra c t ur e F r act .

H ar d n es s H .

S p e c ifi c G r a vi ty Sp Gr . .

Op t i ca l P r o p ert i es
S pe c i a l P r o pe rt i es

1 TH E NON M ETALLI C M I N ERA LS

.
-
.

C A R B ON ( C y
C a r bo n k n o wn in t h ree di ff ere n t co n di t io n s : tran s
is
p a r e n t a n d c rys ta lli s e d a s di a mon d s c a l y a nd c rys ta lli n e
1 15
1 1 6 EL E M ENTS O F M I N ER AL O GY

as g ra phi te a n d a mor p h ou s a s l a m p bl a c k c h ar c oa l soot -

, , ,

et c .Th e s e di ff er e n t f or m s v a ry in h ar d n e ss s p e c ifi c ,

g ra vi ty an d oth e r ph ys i c a l p rop er t i e s but c h em i ca ll y

, ,

t h ey a r e id e n t i ca l Amor ph ou s ca r b on en t er s l a rg e l y
.

i n to th e comp os i t i on of c oa l s .

C a r bon for m s wi t h ox yg en a n d hyd rog en man y s er i es

o f c om po u n d s whi c h o c cu r n at ur a ll as t h e v e r i m po r
, y y
t ant b i tumen s a n d p et r ol e um s .

Car bon i c a c id is a c om b in a t ion of c ar b o n o xyg en an d , ,

hyd rog en an d has th e c h em i ca l fo rmul a HzC O3 Th e

, .

c a rbon ates t h e sa l ts Of t hi s a c id a r e v e ry c ommon an d

, , ,

e xi s t in th e r oc k s o f th e ea r t h in en o r mo us q uan t i t i e s .

C a l c i um c ar b on at e (C a C Oa) f orms th e c ommon l i me

s t o n es magn es i um ca l c i u m c ar b on a t e ( M g C O C a C a
,
- - s

a
t h e dolo mi tes i r o n c ar b o n at e ( F e C O s ) is t h e m i n er al
,

C h al y bi t e a nd a h os t of o t h e r ec on o m i c a l l y i mp or t an t
,

ca r b o n at es a r e k n ow n Th e car b on a tes ar e h er e d e. ,

s c r i b e d un d e r t h e he ad i n g s of t h e m e ta lli c el eme n ts o c c ur
r i n g in th em .

D I A M ON D .

C omp —P ure c ar b o n C
s ,
.

C ryst Syst —C u b i c
. . .

Corn F ar m — Octah e d r on p rob a bl y a c om bi n a ti on 0

.
,

t wo t e t ra h e d r a C rys ta l s Oft en wi th c u r v e d fac e s ; c om

.

m on ly t wi n n e d Al so in w a t er w or n g ra i ns in a ll uvi a l
.
-

d e p os i t s .

C lea v Oc ta h e d r a l a n d p er f e c t
.
-
.

Col onr Wh i te or c ol our l es s s om e t i m e s ye l l ow r e d

.
-
, , ,

e tc
; v e ry r a r e l y b l u e or b l a c k
. Th os e m os t fr ee fr om .

c o l o u r a r e t e r m e d di a m on d s o f th e fi r s t w a te r a n d a r e ,

th e m os t va luab l e .

L ustre — B r illi an tl y a da man t i n e Tr a n s p a re n t ; wh e n .

d a r k c o l o u r e d t ra n s l u c e n t ,
.

F r aet .
—C o n c h o id a l .
1 18 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
of its phys i c al p r op er ti es but is di sti n g ui s h ed by its j et
,

b l a c k s tr ea k , wh er ea s th e s tr ea k of molyb d en i t e is
'
’ ”

g r e en i s h b l ac k -
.

Occurrence — G r a phi te o c cu r s in th r ee ma i n w ays

( )
1 V e i n s o f a t r u e fi s s u re c h ar a c ter a s in C eyl on , ,

B or r owd a l e a n d I r k ut s k ; ( 2 ) b e dd e d ma s s es of a l en t i c
,

u l ar an d p a tc h
y n a t u r e in g n e i ss e t c a s in E a s t e rn,
.
,

C an a da ; ( 3) di ss em i n at io n s t h r o ugh th e c o un try r oc k
in th e n e igh b o ur h oo d of a v e i n a s in Eas te r n Ame r i ca , ,

G e r ma n y e t c Th ese di s s e m i n at i on s u s u a ll y oc c u r in
,

a nc i e n t g n e i ss e s cr s t a lli n e li m e s t o n e s e t c C e y l on
y , ,
.

p r od uc es th e m o st g ra phi te a n d in t hi s i s l an d th e ,

m i n er a l o c c ur s a s b ra n c h i n g v e i n s in a m eta mo r phi c
ro ck . Au str i a a n d th e U n i t e d S t at es p rod uc e l a r g e
a mo un t s o f g r a phi t e .

Uses — G r a phi te is u se d in t h e ma n u fa c t ur e of p en c il s
.
,

c r uc i b l e s a n d o th er a rt i c l e s o f a r e fra c t or n a t ur e a n d as
, y ,

a l ub r i c a n t Al s o u s e d f or givi n g a b l a c k p ol i s h e d a n d
.

p r e s er v at iv e s ur fac e t o m eta l s a n d in e l ec t ro pl at i n g ,
-

t o p r o vid e a c o n d u c t i n g s u r fac e on n on m e ta lli c s u b

“

s t a n c e s whi c h ar e t o be pl a t e d It s p r i n c ip a l u s e h Ow
.
,

e v er is f or c r u c i b l e s a n d a s e lec tr od es f or t h e e l e c t r i c
'

f u rn a ce F or c r u c i b l es th e fl a k ed g ra phi te is a l mos t
.

es s e n t i a l whil e f o r e l e c t r od es p ur i t y is o f m or e i m p o r
,

ta n c e . Th e fl a k y C eyl on gr a phi t e t h er e f or e c omma n d s

th e high es t p r i c e ; a r t ifi c i a l g r aphi t e p r e p ar e d in t h e
e l e c t r i c f u r n a ce is p r e f e r r e d f or e l e c t r o d e s a n d m an y

o t h er p u r p os e s Th e p h ys i c a l q u a li t i e s an d fre e d om
‘

fr o m g r i t ar e mo re i m po r tan t th an th e a mo unt o f ac tua l

c ar bo n p r es e n t .

H Y D R OC AR B ONS Bit u me n : C oa l and .

In t hi s gr o u p is c o n s id er e d a v a r i ety of s u b s ta n c es
whi c h di ff er v er y wid e l y a mon g th em s e lv es in m od e of ,

o c c urr en ce phys i ca l p rop er ti es an d c h em i c a l c ompo s i

,
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF MI NER AL S P EC I ES
tion s but w h i c h a ll a g r ee in c on s is t in g o f c ar bon and
,
' ‘

h yd rog en wi t h o x yg en in th e m a i n S u c h s u b sta n c e s ar e
, .

h er e con s id ered in t wo gr ou p s— th e c oa l s an d th e
‘

bi tumen s .

C OA LS .

Thi s n a me is a ppli e d to a n um b er of di ff e r en t s ub s tan ces ,

lar ge l y ma d e up o f c ar b on ox yg en a n d hyd r og e n , w hi ch
,
, ,

hav e t h is po i n t in c ommon t h a t t h e y a r e m or e or l e s s
'

.
,

a l ter e d ma i n s o f Old l a n d v eg e tat i on , for e st gr ow th ,

re

p e aty or s wam p m at er i a l , etc , t r an s form ed by s l ow

~

c h e m i ca l C h a n g e s p r in c ipa ll l i m i i f h d r og e n
( y t h e e n a t o n o
y
a n d o x yg e n f r om th e or ig in a l w ood
y t i s s u e ) i n t o a m a t e r i a l
r i c h e r in ca r b o n Two th e or i e s ha v e b e e n p u t fo rw a r d
.

to e xpl a i n th e or igi n of c oal . Th e fir st Of t h ese , th e

g r owth in p lace pp os e s c oa l to b e th e r es u l t Of
theory , su

t h e g e ol ogi ca l e n t om b m en t of v e g e ta bl e m att e r d e c a y i n g
in t h e pl a c e in whi c h it g r e w t h i s e xpl a n a ti on is h e ld t o -

fi t th e or igi n of p u r e w e ll be dd e d e x t e n s iv e c oal s s uc h a s -
,

commo n c oa l ; b u t a s e c on d t h eo r t h e dr ift theory h as

y , ,

b een a dv an c e d to e xpl a i n th e for ma t i on of i m pu r e - _

c ur r e n t b e dd e d loc a l c o a l s u c h as c ann e l
-
C a nn e l coal
, .

is t h o u gh t t o b e t h e r e s u l t o f t h e b ur y i n g o f d r ift e d
_

v eg e ta bl e ma tt er in a d e l ta Ac c or di n g to th e v ic is s i ,
.

t u de s wh ic h it h as u nd e r g on e co a l h as v a r yi n g a m o u n t s
'

o f c a r bo n h ydr og e n o x yg e n a n d n i tr og e n ; th e l es s
, , ,

a l t e r e d v ar i e t i e s s u c h as lign i t e co n t a i n i n g l a r g e a m o un t s
, ,

o f t h e g as e s ; a n d t h e h ighl y a l t e r e d v a r i e t i e s s u c h as ,

a n t h ra c i t e c o n ta i n i n g
, as muc h as 95 p e r c e nt of .

c a r bo n H en c e s e v e r a l di s t i n ct v ar i et i e s of c oal
.
,

e xi s t Th e a n al ys e s o f th e m a in v a r i et i es a r e giv en in th e
.

ta bl e a n d t h ey a r e d e s c r i b e d b e low
, W h at e v e r m a y be .

t h e or igi n o f an y p a r t i c u l a r c oa l t h e p r oc e s s e s o f or gan i c ,

d eca y h a v e l arg e l y i n fl u en c e d its fi n a l C h ar ac ter .

C oa l oc c ur s in t ru e be d s of va r i ous geol og i ca l ag es .
1 20 EL EM ENTS O F M I N ER AL O G Y
The C ar b on ifer o us S ys tem is by f a r t h e m os t i mpo rt an t
of th e c o al b ea r i n g r oc k s an d th e c oa l of G r ea t B r i ta i n
-
, ,

P e nn sylva n i a G er man y I n di a etc is of t hi s a ge Th e

, , , .
, .

C a rb on if er ous r oc k s h a v e b e en g en t ly fold ed an d t h ough , ,

th e c oa l h a s in m os t c a s es b ee n r e mo v e d f r o m th e c r es t s
o f t h ese fold s it h a s b e e n p r e s er v e d in t h e t r o ugh s or
,

C oa l bas i n s In En g l an d ex a m pl e s o f s u c h b a s i n s a r e
.
,

a ff or d e d by th e L an c as hi r e coa lfi e ld a n d t h e Y o r k s hi r e
c oa l fi e l d whi c h oc c u p y t h e t r o ugh s o n e i t h er s id e of t h e
,

c r e s t o f t h e P e n n i n es .

Th er e a r e how e v e r e x t en s iv e d e po s i ts o f coa l a t
, ,
.

g eol ogi c al h or iz on s ot h e r th a n th e C a r b on if er o u s t h ough ,

t h ese d e po s i t s a r e u s ua ll y l e ss v a l ua b l e b o th in q ua li ty
an d t hi c k n e s s C r e tac eo u s c oa l s occ ur e x t en s iv e l y in
.

U n i te d S ta t es a n d th e c on t i n e n t of Eur op e a n d e v e n ,

mo r e r ec en t d epo s i t s c on s ist ing of lig n i t e ar e wo r k ed ‘

.

C O M P O S I TI ON OF C OAL S .

87 0

1 1
3 64 1
28 I
°

66 10 3
2 9

VAR I ETI ES OF C OAL .

P e at .
—
P ea t l ts fr o m th e ac c um u l at io n of v ege t
r es u

a bl e m at t er c hi e fl y m o ss e s an d o t h er b og pl a n t s
, an d ,

for ms e x ten s iv e s ur fac e b ed s in I r el a n d R u s s i a etc , , .

Th e or g an i c n at u r e of t h e d e p os i ts is evid en t t h r o ugh ou t
t h e en t i r e ma s s a l t h ou gh t h e b ot to m l a y er s ma y b ec om e
,

c o m p r e sse d i n t o a com p a c t h o m o g e n e ou s s u b s t a n c e .

L ig n it e B rown Coal — A f urth er s ta ge in t h e a l te ra

.

B u lletin Geologi ca l S u r vey , U S A . . No 330 , p 6 58

. . .
1 22 EL EM ENTS O F M I N ER AL O G Y
a c c u r at e d e fi n i t i on o f t h e t e r m c oa l It “
. oc c u r s a sol
in l e n t i c u l ar d e p os i t s in N e w S outh W a l e s , and is c on

s id e r e d t o b e a v a r i e t o f c a n n e l form e d b th e d e p os i
y y
t io n o f v e g e ta bl e m a t t er in l a k e s .

Ant h r ac it e .
—An th r acite is a b l ac k or b ow n i sh bl ac k r -
,

s ome t i m e s i r id e s c e n tv a r i e ty o f s r c oal It s t ea k is b l a k
c. ,

a n d it d oe s n ot so il t h e fi n g e r s It s l u s tr e is u s u a ll y
"

b r illi an t a n d it b r ea k s wi th a c on c h oid a l o r u n e v en f r ac
,

t ur e . Th e h ar d n e s s v a r i e s fr o m 0 5 t o 2 5 a n d th e s p ec ifi c
° °

g ra vi ty fr om 1 to 1 8 Anth r a c i t e c on ta i n s up to 9 5 p er
.

cen t of c a r b o n t h e g a s e s h d r og e n o x g e n a n d n i tr og e n
.

-
, y , y , ,

b e i ng p r e s en t in v ery s ma ll q uan t i ty It is l e s s e a s il y .

ki n dl e d t h an oth er c oa l s a n d b urn s wi th but li ttl e fl am e

, ,

a n d d u r i n g c om b u s t i on giv e s o ut m u c h h e at P as sag e s ‘

, .

fr om a n th r ac i te i n t o or di n ar y c oa l h av e b ee n Ob ser v e d ,

a n d t hi s v a r i e ty u s ua ll y occ u r s wh er e c oa l b e a r i n g s t r a t a -

h a v e b e e n u ph ea v e d a n d con tor t e d ; bu t th er e a re e x c e p -

t i on s t o t hi s r u l e a n d t h e a n th r a c i t e may b e d u e in so m e
_
,

c a s e s t o a l t e r a t i on of t h e o r igi n a l v e g et a b l e m a t er i al

b e f or e en tom b m en t ; It oc cu r s lo c a ll y in ma n y c oa l
fi e ld s a s S ont h W a l e s S c ot l a n d a n d P e n n s ylv an i a It
”

;
, ,

is u s e d wh e r e a s mok e l es s fi r e is r e qu i re d .

B ITU M EN .

Bi tu men s i lly h ydr o car b o n s of th e p ar aff i n

a re e s s e n t a

s e r i es ,C H zm z a n d of t h e n ap h t hin e s e r i e s C H 2 4 6
n t , , n n
.

D i ff e ren t b i tum e n s h a v e diff er en t p r opo r t i on s of t h e s e two

s e r i e s a n d a l s o s ub o r di n a t e a m o un t s o f a lli e d s e r i e s Th e -
.
,

bi t umen s in t h e wid est s en s e Of t h e term i n c l ud e mem

, , _

b er s ra ng i n g fr o m a v er y liq u id ligh t ye l low Oil o f ,

-
,

s p e c ifi c g r a vi ty 0 7 7 1 th r o ugh al l g r a d a t i on s t o s olid
,

bi tume n s s u ch as a s ph al t an d to w axy s u b stan c e s s u c h

, ,

a s ozok e r i t e .

C ru d e et r o eu m
P l N ap hth a M in era l O i l — U n d er th e
, .
 D ES C RIPTI O N OF M I N ERAL S P EC I ES 1 23

n am e p etrol eum a r e i n c l u d e d liqu id s o f a br ow n or

of

bl ac ki s h c ol ou r Ofte n wi t h a g r een i s h t i n g e g e n er a ll y
, ,

som e wh a t lig h t e r t h an w a t e r a n d u s u a ll y po ss es s i n g a ,

pow e r f u l an d di s a g r eea bl e odou r B y fra c t i on a l di st ill a .

t i on v a r i o u s o il s k n o wn a s p et r o l e u m e t h e r p e tr ol e u m
, ,

s pi r i t a n d b e n zi n e e t c
,
a r e s e p a ra t e d w h i c h a r e e x t en
,
.
, ,

s iv e l
y u se d in i n t e rn a l c o m b u s t i o n e n gi n es T h e i nter .

m e di a t e fra c t i on s Oi di s t ill a t io n a r e u s e d f or ill um i n at i on ,

a n d t h e h ea v y p r o d u c t s - p r ovid e l u b r i c a t i n g an d fue l o il s .

P e t r ol e um is u s u a ll y foun d in san d s ton es a n d d ol omi tes

wh i c h a r e b en t i n to g e n t l e fold s or d ome s a n d t h e mos t ,

i m p or tan t Oil b ear i n g s t ra ta in th e Old W or ld a r e of a

-

geol ogi c a ll y r e ce n t da te Th e C h i e f oil fi eld s of th e .

-

w or ld ar e B ak u n ea r th e C a s pi an S ea P en n sylv an i a
, , ,

G a li c i a M e xi c o B ur m a a n d O n ta r i o
, , Th e p r e s en ce of
, .

p e t rol eum is s h own a t t h e s ur fa c e by s ee p ag e s of oil or ,

by pi t c h or bi t um en d e p os i t s t h e l a t t e r d u e t o th e e va po r ,

a t i o n a n d o xid a t i o n o f t h e v o l a t il e h yd r o c ar b on s .

As p al t ,
h A h
s p al t u m,
M in e r a l Pi t Ch —As ph a l t is .

a m ix tu r e of diff er e n t h yd r oc a r bo n s , us u a ll y oc c ur r i n g

u n d e r t h e f or m of a b r own or bl a c k pi t c h y s u b s ta n c e ,

so ft , bu t oc c a s o n a i ll y wi th a c on
so lid , an d m ay be
c h oid a l f r a c t ur e B y t h e a c t io n o f s u i ta b l e so lv en ts
.
,

c a r bo n bi s ulphid e e t c a s ph a l t m a,y be r e s olv

. e,d i n to on ,

th e on e h a n d v a r i ou s h yd r oca r b on s an d on t h e oth e r
, , ,

i n to a n on bi t u m i n o u s or g an i c mat t er a pp r o xi mat i n g t o
-

c oa l wi th t h i s l a tt er b e i n g m ix e d a n y i n orga n i c Sub
,

s t an c e s p r es en t in th e c ru d e m a t er i a l As pha l t oc c ur s .

in q uan t i ty in t h e ce l e b r a t ed pi t c h l a k e of Tr i n ida d in ,

V en e z u e l a in C u b a in Al b e r t a ; in th e s e loc a li t i es t h e
, ,

a s ph a l t d e p o s i t s r e s ul t f r o m t h e o xid a t i on of p e t r ol e u m .

In En gl a n d a s ph a l t h a s b e e n fo un d a t C as t l e t on in ,

D er b ys h i r e P i t c h f or d n ea r S h r e w s b u r y a n d a t S ta n ton
, , ,

H a rold in L e i c e st er sh i re wh e r e it e n c ru s ts c r ys tal s o f
, ,
1 24 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
g al en a an d c opp er pyr i tes ; t h e se o c c urr en c e s a r e of n o
c o mm erc i a l v a l u e wh a t e v e r .

P or o u s s edi m e n tary r oc k s s uc h as san d ston es or ,

d ol omi te s ma y b ec om e i m pr e g n ate d wi th u p to 1 5 p e r
,

c en t . Of a s ph a l t a n d a r e t h e n w or k e d f or n a t u r a l p a vi n g
,

ma t er i al or f or t h e e x t ra c t i on of a s ph a l t
, S u c h a s ph a lt .

r o c k s o c c u r a t Ne u f c h at e l a n d S e s s e l K en tuc k O kl a
y y , ,

h om a a n d n ear a ll a s ph a l t d e p os i ts
, .

Th e va r i o u s g r a d es o f a s ph a l t a r e m i x e d wi th di ff e re n t
q uan t i t i es Of roc k c hip s to f or m pa vi n g ma ter i al a n d th e
-
,

p ure r v a r i e ti es a r e s u i ta bl e f or w a te r p r oofi n g ma s on ry ,

a s i n s u l at i n g ma t e r i a l e t c , .

El at er it e : El astic B itn men M iner a l , C aon tchonc — Ela

.

t e r it e is a so ft i br ow n i s h s olid
a nd e a s t c l b i t um e n m u c h,

lik e in diar ubber in its phys i ca l p ro p e rt i e s It h a s b e e n .

r e p or te d f r o m C a s t l e t o n in D e r b s hi r e Ne u f c h at e l a n d
y , ,

e l se wh e r e .

l
A be rt it e G : r a h a m i te U intai te Wn r tz i
,
ll ite — All th e s e ,
.

s u b s t a n ce s a r e v a r i e t i e s of so lid b i t um e n di ff e r i n g s ligh t l y ,

in t h e i r c h e m i c a l a n d p h ys i ca l p r o p e r t i e s .

Oz ok er it e — Oz ok e r i te r e s e mb l e s b ee s wa x in a pp e ar
a n c e a n d is a d a r k ye llow or b r o w n i s h c o l ou r of t e n w i t h
, ,

a g re en i s h o p a l esce n c e It is f o un d a s s oc i a t e d wi t h
.

p etr ol e um in U ta h M old avi a an d in G ali c i a w h er e it is

, , ,

mi n ed . In G a li c i a oz ok e r i t e o c c u r s s q u e e z e d u p i n t o
,

f r ac t ur e s so a s t o for m a v e i n lik e b od y ; wh en t h e s e
,
-

v e i n s h a v e b ee n w or k e d out t h ey a r e s l owl y fill ed by ,

t h e r i s i n g o f f r es h m a t er i a l fr om b e l o w .

Ozok er i t e is p ur ifi e d t o for m c e r e s i n e whi c h is u se d ,

f or c a n dl e s .

H at c h ett in e H atc h ett i n e is a c ol our l es s or ye l

.

lowi sh soft w a x y s u b s tan c e r esem b li n g oz ok e r i te a n d

, , ,

h a s be en f oun d in t h e c r a c k s o f i r on s ton e n o d u l e s a t
M e r t hyr Tyd vil .
1 26 ELE M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
U lexite h
( y d r a t e d s odi u m ca c u l i m b o r a t e) ,
Na C a B 5 0 9
8 H O, Na 2O 2 C a O 5 B 20 2 I 6 H O
or . . .

B oracite ( m a g n e s i u m b ora t e an d c hl or id e ) 6 MgO , .

Mg C l2 SEz2O . .

Th e se bora tes oc c u r in two w ays ( 1 ) As d e p o s i ts f r o m .

h ot s p r i n g s (s as s oli n e) ; (2 ) a s th e r e s u l t of th e d ryi n g up
o f sa l t l a k e s — t h at is a s saline r esidues (b o ra x c ol e ma n i t e , , ,

u l e xi t e b or a c i t e )
, .

Oth er m i n er a l s of t h e s a li n e r e s id ues a r e en um e ra t ed
on p 1 3 7 a n d t h e i r d e s c r ip t i on s s h o u ld be c o n s u l t e d
.
, .

Tests — S e e pp 2 2 a n d 2 5
. . .

B or i c a c id b o r a x a n d ot h e r b or a t es a r e u s e d a s fl u x es
, ,

f or t h e ma n u fa c t ur e of a r t ifi c i a l g e m s gl as s e s a n d , ,

e n a me l s e s p e c i a ll y in t h e po tt e ry a n d e n a m e ll e d
, i r on
tr a d es Al so l a r g e l y em pl oye d a s p r e s e r v a t iv e s a n t i
“

.
,

s e p t i c s a n d in p a i n t d r i e r s
, Th e c hi ef s ou rc e s a r e t h e -
.

b or ates u l e x i t e an d col eman i te of C h ili a n d t h e U n i t ed

, ,

S ta t e s res p e c t iv e l y Th e c r u d e mater i a l is b oil e d wi th

.

s odi u m ca r b on a te t o p r o d u c e s o di u m b ora t e ( b o ra x ) o r ,

t r ea te d wi t h s ulph u r i c a c id t o p r od uce bo r i c a c id
‘

S AS S O LI N E : Nat ive B or ic Acid .

( S ass o, n ea r

S i enn a .
)
Comp — B o r i c a c id B (O H ) 2 or 3 H 2O B 20 3
.
, , . .

C ry st Sy st Tr i c li n i c
. .
-
.

Corn F orrn —S om e t i mes in p r i s ma t i c c rys ta l s ; u s ua ll y

. .

a s s ma ll gli s t e n i n g s c a l e s ass o c i a t e d wi t h s u lph ur .

Gleam— B a s a l .

C olo n r —Whi te gr eyi s h ; s o met i mes ye ll ow fr o m th e

.
, ,

p r es en c e of s u lph ur
—
.

L u s tr e P ear l y t ran s l uc en t to tran spar en t F ee l s , .

s mo o t h a n d unc t uo u s S e x t il e an d fl e xi b l e Tas te . .
,

a c id u lo us s ligh t l y sa li n e a n d b i t te r
, .

H .
-
1 . Sp Gr . .

Tests .
—F u ses eas il y in blowpip e fl ame t i n ge i n g flame ,
.
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M INERAL S P EC I ES
gr e en . S ol u bl e in w a t e r an d in a l c oh o l D i s s olv e d in .

a l c oh o l ,
c ol o u rs fl a m e gr ee n by p r e s e n c e o f b or on .

Occur rence.7 -
S a s so li n e
wi t h s u lph ur in th e c ra ter oc c ur s

o f Vu l ca no Lip ar i ; a l so a r oun d f u ma r o l es ( s ma ll v en t s
,

or o ut l e t s o f s u lph ur eo u s e man a t io n s ) an d in t h e s t ea m ,

or va po u r s whi c h r i s e fr om th e bo tto m of th e s ma ll
h ot l a k e s or l a goo n s of Tu scan y It is con d e n sed in th e .

wa t er a n d a f te r war d s s e par a t es out in l ar ge fl ak es whi c h

, ,

con t a i n a bo u t 5 0 p e r c e t of b o r i c a c id Al so o c c ur s in
n . .

n a t u r a l w a t er s o f Cl ear L a k e C a lifo rn i a , .

B ORAX Tin c a l .
( Ar a b i c , bnr a
q .
)
C omp — H yd ra t ed bo rat e Of so di u m , Na2 B 4 OT 1 0 H2O .
,

or N a 2O 2 B 2O2 1 0 H 2O
. . .

Crys t Sy st —M on o c li n i c
. . .

C om Far m — Oc c ur s in
. p r i s ma t i c c rys tals r esemb li n g ,

in sha pe th e c r y s ta s l of a ugi t e ; al so in l u mp s a n d

Gleam— P aral l el t o th e ort hopi n a c oid ( 1 0 0 ) an d t o th e

pr i s m
Coh a n —Whi te s o m eti mes wit h t i n g es of b l ue gr een
, , ,

or g r e y

S tr ea k —Whi t e
.

L u s tre — Vi tr eo us s o met i mes eart h y Tas t e s w ee ti s h

, .
,

al k a li n e .

Fraet —Co n c hoida l S oft an d b r i tt l e

. . .

H —2
. Sp G r . .

Tes ts — B e fore th e b l o wpip e b u b b l e s u p an d fu s es to

.
, ,
-

a c l ea r gl ass y be a d S ol u b l e in w a t e r p r od u c i n g a n
.
,

a lk a li n e so l ut i on C o lo ur s t h e fl a me e ll o w d ue to sodi u m
.
y ,

wi t h s ulph ur i c ac id giv es g r e en fl am e d u e to bor on , .

Occur rence —B o r a x tog et h er wi th th e o t h e r b o r at e s

, ,

u l e xi te an d c ol e ma n i t e oc c u r s in h ot s p r i n g s an d l a k es
,

in th e n e ighbo ur hood Of r e c e n t vol ca n o e s a s in C ali

'

for mi a wh e re it oc c ur s as soc i at ed wi th sodi um c ar bon a te

,
1 28 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
an d hlo r id e Th e d ryi n g up of th e s e l a k es p r od uc es
c .
-

a lk a li n e fl a t s bo ra x ma rs h es wh e re th e bo ra x
“ ”
or ,

f orms d a zzli ng whi te d epo s i ts Th es e C al iforn i an d e .

p os i ts oi b or a x h a v e b e en l ea c h e d ou t fr om b e dd ed
c o l e man i t e d e po s i t s of Te r t i ar y ag e B o ra x a l so oc c urs .

in Tib e t on th e s h or es a n d in t h e w a te r s of l a k es an d
, ,
”
is t h e r e c a ll e d ti nc al .

C O L EM AN I TE .

Gora p — H y d r a te d b o r a t e
. Of l i
ca c u m, C a2B 6 0 1 1 5 H 2O . .

C y
r s t Sy st — M o n oc li n i c
p r i s mat i c c r ys ta l s u s ua lly p r oj ec t
. .

Co m . F orm — S ho rt

in g i n to c a vi t i es a l so m a s s iv e c rys t a lli n e a n d gr an u l ar , .

C lea o — G o od p a r a ll e l to c li n opi n ac oi d
.
, a l so to

b asa l pl a n e
Coh a n — C olo u r l e s s whi te a l so g reyi sh , , .

S tr ak
e — W hi te .

L ustre —Vi tr e o us to a d a man ti n e ; tra n spare nt to

t r an s l u c e nt
Fraet —H ac kl y
.

. .

H 4 .
-
S p G r . .

Tests Col e ma n i te r es emb l es f e l s par C al c i te an d

.
, ,

s o me o t h e r s p a rs in a pp ea ra n c e b ut may be di s t i n ,

g u is h e d f r o m t h e s e by b lowpip e tes ts Y i e ld s w a t er .

on h ea t i n g ; ye llow g r ee n fl a m e of b or o n -
H e a t e d on .

c h a r coa l , b e c o me s whi t e ; on h ea t i n g a g a i n wi t h c o b a l t

n i tra te t u rn s b l ue S ol ub l e in h yd roc hlo r i c a c id with

, .
, .

s e p a r at io n o f b o r i c a c id on c ooli n g .

Occur rence — C o l e ma n i te oc c u r s in d e p os i t s of Te r t i a r y
a ge in S a n B e r n ar di n o L o s An g e l e s K e r n a nd I n g o , , ,

C o un t i es C a lifor n i a
,
Th e c ol ema n i te is p r e se n t as
.

n o d u l e s in C l a ys a n d al s o in I O t o 5 0 f e et b e d s
,
r es t i n g ,

u p on r h yoli t i c t uf f s F r o m t h es e d e pos i ts h a v e b e en
.

d e r iv e d th e l a k e d e po s i t o f bora x a n d ul ex i te to whi c h ,

r e f er e n c e h a s a l r e a d
y b ee n m a d e .
I BO EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
bo ron Heat e d on c h arc o a l moi s t en e d wi t h c ob a l t
.
,

n i t r a t e r e h ea t e d pi n k m a ss d u e t o m ag n es i a
, ,
Chl or id e .

gi ven by c opp e r o xid e t es t ( s ee p I n sol ubl e in .

wa ter ; s ol ub l e in h ot hyd roc h l or i c a c id .

Occur r ence — B o r a c i te oc c u rs in t h e S ta ss fur t sa l t

d ep os i t in G e r man y assoc i a te d wi t h r o c k sa l t g yp s um
, , ,

a nd a n h d r i t e
y T h e s
. e d e p o s i t s a r e t h e r e s u l t of t h e

e v a p or a t i o n o f s e a w a te r a n d in -
t h e m t h e b o ra c i te
,

oc c u rs a s s m a ll c r s t a l s o r c on c r e t i on s A l s o at Pan
y .

d er ma in As i a M i n or a n d a t K alkbu rg a n d S c hild st ein

,

in H a n ov e r L u n e vill e a n d L a M eur th e in F ra n c e
, ,

wh er e it is a s s o c i at e d wit h t h e sa me s et Of m i n e r al s as
at S tas s f u r t .

S u lph u r oc c urs b o th
iv e and in c o mb i nat i on
nat .

S u lph ur is c a p a b l e of a s s u mi n g t h ree di s t i n c t fo r m s
o r th orh o mb i c c r ysta l s n a t iv e an d a r tifi c i a l ; ( 2 ) m ono
,

c li n i c c r s ta l s
y a r t ifi
, c i a l a n d (3) a m o r ph o u s a r t ifi c i al , .

B oth t h e n atu ra ll y a n d a r t ifi c i a ll y f or m ed c rys ta l s d is

s olv e e a s il i n c a r b o n b i s u lphid e bu t t h e a m or pho u s fo r m
y ,

d oes n ot S ulph u r is i n s ol ubl e in w ater a n d a l c ohol

. .

Na t iv e s u lph u r a n d m e ta lli c s ulphid e s ( ma i n l y i r o n

pyr i te s ) fo rm p ra c t i c ally th e sol e s o u rc e of t h e s ulph ur i c
ac id o f co mm e r c e a n d ma y b e r e ga r d e d a s t h e mo s t
,

i m p or tan t mi n er a l s in c on n ec t i on wi th C h em i c al i n du s try .

Na t iv e s u lph u r is p u r ifi e d f r o m th e a s s oc i a t e d g a n g u e
by m el t i n g in o v en s e t c or by di s t illi n g in c l osed v e s s e l s
, .
,

wi th th e p rod uc t i on of ca st s t i c k s u lp h u r or of fl ow e r s of -
,
“

s u lp h ur c o n d e n s e d in fi n e s In Ame r i c a s u lph u r ov e r .
, ,

99 p e r c e n t p u
. r e is n o
, w l a r g e l y o b t a i n e d f r o m d e e p
s e a t e d d e po s i t s in L ou i s i a n a by t h e F r a s c h
,

pr o c e s s th e a v e ra g e an n ual out p u t from t hi s s o urc e

,

b e i n g ov er t on s A do u b l e t u b e is d r iv e n dow n
t o t h e s u lph u r be d an d s u p er h ea t e d s tea mor h ot a ir is
.

,
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER A L S P EC I ES 1 31

f o r c e d d o wn . Th e su lp h u r th u s m e l t e d is fo rc e d up th e
i n n er t u be to th e f
i n t o v a ts
s ur a c e a n d r u n .

F or t h e m a n u f ac t ur e o f s u lp h u r i c a c id i r o n p yr i t es , ,

w hi c h t h eor e t i ca ll y c on ta i n s p er c en t O f s u lp h u r .
,

an d w h i c h is c o mmo n l y s o ld o n a gu a r a n t ee o f 4 5 to
5 p
0 e r c e n t is m
. or
, e u se d t h an a n
y o t h e r m i n er a l o r ,

t h a n n a t iv e s u lp h ur i t s e lf Th e o xid e of i ro n wh i c h is
.
,

f or m e d d u r i n g t he r oas t i n g is sa l ea bl e f or it s i r on c on ten t ;
,

a n d if c on t a i n i n g c o pp e r g old or s ilv e r e ve n in s ma ll
, , ,

q ua n t i t i e s is p a id f or a t a h i gh e r ra t e
,
.

Th e v a l u e of s u lp h id e s w h en s m e l t i n g ox idi z e d or e s
is w e ll k n ow n a n d t h e ca l o r ifi c v a l u e o f b u rn i n g s ul p h u r
,

is u t ili s ed in p yr i t i c s m e l t i n g En or mo u s q uan t i t i es o f.

s u lp h u r di oxid e a r e l os t in f u r n ac e g a se s but man y ,

l ar g e s me l te r s n ow r e c o v e r it a s s u lp h ur i c a c id .

Th e c om mon a s s oc i a t i on of ar s e n i c wi t h s u lp h u r in
m i n e r a l s ulp h id es a n d e s p e c i a ll y in i r o n p yr i t e s n ec e s
, ,

s it a t e s s pe c i a l c a r e in t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f s u lp h ur i c ac id ;

bu t n a t iv e s ulp h u r a l t h o u g h s e ld om co n t ain i n g ar se n i c
, ,

is m ore li a bl e t o be c o n ta mi n a t e d w i t h s e l e n i u m whi c h ,

is al so O bj ec t i on a bl e .

Th e w or ld s p r o d u c t io n of p yr i t e s a mou n t s t o a b ou t
’

ton s a n n ua ll y .

S u lp h ur f o r ms w i t h h yd r og e n a n a c id s ulp h ur et te d
h yd r o g e n H 2S,
Th i s ga s b e i n g r e a dil y a b s or be d in
.
,

w a te r is fo un d in c er ta i n m i n e r a l s p r i n g s a s a t H ar r o
, ,

ga t e B y t h e r e pl ac e m e n t o f t h e h yd r og e n o f s u lp h u r
.

e t t e d h yd r o ge n b y a m e t a l a s u lp hide is f or m e d S ul .

h i d e s o c c u r r i n g a s c o mm o n m i n e ra l s a r e— g a l e n a P b S ;
p ,

bl e n de Z n S C i n n a b ar H g S ; i r on p yr i te s F e S2
, , ,
.

Wi th o x yg e n a n d h yd rog en s u lph ur f or m s ma n y ,

c o m p ou n d s o n l y o n e o f w h i c h is i m po r t a n t a s an ac id
,

in m i n e r a l ogy ; t hi s is s u lp h u r i c a c id H 2S O4 S ulpha tes , .

a r e f o r m e d b y t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a m e t a l f or t h e h d r o
y
n o f t h i s ac id ; m in er a l e x a m pl es Of s u lph a t e s a r e
g e
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OG Y
g yp s u m C a S O4 2 H 2O ; an gl es i t e P b S O4 e tc
,
Th e , , .

s u lp h id e s a n d s u lph a t e s a re d es c r ib e d u n d e r t h e h e a di n g s

of th e i r me ta lli c c on st i t u en ts .

Tes ts —S u lp h u r m a y be r e c og n i s e d w h en p r e s e n t in a
.

m i n e r a l by th e s ilv e r c o i n t e s t Th e p o wd e r e d mi n e r a l .

is fi r s t f u s e d wi th s o di u m c a r b on a t e o n c h a rcoa l ; t h e
f u s e d ma s s pl a c e d o n a s ilv e r c o i n an d moi s ten e d p ro
d uc e s a bl a c k s ta i n S u lphid e s giv e on r oa s t i ng in th e
.
,

Op e n t u b e o r o n c h a r coa l a s h a r p p u n g en t Od ou r o f ,

s u lp h u r di o xid e S O2 S u lph a te s giv e a d en se w h i t e

, .

p r e c ipi ta t e o f b a r i um s ulph ate on th e a ddi t i on of bar i um

C hl o r id e t o t h e s o l u t i o n ; a l s o a ft e r r e d u c t i on by h ea t i n g

t o t he s u lphid e g iv e t h e s ilv e r c o i n t e s t a s a b ov e .

NATI VE S U L P H U R .

C omp — P ur e s ulph u r ( S ) b u t o f te n c on ta m i n at e d ,

wi th oth er s u b stan c es s uc h a s c l ay bi tu men e tc , , , .

Cry s Sy st —Or th or h om bi c
. . .

Comp F orm — C rys ta l s b oun d e d by a c u te p yr a mid s

. .

Al s o m a s s iv e a n d in e n c r u s tat i on s .

C el a v — I mp er f e c t p ar a ll e l to t h e p r i s m ( 1 1 0 ) a n d to
.
,

th e p yra m id ( 1 I
'

Colour — S u lph u r ye ll ow oft en wi th a r e ddi sh or

.
-
,

g r e en i s h t i n g e .

S treak — S u lph u r ye ll ow
.
-
.

L nstr e R es i n ou s t r a n s p a r e n t t o s u b t r a n s l uc en t
.
-
.

Fraet —C on c h oid a l s ec t il e
. .

H . Sp G r
. .

Tests —S u lp h ur ma y b e r e cog n i se d by it s b ur n i n g wi t h
.

a bl ue fl a m e , d ur i n g w h i c h s u ff o c a t i n g s u lp h u r o u s f u m e s

of s u lph ur di o xid e a r e f or m e d S u lph u r is i n s o l u bl e , .

an d n ot a c t e d u p on by ac id s , bu t is di s so lv e d by c ar b on
b i ulp h id e
s .

Var ieties C r ud e .
-
an d i m p ur e for ms of s ulp h u r a r e
p u r ifi e d by h ea t i n g , t h e p u r e m at e r i a l b e i n g c oll e c t e d
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
f or wh at is p r o d uc e d It is ma i n l y em pl oye d in
. th e
p r od uc ti on of r ed gl a s s e n am e l s an d gl a z e s a n d , , ,
f or
s p e c tr o ph ot o me t r i c w or k
-
.

Nat ive S e l en iu m .

Na t iv e l i m o c c u r s in c a vi t i e s in th e l a va s Of
s e en u

Ve s u vi u s a s w e ll as in th e i n t er i or o f t h e s o lid m a s s Al s o
, .

in g r e y i sh a n d b l a c k e n c r u s t a t i on s It is t r a n s l u c e n t a n d .
,

is r ed in t h i n s pli n t e r s b t r a n s m i t t e d lig h t ; its h a r d n es s

,
y ,

is 2 a n d it s s p ec ifi c g ra vi ty 4 3 °
.

A M M ON I U M
Th e a m mon i u m ra di c l e NH 4 occ ur s as th e me ta lli c
po r t i on of s e l ts — f or e x a m pl e
v er al sa

S al a mmoniac (a mmon i u m C hl or id e ) N H 4 Cl , .

M ascag nite ( a mmo n i u m s u lp h a te ) ( N H 4 ) 2S O ,

All t h e a mm on i u m s a l ts a r e m or e or l es s s ol u bl e in
w a t e r a n d ar e e n t i r e l y a n d e a s il y v ol a t ili se d b e f or e t h e
,

b l owpip e ; th i s C h a ra c te r a l on e s u ffi c e s t o di s t i n g ui sh th e m
f r om oth e r mi n er a l s Th ey a l s o giv e off t h e C h a r a c ter i s t i c
.

a mmon i a o d o u r wh e n h ea t e d wi t h q u i c kli m e o r wh e n ,

t r i t u ra t e d wi t h li m e a n d m o i st e n e d a t t h e s a m e t i me
wi th w a ter .

S A L A M M ON I A C ( L a t i n , sa l, sa lt ; Ar a b i c , hanza
nij a , ca me l s d un g )
’
.

C omp — Ammon i um c hl or id e N H 4 C 1 , .

.
—
Cr yst Sy st C ub i c . .

C o m . F own — Oc ta h e d r on bu t g e n e r a ll y e fflor es c e n t or
,

e n c r us t i n g .

C olour —W h i te wh en p ur e ofte n ye llowi s h or g r e y

.
, .

L ustre I n ter na lly vi treous e x te rn a ll y d u ll tra n s l uc e n t

-
, ,

to o p a q ue .

Ta ste — P u n g e n t c ool a n d sa li n e
.
, , .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NERAL S PEC I ES 1 35

H . 2 Sp Gr -

Tests —Wh en g r o un d in a mo rta r wi t h s od a-li me gi v es

. . .

a n a mmon i a c a l o d o ur .

Occurr ence —Oc c ur s as a w h i t e e fflor esce n c e in v ol c an i c

di s tr i c ts All s al ammo n i a c o f c o mm e rc e is an a r tifi c i a l
.

p rod uct .

U ses .
—
Sa l ammon ia c is u se d in m e di c i n e in d ye i n g, ,

in sold e ri n g , in v ar i ou s m e t all u r gi c a l ope r a t i on s as a ,

c h e mi ca l r e a g e n t
, an d a s o l in l
e e c tr c i ba tter i es .

M asc ag nit e .

Na tura l a mmo n i u m
lph at e ( N Oc c u r s a s su

ye llowi s h gr ey p u lv eru l en t me a l y c r us t s in th e n e igh

-
, ,

bo urh ood of v ol c an o es I t is vi t r eo u s an d eas il y so l u b l e

.
,

in w ater .

S OD IU M ( Na ; L at i n , na tr iurn ) .

S odi u m d oe s n ot oc c ur n a t iv e M etal li c sodi u m ma y .

be p r e p a r ed by t h e r ed uc t i o n o f s odi u m h yd ro xid e
( N a O H b
) y ca r bo n o r by t h e d ec o m po s i t,io n o f a m e l t o f
t h e hy d ro xid e by a n e l ec t r i c c u r r e n t S odi u m is a so f t .
,

S ilv e r -
w hi t e m e ta l e as il y ta rn i s h i n g in th e a i r a n d
, ,

d e compo s i n g wa t e r f or m i n g s odi u m h yd r o xid e an d ,

hyd rogen S odi u m c ompo un d s ar e o f c o m mon oc c ur

.

r e n c e in m a n y r o c k s S odi um e n t e r s i n t o th e c om .

po s i t io n of ma n y roc k fo r m i n g s ili c a tes s uc h as a l b i te -

, ,

Na2O Al 2O2 6 S iO2 e tc

. .
, .

S odi u m c hl or id e ( Na C l ) is th e co m po u n d of m os t
f re q uen t oc c u rr e n c e in n a t u re a n d is pr oc ur ed e i th er a s ,

r oc k sa l t or by t h e e v a po r a t i o n o f s ea w a t er C o m pa r e d -
.

wi th t h ese va s t s u ppli es oth er s odi um c o mpo un d s wi th , ,

t h e po ss i b l e e x c e p t i on o f t h e n i t ra t e ar e i n s ig n ifi ca n t , ,

al t h o ugh c o n s id e r a bl e q ua n t i t i e s o f th e c ar bo na t e ar e m e t

wi th in s om e c o un tr i e s Th es e a n d ot h er s ol ubl e sa l t s .
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
Of so di u m , oc c u r a s s a li n e r es id ue s . Th e m o s t i m po r ta n t
so di um m in e ra l s are
C hlor ide —R oc k s a l t N a C l .
, .

N itra te S od a n i t r e Na N O2
.
-
, .

M i r a bili te Na 2S O4 1 0 H 2O , . .

S ulpha tes G l a u b er i t e Na 2S O4 C a S O4 ,
. .

Th e n a r di te Na 2S O4 , .

N a t ron Na 2C O3 I O H 20 , . .

Tr on a , 3 Na 2O 4 C O2 5 H 2O
C ar bona tes . . .

Th e r mon a t r i te Na 2C O2 H 2O , . .

G a yl us s i t e Na 2C O3 C a C O2 5 H 2O , .
-
. .

B or a x , Na 2B 4 O7 I o H 2O ( s e e p
B or a tes
. .

U l e xi te Na C a B 5 0 9 8 H 2O ( s ee p , . .

Fluoride C ryoli t e , 3 Na F Al F 3 ( s e e p
.
-
. .

Tests .
-
S ee a sol l Pa t I
th e r . S odi um c om p ou n d s co ou r

b lowpip e fl a me i n ten se ye ll ow Afte r h ea t i n g b e fore th e .

bl owpip e s odi um c omp oun d s giv e a n a lk ali n e r e ac t i on

,

wi th li tmu s ( Al s o giv e n by K C a M g B a S r )
.
, , , , .

R OC K S ALT : C ommon S a l t , H al it e .

o—
C mp S odi um hl or id e Na C l C a l c i um s ulph a te
C , .
,

c a l c i um C hl or id e a n d m a gn e s i u m c h l or id e a r e u s u a ll y
,

p re sen t ; s ome t i m e s a l so m agn e s i u m s u lph a te Th e .

p r es en c e of mag n e s i um c omp oun d s c a u s e s t h e m i n er a l

t o b ec o m e we t a n d l um p y .

Cry st Sy st —C u bi c g a l e n a typ e
. . .

C o n
r F
. or m — C omm on c r ys ta l s in c ub es r ar e l y oc ta ,

hed ra ; c u b e s o f t e n wi t h h oll ow f a c e s givi n g h o pp e r ,

c rys t a l s a s s h ow n in F ig A l o o c u r m a s s iv e a n d
, 45 s c s . .

g ran ul a r ra r e l y fib r ou s
, .

C h ou — P e r f ec t p a ra ll e l t o th e c ub e .

C olour Col ou r l es s or w h i te wh en p ur e ; Ofte n wi th

.
-
,
.

y e ll o w or r ed ; s o m e t i m e s b l u e a m e t h y s t i n e o r p ur pl e

ti nts .
I 38 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OGY
Ne w Y or k S ta te , a n d On ta r i o ; in t h e Tr i a s of Ch e s hi r e,
En gl a n d ; Vic, Fra n c e ; W u r t e mbe rg, G e r man y ; S a lz
b urg Au s tr i a ; a n d in th e Ter t i a ry of Wi e li c zk a , P ol a n d
, .

Th e s a l t is e x tr a c t e d e i t h er by o r di n a r y m i n i n g by
s h a fts a n d gall e r i es o r by p u m pi n g th e b r i n e fro m th e ,

s a l t b e d t o t h e s ur fa c e a n d t h e r e r e c o v e r in g t h e s a l t b
y ,

e va p o ra t i on .

S a l t is p r e s e n t in t h e w a t e r s of t h e oc ean ; a l s o va s t
l a k es of s a l t wa te r e xi s t a n d d e p os i ts o f r oc k sa l t a r e ,

fou n d on th e i r s h or es a s th e D ea d S ea G r eat S al t L a k e , ,

o f U ta h e t c , .

Uses —R oc k s a l t is u se d f o r c u li n a r a n d p r e s e rvi n g
.

y
p u r p os es a n d in a g r ea t n um b er of man u fa c t ur i n g p ro
,

c e s s e s — th e m a n u fa c t u re o f s odi um c a r bo n a te f or gl as s

ma ki n g s oa p ma ki n g et c
,
-
, .

N IT RATI NE : S od a -Nitre Nit r a t e , of S od a .

C ornp .
-
S o di u m
i tr a t e Na NO2 n , .

C ry st Sy st — H e x a g on a l r h om bo h e d ra l
. .
-
.

C om For m — C rys ta l s n ot c ommon o f c a l c i te s h a pe

.
,
.

As e fflor es c en c e in c r u s ts a n d a l s o m a s s iv e g ra n ul ar , .

C lea v — P e r f ec t pa ra ll e l t o the r h om bo h ed ron

. .

C olo ur — W h i te gr ey ye ll ow g r e en i s h p ur pl e a n d
.
, , , , ,

r e ddi s h b r ow n -
.

L ustre Vi tr eo us t ra n s pa r en t
.
-

, .

Fract I mp er f ec tl y c o n c h oid a l ; rath e r s ec til e c ooli ng

.
-

tas te .

H .
-
2 . Sp Gr
. .

Tests . l es s vi ol en t l y t h an n i tr e
-
D efl a g r a t e s wh en
h ea te d an d c ol our s th e fl a m e yell ow by whi c h an d by
, ,

it s d e liq u e s c en c e it m a y b e di st i n g u i s h e d f r om th a t
m i n er a l .

O ccu r r ence — Ec on o mi c a ll y i m po r ta n t d epo s i ts of s od a

.

n i t re a re f o u n d in t h e At a c a ma D e s e r t o f N or t h e r n Chili ,

wh ere th e mi n e ra l oc c ur s m i x e d wi th mu c h c o mmon sa l t ,
 D ESC RI PTI O N OF MI NER AL S P EC I ES 1 39

a n d c la ye y or dy ma t er i a l In b e d s u p to 6 f ee t th i c k
s an .

Th e s e b e d s p r oba bl y oc c u py t h e s i t e o f a s a l t l a k e n ea r
a v o l ca n i c c e n tr e Th i s ca li c h e a s t h e ma te r i a l is t e r m e d
.
, ,

m ay c on ta i n 1 p e r c e n t of s odi u m i od a t e a n d for m s th e .
,

s o u r c e o f i o di n e .

M I R A B I LI TE Gl aub er S a l t .

o —
C p H yd r at e d sod i u m s u lp h a t e N3 28 0 4
m .
, . IO H 2O .

C ry st . Sy st .
~ —M o n oc li n i c .

Co m . F or m — C rys ta l s lik e t h ose of au gi te in s h a p e .

Al s o in e fflor e s c e n t c r y s t a l s an d in s o l u t i o n in m i n e r a l

w a t er s .

C lea n — P e r fe c t ; p a ra ll e l to th e ort h opi n a c o id ( I oo ) .

Colour — Whi t e or ye ll ow
. .

L ustr e — Vi tr eous t r a n s l u c en t to op a q ue .

Tas te — C ooli n g s a li n e a n d bi tt e r ; s o l u b l e in w a t er
, ,
.

H .
—2 Sp G r . . .

Tests — G i ve s wa t e r on h ea t i n g in c l o s e d t ub e Y e ll ow .

fl a m e of s odi u m B la c k . s ta i n on mo i s t e n i n g wi t h wa te r

on a ilv e r
s co n , i th e r e s id u e Ob ta i n e d by h ea t in g on

c h a r c oa l .

Occurrence .
-
M i ra bili t e oc c ur s m ix e d wi t h co mmon
s a l t , s od i u m b on a t e
p s om i te e tc in th e r e s id u e s o f
ca r , e , .
,

sa li n e l a k e s a s a t t h e G r e a t S a l t L a k e Of U t a h an d t h e
,

a lk a li n e l a k e s o f W o m i n g
y .

G L AU B ER I TE .

A lphat e of s odi um an d ca l c i um Na 2S O4 C a S O
su ,
.

, ,

o c c ur r i n g a sso c i a t e d w i t h r oc k s a l t b or a x e t c in s a li n e , , .
,

r es id u e s Oc c ur s in m on oc li n i c c r ys ta l s t a b u l a r pa r a ll e l
.
,

t o t h e b a s a l pl a n e P e r f e c t b a sa l c l e a v a g e
. .

C olour Y e ll ow r e d g r ey s t r ea k wh i te
.
-
, , ,
.

H — Sp G r
.
3 . . .

L ustre — Vi tr eous .

F ract —C on c h o id a l
. .
 M ENTS
EL E OF MI N ER AL O G Y
Occur rence — Ec on om i c a ll y i mp o r t a n t d e p os i t s o f g l a u
be r i te oc c ur in t he va ll e y o f t h e Eb r o , No r t h S p a i n , a n d
b ea r th e C h a ra c t e r s o f a sa li n e re s id u e .

Th e n ard it e .

C o mp S o di u m s u lph a t e Na 2S O4
.
-
, .

Whi t e or th or h omb i c p r i s m s ; s ol ubl e in w a te r . Oc c u r s

in sa li n e r es id ue s in C a lif or n i a a n d Ar iz o n a .

NATR ON .

C omp — H yd ra te d s odi u m c a r bon a te Na 2C O2 I O H 2O , . .

C ry st Sy st —M on oc li n i c
. . .

Corn Farm — U s uall y in s ol ut i on but a l s o a s e fflo r e s c en t

.
,

c r u s ts .

Colour — Whi t e gr e y or ye llowi sh

.
, , .

L ustre —V i tr e o u s or ea r th y
. .

Ta t
s e — Alk a li n e
. .

H —1. Sp G r . .

Tests —Eff e r v e s c es wi th
. id ; giv e s wa t e r on h ea ti n g ac

in c l ose d t u b e ; ye ll o w s odi u m fl a me .

Occ rr c
u en e —F oun d in s ol ut i on in th e s od a l a k e s of
.

Eg yp t et c , .

TR ONA U r a o .

—
Comp H yd ra te d bas i c s odi um c ar bo n a t e , 3 N a O 4 C O
2 2
. .

H
5 2O .

Cryst . Sy st — M o n o c li n i c .

Co m Fown — F i b r ou s or c ol u mn ar
. l ay e r s and ma ss e s .

C oa
l m— B a s a l a n d p er fec t .

Colour G r e y or ye ll owi s h whi te

.
- -
.

L ustre — Vi t r eou s t ra n s l uc en t , .

Tas te — Alk a li n e s ol u b l e in w a t er ,
.

H .
—
3 . Sp Gr .
'
.

Tests .
-
Eff e r v es c e s
wi t h a c id ; giv es w at er on h ea t i n g
in c l os e d t u b e ye ll o w fl a m e of s odi u m .

Occur rence In s a li n e r es id ue s wi th o t h e r mi n e ra l s
.

for me d in t hi s wa y C a lifor n i a M e xi c o an d F ez z an
.
, , .
1 42 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OG Y
Tests .
—
P o ta s s i u m lil a c fl am e co m p ou n d s giv e a

co l o r a t i on whi c h is h ow e v e r ea s ily ma s k ed by s odi u m

, , ,

a n d ot h e r e l e m e n t s Th e fl a me s h ou ld b e vi ew e d t h r ou gh
.

bl ue gl a s s or a n i n dig o p r i s m th er e by e li m i n ati n g c ol our s ,

p r od uc e d by th e el e men ts oth e r th an p ota s s i u m F u se d .

p ota s s i um c om p oun d s giv e a n a lk a li n e r ea c t i on wi th

li tmu s F or th e d etec t i on o f s ma ll q ua n t i t i es o f p ot as
.

s i u m c om p ou n d s in s ol u t i o n a f e w d r op s o f pl a t i n i c ,

c hl or id e p r o d uc e in s u c h a s o l u t i on a f t e r p r o l on g e d s t i rr i n g

a p r ec ipi t a t e of m i n ut e yellow c r ys t a l s Of p ota s s i u m

pl at i n i c h l or id e K2P t C 16 , .

S Y LV I N E .

Comp —P otas s i u m c h l or id e K C l , .

C ry st Sy st —C ub i c
. . .

Corn For m — C u b e modifi ed by oct ah ed r on ;

. cr s ta
y lli n e
mas s iv e a n d g ran ul a r .

C leav — Cubic . .

C o l our — C ol ou r l es s or whi te
. .

L ustre — Vi tr eous ; s a li n e ta s t e .

H . 2 Sp G r — 2
-
. . . .

Tests — Lil a c fl a m e of p ota s s i um . G iv es bl u e fl a m e in

t h e c o pp er o xid e m i c r o c os m i c s a l t -
b ea d t es t ; s ol u bl e in
w a ter .

Occur r ence . li n e r es id ue in t h e Sta s s f ur t

-
Oc c u r s a s a sa

s a l t d e p o s i t s a s so c i a t e d wi t h r oc k sa l t a n d c a r n a lli t e .

Al s o a r ou n d t h e f u ma r ol e s o f Ve s uvi u s .

C A R NA LLI TE .

Comp — H yd r a t e d l id e of p ota ss i u m a n d mag c h or

n e s iu m K C l M g C l 2 6 H 2O
,
Chl or id es of s odi u m an d
. .

po ta ss i u m of ten p r e s e n t .

C ry st Sy st Or t h or ho mb i c
. .
-
.

C om F or.nz — C r y s ta l s ra r e ; oc c u r s ma s s iv e a n d
.

g r a n u l ar .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES 1 43

Colour — W h i t e bu t u s u a ll y pi n k or r e ddi s h f rom

.
, ,

a d m i x t u r e wi th o xid e o f i ron .

L ustr e — S h i n i n g a n d gr eas y ; t r a n s p a r en t t o t r a n s
.

l ucen t ; b i tt er t as te .

Fr act —C on c h oid al
. .

H —1 Sp G r — 1 6o
°

. . . . .

Tests — G iv es wat e r o n h ea t i n g in C l o s e d t u b e
. Lil a c .

fl a m e of po ta s s i u m ; b l ue fl a me of C h l or id e in c opp e r
o xid e m i c r o c os m i c s a t b e a d t e s t
-

l P i n k m a s s du e t o .

ma gn e s i u m by h e a t i n g , w i t h c o b a l t n i t ra t e t h e r e s id u e ,

fr o m r oas t i n g on C h ar c oa l .

Occur rence — O c c u r s a s a s a li n e r e s id u e a t S t a s s f u r t ,

an d p r es e n ts
re th e fi nal s ta ge in t h e d ry i n g up of th e
s a l t la k e .

Uses .
— In th e n a t u ra l s ta te is use d as a f e rt ili s e r ; l
a so

a s a s o ur ce o f p otas s i u m sa l ts .

KAIN I TE .

A whi te h ydra t e d m agn e s i um p ota ss i u m s ulp h a te an d

C hl or id e K C l M g S O4 3 H 2O o c c urr i n g in t h e S t a s s f u r t
, . .
,

sa l t d e pos i ts as a n a l t e ra t i on o f th e c a r n al li te z on e
e e a b ov e l i g m g n e s i um
( s
) d u e t o t h e e a c
,
h n o u t o f a

c hl or id e .

N I TR E S a l t p et r e, Nitr at e of P ot as h .

Comp — P ota s s i u m n i t r a t e KN O ,
2
.

C ry st Sy st — Or th or h o m bi c
. . .

Corn For m — Ac i c ul a r c rys ta l s ; a l s o in s ilky

. . f
t u ts an d

t hi n c r u s t s .

C oh a n —W h i te .

L ustr e — Vi t r eou s s ub tr a n s p ar e n t ; b r i tt l e , .

Tas te — S ali n e an d c oo li n g
. .

H —2. . Sp Gr . .
-
I
°

93 .

Tests Lil a c fl ame

-
potas s i um of . S ol u bl e in w a ter .

D e fl agr a tes wh en h ea t e d on c h a r c o a l .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
Occur rence —Oc c u r s in c o n s id e r a bl e q u a n t i t i es in t h e
s o il s o f c er ta i n di s tr i c t s — I n di a , Eg p t Alg e r i a , P e r s i a ,
y
_

and S p ai n . Al s o K en tuc ky Ten n e s see a n d th e

in , ,

M i s s i s s ippi Va ll ey in t h e l oos e ea r t h f or mi n g th e fl oor s

,

o f n a t u ra l ca v e s ; in F r a n c e G er m a n e tc N i t r e is a r t i
y , , .

fi c ia lly ma n u fa c tu r e d fr om r e f u s e a n i m a l a n d v eg e t a bl e
m a t t e r whi c h is m ix e d wi th c a l c a r eou s s oil
, C a l c i um .

n i t r a t e is t h u s for me d a n d wh e n t r e a t e d w i t h p o ta s s i u m
,

c a r b on a t e i e ld s n i tr e
y .

U ses —Ni t r e i s u s e d In t h e ma n u fac t u re of e xpl os iv es

.
,

in me ta ll ur g y a n d c h e m i s t r y et c a n d a s a f e r t ili se r , . .

C AL C I U M ( C a) .

C a l c i um do e s n ot oc c u r in t h e f r e e s ta t e in n at u re b ut ,

it s c o mp oun d s a r e e x t re m e l y a b u n d a n t It m ay b e p r o
‘

c u re d f rom c a l c i u m C hl o r id e by d ec om p os i t i on by a n
e l e c tr i c c ur r en t , or b y h ea t i n g c a l c i u m i odid e wi t h
sodi u m . Al th ough n ot oc c u r r i n g n a tiv e c a l c i u m n e v er ,

th ele s s e n t er s i n t o t h e c o m p os i t i on o f a v er y c on s id e ra bl e
p or t i on Of th e ear th s c r u st ; wh ol e f or ma ti on s s uc h a s
’

t h e Ch alk a n d th e C a r b o n if e r o u s Li m es t on e
, con s i s t ,

a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f c a l c i u m c a r b on a t e w h il e th i c k an d ,

t hi n b e d s of li m es ton e a r e m or e or l es s c om mo n t h r ou gh
o u t t h e e n t i r e s e r i e s Of s t r a t i fi e d r oc k s C a l c i um en ter s .

a l s o i n to t h e c o m p o s i t i on o f m a n y ig n e ou s ro c k s ili c a t es ,

s uc h a s a n or t h i t e f e l s p a r C a O Al2O2 2 S iO2 , . . .

Th e f oll owi n g a r e th e mor e i m p or ta n t c a l c i u m

mi n e r a l s
C a l c i te C a C O3 ( h e x a g on a l )
, .

C ar bona tes Ar agon i te C a C O3 (orth or h omb i c ) ,

.

Dol om i t e C a C O3 M g C O2 , . .

G yp s u m C a S O4 2 H 2O , . .

S ulp ha tes An h y d r i t e C a S O4 ,
.

P olyh a li te 2 C a S O4 M gS O4 2 H O, . . .

P hosp ha te —Ap a t i te
.
,

F luorid e —F l uor s p a r C a F 2
.
-
, .
 EL E M ENTS O F M I N ER AL O G Y

C olour — C ol our l es s or whi te s om e t i mes wi th g rey

.
, ,

y e ll o w bl u e
, r e d b r ow n a n d bl a c k t i n ts
, , , .

S trea h W h i te . .

L ustr e Vi tr e ou s to ea r th y ; t ran s p a r e n t to o pa q ue
.
-
.

Fr act — C on c h o ida l b u t diffi c u l t t o Ob ser v e o wi n g to

.
,

the p e r f e c t c l e a v ag e .

H — 3 S c r a tc h e d by k n if e
. . Sp G r . . .

Opt P r op s
. In o r di n a r y ligh t a pp ea r s us ua l l y a s s h a p e
.
-

l es s g ra i n s t ra v er s e d by e x c e ll en t r hom b oh e d ral c l ea v age s

-

givi n g on e t wo o r th r e e s ets of i n te r s ec t i n g li n es : In
, ,

p ol a r i s e d ligh t t wi n kl e s wh en th e n i c ol is r o tate d d ue ,

t o th e r e f r a c t iv e i n d e x o f t h e or di n a r y r a y b e i n g m u c h
high e r th a n t ha t o f b a l sa m w h il s t t ha t of th e e x tra ,

o r di n a ry r ay is low e r B e t w e en c r os s e d n i c ol s p ol a r
'

ises in v e ry hig h c olo u r s givi n g a g r ey i n t er s pe r s e d , ,

wi th p oi n t s o f pi n k bl ue e tc R a r el y oc c u r s a s a , , .

p r i ma ry c on s t i t ue n t of ign eou s roc k s but c o mmon a s ,

a n a l t e r a t i on o r i n fi l t r a t io n p r od uc t Twi n n i n g v er y .

co mm on .

Tests — I n fu s i b l e , b u t b ec o mes h ighl y l u m i n ous w h e n

.

h ea ted Eff e r v e sc es wi t h evol u t i on of c a r b on di oxid e in

.

a c id s . B r i c k re d c a l c i um fl a me Cl ea va g e v e ry d is
-
.

t in c t iv e F or di s t i n c t io n f ro m a ra g on i te a n d d ol om i t e
.

s ee pp . 1 5 0 an d 1 5 .
1

Va r ieties — Na il H ead Span — C rys ta l s h owi n g c omb i n a

-
s

t i on o f fl a t r ho m b oh e d r on a n d p r i s m ( s e e F ig .

D og Tooth Sp a r C r ys ta l s s h owi n g c om bi n at i on o f .
-

s c a l e n oh e d ron a n d p r i s m ( s e e F ig

A v ery p u r e tra n s p a r e n t for mOf c a l c i t e

.

Iceland Sp ar .
-

fi r s t b r o u g h t f r o m I c e l a n d It c l e a v e s i n t o v e r y p e r f e c t .

r ho m b oh e d r a a n d e xhi b i t s d o ub l e r e f ra c t i on in a ma r k e d

d egr e e ; h en c e it is e mp loyed in th e c on s t r uc t i on of t he ~

n i c ol p r i s m ( s e e p Th e l e s s p e r f e c t l y tr an s p a r e n t
.

c r ys ta l s a l t h ough e x h ib i t i n g a v a s t n u m b er o f v a r i o u s l y
,

c o mb i n e d fo r m s a r e a ll i n c l u d e d u n d e r th e c om mon
,

n am e o f Ca l c it e C er ta i n p op u l ar n a mes f or S pe Cial '

.
,
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES
ty p e s s uc h
,
as d og t oo t h-
s pa r ,
na il -
h ea d s pa r ,
h av e been
e xpl a i n e d .

S a tin Sp a r — A . m pa c t
fi n e l y fib rou s v ar i e ty wi th a
co

sa t i n lik e l u s t r e
-
w h i c h it di s pl a ys t o g r ea t a dv a n ta g e
,

w h e n p oli s h e d It h a s m os tl y b ee n f or m ed in v e i n s or
.

c r e vi c e s in r o c k s t h e fi b re s s t r e tc h i n g a c r os s t h e c r e vi c es
, .

Th e t e rm s a t i n s p a r is a l so a ppli e d t o a fib r o us fo rm
-

o f gy p s u m

Aphr ite a nd A r gentine are u n i m p or ta n t l a m e ll a r v a r i e t i e s

o f c a l c i te .

S talac tites — S ta l a c t i t e s a r e p e n d e n t c o l u m n s for m e d b y

.

t h e d r ippi n g o f w a t e r c h a rg e d w i t h c a l c i u m ca r bo nat e
from th e r oo fs of c a v e r ns in li me s ton e r oc k s an d oth e r
f a v ou ra bl e s i t ua t i on s ; s uc c e s s iv e l a yer s o f c a l c i t e a r e
d e po s i t e d on e o v e r a n ot h er so th a t a c r o s s se c t i on of t h e
,

s t a l ac t i t e di s pl a ys c on c en tr i c r in g s of g r owth Th e .

s ur pl us dr ippin g o f t h e wa te r giv e s r i s e to a s i m ila r

d epos i t whi c h for m s in c r us t s on e a bov e th e o th e r on t h e
fl oors of c a ver n s a n d w h i c h h a s in c on tr a di s t i n c t i o n
,

r ec e iv e d t h e n a m e s ta l a g m i t e B en ea t h t h e s e s ta l ag .

m i ti c c r u s ts th e r e ma i n s o f p r e h i s tor i c c a v e h a un t i n g -

m e n a n d an i ma l s h a v e b ee n f oun d .

Or ienta l A labaster A lg er ia n Ony x —Th e s e a r e s tal ag

, .

m i t i c v a r i e t i es o f cal c i te c ha ra c t e r i se d by we ll ma r k e d -

ba n di ng a n d w e r e u s e d by th e a n c i e n ts f o r ma ki n g oi n t
,

me n t j a r s
-
B ot h n a me s h o we v e r a r e ha d s i n c e t r u e
.
, , ,

al a b a s t e r is a s u lpha t e o f c a l c i u m a n d on y x i s a c ry p to ,

c ry s t a lli n e b a n d e d v a r i e ty o f s ili c a .

C alcareous Tufa Tr a vertine C ale Tufa — M or e or l e s s

, , .

c e ll u l ar d e p os i t s of cal c i um c a r b on at e d er iv ed f r om
w a t e r s c h a r g e d wi th c a l ca r e o u s m a t ter in s ol uti on At .

M a tl o c k K n a r es b or o ugh a n d o th er p la c es w h ere t h e
, ,

w a t e r is t h u s h igh l y c h a rg e d t wig s b i r d s n e s t s a n d , ,
-
,

ot h er O bj e c t s w h en i m m e r s e d in th e s p r i n g be c om e
, ,

e n c r us t ed w i t h a h a r d c oa t i n g o f t u f a C a l c a re o us .

t uf a s om e ti m e s for m s v e r y t h i c k be d s .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
Ag ar ic M iner a l , R och M ilk, R och M ca l — Th e se a re

whi te e ar thy v a r i e t i es o f c a l c i te sof te r th a n C h a lk , ,

d e p os i t e d f rom s ol u t i on in c a v e rn s e tc , .

C ha lh — A w e ll k n o w n s of t whi t e e a r th y c ar b on a t e o f
.
-
, ,

li me for mi n g th i c k a n d e x t en s iv e s trata in v a r i o us p a r t s
, .
“

o f th e w o r ld It h as b een d e p os i te d f r om t h e w a t e r s o f
.

a n a n c i e n t s e a a s s h o w n by th e m ar i n e c h a ra c t e r o f th e
,

f os s il s whi c h it c on ta i n s an d Of ten c on s i s ts to a v ery ,

g r ea t e x te n t of th e r e ma i n s of m i c ro s copi c org a n i s ms
foram i n ife ra .

L imestone M ar ble — A g en er a l t er m f or c ar b on ate o f

, .

li me wh e n occ ur r i n g in e x t en s iv e b e d s It ma y b e c rys .

t a ll in e ooli t i c (a v) or e a r t h y ; a n d w h en i m p u r e a rgill a
, , ,

ceou s s ili c eou s bi t u m i n ou s f e rr u gi n ou s or d o l om i t i c

, , Al l , , .

t ru e m a r b l e s a r e li m e s t on e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n c r ys t a lli s e d
b y h ea t o r p r e s s u r e a n d t h e i r di ff er e n t n a mes a r e d er iv ed
,

e i t h e r fr o m t h e l o c a li ty w h e r e t h ey a r e fo u n d t h e for ma ,

t i on s in whi c h t h ey oc c u r t h e foss il s whi c h m a k e up ,

t h e i r s u b s t an c e or fr om s o m e p ec u li a r i t y in s t r u c t u r e
, ,

c olo u r e tc ,
Ex am pl e s a re s h e ll ma r b l e r u i n m a r b l e ;
.
,

c r i n o id a l l i m es ton e C a r bo n if e r o us L i m es t o n e e t c , , .

L ithog rap hic S tone — A v ery fi n e g r a i n e d v a r i et y of li me -

s t o n e u se d in p r i n t i n g .

P isolite a nd Oolite —C a l c i um c a r b on a te d e p os i te d in .

c o n c e n t r i c l a y e r s a r o u n d s ma ll n u c l e i P i s oli te di ff e rs .

f r om ooli te in t h e l a r g e r s iz e of th e g ra n u l es
Anthr acon t i e — S t i n k s to n e A d a r k c olo u r e d li mes ton e
. .
-

c o n t a i n i n g b i t u m i n o u s m a t t e r a n d e m i t t i n g a f e t id o do ur ,

wh en s tr uc k .

Fonta inebleau S a ndstone A n am e giv en to ca l c i te w hi c h .

C on ta i n s a l a r g e a d m ix t u r e o f s a n d ; s om eti m es wh e n c on

c r e t i on a r y 8 0 p e r c e nt a n d e v e n wh en c r ys ta lli s e d i n
'

.
,

r h om b oh e d r a it h a s b een k n ow n t o e n v e lop 6 5 p e r
“ ‘

c e n t Of s a n d It wa s for me r l y f ou n d a t F on ta i n e bl ea u
‘

. .
,

in F ra nc e .

Thinolite .
-
I n te l a i g r c n l
c r ys t a s of
‘

y e ll ow or br o w n '
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
h e x ag on a l c rys tal s b y r e e n t ra n t a n gl e s I n divid ua l -
.

c r s t a l s Oft e n m a n t i m e s t wi n n e d a n d wi t h a l t e r n a t e l
y y y ,

r e v e r s e d s t r i a t i on o n f a c e s o f p r i s m a n d C l e a v a g e pl a n e s .

Al so oc c ur s in ac i c u l a r c rys ta l s o f t e n ra di a t i n g c ol u mn a r , , ,

a n d in gl ob u l a r r e n ifo r m s ta l a c t i t i c c or a ll o id a l an d e n
, , , ,

c r us t i n g f or m s .

C lea v — P oor p a r a ll e l t o ma c ro pi n a c o id
.
, .

C olour —Whi te g r ey ye llowi s h s omet i me s g r een or

.
, , ,

vi ol e t .

L us tr e —Vi tr e ou s t r a n s p a r en t to tra n s l uc en t
. .

F r aet —S u b c on c h oid a l b r i t tl e
. .

H — Sp G r
.
4 . . .

Test s .
-
B e for e b l o wpip e, whi t e n s a n d m bl es Wi th
c ru .

ac id g
, iv e s c a r b o n di o xid e . C a l c i um fl a m e D i s ti n .

g u is h e d f r o m c a l c i t e b y s h a p e o f t h e c ry s t a l s ; ( )2

c l ea v a g e s ; go i i h d h l i
3) a r a n t e s a r e r t a n ca c t e ; (4 )
s p ec ifi c g r a vi t high M ei en s T A g i ’

y e r ; ( )
5 g e st r a o n t e i s .

s ta i n e d wi t h a s o l u t i on o f c o b a l t n i t r a t e wh e re a s c a l c i t e ,

is n o t Th e mi n er a l u n d e r Ob s e r v a t i o n is b o il e d wi th
.

c o ba l t n i t r a t e f o r a q u a rt e r Of a n h ou r a n d t h e n w a s h e d .

A pi n k s ta i n i n g i n di c a tes a r a g on i t e .

Va rieties —Ar ag on i te o cc ur s a s c r ys ta l s ma s s iv e a n d
.
,

s ta l a c t i t i c F l os f er r i is a c o ra ll oid a l va r i ety whi c h

.
”
,

c on s i s t s o f b ea u t if u l s n o w whi t e div e r g e nt a n d r am if i n g
y
-

b ran c h e s in mo s t c a s e s en c r u s t i n g h emat i te
, .

Occur rence — Ar ag on i te oc c ur s in b e d s of gyp s um wi th

i r o n or e ( fl os fer r i ) It is a l s o d e p os i t ed fr om th e wa t e r s
.

Of h o t s p r i n g s Th e t es ts Of r ee f b u ildi n g c or a l s s o m e
.
-
,

a l m e tc
g , a r e c o m p o s e d o f a r a g on i t e ; t hi s a r a g o n i t e is
.
,

c h a n ge d i n to c a l c i te b p r e s s u r e s o th a t t h e u pp e r p ar t s
y ,

o f a c or a l i s l a n d m a y b e a r a g on i t e a n d t h e l ow e r c a l c i t e .

D O L OM I TE P e ar l S p a r .

C omp — C a r b on a te o f magn es i u m an d c a l c i um C a C O2 ,
.

M g C O2 Not a m ix t ur e o f t h e t wo c a r b o n a t e s
.

Ca C O2 , p e r c en t .
; M g C O2 , p e r c en t .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF MI N ER AL S P EC I ES 1 51

C a r bo n a t e o f i r on is so m e t i m e s p r e s en t s om e t i m es t o ,

s u c h a n e x t e n t a s t o f o r m a p a s sa g e be t w ee n d o l o m i t e

a n d C h a l ybi t e .

C ry st Sy st — H e x a gon a l r h om boh edr a l

. .
, .

Corn For m —Oc c u r s as r h om b oh e d ra l c rys ta l s (of c al

. . .

c i te e fa c e s o f whi c h ar e o f t e n c u r v e d s e e F ig
)
, t h ( .

F IG .
5O.
—DO LO M ITE I
W TH C U R V ED FA C ES .

Al so oc c u r s ma s s i ve an d g ran u l ar f or m i n g e x te n s iv e
,

g eol ogi c a l be ds In . t hi s s ta t e h as a sa c c h ar oi da l

te x t u r e .

C lean — P er f e c t pa r all e l t o t he r h om boh edr on .

C olour — Whi te of te n ti n g e d wi th ye ll o w a nd br own ;

. ,

so m e t i me s wi t h r e d g ree n o r bl a c k , , .

L ustre — Of c rys ta l s v i tr e ou s i n c li n i n g to p e a r l y d ull

,

w h e n m as s iv e ; opa q u e w h en mas s iv e .

Fm et — C on c h o id a l or un e v en b r i tt l e .

H .
—4 Sp Gr . . .

Tests — B e f o re bl owpip e b eh a v e s
. , lik e l i t e M ag
ca c .

n e s iu m in s o di u m ca r bo n a t e b ea d . C old a c id a c t s v e r
y
s ligh t l y o n f ra g m e n t s , bu t in wa r m a c id t h e m i n e ra l is
rea dil y di s so lv ed wi t h effe rv es c en ce .

L emberg s Test — If ca l c i t e is bo il e d f or fifte e n m i n u tes

’

w i t h a so l ut i on Of a l u m i n i u m c hl or id e a n d l ogwood it ,

will be s ta i n e d pi n k D o l om i t e un d er goe s n o s u c h
.

s ta i n i n g F e r r i c c h l or id e m ay b e u s ed w i t h e q ua l
.

ad va n ta g e .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
Var ieties— P ear l Sp a r is ll owi s h or a wh ite , g rey p al e
, ye

b r ow n i sh va r i ety wi th a p ea r l y l u s tr e occ u rr i n g in s ma ll
, ,

r ho m b o h e d r a wi t h c u r v e d f a ce s F re q ue n t l y a ss o c i ated .

wi th ga l en a a n d bl e n d e .

R hom b S p ar B i tter S p a r — C ompr i s e th e , .

l a r g e s o me wh a t fe rr ug in ous var i eti e s w h i c h turn b row n

, ,

on e xp os u re .

M iemzte is a ye ll owi s h b r ow n fi b r o u s v a r i e ty f oun d at

’

-
,

M ie m e in Tu s c a n y, .

A nkemte is a li n k b e t w een d ol om i t e an d C h a l yb i t e, c on
'

t a i n i n g b e s id e s c a l c i um a n d m a gn e s i u m c a r b on at es s o m e
, ,

i r o n c a r b on at e It r e s em b l e s br ow n s p ar ; b ut b e for e
.
~

t h e bl owpip e on c h a r c oa l it b ec om e s b l ac k a n d m a g n e t i c
, , .

F ou n d in th e S tyr i a n i r on m i n e s .

M agnesian L imestom — C r ys ta lli n e g r an u l ar d ol om i te

.
,

whi c h oc c u rs in m a s s iv e a n d e x t e n s iv e g e ol ogi c a l b e d s .

'

Occu w en ce — D ol om i t e oc c u r s in e x ten s iv e b e d s o n
.

ma n y h or iz on s t h e M a g n e s i an Li m es ton e o f En gl and
,

b e i n g o f P er m i an a ge D ol om i t e h as p r ob a bl y b een .

d e p os i t e d di r ec t l y f r om s ea w a t e r a n d b e d s of dol omi t e -
,

m a y a l s o b e f or me d by t h e a l t era t i on o f th e li me s to n e of
.

c or a l r e e fs by s e a w a t e r -
.

, U ses D o l om i t e is a n e x tr e me l y i m p or ta n t b u ildi n g
.
-

m a t er i a l It is a l so u se d f or ma ki n g r e fr a c to ry f u rnace
.

li n i n g s an d a s a sour c e of c ar bo n dio x id e
, .

GY P S U M G
( y p.s os , t h e i
an c e n t n a m e f or th e m i n e ra l
or from ge, ear t h , an d p
e seo, to co ok ) .

Comp — H yd r at e d c a l c i u m s ulpha te C a S O4 2 H 20 ,
. .

C ry st Syst —M on o c li n i c
. .

C om F or m .
— C r ys tal s c o mmon ; c o m bi n a t io n s of t h e
.

p r i s m c li n o pi n a c oid
, an d t h e n eg a t iv e h e m ip y r a m id .

T wi n s o f t w o t y p e s : ( )
I S w a ll o w t a il — t wi n pl a n e t h e ,

o r th opi na c oid ( 1 0 0 ) (s ee F ig 1 6 ) ( 2 ) a r r ow h ea d t wi n .
-

pl a n e an or t hodo me C r ys ta l s often in s te ll a te in ter

, .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL O G Y
l i te a r e f ou n d in m a n y c l a y f or ma ti on s a s in t h e
s e en ,

L o n d on Cl ay Oxfor d Cl ay e tc , ,
.

Uses —G yp s u m is e x t e n s iv e l y u s e d in t h e man u f a c
.

t u r e o f pl a s t e r of P a r i s Th e m i n e r a l is h e a t e d t o e xpe l
.

s o me o f t h e w a t e r o f c r ys t a lli s a t i on a n d t h en g r o u n d u p , .

In t hi s c on di t i on it is u s e d f or s t u c c o a n d pl as te r Wo r k .

Al a b a s te r in it s n a t u r a l s t a t e is u se d f or v a s e s a n d o t h e r
o r n a me n ta l w or k s a n d f or m u c h i n te r i or d ec orat i on
, ,

e s p e c i a ll y f o r m os q u e s I m p u re gyp sum is used as a.

fe rt ili s e r a n d th e whi te v a r i eti es a s ad u l teran ts of

,

flo u r .

A N HY D R ITE .
( G r ee k
wi th ou t a n d hudor wa ter )
, 4 , , ,
.

C omp — An h yd ro u s c a l c i u m s ulp h a te C a S O4 , .

C ry st Sy st — Or t h orh om bi c
. . .

C om F ar.m — C r ys ta l s p r i s ma t i c or ta b u l a r ; c om bi na
,

t io n s of p r i s m t h e t h r ee pi n ac o id s a n d t h e ma c r od ome ;
,

a l so c o mbi n a t i on s o f b r a c h y d ome a n d ma c r o do me Al s o .

c o m m on l y fib rou s l am ell ar g ra n u l ar a n d c o m p ac t ;
, , ,

l a mell a r v a r i et i e s s omet i me s c on tor te d .

C lean — P arall e l t o t h e t h r ee pi n aco id s givi n g r ec tan ,

g ul ar f ra g men t s B r ac h ypi n a coid a l c l ea v a g e l e s s p e r fec t

.

t h a n t h e o th e r t wo .

Comm— Whi te o f ten wi th a g rey b l u i s h or r eddi s h

, , ,

tint .

L ump — P ea r l y on c l ea v a g e pl an e s ; on t h e b as a l
,

pl a n e vi treou s Tra n s p a r en t t o s u b tra n s l uc en t

,
. .

Fr ac k— U n e ve n S pli n tery in l a m ell ar an d fib r ous

.

v ar i et i es .

H —3.
(f y
o g p s u m ) S p
. G 7 . . .

Tests — B e for e t h e bl owpip e t u rn s w h i te b u t d oe s n o t

.
, ,

e xfo li a te lik e gy p s u m ; a ft e r a t i m e i eld s a n e n a m e l lik e

y
-

b ea d F u s e d wi t h s odi u m c a r b on a te a n d c h a r c oa l it
.
,

y i e ld s a m a s s w h i c h bl a c k e n s s ilv e r w h e n m o i s t e n e d
, .

D i s s olv e d in h yd r o c h lo r i c a c id a w h i t e p re c ipi t a te giv e n ,

 D ES C RI PTI ON OF MI N ER AL S P EC I ES 1 55

on a ddi t i on of b ar i u m l id e
C h or . D i s ti n g u i s he d f r om
gy p s u m by t h e h a rd nes s .

Var ieties— Vulpi nite — A s c al y g r an u l a r v a r i e ty

. I t is .

s o m e t i me s h a r d e r t h a n c o mmo n a n h y d r i t e , ow i n g t o t h e

p res e n c e o f s ili c a It i s fou n d a t Vu lpi n o in L om b a r dy,

.
,

a n d is oc c a s i o n a ll y c u t a n d po li s h e d f o r or n am e n t s .

Tr ip e S tone A c on t o r te d c on c re t i on a ry fo r m o f
.

a n hy d r i te .

M ur iaci te —A . na me so m et i m es a ppli e d to so m e of th e
cr
y s ta lli s ed va r i e t i e s .

O ccurrence .
— Oc c ur s as a sa li n e re s id u e a ss oc i a t e d
wi th g y p s u m a n d r oc k s a l t a s , at S t as s f u r t , in G e rma n y ,
an d e l s e wh e r e S o m e t i me s . oc c ur s in cu be s, p se ud o
mor ph ou s a f t er roc k s al t .

AP AT I TE .
p (dGe c e iv e ; o b s e r v er s p r i o r
re e k , a a tao, to
t o W er n e r h a vi n g r e f er r e d t h e m i n er a l t o a q ua
m a r i n e c h r ys o li t e e t c )
, ,
.

C o mp — P h os p h a te a n d fl uo r id e of c al c i um or ph os ,

p h a te a n d c hl or id e o f c a l c i u m ; t h e fi r st be i n g
fl uor a p a t ite 3 C a3 P 2 0 C a F 2 t h e s e c on d
, 8
.
,

c h l or a p a t i t e C a P 0 C aC 1 U s ua ll
3 3 2 , 8 2 y . .

bo t h C h l or id e a n d fl uor id e ar e p r esen t
t og e t h e r .

F lu ora pa t ite — p h os p h a te p er ,

c en t ; . f l u or id e p e r c e n t,
C h lo ra .

p a t it e z — ph os ph a te 8 9 3 5 p er c e n t ; , .

c hl o r id e e r c n t
, p e .

Cry st Sy st — H e x a go n a l
. .

C o m F. o r —
m C r ys t a l s co mm on ; c om
hi mat i on s of p r i s m an d p yra m id wi t h or
FIG 5 —A A
wi th o u t t h e b a sa l pl a n e ( F ig Al so TI TE
.
. 2 .

.
P

ma m m ill a t e d c on c r e t i on a r y a n d m as s iv e
,

C la w —Ve ry p oor p ar a ll e l t o th e basa l pl a n e

.

, .

Galva n — U s u a ll y p a l e s ea g r een or bl u i s h g r e e n -
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
y ell ow i sh g re en or ye ll ow ; s om et i m es di ff er e n t Sh a des
-

o f bl u e g r e y r e d a n d b r ow n ; a l s o whi t e a n d a t t i m e s
, , , ,

co l o u r l e s s a n d t r a n s p are n t .

S trea k — Whi t e .

L ustee —S u b r e s in ous vi tr eou s ; t ra n s p a r en t to

’

. or ,

Op a q u e .

F met — C on c hoid a l a n d u n ev en b r i ttl e .

H Sp G7 —
5 3 7
I
‘
-
. . . .

Opt P r op.s — O c c ur s in ig n eou s r oc k s a s s ma ll p r i s

ma t i c c r ysta l s givi n g l a th s h a p e d l on gi t u di n a l s ec t i on s
,
-

a n d h e x a go n a l c r o s s s ec t i on s R e fr a c t iv e i n d e x high a n d
-
.

p ol ar i s at i on c ol ou r s lo w ; b as a l s ec ti on s i s o tr opi c p r i s ,

m at i c s e c tion s e x t in gu is h s tr a igh t
'

Tests — L u s tr e r a t h e r di s t i n c t iv e
. B l owpip e t e s t s .

d e p en d on th e c om p os i t i on _
R e d fl ame of c al c i um . .

H e a t e d w i th m a g n e s i u m a n d m oi s te n ed ph os ph or e tt e d ,

h yd r og e n g i v e n o ff Wi t h s u lph u r i c a c id giv e s g re a s y
.
,

b u bbl e s o f h yd rofl u or i c a c id C h l or id e i n di c a te d by .

c o pp er o xid e m i c r o c o s m i c b ea d t e s t
-
.

Var ieties — Th e t wo m aj or d iv is ion s o f n at u r a l p h os

'

'

a r e— I A p a tite whi c h h a s a d e fi n i te c h e m i ca l
p h a t e s ( ) ,

c o m p os i t i on ; 2
) R ock p hosp ha tes s u c h a s ph o s ph o r i t e , ,

ph os ph a t i c li mes ton e g u a n o a n d bo n e b ed s whi c h h av e , , ,

n o d e fi n i t e C h e m i c a l c om p o s i t i o n .

P hosp hor ite — A v a r i ety of n a tu ra l ph os ph ate r es ult i n g

from th e a cc u m ul a t i on o f o r gan i c r em a i n s a n d d ro ppi n g s
u p o n d es e r t i s l and s t h e c a l c i t e o f t h e i s l a n d r o c k b e i n g
,

r e pl a c e d b y ph o s ph a t es t o f o r m a m ix t u r e o f ca l c i u m

ph os ph a t e a n d u n a l te r e d c a l c i te P h os p ho r i te may sh ow .

t r a c e s of t h e o r igi n a l s tr u c t u r e o f t h e p a r e n t r o c k or m a y ,

b e c on c r e t i on a r y a n d m a mm ill a ted in whi c h c a s e i t g o e s ,

un d e r t h e n a m e o f s t a ff e li t e .

C p
o ee li
/
te — Th i s t e r m a ppli es m or e p a r t i c u l a r ly t o th os e
‘

ma s se s o f ph os ph a t e f ou n d in s o me s e di m e n ta ry r oc k ,

wh i c h e xhibi t s a c or r u g a t e d or c on v o l ut e d f or m c or r e s
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER ALO G Y
Fr ta— C on c h oid a l to u n ev e n b r i tt l e .

H —4 . Sp G r — 3 . . .

Tests —Re d fl a me Of c a l c i u m
. H ea te d wi th s u lph u r i c .

a c id giv e s g rea s y b u bbl es o f h yd r o fl u or i c a c id ga s w h i c h

, ,

c a u s e a w h i te fi lm o f s ili c a t o

b e d e p os i t e d on a d ro p o f w a t e r
h e ld a t t h e mouth o f th e t u b e .

Va r ieties B lne j ohn . A

p ur pl e o r bl ue va r i e ty f ro m
D e r b ys hi r e u s ed f or v a se s ,
.

s p ar o c c u rs -

a s a c o mm on g a n g u e o f l e a d

a n d t in l o d e s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h ,

F IG 5 3 — F LU O R . ga l en a b a r ytes c a l c i te a n d zi n c
. .
, ,

bl en d e S u c h l od es a r e w o r k e d .

in S ou t h e r n I lli n o i s a n d K e n t u c k y a n d r e c en t l y in ,

W ea r d a l e D u r h a m ; C a s tl e ton D er bys h i r e
, , .

Uses Th e fi n es t g ra d e fl u or s p a r is u s e d in en am e lli n g
.
- -
,

c h e m i ca l a n d gl a s s t r a d e s ; t h e i n f e r i o r g r a d e s a re u s e d

a s a fl u x in s te e l ma ki n g a n d f o r fo u n d r w o r k I n c reas
y .

in g q u a n t i t i e s o f fl u or a re b e i n g u se d f or t h e c on s t ru c t i on
of l en s es .

B AR I U M ( B ; G reek b n h a v y) a , ar s, e .

Th m e t l b a i u m h a b n p r o ur e d in t h f
e a r s ee c e or m of

p wd er by th e d m p i t i o of b a i u m hl id e
o ec o os n r c or by an

l i
e e c t r c c urr e n t . bl e s c a l c i um
It resem in it s p r o p er t i e s .

Th e c hi e f m i n e r a l s of b a r i u m a r e

S ulp ha te B a r yte s , B a S O4 .

Car bonates Wi t h er i t e B a C Oa , .

B a r ytoca l c i t e B a C OaC a C O , .
s

B a r i um oc c ur s a s o l in s m a ll a m ou n t s in m a n y of .
th e
r oc k f or m i n g s ili c a te s Th e
-
. rar e f el spar , l i
c e s an, is a

b a r i u m a l u mi n i u m s il i c a t e ,
B a O A120 3 . . 2 S iO c o rr e s
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES 1 59

p on di n g to a n or t h ite C o mm er c i a ll y ,

t h e m os t i m po r t a n t s a l t is t h e s u lp h a t e wh i c h is u s e d a s ,

a n a d u l t e r a n t f o r wh i t e l ea d ; t h e c a r b o n a t e is u s e d in

po tte ry ma n u fa c t ur e .

Tes ts — B a r i u m c om po u n d s c o l ou r t h e bl owpipe fl a m e
.

y e ll o wi s h g r e e n -
F u s e d b a r i u m sa l t s giv e a n a lk a li n e
.

r ea c t i on wi t h li t mu s Wi t h dil ut e s u lph ur i c a c id s ol u
.
,

t i o n s o f b a r i u m s a l ts g iv e a wh i t e p r ec ipi t a t e o f b a r i u m
s ulp h a t e B a S O B a ri u m m i n e r a l s a r e w h i t i s h m i n e r a l s
, 4 ,
.

wi t h a h igh s p ec ifi c g r a vi t y .

BA R Y TES : H ea vy S p a r h ea vy ) .
( G r e e k , ha m s , .

C mp —B a r i u m s u lp h a t e B a S O4
o S t ro n t i u m a n d ,
.

c a l c i u m s u lp h a t e s o f t e n p r e se n t a s i m p u r i t i e s .

Crys t Sy st —Or th or h om b i c
. . .

C om For m — C r ys t a l s c o mmon c o m b i n a t i on o f p r i s m
.
, ,

ba sa l pl a n e a n d mac r od ome (see F ig

, Al so o c c urs .

mas s iv e c oa r s e l y l a me l
,

l ar , g ran u l a r c o m p a c t , ,

c ol u m n a r a n d r a r e l
, y sta
lac t itic wi t h a ra di a t i n g
,

“ BARY TE S HOW ’ N
fib rou s s t r uc t ure r e s e m G 5 4
PRI SM BASAL P LANE A ND
“ '
_
S’ G

bli n g wo od .
M AC R ODO M E
,

.
,

C [m a — P er fec t pa r a ll e l
t o t h e b a sa l pl a n e a l s o p e r f ec t p a r al l e l to t h e p r i s m
,

( I TO
)
C oh an — C ol o u r l e s s whi t e o f ten t i n g e d wi th
or e ll ow
,
y ,

re d , a nd b ow r n, s o m e t i me s bl u i s h .

S treak — Whi te .

L i ana — Vi tr e ous
ppr oa c h i n g r e s i n o us
, a
, an d so m e t i me s
p e a r l y ; t r a n s p a r e n t t o o p a q ue .

F met — U n e v en ; b r i t tl e .

wi t h diffic u l ty ,
c o o ur n l i g “

the fla me y e ll owi s h gr e e n
-
. Is
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y

a b s or b e d h ar c oa l w h en fu se d w i t h s odi u m c ar b on a te
by c

th e s a t u r a te d c h ar c o a l w h e n pl a c e d on a s ilv e r c o i n a n d
,

m o i s te n e d l e a v e s a bl ac k s t a i n
, Th e h igh s p e c i fi c .

g r a vi ty is di s t i n c t iv e .

Va metzes Cockscomb Baey tes Ta b ul a r c r ys t a l s

' '

a rr a n g e d n e ar l p a r a ll e l t o n a n o t h e r
y o e .

Goth — Th e b a r yt e s oc c u r r i n g in t h e D e r b ys h ir e l ea d
mi n es .

B olog na S tone — A no d ul ar an d c o n c r et i on a ry for m of

b arytes .

Oecnwenee .
—
v e r y com mon v ei n s to n e in
B a r yt e s is a

l ea d v e i n s w h er e it is a ss o c i at e d wi th g a l e n a c a l c i te
,
"

, ,

fl u or a n d q ua rtz d ep os i t s of th i s n a tur e b e i n g w or k ed
, ,
.

It a l s o oc c ur s a s r e s id ua l n o d u l es r esu l t i n g f r om t h e ,

d ecay of b arytes b ear i n g c l ays or l i mest on es a s in -

,

Vi r gi n i a Th e c e me n t of som e s an d s to n es (eg ; t h e
.

H e ml oc k S ton e o f No tt i n gh am ) 18 ba r ytes
w
.

Uses —U s e d a s a pig m e n t— a s a s ub s t i t u t e f o r
. h i te
l e ad— a l so f or givi n g w eigh t to p a p er an d f or d ress i n g ,

p oo r q ua li ty c a li c o .

W I TH ER I TE .

Comp — B ar i u m c ar bo n ate B a C Oa
.
,
.

C ry st Sy st — Or th orh om b i c
. .

C om F own — C r ys ta l s a re a lw a ys r e p e a t edly t w in n e d
. .
, ,

givi n g r i s e to s ix s id e d p r i s m s -
,

an d muc h
r es em b l e t h os e o f q u ar t z ; ‘

~
.

but t e e n t ra n t an gl es are -

s o m et i m e s o bs e r v e d Se e .

F ig 5 5 pl an e p ri s m .
,

Al So m a s s iv e o f t en w ith a ,

c ol u mn ar o r g ra n u l a r s t r u c
F G 55 — WI TH ER I TE
_

I
t u r e t u b er os e an d b ot r yo id a l
. . .

.
,

C leao — P oor p a r a l l e l t o t he b r a c h ypi n a c oid

.
, .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
car bon f u s es a n d s i n k s i n to th e c h a r coa l l ea vi n g t h e
a te ,

c a l c i u m ca r b on a t e a s a n i n f u s i b l e r e s id u e .

Oo enr r en e
o —Oc c ur s in l ea d v e i n s a t Al s to n M oo r a n d
.

F a llowfi e ld .

S TR O NTI U M ( S r ; S tr on t i an ,
in Arg yll s hir e ) .

S tr o n t i u m doe s n ot occ u r in a fr e e s ta te in n a t u re b ut ,

it ma y be p r e p a r e d by p a s s i n g a n e l ec t r i c c u r r e n t t h r o ug h
s t r on t i um c hl or id e I t mu c h r e se m b l e s c a l c i u m in it s
.

p r oper ti e s .

Th e c h i e f m i n e ra l s o f s tr on t i um a r e

S ulp ha te C el es ti n e S r S O ,

C ar bonate S t r on t i a n i t e S r C 0 3
, .

Tes ts — .S tr on t i u m c o m p o un d s c o l o u r t h e bl owpip e
fl a me c r i m s on F u s e d s tron t i u m c o mp oun d s giv e a n
'

a lk a li n e r e ac t i on wi t h li tmu s Wi th dil ut e s ulph u r i c .

a c id , s o l u t i on s o f s t r on ti um sa l t s giv e a whi te p r e c i pi t a te
o f s t r on t i u m s u lp h a t e , S r S O4 .

C EL ES TI N E L ati n l i l ll us i on
'

.
( , ocelestes , c e es t a , in a

b l u ti nt )
t o it s e .

C mp —S tr o ti u m
o lph a te S rS O4
n su ,
.

C y st Sy
r .s t — O r th o r h o m b i c
. .

Corn For m — Ta b ul a r c rys ta l s r e se mbli n g th ose o f

.

b arytes c o mb i n a ti on s of p r i s m b a sa l pla n e ma c rod o me

-“
, ,

a n d b rac h yd o me ; a l s o fib r o u s g r a n u l a r a n d ma s s iv e , , .

C law — P er fec t p a ra ll e l t o t he ba sa l pl a n e a n d goo d ,

p a ra ll e l to t h e p r i s m .

—
Coh a n Whi te us ua ll y wi t h a p a l e b l ue t i n t
,
— a

L nstr e — V i t re ou s i n c li n e d t o p ea r l y a t t i m es ; t ra n s
.
,

p aren t to s u b tran s l u c en t .

a —
Fr c I m p e r f ec t l y c on c h oida l ; v e ry b r i t t l e
t .
.

H .
-
3 Sp G r . .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 16 3

Tests l— G iv e s a c r i m s o n fl a me o f s tro n t iu m F us e s .

to a m ilk wh i t e gl ob u l e ; i n so l u bl e in a c id s
- F use d w i th .

s odi u m c ar b on a t e , giv e s a m a s s wh i c h bl a c k e n s S ilv e r

wh en moi s t e n ed D i s t i n g u i s h e d f r om b a rytes by th e
.

fl a me Colo rat i on a n d byit r a n ula r c h a r a c te r .

O cc ur r ence — Oc c ur s in b e d s of r oc k s a l t , gyp s umj a n d

.

l
C ay, a s n ea r B r i s t o l ( Y a t e ) ; a l so in th e s u lph u r d e
pos i ts of S i c ily p 1 33) a l so a s l u mp s a n d n od u l e s .

in li m e s t on e s .

Uses —U se d in t h e m an u f ac t ure of fi r e w or k s an d in
r e fi n i n g b e et s ug a r .

S TR ONTI AN I TE .

Comp S t r on t i u m -c a r bo n at e , S r C O 3
-
.

n s t Sy s t — Or t h or h o m bi c
. . .

C om . F or m —P r i sm a t i c
. c r y s ta s , l o f te n i
a c c u ar l a nd

div erg e n t ; freq ue n t l y twi n n e d lik e a rago n i t e al s o

fib rous a n d g ran ul a r .

e a —
G m Near l y p e r f ec t pa ra ll e l t o t h e p r i s m
l , .

C o lour — P a l e g reen ye ll o w g r e y an d whi te

.
, , , .

L ustre — Vi tr eous to r e s i n ou s on fra c tu r e s ur fa c e s ;

t r a n s p ar e n t t o t r a n s l u c e n t .

Fr aet U n ev e n b r i ttl e
.
-
, .

H 4 . S p G r -
. . .

Tests — G iv es t h e C I l II l S OIl _
' ‘

fla me of s t r on t u i m . E ff e r
v es c e s wi t h hyd roc hl or i c id
ac .

Oeenr renoe — Oc c u r s in . v e i n s wi th g a l en a an d barytes ,

e tc .
, as at Al s o a s n o d u l es "

n es t s , and g e od e s in li me s ton e s , as

etc .

MA G NES I U M
M agn es i um is foun d fr e e na t i ve b u t is p r e p a r e d
n ot ,

ar t ifi ci a ll y by e l ec t r ol ys is o f a mi xt u r e o f a n h yd r o u s
ma gn e s i u m a n d p ota s s i u mor sodi u m ch l or id e s I t IS a .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
s ilv er whi te meta l , ea s il y ta rn i s h i n g to t h e ox id e ma g
n es ia , M O T h e sa l t s a r e e mpl oy e d in me di c i n e
g .
.

M a g n e s i u m is of v e r y c o mmon oc c u rr en c e in r oc k
fo rmi n g s ili ca tes , n a me l y th e f e r roma gn es i an s ili ca tes ;
,

e x a mpl e s ar e b i ot i t e , p yr ox e n e amphi bol e o livi n e , e t c

, , .

Th e c hi e f n o n s ili ca te ma g n e s i an m i n e ra l s ar e
P er i l a c MgO se , .

Oxi des
l B r u c i t e M g O H
, 2
0 .

M a g n e s i t e M gC O
Ca r bonates ( a ,

l D olom it e M g C 0 3
C a C O
,
.

Ep s om i t e M g S O4 7 H 20 -

S a ha tes
,

Ki es er i t e MgS O4 H 20 ,
. .

C hloride and S ulp ha te K a i n i te K C l MgS O4 3 H zO (s e e

, . .

p .

C hloride C ar n a lli t e K C l M gC 12 6 HzO , . .

( see p .

B ora te and C hlor ide B orac i t e 6 Mg O M gC 12 8 B 20 3 , . .

s ee p
( .

Almnina te S pi n e ] M g O A120 3 (s e e p , . .

Tes ts — Th e te s ts f or mag n e s i um ar e v e ry u n s a t is
.

f a c tory S ome ma g n es i u m c o mp oun d s h ea te d on c h ar

.
,

c oa l m o i s ten e d wi t h c o b a l t n i t r a t e a n d s t r on gl y r e h e a t e d
, ,

giv e a pi n k r es id ue On th e a ddi ti on o f s odi um ph os

.

ph a te to a n a lka li n e sol u tio n of a ma g n e s i um s a l t a whi te ,

p r e c ipi ta te of a m mon i um mag n e s i u m ph os ph a te is t h rown

d ow n .

P ER IC LAS E : Na tiv e M ag nes ia .

( P er i, a r o un d ,

a n d otosis c l ea v a g e )
’
, . 7

Comp —Ma gn e s i u m o xid e Mg O , .

C ryst Syst C u b ic
. .
-
.

Oc c u r s as m i n ut e d ar k g r ee n g ra i n s a n d o c ta h e d ra ,

w i t h a p er f e c t C u b i c c l ea v a g e di s s e mi n at e d in ma ss es of
,

li me s ton e f rom M o n te S o mma Ves uvi u s I t is n ot , .

fo un d in s uf fi c i en t q uan t i ty t o be o f a n y c ommerc i a l val ue .

 EL E M ENTS OF M I NERALOG Y
F r a ct —F l at , con c h o ida l .

H .
- —
3 5 45 . Sp G r — O f
. . cr
y s ta s l 3; o f ea r th y v ar i e
t i e s f rom 2 v er 3 8 to o

Tes ts —Th e c o m
, .

p ac t c h a lk lik e va r i ety qu i t e d ist in c -

,

t iv e . Eff e r v es c es wi t h h ot a c id s H e ate d on C h ar coa l .

,

giv es an i nc an d esc en t ma s s whi c h ; w h en moi s tene d wi t h ,

c o b a l t n i t r a t e a n d s tr on gl r e h ea t e d t u r n s pi n k
y , .

O ccu r r en ce — M a g n es i t e r e s u l ts f r om th e a l te r a t i on of
.

r o c k s r i c h in ma g n e s i u m s ili c a t e s livi n d is
( o ne a ,

t h e r efor e a s s oc i a t e d wi t h s e r p e n t i n e a n d t a l c It o c c ur s .

I n I r r e g u l a r v e i n s an d in fr a c t u r e z on e s a n d w o r k a bl e ,

d e po s i t s ar e fo un d in C a lifo rn i a S tyr i a G r eec e and , , ,

I n di a Th e Styr i an d e p os i t s are t h e mo s t i mporta n t

.
,

an d a r e di ff e r e n t f r o m t h e ot h er d e p os i ts in t h a t t h ey ,

r e pl ac e a dolo m i t e a n d a r e a s soc i a t e d w i th C h a l bi t e
y .

U ses — U se d in t h e p r o d uc t i on o f c a r b on di o xid e a n d
m ag n e s i u m s a lt S; a l s o f or r e fra c tory b r i c k s c r uc i b l es , ,

a n d in t h e p a p e r a n d s u ga r i n d u s t r i e s .

EP S OM I TE . Ep s om S a l t s .

Comp H yd r at e d ma g n e s i um s ulph ate M g S O4 7 H 2O

.
-
, . .

Cry st Sy st Or t h or h om bi c
. .
-
.

C o m F or m —
. C r ys ta l s r ar e p r i s ma t i c ; c o mmon l y in
.
,
“

fib r o us c r us ts or b ot ryoid al .

Colour — Whi t e
L ustr e —Vi t r e ou s t r an s p ar e nt to tr a n s l uc en t
. .

Tas te —B i tt e r a n d s a li n e
. .

H —2 . S p Gr . .

Tests — In l d t ub e , giv e s w a te r M agn es i umr éac

c os e .

t ion wi t h c ob a l t n i tr a t e on C h a r c o a l Sulph a te giv e n by

’ '

s ilv e r c o i n t e s t .

Occurr ence —Ep s o mi t e oc c u r s in s ol ut io n In s ea w a ter

.
-
,

a n d in m i n e r a l w a t e rs ; a l s o a s e fflor e s c e n t c r u s t s a nd

mass e s a s in th e li mes ton e c a v e s o f K e n tu ck y an d e n

, ,

c r u s t i n g s e r p e n t i n e a n d o t h e r r o c k s r i c h I n ma g n e s i u m .

U se s — In me di c i n e
. .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES 1 67

K I ES ER I TE .

Comp — H yd ra te d ma gn e s i u m s u lp ha t e ,

A whi t e m i n e r a l m a s s iv e g r a n u l a r or c o m p a c t
, , , ,
oc

c urr i n g a s a sa li n e r es id u e in th e S t a s s f u rt s a l t de
pos i ts .

A L U M I N I U M ( Al) .

Al u m i n i u m is n ot foun d in a fre e s ta t e , b u t in co m
b i n at io o n s t i t u te s 8 1 6 p er c en t of th e ea rt h s c r u st
n c .
’

a n d is t h e mo s t a b u n da n t o f m e t a l s It I s a n e s s e n t i a l .

c on s ti t ue n t of c l a s n i c as a n d f e l s p a r s a n d o c c u r s in
y , , ,

s ma ll e r a m o un t s in ma n y r o c k s Th e c h i e f i n d u s tr i al .

so u r c e s o f a l u m i n i u m a n d it s c om p o u n d s a r e b a u x i t e ,

c r yo li te a l un i t e
, an d s h a l es, S u c h ar t i c l es of c om .

m e r c e as p ot ter s c l a y s l a t e s c hi n a c l a y ( k aoli n )
’
, , ,

fu ll er s ea r th e t c a re s ili c a t e s whil e o xid e s oc c ur as

’

, .
, ,

bau xi te cor u n d um an d e me r y
, , .

Th e m eta l a l um i n i u m is p rod u c e d in t h e e l e c t r i c f u r
n ac e b t h e r e d u c t i o n o f a l u mi n a o b ta i n e d f r o m b a u xi t e
y .

It is a s ilv er w h i te d u r a b l e me ta l c a p a bl e o f ta ki n g a
-

, ,

hig h po li s h Owi n g to it s low s p ec i fi c g ra vi ty (2

. it °

is of g r ea t v a l ue in t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of ma n y a r t i c l e s
wh e re ligh tness is o f i m po r ta n c e It me l ts a t 6 5 7 C .
°
.
,

a n d all o s w i t h m o s t m e t a l s a n d s o m e n on m e t a l s
y T h e -
.

lig h t all oys of c h i e f i m po rta n c e a r e t h os e wi t h zi n c a n d

c on t a i n in g a s ma ll p r o po r t i o n o f ma g n e s i u m Al um in i u m .

is p r od u c e d in S c ot l a n d U n i t e d S ta t es F r a n c e a n d , , ,

S wi t z e r l an d lo c a li t i e s w h e r e h yd r o e l ec t r i ca l i n s t all a
,
-

t io n s a r e p ra c t i c a bl e .

Th e e n e r g e t i c a c t io n o f fi n e l y d ivid e d a l u m i n i u m o n a
meta lli c o xid e w h e n h e a t e d t og e t h e r is ta k en a dv a n t a g e
, ,

Th e r mi t p r oc e s s f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
”
of in t h e “

m eta lli c Ch r o m i u m m a n g a n e s e m o l ybd en u m t un g s t e n

, , , ,

ur an i u m et c
, _
Th e a l u m i n i um c o m b i n e s di r ec t l y wi t h
.
 EL EM ENTS O F M I N ER AL OG Y
the o x yg e n of th e oxid e a n d th e h ea t e v olv e d by t h e
,

i
r e a c t on is su f fi c i en t t o p r omot e t h e fu s io n of t h e r e d u c e d
m e ta l .

Th e w or ld s p rod uc t i on
’
wa s p r ob a bl y a b o ut
t o n s in 1
9 1 2 .

B a u xi t e : Th e r e a r e,p eaki n g two

co mm er c i a ll y s ,

ki n d s of b a u xi te r ed an d w h i te W h il e t h e p r i n c ip a l
, .

u s e o f b a u xi te is f or t h e m a n u fa c t u r e of a l um i n i u m ,

c on s id e r a bl e q ua n t i t i e s o f t h e m i n e ra l a r e u s e d a s
a b ra s iv e s a n d in t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of a l u m i n i u m c o m

p oun d s L ow e r g r a d e s of b a u xi t e ar e u s ed a s r e fr ac
.

t or i e s f or th e m an u fa c t u r e of b r i c k s a n d f or fu r n ac e
a n d co n v e r t e r li n i n g s F or C h e m i c a l p u r p os e s t h e w h i t e
.

ba uxi te c on t a i n i n g on l y a t ra c e o f i r on is u s e d b u t f or ,

th e m a n u f a c t u r e o f m e ta lli c a l u m i n i um i ro n is n ot ,

h a r m f u l a l t ho u g h t h e p r es e n c e of m or e t h a n 3 p e r c en t
, .

of s ili c a or o f t i t an i u m o xi d e is o bj e c t i on a bl e Th e .

wo r ld s p rod uc t io n of b a u xi t e in 1 9 1 2 a m o u n ted t o ov e r
’

t on s .

Al un i t e h a s b een s ugg es t ed as a s o ur ce of a l umi n i um

a n d p ot a s h a n d wh e n, t hi s mi n e ra l is c a l c i n ed a n d
l ea c h e d p ota s s i u m s u lph ate c an be r e c ov er ed tog et h er
,

wi th p u r e a l u m i n a w h i c h is e m i n e n t l y s u i te d t o th e
,

man u f a c t u r e of a l u m i n i u m .

C o r un d um is wi th th e e x c e p t io n of di amo n d the
, ,

h a r d e st m i n er a l k n ow n a n d is u s e d a s a n a b ra s iv e
, .

G r i n di n g wh e el s a re m ad e by t h e i n c or p ora t i on of a
bi n di ng m e di u m s uc h a s sh e ll ac wi th c r u s h e d c or un
, ,

du m . Th e m i n i n g a n d p r e p a r a t i on of c or un d um is
c ostl y ,
b u t t h e r e is a s te a d y d e m a n d f o r t h e a r t i c l e .

Eme r y is a n i m p ur e a n d l es s h a r d f or m of cor u n d u m .

I n 1 9 1 2 C a n a d a p r o d u c e d n ea r l y t o n s of g r a i n
c o r un d u m I n di a an d M a d a g a sc a r ea c h p rod uc e d
.

a b ou t 5 0 t on s
0 Tu r k e y is th e l a r g e s t pr od u c er of
.

e m e ry (a bo ut t on s in G r e ec e a n d t h e
 EL E M ENTS O F M IN ER AL O G Y

p atc h y Th e r e fr a c t iv e i n d e x is v er y h ig h an d t h e
.
,

p ol a r i s at i on c ol our s v er y lo w .

Tests —Not a c te d on by a c id s Th e h a r dn e s s a n d .

phys i ca l p rop er t i e s u s ua ll y di s t i n c t iv e F i n e l y p owd ere d .

a n d h e a t e d wi t h c ob a l t n i t r a t e on c h a r co a l c o r un d u m
’

giv es a b l u e c ol our .

Var ieties Cor undum Gein S tones Th e r uby s ap -

.
-
,

phi r e or i e n ta l a me t hys t or i en ta l emer ald a n d or i enta l

, , ,

t o pa z a r e v ar i e t i e s o f
, co r un d u m c o l o u r e d r e d b l ue , ,

p ur pl e g r een a n d ye ll ow r es p ec t iv e l y an d ar e u sed a s
, , ,

ge m -
s ton es .

( )
2 E m er
y — E m e r
y is a g r e y i s h bl a c k v a r i e t y o f c o r u n -

d u m c on ta i n i n g m u c h a d m ix e d m a gn et i t e or h e ma t i t e .

C r us h ed g r o un d a n d
, ,
s if t ed ,
it s powd er is use d f or
p oli s hi n g h a r d s ur fa c es .

Occur rence — C or un d u m v ei n s an d
‘

. oc c u r s as c o n t ac t

se g r eg at io n s i
d wi th p e r id ot i t es in th e Appa
a ss oc a t e

l ac h ia n B e l t in t h e Ea s t e r n U n i t e d S ta t e s Al so or igi n a l
, . .

in s ye n i t e o f On ta r io a n d in a n o r t h o s i t e o f I n di a Al s o ~
.

o c c ur s as t h e r e s u l t of th e c on t a c t m e t a mor phi s m o f
li me st o n es , as in B u rm a .

Emery o c c u rs as se g r egat i on s fr om ig n eou s reeks ,

an d as m a ss e s in g ran ula r li mes ton e an d g n e i s s ,

as at

Na x os .

Th e d um ge m s ton e s oc c u r e i th er a s i sol a te d
co r u n -

c r ys t a l s in li me s ton e e t c or a s r ou n d e d p ebb l e s in
, .
,

a ll u vi a l d e p os i t s .

Uses — Em e ry is u s e d a s a n a b r a s iv e a n d t h e c o l ou red ,
.

v a r i et i es of cor un d u m as ge m s ton e s .

B au x it e An a m or p h ous ear th y g r a n u l a r or pi s oli t i c

-

m i n er a l of di r ty w h i t e g r eyi s h b r ow n ye ll owor r e d d i s h
.

-
, , , ,

b row n c ol o u r Es s en t i a ll y hyd r a t e d a l u m i n i u m o xid e

.
‘

A120 3 2 H 20 g e n er a ll y wi th i m p u r i t i e s o f F e 20 3 P 20 3
.
, , ,

e tc . It is n ow th e c hi e f sou r c e o f a l u mi n i u m Occ urs .

a t B e a u x n e a r Ar l e s in F ran ce An tr i m an d 15 ex , ,
 D ES C RIPTI O N OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 171

t e n s iv e ly m i n e d in t h e U n i te d S t a te s B a u xi t e p r o ba bl y .

lts
r es u f r o m th e w eat h er i n g of ign e ous r oc k s u n d er
t ropi c a l con di t i on s ,
an d m a y be res id ual or tr a n s port e d .

D ia s p or e — A hyd r a ted a l umi n i u m oxid e Al 3 H zO

.
, .
,

o c c u rr i n g in or t h or h o m bi c p r i s ma t i c c ry s t a l s foli ated ,

a n d s cal fo r m s of a whi t e c o l ou r a n d h ar d n e s s n ear l y 7

y , ,

s p e c ifi c gr a vi t
y 35 F o u n d wi t h co r u n
,
d u m a n d e m e ry .

.
; G ibbs it e Hyd r ag illit e ,
.
-
A h y dr a t e d a u l mi n i um
oxid e ,

oc c u rr n i g u sua lly as c o n c r e t i on s ra r e l,y as

mo n oc li n i c c ry s t al s . W h i te in c ol o u r ; h ar d n es s 3; ,

s pe c ifi c g ra vi t y , 2
'

35 a r gill a c eo u s od o ur .

S P I N EL .

Comp — M ag n e s i u m a l um i n a te M gO A120 3 bu t i ron , .

,

o xid e man g an e s e o xid e a n d c h r o m i um o xid e m ay r e

, , ,

p lac e ma gn e s i a .

Cry st Sy st — C ub i c . . .

C om Farm — C r ys ta l s c om m on l y oc ta h e d ra or r h o m bd o
.

d e ca h e d r a oft en t wi n n ed on a f ac e of t h e oc ta h e d ron
C olour —R ed b row n an d bl ac k s om e ti m
.
,

.
,
e s gr ee n ,

a n d bl u e .

L ustr e — Vi treo us ; d ar k c olo ur ed c rys tal s us ua ll y ,

o pa q u e .

Fr aet —C on c h oida l . .

H . S p Gr. .

Opt
_
. P p s — G iv
four or s ix s id e d se c tio n s al s o
ro es -
,

i r r egu l a r grai ns c ol our l e ss g r een (pl e onas t e) r ed an d , , ,

b r own (pi c ot i t e) ; r e fra c t iv e i n d e x high ; b et w e en

c r o s s e d n i c ol s i s o t r o pi c .

Tests — I n f u s i b l e Wh en b l ac k r ese mb l e s ma g net i te

3
“

. .
, ,

b ut is n ot magn et i c R e s e m bl e s g a r n e t b u t is n o t .
,

fu s ibl e R ese m bl es zi r c on but is h a r d e r Th e r e for e

.
, .
,

fo r m h ar dnes s an d i n fu s ibili ty c ha ra c ter i st i c

, , .

Varietiesé R uby Spine l — Cl e a r r ed v a r i e ty S pi n e ] . .

 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
ru b y ba las
,
-
ru by ,
ru b i c ll
e e, a re d ee p r ed , r o se -
r e d , an d

y e llow v a r i et i es .

P le n o aste .
—D a r k
g re en s pi n el con ta i n i n g i r on ,
.

P icotite — B r ow n s pi n e l c o n ta i n i n g i r on a n d c h r o m i um
.
,
.

H ercy nite An i r on s pi n e l F e O Al 3
. b l ac k in ,
.
,

c olo ur .

Gahnite — A zi n c S pi n e l Z n O Al 3 d ar k g r een
.
, . ,
.

Occurrence — Oc c ur s a s a n or igi n a l c on s t i tu e n t in
ig n eous r oc k s es p ec i a lly b a s i c roc k s ; a l s o in m eta mor
,

p h o s e d c r
ys t a lli n e li m e s t o n e s g n e i ss e s a n d s er p e n t i n es , ,
.

Al s o in a ll u vi a l d e p os i t s r es u l t i n g f r o m t h e d eg ra d at io n ,

of t h e par en t roc k U se d a s a ge m s to n e .
-
.

C H RY S O B ER Y L : Al e x a n d r it e .

Comp — B erylli um a l um i n at e
.
,

C ry st Sy st — Or th or h om b i c
. .

Corn For In Oc c ur s in p r i s mati c c rys tal s

. .
-
,
o ften
twi n n e d to p rod uc e s t e ll a te a n d s ix s id e d fo r m s -
.

Clea n D i s t i n c t pa ra ll e l to b rac h yd ome

-
.

Co lo u r — S h a d e s o f g r een
. .

L ustre —Vi t r eous ; t ran s l u cen t to tran s par en t

. .

—
Fr act Co n c h oida l a n d u n e v e n
. .

H . Sp G r . .

Tests — R ec og n i s e d by it s ph ys i c a l p rop e r ti e s
. .

Var ieties — A lex andr ite A g r ee n i s h v a r i e ty whi c h is .

-
,

r e ddi s h b t r a n s mi tt e d ligh t
y .

O c cu r r ence — Oc c u r s in a ll u vi a l d e po s i t s an d in pl a c e in
.

g n e i s s g r an i te an d m i c a s c hi s t U s e d a s a gem s to n e
, , .
-
.

AL U N I I E Al u ms t on e
’ ‘

m —
Co p H yd ra ted s ulph ate of l
a u m i n i um an d o t a
p s

s i u m , I( 0 3 A1 0 S O 6 H O
3 4
.
2 2 3 2
. .

C ry st H e x ago n al r h om boh ed ra l
. Sy st .
-
, .

Coin Form — C r ys tal s un c o m mon ; s m a ll r h omb oh ed r a

.
 1
74 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER A L O G Y
W EB S TER I TE A l u min it e .

Comp — H yd ra te d l
a um n u i i m su lph a te ,
Al 3 . S Oa .

H
9 ZO .

Corn For m — An e ar thy mater i a l oc c u r r In g In v e i n s a n d

.

in r en ifor m or t ub e r o s e m a s s e s .

C olour — Wh i te a n d yell o wi s h
. .

L ustre — D ull an d op a q ue .

F mot —Ea r th y ; a dh er e s to th e ton g ue a n d yi e ld s to ,

th e fi n ge r n a il -
.

H —1 —2 . Sp Gr . . .

Tests — In c l ose d t u b e , giv e s w a ter B l ue mas s wi th .

c o b a l t n i tr a te on c h a r c oal S ulph ur by s ilv er c o rn t est

‘

. .

P hys i c a l p r op er t i es di st i n c t iv e .

Occurrence — U s ua ll y foun d in c l a ys of Te r t i a ry a g e ;
.

fr e qu en t l y in c l ay fi lle d p Ip e s or pot — h ol es in th e s ur fa c e
-

o f c h a lk a s a t N e w h a v e n e t c
, , .

AL U M P ot a s h Al u m , K al inite .

C omp .
-
H yd r ate d s u lph at e of p otas s i um an d a l umi n i um ,

C rys talli ses in t h e c u b i c sys te m g en e ra ll y in s ma ll ,

oc ta h e dr a o n s h a l es a s a t Whi t b y Y o r k s hi r e a n d e l s e , , ,

w h e r e It d oes n ot oc c u r in s u ffic i en t q IIa n tity t o be

.

of a n y u se It is r e a dil y s ol u bl e in w a t e r a n d h a s a
. _
,

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t a s te H a rd n es s 2 s pe c ifi c gr a vi ty .
, ,

1 7 5 Al so oc c u r s in th e n e ig h b o ur h oo d o f v o l c a n o e s
. .

C R vo LITE
Comp —
.

F l u or id e of l
a u mi n i um an d s odi um } Al F3 .

3 Na F .

C ry st Sy st —Mo n o c li n ic
‘
'

-
. . .

Coin F or iii ; C r ys ta l s n ot c o mmon U s ua lly fif o un d

”

-
. .

ma s s iv e a n d c l ea vab l e w
.

i th a l a me ll a r s tr uct ure ,
-
.

Gtea u P er fe c t p a ra ll e l to b a s a l p i naCO Idl; le s s per fe c t

.
-

p a r a ll e l t o p r i s m a n d o rt h od o me .
 D ES C RI PTI O N OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES 1 75

Colour — C ol ou r l es s s n ow whi te
.
,
-
,
re ddis h b r o wn i s h
, ,

b r i c k r ed a n d e v e n bla c k ,
.

L ustre — V i tr eo us ; s u b tran s p a r en t to su b t r an l u s c en t .

Fr act — U n e ven ; b r i tt l e
. .

H . Sp Gr —3 . . .

Tests — C ryo li t e be co m e s p r ac t i ca ll y i n vi s ibl e w h en

.

i mm e r s e d in wa te r , s i n c e it s r e f r a c tive i n d e x e q ua l s t ha t
of w at er Al on e b efore t h e bl owpip e , fu s e s eas il y, c o l ou r
.

in g t h e fl a me i n t e n s e ye llow fr om s o di um Th e r e s id ue .
,

f r om h ea t i n g on c har c oal , w h en m o i s t en e d w i t h c ob a l t
n i t ra t e a n d s t r on gl r e h ea t e d giv e s a b l u e ma s s fr o m
y ,

a l umi n i u m H ea t e d w i th s ulph ur i c a c id , gr ea sy b u bb l es
.

of h y d r o fl u or i c id e v olv e d ac .

Occur rence — C r yoli t e oc c u r s a s a pe g ma t i ti c v e in in

.

g ran i te a t Ev igt u k in W est G r ee n l a n d a s s oc i a te d wi th , ,

gal e n a bl en d e C h al yb i t e fl uor e tc Th e c ryoli te h a s

, , , , .

b e en p r ov e d to a d e p th of 1 5 0 f eet and is s h ippe d to ,

Eur o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d S ta t e s .

Uses — C ryoli t e is u s e d f or t h e ma n u fa c t u r e o f a l u
.

m i n i um f or maki n g s odi u m a n d al um i n i um sa l ts an d in
, ,

t h e m a n ufa c t ur e of a wh i t e po r c e l la n ou s gl a s s .

TU R Q U O I S E .

C omp H yd rou s ph os ph a te o f a l umin i um wi th a s mal l

.
-

,
’

p e rc e n ta g e o f c oppe r o xid e .

C om F or m — Am o r p h ou s r en if o r m s t a l a c t i t i c
. .
and , , ,

e n c ru s t i n g .

F raet —C on c hoida l b r i tt l e
.
, .

C olo ur — Tur quoi s e b l u e or bl ui s h g r e e n

.
c o lo u r

p r o b a bl y d u e t o c opp e r .

i s tre —" Ra t h er w a x y i n t er na l ly d u ll 1 F e abl y tr an s

.
, .

l u c en t to op aq ue .

H . Sp G r . .

Tests —G iv es w a t e r w h e n
f h ea te d in c l os e d t u be ; iv
g e
:
.
s

Co pp e r r ea c t on s i . S o l u bl e in h y d r o c h l or i c a c id .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
Occurrence — Tu r q uo i s e oc c ur s in p a t c h y d e p os i ts and

s ea ms in a t r ac h t e in P e r s i a a n d Ne w M e xi c o
y .

Uses .
—
Tu rq uo i s e is m u c h
d in j ew e ll e ry ; bu t fos s il u se

bo n e s a n d t e eth c ol ou r e d by ph o s pha te o f i r on a n d
, ,

t e r m e d od on toli t e or b on e t u r q u o i s e a r e fr e q u e n t l y c ut
, ,

a n d p o li s h e d f or t h e sa m e p ur po s e .

W AVELLI TE .

Comp — H yd r a te d ph os ph a te of a u l mi n i u m, 4 A1P O4 .

l ys e s s how t h e p re s en c e
S om e ana

o f a li tt l e fl uo r i n e a n d o f i r o n o xid e .

Cry st Syst —Or th orh omb i c

. . .

Coin Form — C rys ta l s r a r e ; u sua ll y occ urs in s ma ll

.

s p h e r e s se e F ig vi g di i g whi h
( 5 7) h a n a r a a t
. n s t r uc t u r e c ,

FIG .
57 .
-
WAV ELLI TE .

is w e ll di s pl aye d wh en th ey ar e b rok e n a c r os s Th e .

s ph e r e s u s ua ll y r a n g e fr o m h a lf a n i n c h in di a m e te r to l e s s .

C olonr Whi te ye ll owi sh an d b row n i s h

.
-
, , .

L ustre Vi tre ou s i n c li n i n g t o p ear l y or r es i nous ;

-
,

t r a n s l uc e n t .

H .
4 S p G r -
. . .

Tests —S t r uc t ur e q u i t e c h a r a c t e r i s ti c Y i e ld s . w a ter
wh en h eat e d in cl os e d t u b e ; b l ue m a s s w h en h ea t e d
wi th co b al t n i tr a t e on c h a r c oa l ; a sol u s u a ll y giv e s

i
r e a c t on s f or fl u or i n e .

Occur r ence .
'

—
Oc c u r s in th e id u a l d e p os i t s f or me d
res

f r om ig n eou s k s, St Au s t e ll ; a l s o o c c u r s a s
'

r oc as at .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
S ili c on m i n er a l s of ec on omi c v a l u e a r e
( ) Q
a u a rtz f o r s an d s f or gl ass m aki n g -
, l
a so f or
op ti c a l w or k et c , .

O p al zi s ph e n e m op az ou r m a
( )
b r c on
, , o on s t o n e
,
t t , ,

li n e p er id ot a met h ys t ga rn e t etc a s g em s t on es
, , , ,
.
,
-
.

( )
c T r ipoli a s a n a ,b r as iv e .

( )
d F e l s p a rs In t h e ma n u fa c t ure o f p o r ce l a i n
, .

Cl k oli d i b r i c k m a ki n g a n d p o
()e a y s a ,
n u s e ,
n t t e r
y
ma n u fa c t u re .

(f ) S l a t e s s a n d s t
, o n e s a s b u ildi
,
n g m a t e r i a l s .

(g) M i c a f or , e l e c t r i c w o r k .

A s b e s t ifor m m i n er a l s f c o mb u s t i b l e
( )
h or n on ,

ma te r i a l s .

Tests —S o m e s ili c a t e s g el a t i n i s e wh en b o il e d wi t h
h yd roc h l or i c a c id ; t h e m i n e r a l s h ou ld fi rs t be r o as t e d
wi t h s odi u m car b on a te on ch ar coa l In some c as es th e .

s ili c a se p a r a t e s in t h e fo r m o f i n di s t i n c t fl a k e s S ili c a is .

i n sol u b l e in t h e m i c roc osm i c b ead an d a ft er th e fu s io n ,

o f s ili c a t e s in t h a t b ea d th e s ili c a r e ma in s b eh i n d a s a
,

whi t i s h fra mew or k or g h o st .

C rys tall in e S il ica :

Q u a rt z and Tr id ymit e .

Q U A R T Z .

Comp —S ili c o n dio x id e S iOz

.
, .

Cry st Sy st — H e x a g on a l r h o m boh e d ra l
. .
, .

C om Far m — H e x a g on a l p r i s m t e r m i n a t e d by po s i t iv e
.
,

a n d n e g a t iv e r h om b oh e d ra givi n g a f or m lik e a h e x a go n a l
,

p yr am id wh en e q u a ll y d e v e l op e d F or a f u ll er d is .

c u s s io n o f t h e c r ys t a ll og ra p h o f q u a r t z p 8
y s e e 7 , . .

S ee Fig s 5 8 a n d 5 9
.
~
C rys ta l s s om et i mes wi th t h e
.
,

f aces v e r y i r r eg u l a r l y d e v e l op e d ; oc c as io nal l y c rysta l s

c on tai n s ma ll c a vi t i e s p a r t i a ll y or wh o ll fill e d wi t h
y
liqu id ; n ot i n fr e qu e n t l y a c i c ul a r c rys ta l s of r u t il e et c , .
,

an d sc a l e s a n d gra i n s o f c hl o r i te a n d m i c a a r e e n v e l op e d .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES 1 79

Al so oc c u r s m a s s iv e , g ran u la r , an d so m e t i me s l
s ta ac

i io
t t .

Colour W h e n p u re c ol our l e s s ; often c ol ou r e d by

.
-
,

i mp u r i t i es givi n g r i s e t o s ome v ar i et i es men t i on ed

,

b e low .

L n stre Vi tr eou s oc c a s io n a ll y re s i n o u s t r an s p a r e n t t o
.
, ,

o p a q ue .

Fr act C o nc h o id a l .
-
.

H — 7 . C an n ot be s c r a tc h ed wi t h t h e k n ife
. .

S p Gr. .

Opt . P p ro s — In
di n ar y ligh t a ppe ar s e i t her a s g r a i n s
or , ,

or as w e ll f or me d c rys t a l s t h e mod e of occ u r r en c e

-
,

FI G S .
5 8 , 59 .
—Q U A R TZ .

d ep en di n g up on th e r o c k Q ua r tz is col o ur l e s s tran s .
,

p ar en t an d u n al t er ed ; s h ows n o c l ea v a g e an d an
, ,

ir re gu l a r fr ac t u r e Th e r e fr ac t iv e i n d e x of q uar t z is
.

n ea r l y e q ua l to t h a t o f b a l sa m h e n c e t h e b or d e r s o f t h e ,

g rai n s a re n ot w ell ma r k ed The p ol a r i sa t i on c ol o ur s .

a r e lo w t wi n n i n g n e v e r s h ow n .

Tes ts — Al on e b e f or e t h e bl owpipe u n a l te r e d
.
, S o l u bl e , .

In t h e b o r a x a n d s o d iu m c a r b on a t e b ea d s ; i n s ol u ble in
c r oc os mic sa l t b e a d P h ys i c a l p r op erti es d is.
,

T —
If ar zeties l i ock Cry stal
'
l
R ock c ry s t a l is t h e p ur es t
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
a nd m o s t t ra n s p a r e n t for m
q ua r tz It is s o me ti me s
of .

e mpl oye d in j e w e ll e r y a n d f or ma ki n g s p e c ta c l e gl a ss e s .

A methy st —A p u r pl e o r vi ol e t c o l o ur e d t ra n s p a r en t
for m o f q uart z owi n g its col ou r p rob a bl y t o man ga n ese
, .

U s e d in j e w e ll ery .

Rose Quar tz is a p a l e pi n k o r r o s e c ol o u r e d v ar i e ty of -

q uar t z ; t h e colo u r fa d e s on e xp os u re bu t may be ,

r e s to r e d by m o i s t e n i n g .

Cair ngor m S moky Quar tz —Th e se a r e va r i eti es of q uar tz

, .

o f a fi n e s mo k y ye ll ow o r b r ow n c olo u r .

M or ion is a n ea r l y b l a c k v ar i e ty Th ese typ e s ar e u s e d .

in S cot c h j e w ell ery .

M ilky Quartz is a c o mmo n v a r i ety of a m ilk whi te ,

-

c ol o ur .Th e m ilki n ess is s o met i mes m er e l y s u pe r fi c ial ,

a n d s u c h c r ys ta l s a r e ca ll e d by t h e F r e n c h Q z “
ua r t e n

c hemi se . Th e m ilki n es s is d ue to th e p re sen c e of a

”

m ul t i t u d e o f v e ry s ma ll a ir c a vi t i es -
.

C at s Ey e is q u a r tz wi t h a mi n u tel y fi b rous s tr uc tu re
’

w h i c h ca us es it w h e n s u i ta bl y c u t t o exhibi t a p ec u li ar
o p a l e s c e n t pl a y o f lig h t b ea r i n g s o me fa n c if u l re s e m b l a n ce
,
’
to a c a t s eye .

A ventur ine is q ua r t z c on ta n n i i g s p an gl e s of mi c a ,
h ema t i te , e tc .

Ferr uginous Q uar tz i ro n oxid

co n t a n s
es iwhi c h i m p a r t ,

a r e ddi s h o r b r ow n i s h c ol ou r t o t h e m i n e r a l .

— z igi l o i
Occur nc r e e Q u a r t oc c u r s a s a n o r n a c n s t t u en t
of the mor e ac id ig n e o u s r oc k s g r a n i t e q ua r t z -_
,

fe l s i te r hyoli te e t c It a l s o for ms t h e b u lk of t h e
, , .

s a n d s t on e s whi c h r es ul t from t h e b reaki n g up of

ig n e ou s r o c k s c o n tai n i n g q u art z a nd t h er e fore th e ,

s a n d s t on es c on s i s t of s ma ll u s u a ll y a n g u l a r, fra gmen ts ,

o f t h e mi n e ra l b o u n d t o g e t h e r b y m a y be s ili c a a s in , , ,

t h e q ua r t zi t e s ; b y li mon i te f err u gi n o u s s a n d s t on e ; by
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
P l a s ma .
— A su b tran s l u c en t , l e e k g r e e n v a r i e ty ,

s p ec kl ed wi th whi te .

B l ood S t on e , or H e l iot r op e .
—B l oo d s ton e is
s i m il a r t o pl as m a b u t is s p ec kl e d wi th r ed ; u se d f or
,

s ig n e t r ing s
-
.

—
'

C h rys opr as e C h rys op ra se i s a n a ppl e g r e en c ha l

.

i k l id
'

c e d on
y p r,
o b a b ly co l o u r e d b y n c e ox e .

Ag at e — Ag a t e is a v a r i eg a t ed c h a l c e d o n y c om p os e d
, ,

o f di ff e r e n t c o lo u r e d b a n d s s om e t i m e s wi t h s h a r p li n es ,

o f d e ma r c a t i on s om e t i m e s s h a di n g o ff i m p er ce p t i b l o n e
, y
i n to a n oth er a n d a ff o rdi n g v a r i ou s p a tt er n s ac c ordi n g to
,

t h e di rec t i on in whi c h t h e s t o n e is c u t .

,
—
M OS S Ag at e or M och a S t on e Th i s is C h a l c e d on y .
'

c on t a i n i n g s ma ll d e n d r i t es whi c h c o n s i st of o xid e o f ,

i ron or o f a fe r r ugi n ou s c h l or i t e ( d e le s sit e ) Th e a g at es -

.

a re c ut an d poli s h e d f or b rooc h es s n uff b ox es a n d ,

-
,

s i m il a r a r ti c l e s Th e y mos tl y c ome f r o m S a x on y
.
~

B av a r i a Ara bi a I n di a a n d P e rth s h i r e ( S c otc h

, ,
“

p e bb l es an d a re f o un d e m b e dd e d in a mygd a l o id a l
~

r oc k s .

Onyx a nd S ar d onyx — Th e s e a r e fl at b a n d ed .

va r i et i e s of c h a l c e don y th e l a tte r s ton e b ei n g c o mp osed ,

o f r e d a n d whi t e or bl u i s h w hi t e l a y e rs ,
-
.

F LI NT .

F li n t is co mp a c t
p t oc r ys ta lli n e s ili c a o f a bl ac kcry

c o l o ur o r v a r i o u s s h a d e s o f g r ey a n d oc c u r s in b a n d s o r
, , ,

m or e u s ua ll y in i r r eg u l a r l y s h a p e d n od u l e s a r ra n g e d in ,

l a ye rs in t h e U pp er Ch a lk It b rea k s wi t h a w ell .

m a r k e d con c h o id a l f ra c t u r e a n d a ff or d s s h a r p c utt i n g ,

e dg es . Th i s s u b s ta n c e wa s e x t en s iv el y use d by p r e
hi s tor i c ma n f or th e fa b r i c a t i on o f w e ap on s C h i s e l s , ,

h atc h et s et c a n d b e fo r e t h e i n v e n t i on o f p erc us s i on
, .
,
 D ES C RIPTI ON OF M I NER AL S PEC I ES 1 83

l oc k s an d ma tc h es was , e m plo ye d f o r g un fl in t s
a n d f or -

ign i t i n g t i n d er th es e u s es b e i n g b as e d u po n th e w e ll
,

k n own fa c t of fli n t g en er at i n g s p a r k s wh en s tr u c k wi th
s t ee l , s ma ll p a r t i c l e s of s t e e l b e i n g ra i s e d t o a s ta t e o f

i n c an d es c e n c e by th e h ea t p r od uc e d by t h e b l ow F li n t .

is m u c h u s e d in K e n t S u ss e x e t c f or r oa d m a ki n g a n d
, ,
.
,
-

b u ildi n g .

.
H om s t on e a n d C h ert Th es e a re n a m e s giv e n t o .
-

i mp ur e ki n d s of fli n t wh i c h d o n ot b r ea k wi th a c on
c h oidal but wi t h a m o r e o r l e s s fl a t fr a c t ur e
,
.

J ASP ER .

An i m p ur e
p aq u e for m o f c r yp tocrys talli n e s ili c a
o ,

u s u a ll y o f r e d b r o wn a n d y e ll o w c o l o u r s r ar e l y gr e e n ;
, , ,

o p a q u e e v e n on t h e t h i n n e s t e dg e s S o m e v ar i e ti e s s u c h .
,

as Egyp t i an or r ibbo n j a s p e r a r e b e a u t if u ll y b an d e d ,

wi t h di ff er en t s h a d e s of b r own .

P or ce l ain J as p er Thi s is m ere l y c l a y or s h a l e

'

-
.

a l t er e d or ba k e d b c o n ta c t wi t h h o t ig n e o us r oc k It
y .

may be di s t i n g u i s h e d f rom t r u e j a s p e r by b ein g f us ibl e

On t h e e dg es b e for e t h e blowpip e .

Amor p h ou s S il ica : Op al .

O P AL .

Comp — H yd ra t e d s ili c a S iO, n H 20 ,

. .

C om Form — C om p a c t a m or pho u s r e n ifor m s tala c t i t i c

. .
, , ,
.

C o lo ur — Whi te g re y ye ll ow r ed b r ow n etc th e
.
, , , , , .
,

c o l o u r s o ft en bl e n di n g a n d c h a n gi n g a c c o r di n g t o t h e

di r ec t io n in wh i c h th e s t on e is vi e we d a n d di s pl a yi n g ,

b ea ut ifu l i n ter na l r e fl e c t i on s an d o pa l e sc e n c e .

L ustre — S u bvi t reou s

. .

H . s of t e r t h a n q ua rt z Sp G r . . .

ligh ter t han q uart z .

Opt P rops — B e i n g a m o r ph o u s op a l is i s o tropi c u n d e r

. .
,
 EL E M EN TS OF MI N ER ALO G Y
the m i c r os c o p e bl a c k in a l l p os i t i on s
-
t a , it re ma i n s
w h e n rot a te d b e t w e e n c r o s s e d n i c o l s .

Occur rence —O p a l o c c u r s filli n g c r a c k s a n d c a vi t i e s in

.

ig n eou s r o c k s a n d a l so e m b edd e d in fl in t lik e n od ul es in

,
-

li m e s ton e e tc , .

Va r ieties Precious Op al — Ex h ibi t s op al es c en c e a n d .

a b r illi a n t pl a y o f c o l o u r s .

Hy dr op hane —An o p a q u e w h i t e o r ye ll owi s h v a r i e ty

.
, ,

w h i c h wh en i mm e r s e d in w a t er b ec ome s t ra n s l uc e n t a n d
, ,

o p a l e s c en t .

Hy a lite A t r a n s p a r e n t c o l o u r l es s gl a s s y v a r i ety
.
, , ,

o c c u r r i n g in s m a ll b o t r o id a l o r s ta l a c t i ti c f o r ms
y .

M enilite L iver Op a l — An op a q u e liv e r c ol ou r e d

,
or .
-

va r i e ty foun d in fl a t te n e d o r r ou n d e d c on c re t i on s wi t h a
, ,

p a l e e x te r i or a t M e n il M o n t an t n e ar P a r i s ,
.

Wood Op a l is w ood in whi c h th e c a vi t i es h av e b ee n

fill ed a n d th e t i s s u e s r e pl a c e d by o p a l .

S iliceous S inter . S o m e t i m es c on s s t s i of h yd r o us ,
so m et i m es h yd r ou s s ili c a It h a s a l oos e p or o us
of an , .

t e x t u r e a n d is d e p os i t e d fr o m t h e wa t e r s o f h ot s p r i n g s
, .

It oc c u r s on a g r a n d s c a l e a r o u n d t h e h ot s p r i n g s of
Ta u p o in N e w Z ea l a n d a n d is c o mm on in t h e g eys e r s o f
, ,

I c e l an d a n d o f th e U n i ted S ta tes F r om its m od e of .

oc c u r r e n c e it is n a m e d gey ser ite

, I t li n e s t h e bo r e s o r .

t u b es of t h e g e y s e r s a n d is d e p os i t e d in c a u liflowe r lik e
,
-

e n c r u s t a t i o n s o n t h e s u r fac e o f t h e n e ig h b o u r i n g g r ou n d .

Fl oa t S tone —A . p or o u s for m of s ili c a whi c h fl oa ts on

w a t er . It is foun d in t h e c h a lk a t M e n il M on ta n t P a r i s , .

D ia toin aceous Ear th is a d e p os i t of th e t e sts an d

sk el e ton s of s ili c eou s or g an i s m s s u c h as di a tom s an d , ,

co n s i s t s o f o p a l I t is u s e d a s a po li s h i n g p o wd e r a n d a s
.
,

a n a b s or b e n t f or n i t r o gl yc e r i n e -
.
 EL E M ENTS O F M INER ALO GY

B ia x ia l S il ic at es .

G en era l Op t ica l P r op e rt ies of B i a x ia l M inera l s .

B i a xi a l m i n e r a l s b el on g t o th e or th or h om b i c m o n oc li n i , c,

an d t r i c li n i c sys te h ap e in t hi n s ec t i on s
ms . Th e i r s

d e p e n d s n o t on l y o n t h e i r c r y s t a l f or m b u t a l s o o n t h e ,

di r ec ti on of s ec t i on No s ec t i on s a re i s otr opi c S ec t i on s
. .

of o r t h or h o m bi c m i n er a l s a ll giv e s t r a igh t e x t i n c t i on .

Tr a n s v er s e a n d o r th opi n aco id a l s e c t i on s o f m o n o c li n i c
m i n e ra l s e x t i n g u i s h s t r a igh t w h e r e a s c li nopi n a c oid a l ,

s ec t i on s e x t i n g u i s h o b liq u e l A l l s e c t io n s o f t r i c li n i c
y .

m i n e r a l s giv e o b liq u e e x t i n c t io n Wh e n c olo u r e d b i a xi a l .

,

m i n era l s g e n e ra ll y s h ow pl eo c h ro i s m .

TH E F EL S P A R S .

I nt rod uct ion — Th e

f e l s p a r s a r e m i n e r a l s c on s i s t i n g
.

e s s e n t i a ll o f s ili c a t e s f a l u m i n i u m wi t h v ar i n g a mo u n t s
y o y ,

o f s ili c a te s o f p o ta s s i u m s o di u m ca l c i u m a n d b a r i u m
, , ,
.

Th ey m ay be c o n s id e r e d a s i s om or pho u s m ix t ur e s of fou r
m ol ec u l e s n a m el y ,

1. Th e or thoclase m ol e c u l e : p o t as s i u m a l u m i n i u m s ili
-

K20 A120 3 6 S i0 2
ca t e , . . .

2 Th e albite m ol ec u l e
. : s odi um a u l mi n i u m s ili c ate ,

Na zO Al 3 i6 S iOz . .

3 . Th e a nor thite m ol e c u l e : ca c u l i m a u l mi n i u m s ili c ate ,

C a O Al .
3
. 2 S iO
z.

4 Th.e celsia n m ol e c u l e : b a i um r a u l min i um s ili c a te ,

B a O Al .
3
. 2 S iO
2.
F or x a m pl e s od a or th oc l a se is i n t e rm e di a t e in c om
e ,
-

p os i t i on b etw een or t h oc l a s e a n d a l b i te h ya l oph a n e ,

b et w e e n c e l s i a n a n d o r t h o c l a s e a n d a p e r f e c t g r a d a t i on ,

e xi s t s b e t we e n a lbi t e a n d a n or t h i t e givi n g t h e pl a gi oc l ase ,

g rou p o f f e l s p a r s Th e fel s p ar s ma y t h e r e for e be divid e d

.

f or t h e p u r p os es o f d es c r ip t i o n i n to t h e f oll o wi n g g r ou p s :
 D ES C RI PTI O N OF MI NER AL S P EC I ES 1 87

Celsian— Hy alop hane— Orthoclase , M icrocline .

A nor thoclase .

S od a -
or thocl ase .

A nor thite—L abrador ite A ndeszne— Oligoclase -

A lhite .

O rt hoc l as e , h ya l op h a n e , an d so da -
l
o r th oc as e c ry s t a lli s e
in th e m on oc li n i c s ys t e m . M i c r oc li n e an d th e a l b ite

a n or t h i te fel s pa r s a r e t r ic lin ic '

.

Th e f e l s p ars h a v e a h ar d n e s s of a b ou t 6 e x c e p t ,

when d ec om p os i n g a n d th e i r s p e c ifi c gr a vi ty r a n g e s
,

from 2 —3 .

F e l s p ar s ha v e t wo p r i n c ip a l c l ea v age s in th e mon o ,

c li n i c s s t e m p a r al l e l t o t h e b a s a l pl a n e a n d t h e c li n o
y
pi n a c oid a n d in th e t r i c li n i c s ys t e m pa r a ll e l t o th e ba sa l
,

pl an e a n d t h e b r a c hypi n a c o id ; th a t is th e re a r e t wo ,

c l e a v a g e s a t r igh t a n gl e s o r n ea r l a t r igh t a n gl e s
y , .

Twi n n i n g In f e l s p a r s Is in g e n e r a l s i mpl e In or t h oc l as e ,

a n d r e p ea t e d in t h e a lbi t e a n o rt h i t e s e r i e s e pl a gi o
( t h
c l a s es
) .

Th e fe l sp a r s e n t er l a r g e l y i n to t h e com p os i t i on o f
ign e ous roc k s or th oc l a s e a n d th e s oda f el s p a r s c h a rac
,
-

t er is ing t h e m o re a c id r oc k s t h e li m e f e l s p a r s t h e m o r e
,
-

b as i c roc k s .

F els par s al ter common l y i n to m i c a s bu t by t h e a ct i on ,

o f g as es a r e c on v e r t e d i n t o k a o li n p .

C e l s ia n —C e l s i a n is
. i c li n i c f e l s p a r s i m ila r in
a tr ,

ph ys i c a l p r op e r ti e s to a n ort h i te (gm b e l ow ) b u t c on ta i n .
,

in g b ar i um in pl a c e of t h e c a l c i um o f a n or thi t e Its .

c h e mi c a l c o m p o s i t i on is b a r i u m a l u m i n i u m s ili ca t e ,

B a O A120 3 2 S iOz
. . H ar d n es s 6
. s p ec ifi c ,g ra vi ty ,

U s u a ll y c ol ou r l e ss .

H ya l op h a n e —H ya l o p h a n e is i n t e r me di a t e in c om po
.

s i t i ou b e t w e e n c e l s i a n a n d o r th o c l a s e it b e i n g a s ili c a t e o f
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER ALOGY
a u l m i n i um , ba r i u m
p ota s s i um K 20, a nd , . BaO . 2 A1
2
0 3
.

8 S iOz . Lik e ort h oc l a s e a n d e s p e c i a ll y , th e a d ul a r i a .

v a r i ety ,
in p h ys i ca l p r op e r t i e s .

O R TH OC L AS E .

C omp — S ili c a te of l
a u mi n i u m and po tas si um ,
Kg O .

A120 3 6 S i0 2 . .

C ry st . Sy s t .
—M on oc li n i c .

C orn . F or ni .
— C rys ta l s c o mmon p r i s ma t i c ma d e , ,
up of

th e p r i s m c li n opi n a c oid b a s a l pl an e a n d may be s om e

, , , , ,

o r th od om es An o r th oc l a se c r ys ta l h a s b e en d e s c r i b e d
.

on p 6 3 . C rys ta l s s ome t i me s fl a tte n e d p ara ll e l to th e

.

c li n o pi n a c o id Twi n n i n g v er y c om mo n on t h r e e l a w s
.

( )
1 C a rl s bad
( )
2 M a n e ba c h
( 3) B a v e no,
T h es e t wi n s , .

a r e s how n in F ig 1 9 o n p 6 4 w h e r e t h e y a r e d is . .
,

c u s se d C r ys t al s may s ome ti me s l a c k th e c li n opi n ac o id

.
,

a s in t h e v a r i e t y a d u l a r i a Al so o c c u rs m a s s iv e a n d . ,

wi th a r ou ghl y l ame ll a r or g r an ul a r s tr uc tur e .

G m P e r f e c t p a r a ll e l to th e b a s a l pl a n e a n d to th e
lea —
c li n o pi n a c o id t h e r e fo re givi n g in s e c t i on t wo s e ts o f
,

c l e a v a g e li n e s at r ig h t a n gl e s ; t h e b as a l c l e a v a g e m o r e

p er fe c t .

Coh a n — Whi t e r e ddi s h whi t e r ed fl e s h c olo ur e d ,

-
, ,
-
,

v a r i ou s s ha d es o f gr e y a n d g r een i s h g r ey ; a l so c ol our -

l ess .

L ustre Vi t r eou s t o p ear l y on c l ea va ge ; se mi t ra n s

.
- -

p a r en t to t ran s l ucen t or op a qu e , .

Fraet C on c h oid a l to un e v e n a n d s pli n tery

.
-
.

H —6 . . Sp Gr . .

Opt . P p ro s .
— Or th o c l a s e o c c u rs in r ect a n gu l ar s ec

t i on s an d a l s o in s h a p el e s s m a s s es in roc k s li c e s U s uall y
,
.

c o l ou r l e s s ; o f t e n c l o u d y by a l t e r a t i o n R e fr a c t iv e i n d e x .

n ea r t h a t o f C a n a d a b a l s a m Cl ea v ag e s t wo a t r igh t .
,

a n gl e s n ot o f t e n s e e n
,
P ol a r i s at i on c ol ou rs s ligh t ly .
,

l ow e r th a n th o se o f q ua r tz gr e ys Twi n n i n g a lw ays , .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
C ryst . Sy st .
-
Tr i c li n i c
gl e b et w een t h e v ert i c al
. Th e an

a n d b r a c h y a x es is n e a r l y b ei n g 89 °
-

C om Fown — C rys t a l s c o mmo n lik e t h os e of or t ho c l as e

.
,

in h a bi t Co m bi n a t i on s o f p r i s m b r a c h ypi n a coid b a s a l
. , ,

pi n ac oid c ommon Twi n s lik e t h o s e of or t ho c l a se a l so

. ,

r e p ea t e d t wi n n i n g on t wo l a w s Th e Albi te la w ,

2 ) Th e P er i c li n e l aw ; t h e di rec t i on s o f t h ese t wo twi n

(
mi n g s ar e n ea r l y a t r igh t a n gl e s t o on e a n o t h er a n d ,

s h ow on th e b asa l pla n e a s
t wo s e t s o f fi n e s t r i a t i on s ,
”
a n d c a use cr os s h a tc h e d “

a pp ea r a n c e b e t w e e n c r o sse d

n i c ol s ( se e b e l o w ) ; a l so ma s

s iv e a n d g r a n u l a r .

C lean Th e u s u a l f e l s p a r .

C l e a v ag e ; p e r f ec t p a r a ll e l t o

t h e b a s a l pl a n e s ligh t l y l e s s ,

p e r f ec t p ara ll el to b ra c h yp in a
FIG 6o — MI C R OC LI N E
. .
~

oo id .
.

B twe d i l
een c ro sse n co s
Colo, ” G r e yi s h
.

w h i te y

pi n ki s h or fl es h r ed a l so br igh t g r een as in Amazo n

, , ,

s to n e .

L ustre Vi tr eo us ; t r a n s p ar en t t o t ran s l uc en t
. .

H .
—6 Sp G r . .

Opt . P p ro s. — Oc c ur s
k s li ces a s s mall s h ap el ess
in r oc

g ra i n s an d pl at es Lik e or th oc l as e in or di n ar y ligh t bu t
.
,

b etw e en c r os s e d n i c ol s s h ow s th e c h a ra c t er i s t i c cross ,
“

h at c h e d a pp ea r a n c e d ue t o t h e r ep ea ted w e dg e s h ap e d -

t wi n s o n t wo l a w s (s e e F ig .

T es ts — D i s t i n g u i s h e d f r om or t h oc l a s e b y th e p r e s e n ce
of s tr i a t i on s on b a s a l pl a n e du e t o t wi nn i n g ,
.

O c c u r r ence — M i c r oc li n e o c c u r s in a c id ig n e o u s r o c k s
.
,

es p e c i a ll y g r an i t e s .

S od a Ort h oc l a s e - — A li n k b e t w e e n or t ho
. c la s e and

a lbi t e a n d t h e r e f o r e c on s is t I n
, g of a l um i n i u m s ili c a t e ,
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES 191

wi th varyi n g a mo u n t of p
ota s s u i m an d di u m s ili c at es
so ,

lik e or t h oc a s el .

l
An or t h oc as e — A . i
p ot a s s i u m f e l s p a r c o n s i s t
s od u m

in g of a l u m i n i u m s ili c a t e w i t h v a r y i n g a m oun t s of s odi u m

,

a n d p ot a s s i u m s ili ca t e s ; t r i c li n i c Tw i n n i n g on C ar l s
.

b a d Albi t e a n d P er i c li n e l aw s c ommon ; lik e a lbi t e

,
.

P ert hit e — P e rt h i t e
. i of
c on s s t s
an i n t er g r o wth o f
o r th o c l a s e a n d a l b i t e t h e a lbi t e b e i n g a r ran g e d in W i s p s
,

par a ll e l t o t h e or th o pi n a c oid .

P L AG I OC LAS E F EL S P A R S : Th e Al b it e
An ort h it e S e rie s .

I n t r od u ct ion — Th e pl gi o l
. a c a s es ar e i s omor p h o u s m ix
t ur e s of t wo m o l ec u l e s molecule— Na zOA l 3
the a lbite .

6 S i0 2 ; an d t h e a nor thite molecule C a O Al 3 6 S iOz ,

If . . .

Ab s tan d s f or t h e a lbi t e mo l e c u l e a n d An f o r t h e an ort h i te

mol ec ul e t h e li m i t s o f t h e v a r i ou s m e m b er s o f t h e a lbi t e
,

an ort h i t e s e r i es m a y be be d e fi n e d a s b e l o w

Albi te Abl An 0 to Ab eAn

O li g oc l a s e Ab fi An 1 t o AhsAn
An d es i n e Ab3 An 1 t o Abl An l .

L a b r ad or i t e Abl An 1 t o A b l An 3 .

B yt o w n i t e Abl An 3 t o Abl An G .

An or t h i t e Abl An 6 to AbOAn l .

Th e pl agi oc l as es s how a c on t i n u ou s g r a d a ti on in th e i r
r o e r t —
ph ys i ca l p p i e s s p ec ifi c g r a vi ty r e fr a c t iv e i n d e x , ,

c r y s t a l for m e t c
,
—
.f r om al b i te t o an or t h i te a s S h ow n in ,

t h e ta bl e on p 1 9 2. .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL O G Y

R e fr ac t i v An gl b w et een Ex t in c t i o n
I d l vg
e e
n ex . C ea a e s. on

A c h ara c te r i s t i c feat u r e o f th e pl agi oc l a s es is t h e i r

r e p e a t e d o r l a me ll a r t wi n n i n g w hi c h is s h o w n b y t h e
,

p r e s en c e of a s et o f fi n e s t r i at i on s on th e b a sal pl a n e .

Th i s se r v es to di s t i n g u i s h t h e m f rom o r th oc l a se Th e s e .

F IG . 61 .
—L A M ELLA R TW I N N I NG IN P LAGI OC LASE .

Bet wee n c ro ss e d n ico ls .

re p eat ed t wi n n i n g s a re on t wo l a w s ( 1 ) Th e a l b i te la w ,

t wi n pl a n e b r a c h ypi n a c o id ; ( 2 ) p er i c li n e la w t wi n a xi s
, , ,

th e m a c r o a xi s
-
Th e s e two t yp es o f t wi n s a r e s om e t i m e s
.

s ee n in t h e sa m e c r ys t a l .

Op t i ca l P r op e rt i es of P l ag i oc l a s e F e l s p a r s ,

P l agi oc l as e f e l s par s o c c u r a s four s id e d u s u a ll y e l on g a ted

-
, ,

s e c t i o n s givi n g l ow p o l a r i s a t i on c o l o u r s
,
Th e y a r e d is .

t in gu is h e d f r o m o r th oc l a s e by t h e i r l a m e ll a r t wi n n i n g .

It is di ffi c u l t a c c u r a t e l y to di ff e r e n t i a te b e t w e en t h e
s e v era l v a r i e t i e s o f pl a gi oc l a s e un d e r t h e m i c roscop e ,

b u t s e v e r a l wo r ki n g r u l e s a r e wo r th y o f c on s id e r a t i on .
1 94 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
s lig htl y l o w e r th an t h os e o f q ua r tz low g reys B e tw ee n , .

c r o s s e d n i c ol s t w i n n i n g s h ow s a s t wo s ets of fi n e l a m e ll ae
,

t h a t e x t i n g u i s h a t di ff e r e n t i n s ta n t s
Tes ts — B e for e t h e bl owpip e f u ses wi th di ff i c u l ty , ,

c o l o u r i n g t h e fl a m e y e ll o w .

Va rieties— Aventur ine Th e s e two v a r i et i e s o c c ur a s in

M oonstone o r th o c l a s e .

P er icline A whi t e s e m i o p a q ue v ar i e ty occ urr i n g in

.
- -

s o me wh at l a r g e c r ys ta l s e l on g a t e d a l on g t h e b a xi s ,
.

P er ister ite —A v a r i e ty wi t h pl a y o f c olo u r s lik e l a b r a

.

d or ite and whi c h of ten con ta i n s di ss e m i n ated

gr a i n s of qu a r tz .

C leoelandite — A l a m e ll a r v a r i ety of whi t e a l b i t e

. .

O cc u r r ence — Al b i t e oc c u r s in th e a c id a n d i n t e r me di a t e
.

ign e ous roc k s g ra n i t e sye n i t e a n d di or i te a n d th e i r

-

, , ,

h ypa bys sa l a n d v ol c an i c r e p r e s en ta t iv e s S ome t i m e s .

sec o n d a ry in l a v a s e t c Al so a s f ra g m e n ts in a r k o s e s
, .

a n d f e l s p a t hi c sa n d s t o n e s .

O LI G OC L AS E .

Cornp .
—Ab6 An 1 t o Ab3 An 1 , wh e re Ab = Na zO AlZO3 . .

6 S iOz, a nd An : C a O Al.
3
. 2 S iO
z .

C ryst Sy st — Tr i c li n i c
. . .

C oin For m — C r ys ta l s n o t c om mo n An gl e b e tw e en
. .

b a s a l pi n a c o id a n d b ra c h ypi n aco id 8 6 U s u a ll y
°

o c c ur s m a s s iv e a n d C l e a v a bl e Twi n n i n g s h own .

as a s er i e s of fi n e s t r i a t i on s o n t h e b a sa l c l ea v a g e
pl a n e .

C lea o — P er f ec t p a ra ll e l t o t h e b a s a l pi n ac o id
.

s ligh t l y l e s s p e r fe c t p a ra ll e l t o t h e b r ac h pi n ac o id
y
Colour — G r eyi s h gr e en i s h yell owi s h whi te occ a s i on
.
, , , ,

a ll y wi t h a r e ddi s h t i n g e .

L rus t e — R e s i n ou s on c l e a v a g e pl a n e s vi tr eou s o r
.
,

p ear l y ; tr a n s l uc en t on e dg e s W h e n w ea t h e r ed .
,

d u ll .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES
F r aet .
—C on c h oid a l , un e ven .

H .
—
6 Sp G7 . .

Opt . P p ro s .
— As f or a lbi t e R e f r a c tiv e in dex
E x i n c t i on on th e b as al pi n a co id i
t ( )
°
154 2 . 00 1 s

Tests — F u s e s mor e eas ily t h a n o r th oc l a se an d a lbi te

.
,

a n d fo r ms a c l ea r gl a s s i n sol u bl e in a c id s .

Occur rence — Oligoc l a se o c c u r s a s a n or igi n a l m i n era l

.

in i n t er me di a te ig n eou s roc k s — syen i t e s di or i t es a n d , ,

t h e i r d y k e a n d v o l c an i c r e p r e s e n ta t iv es Ac c o m p a n i e s .

or t hoc l as e in m a n y g r an it es .

AN D ES I NE .

Comp —AbsAn 1 .
to Ab l An l , wh er e Ab al bit e mo l e =

c ul e ,
and An an or t h it e m olc
=
le ,
C a O A120 3 . . 2 S i0
2
.

C ry st . Sy st —Tr i c li n i c
. .

Co m . F or m—
C ry s t a l s n ot c omm on Th e an gl e . be
t w een t h e c lin o pi n ac o id a n d t h e ba sa l pl a n e is 8 6
°

U s ua ll y oc c ur s ma ss iv e an d C l ea v a b l e .

Gleam—U s u a l f e l s p ar c l ea v ag e ; pe r f e c t b a sa l an d

r a t h e r l e s s pe r f ec t b r a c h ypi n a c o id a l c l e a v a g e s .

Colou r — W h i te or g r ey . .

L ustre —S u b vi treou s to p ea r l y
. .

H — —6 Sp G r
.
5 . . .

Opt . P r op s — As . f or a lbi t e R e fr ac t iv e in de x
l y th a t o f n ea r b a l sa m . Ex t i n g u i s h es on th e
b a s a l pi n a c o id ( 0 0 1 ) a t S h o w s fin e t w i n l a m e ll ae
b et we en c r os s e d n i c ol s .

O ccur r ence — Oc c urs as a p r i ma r y m i n e r a l in i n ter

m e di at e ign eou s ro c k s di or i te s
, a nd a n d es i te s .

LA B RA D OR I TE .

C omp — Ab l An 1 to Abl An 3 , wh e r e Ab =
a l bi t e mol e
c ule Na g O A120 3
, . . 6 S i O2 , an d An = a n or t h i t e mo l e c u le ,

C a O Al .

3
. 2 S iO
g
.
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
C ry st . Sy st .
—Tr i c li n i c .

C om . Fown — C r ys t a l s u n c o mmo n ;
i n ta b u l ar u sua ll y th
c r ys t a l s fl a t t e n e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e b r a c h pi n a c o id A n gl e
y .

b et wee n b a s a l pl a n e an d b r a c h ypi n ac oid 86 U s u a ll y

°

o c c u r s m a s s iv e c r ys t a lli n e a n d C l e a v a bl e
, ,
.

C lea v — U s u a l f e l s p a r c l e a v a g e
. p e r f ec t p ar a ll e l to
b a sa l pl a n e l e s s p er fec t p a ra ll e l to b r a c h ypi n a c oid
, .

C olour —G r ey d ar k as h y b r ow n g r ee n r e ddi sh ra r e l y
.
, , , , ,

c o l o u r l ess U s ua ll y s h ow s a r i c h pl a y o f c ol ou rs bl ue
.
,

a n d g r e e n g e n e r a ll y p r e d o m i n a t i n g Th i s s h ow o f c ol ou r .

is n ot a l wa ys s ee n .

L ustre — Vi tr eous i n c li n i n g t o p ea r l y on t h e m os t
.
,

p e r fec t c l ea vag e ; s u b vi tr eou s or s u b res in ous on oth e r

s u r f ac e s Tr a n s l u c e n t b u t o n l y on fi n e e dg e s
.
,
.

Fraet —I m p er fec tl y c on c h oid al u n e v e n S pli n tery a n d

.
, , ,

b r i ttl e .

H — 6 Sp G —2 6
-
. r .
7 . .

Opt P rop s — Lik e t h os e o f a l b i te (go ) Twi n s us ua ll y

. .

in b roa d l a m e ll ae R e fr a c t iv e i n d e x , 1 5 7 ; e x t i n c t i on ,
.
'

17
°
b
ona sa l pi n a c o id .

Tes ts — F u s es r a t h er m or e e as il y th an or th oc l a se o r
Olig o c l as e t o a c o l o u r l e s s gl a ss P owd er e d l a b ra d or i te .

is s o l u b l e in h ot h yd r oc h l or i c ac id .

Occur rence — Oc c u r s a s a p r i ma r y c on s t i t u e n t of b a s i c
.

ig neou s r oc k s— g a bb ro d o l er i te a n d ba s a l t , , .

BY TOW N ITE .

A pl a gi oc l as e wh o se c om p os i t i on is r e p r ese n te d by .

Ab l An 3 t o Ab l An 6 S p e c ifi c g r a vi ty is 2 7 3 3 r e fr a c t iv e
.

index ,
1 577 ; an d e x t i n c t i on a n gl e , 2
°
4 on b a sa l pi n ac oid .

AN O R TH I TE .

C oin —Ab An to Ab An , wh er e Ab lbi te mol ec u l e

p .
1 6 O l
a ,

N a 20 Al 3 6 S iO2
. . . an d An a n or t h i te m ol ec u l e C a O , .

AIZO3 2 S i0 2
. .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
b l en d e is i n di ca te d in t h e i n tr od uc t i on to th e Am phi bo l es ,
p . 20 5 .

Th e Py ox en e r s may be divid e d i n to th e foll owi n g

g r ou p s
I . Ort h or h o mb ic P yr ox en es .

Ensta tite M g O S iOz , . .

B r onz ite,
Hyper s thene
2 . M o n oc l in ic P yr ox e n es .

( ) N
a o n Al u m i n o-
us
:

D iop side,
M a lacolite S ahlite H edenbu rgite S chefier ite
’

, , , ,

j fi
'
e ersonite .

D ia llage (in part ) .

b
( ) Al u m i n o u s

Augite, wi t h

D iallag e ( in p a r t) .

A cinite, E ger ine, Na F e ( S iO3) 2 .

Spodumene, L iAl( S iO s ) 2 .

j ad eite, Na Al( S iO3) 2 .

Wollastonite , C a O S iOz . .

3 . Tr ic l in ic P yr ox e n es .

H ior tda hlite B a bing tonite

, .

OR TH OR H O B I C P Y R OX EN ES
M - .

I n t r od uct io n — Th e ort h or h o m bi c p yro x e n es

. a re

i d by t h r ee c hi e f m i n e r a l s : en s tat i t e b ron
c h a r a c t e r se ,

zi t e a n d h yp e r s t h en e t h e p rop er ti es of whi c h s h o w
, ,

gr a d a t i on s f rom on e t o a n oth e r En stat i t e c on ta i n s n o .

i r on o xid e b r on zi te u p to 1 5 p e r c e n t h yp e r sth en e u p
,
.
,

t o 30 p e r c e n t Th e pl eoc h ro i s m b o d y c ol ou r r e f r a c t iv e
.
, ,
 D ES C RI PTI O N OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES I gg

i n d e x a n d p o l a r i s a t i on
,
l
c o ou r s a ll i n c r ea s e f r o m e n sta

t i t e t o h yp e r s t h e n e .

EN S TATI TE .

C omp — S ilic a t e of m agn e s i u m M g O S iO2 , . .

Cry st Sy st — Ort h or h om bi c
. . .

C om F or m.
— S t o u t p r i s ma t i c c ry s ta l s s h o wi n g p r i s m ,

a n d m a c r o a n d b r a c h yp in ac o id s U s u a ll y oc c u r s ma s s iv e .

a n d l a m e ll a r .

C lean —R a th e r p e r fec t pa ral l e l to th e p ri s m gi vi n g t wo ,

s e t s o f c l ea v a g e li n e s w h i c h i n t e r s e c t a t n ea r l y
,

Colo ur — G r e y g r e en b r own ye ll ow an d o f t en c ol ou r
.
, , , ,

l es s .

L ustre Vi t reous p ear l y so me t i m e s fi b rou s looki n g

.
-
, ,
-

on c l ea v a g e s u b t r a n s l u ce n t t o o p a q u e .

H . Sp G r
. .

Opt Pr op s — Oc c u r s
. ligh t c o l ou r e d g r ai n s an d c rys tal
as -

s e c t i o n s in r oc k s li c e s c o l o u r l e s s t o p a l e gr ee n Tr an s .

v e r s e s ec ti on s of c ry s ta l s s h ow t wo s e t s of c l ea v ag es a t
9 0
°
l on gi t u di n a l s e c t io n s s h o w o n e s e t o n l y A ll .

s ec t i on s giv e s t r a ig h t e x t i n c t i o n po l a r i s at io n c ol ou r s ,

l ow a b o u t t h o s e o f q u a r t z
,
P l eoc h roi s m w e ak al ter s .

i n to s e r p e n t i n e .

Occur r ence — En s t a t i t e o c c u r s a s a p r i m ar y c on s t i t u en t
.

o f th e i n t e r m e di a t e a n d b as i c ign e o us r oc k s as in t h e ,

C h evi ot an d es i t e W h in s ill d o l er i t e a n d in s er p e n t i n e a n d
,

p e r id ot i t e s a s in th e Ki m b e r l ey bl u e g r oun d
, .

B R ONZ I TE .

Br o zi n te an i
b ear i n g v ar i e ty o f e n s tati t e c on
is r on -
,

t a in in g u p t o 1 5 p er c e n t o f i r on o x id e an d is t h e r e f or e .
,

It u s u a ll y h a s a b r on z e lik e or p ea r l y -

m et a lli c l u s tr e an d is f oli a t e d ,
It is v e ry in f u s ibl e .
,

b e i n g t h e m o st i n f us ibl e g r a d e in Von Kobe l s S c al e o f ’

20 0 EL E M EN TS OF M I NER AL OG Y
F u i b ili ty
s , l y be r oun d e d on t h e e dg e s o f
6, an d c an on

fi n e s pli n t er s in th e bl ow pip e fl a m e It s o p t i c a l p r o p e r .

t i e s a r e i n t e r m e di a t e b e t w e e n t h os e o f e n s t at i t e a n d
h yp e rs th e n e .

HY P ER S TH ENE .

C orup —S ili ca te of i r on an d mag n es i u m ( F e M g) O S iOz

.
, , . .

Cry st Sy st Or t h orh om bi c
. . .

Corn Fown — U s u a ll y oc c u r s foli at e d a n d ma s s iv e

. .

ea —
C n P r i s m a t i c a n d a l s o p a ra ll e l t o t h e br a c h yp in a
l ,

c o id givi n g th r ee s e ts o f c l ea v a g e li n e s in tra n s
v e r s e s e c t i on s .

C olour B row n i s h g r een g r eyi s h or gr ee n i s h b l ac k

.
- -

,
-
,

b r ow n s o met i me s a l mos t bl ac k
,
.

L ustre R a t h e r m e ta lli c
. S c hill e r i s a t io n is v e r y .

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h p e r s th e n e a n d is p r o b a b l d u e t o t h e
y y ,

p r e sen c e of m i n u t e i r on o xid e s ca l e s ar r an g e d in p a ra ll e l
pl an e s Tra n s l u c en t t o op a q u e
. .

F ract —U n e v e n b r i t tl e
. .

H — 5 —6. . S p Gr
. .

Opt . P p ro s .
—
H yp e r sth en e is r ec ogn i s ed in t hi n s ec t i on s
by it s w e ll m a r k e d pl eoc h r o i s m in g r ee n s t o pi n k s P o l a r i
-
.

s a t i on c o l o u r s a n d r e f r a c t iv e i n d e x h ig h er t h a n t h o s e o f

e n s ta t i t e .

Test s —B e for e t h e bl owpip e f u s e s t o a bl ac k e n a m e l

.
, ,

a n d o n c h a r c o a l to a m a g n e t i c m a s s .

Occur r ence Occ u r s in n or i t es a n d oth e r b as i c r oc k s

.
-
,

a n d a l so in p yro x e n e g r a n u li t e s c h ar n o c ki t e s e t c , , .

M ON OC LI N I C P Y R OX ENES .

A U G I TE .

C omp — S ili c at e o f c a l c i um , m ag n e s i u m, i r on , an d

al umin iu m C a M g( S iO ) 3 wi t h
, z ,

C omp os i t i on v a r i a bl e .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
m em b er s ,
s uc h as di o r i te and gab b ro a sol as grain s in
the pyr o x e n e g ran uli t e s .

D iop s id e A n on a l u m i n o us p yr o x e n e o c c u rr i n g in
.
- -
,

whi t e or g r een p r i s ma t i c c r ys ta l s a n d g r a n u l a r m a s s e s ;
a c a l c i u m m a g n e s i u m s ili c a t e wi t h a li tt l e i r on In t hi n .

s ec t i o n c o l ou r l e s s .

M a l aco l it e —A . l
v a r i e ty o f p yr ox en e ;
n on -a u m n o u s i
w h i t e a n d v a r i ou s s h a d es o f ye ll ow a n d p a l e g r ee n ;
s o m e t i m e s tr a n s p a r en t a n d c o l o u r l es s .

S a h l it e —A n o n -a u l m i n ou s p yrox en e of a m or e di n g y
,

g r e e n c ol o u r l e s s ,
l u str e a n d c oa rs er s t ru c t u r e th an
di op s id e .

C occo l it e — A g ra n ul a r
.
, l
n on - a u m n o u s i p yr o x e n e ,
of a

whi te or g r een co lo ur .

He d e nbu rg it e —A . n on - a u l mi nou s p yr ox e n e , c on s i st
in g of a c a c u m l i i r on s ili cate , o c c u r r i n g in bl a c k c r ys ta l s

l
an d a s o in l a m e ll ae .

S c h e ff e r it e — A n on .
-
a u l m i n ous p yr o x en e ,
c on s s t n i i g of
i r on ma n ga n es e s ili c a te bl a c k in c ol ou r .

J eff e r s on it e — A . n o n -a u l m i n ou s ma n g a n e s e zi n c
p yr o x e n e .

D ia l l ag e — A for m o f di op s id e or a u gi t e wh i c h oc c u r s
.
,

in l a m e ll ar or in f o li a t ed m a s s e s s om e t i m es wi t h a ,

me ta lli c or b ra s s y l u s tr e ; s o m e t i m es fi b r ou s C o l ou r .
,

g ra ss g reen b row n or gr ey It h a s a p ar t i n g p a r a ll e l to
-
, , .

t h e b a sa l pl an e is b r i t t l e a n d t r a n s l u c en t
, It is c h a r a c .

t er is tic o f g a bb r os a n d c a n be r ecog n i se d u n d e r t h e
,

m i c r os cop e b y t h e fo li at i on p a r a ll e l t o t h e b a s a l pl an e ,

s h owi n g a s fi n e p a r a ll e l li n e s It s op t i c a l p r op e r t i e s a r e .

t ho s e o f a ug i t e .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 20 3

AC M I TE ZEG ER I N E ,
.

C omp —S ili c ate of i r on a n d s odi u m NazO F ezO3 4 S iOz ,

. . .

Cry st Sy st —M o n oc li n i c
. . .

C orn F or m . L on g p r i s ma t i c c r ys ta l s wi th s h a rp t er
.
-
,

m in at ion s .

C lean —P r i s mati c .

Colour —U s ua ll y b row n s ometi me s g r een

.
, .

L ustr e —Vi treou s ; s ub tr an s p ar e n t to Op a q ue

. .

H —6 . Sp G ri .

Opt Pr ops —As f or a u gi t e b u t s h owi n g

. . , pl eoc h r oi s m in
g r ee n s an d b r ow n s .

Occurrence . O c c urs in so d a r i c h ig n eous r o c k s

-
,
s uc h as

ne p h eli n e -
s ye n i te p h on oli t e
, , etc .

S P O D U M EN E .

Comp — S ili c a te of li t hi um an d a l u m i n i u m , L I O AIZO3 . .

S i
4 02 .

Cryst . Sy st — M o n oc li n i c
. .

C om . F or m — S o m e t i mes in
l ar g e c ryst a l s mad e up of
pi n acoid s d ome s an d th e p r i s m ; a l so foun d ma s s iv e
, ,

a n d wi t h b r o a d c l ea v a g e s ur fac e s

C lea n —P er f ec t p ara ll e l to p r i s m a l s o to t h e or th o
.

pi n a c oid .

Colour — G r eyi s h or g r ee ni s h
. .

L ustr e — P e ar l y b ut vi tr eo u s on fra c t ure d s urfa c es

.
, .

Tr an s l uc e n t t o s u b t r a n s l u c en t .

H .
—7 Sp G r . . .

Tests — B e fo r e t h e b l owpip e s w e ll s u p an d bec o m e s

.
,

op aq u e C ol ours t h e fl a me r ed d u e t o li t h i u m , if n ot
. ,

h ea t e d too m uc h Not a c ted u p on by a c id s . .

Var iety — H iddenite — An e me r a ld g r een v a r i e ty . .

Occurrence —Oc c ur s . l a r g e c rys t al s in g ran i t e

as , as at

P eter h ea d Killi n ey , , H u n t i n g t on M a i n e .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
J A D EI TE .

A s ili c ate di u m a n d a l u mi n i u m c or r es p on di n g t o
of so ,

s p o d um e n e ; u s u a l ly m a s s iv e o f a g r ee n c o lo u r H a r dn e s s
,
, .
,

—7 ; s p e c ifi c g r avi ty ,

W OLL AS TO N I TE Ta b u l ar S p ar .

Comp — C a l c i um s ili cate C a O S i0 2 . . .

C ry st S ys t —M o n oc li n i c
. . .

Com F own .
— C rys ta l s u sua ll y ta b u l a r ; c om bi n ati on s of
pi n a c oid s d omes an d p r i s ms Al s o fou n d m as s iv e a n d
, , .

c l e a v a b l e wi t h a l on g fi b r o u s o r c ol u mn a r s t r u c t u r e t h e
, ,

fib r es b e i ng e i th er p a ra ll e l or i n ter l ac e d .

C lean P er fe c t pa r a ll e l to th e orth opi nac oid

-
.

Colour W h i te g re y s ome t i m e s ye ll owi s h re ddi s h or

.
-
, , , ,

b r ow n i sh .

L ustr e — Vi treou s r a t her p ear l y on c l ea v age s ur fa c es ;

.

s u b t r a n s p a ren t t o t ra n s l uc e n t .

H .
—5 Sp Gr . . .

Te s
s t — B e fore t h e b l o wpip e , f u s es ea s il y on th e e dg e s ;
g e l ati n i se s wi th h yd r oc hl or i c a c id .

Occ r u r ence — O c c urs in g r an i t e n e a r th e j u n c t i on s a l so

.
,

a s t h e p r o d u c t o f m e t a m or p h i s m o f i m p ur e li m e s ton e s in ,

w h i c h it is a s s oc i at e d wi th g r o s s u l ar di op s id e e tc ; a l s o , ,

in b a s a l t s .

TR I C LI N I C P Y R OX ENES .

H iort d a h l it e —A s ili c a te o f di um c a l c i um a n d
. so , ,

zi r c on i um Oc c ur s in yell ow t r i c li n i c c rys tal s

. .

B ab ingt on it e — A s ili c ate of c a l c i um i r on a n d man

.
, ,

g a n e s e Oc c ur s in bl a c k t r i c li n i c c rys t a l s
. .

R h od on it e — A m a n g a n e se s ili c a t e s om et i m e s c l a s s ed
.
,

wi th t h e p yro x e n e s (s ee p
TH E A M P H I B O L ES .

I n t r od u c t i o n .
;
-
Th e Am p h ib ol e g r ou p , l Ike th e
p yro x en e s i n cl ud e s,
se v er a l m i ne r al s , wh o se p h ys i c a l
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER ALO G Y
Al u m i n o us .

H or nblende ,
wi t h
Na zO A120 3 4 S iO2 . . an d

Glaucop hane,
R iebeckite,
C rocidolite .

Arf oedsonite .

3 . Tr icl in ic .

Cossyrite . S ili c a t e of Na , F e Ti , .

OR TH OR H OM BI C A MP H I B OL ES .

An t h op hyll it e .
— An or t h o r h om bi c a m phi b o l e c orr e

s p on d in g to en s t a t i te -
h yp er s th e n e a m on g the p yr ox en es ,

and b e i n g a s ili ca te of m a gn es i u m a n d i r on ,

S iOz C olo ur s h a d e s of b r ow n Of t en in a gg r e ga te s
.
,
.

of p r i s ma t i c n e e dl es a n d in r a di a t i n g fib r es S p e c ifi c .

g ra vi ty 3 ,
h ar dn e s s —6 Oc c u r s a s a mi n er al , .

o f m e ta mor phi c or igi n in g n e i ss e s a n d s c h i s t s .

M O NOC LI N I C A M P H I B O L ES .

H O R N BL EN D E .

C oInp —Va r i a bl e
. . S ili c a t e
m magn e s i um a n d of ca c u l i ,

i r on tog e th e r w i th s ili c a te o f a l u mi n i u m ; s odi um a n d

,

p ota s s i um a l so p r e se n t Th e foll ow i n g is a r ou gh .

ty pi c a l ana l ys i s :
S iOz, 4 0 p e r c e nt C a O, 1 0 p e r c en t . .

A120 , ” 1 2 p e r c e n t M g O, 1 3 p e r c e n t ; F e zOs , 7 p er c e n t ;
. . .

F e O, 1 4 p e r c e n t K 20 a n d Na zO, 4 p er c e n t
. .

C ryst . Sy st .
-
M on oc li n i c .

C oIn . m —C r ys ta l s c om m on
For P r i s ma t i c , c om bi n a .

t i on o f p r i s m c li n o pi n a c o id C li n o d o m e , a n d h e m ior th o
, ,

d ome ( s e e F ig An gl e o f p r Is m n ea r ly
. Twi n n e d
o n th e or t h o pi n a c o id c a u s i n g t h e fo u r C li n o d om e fa c e s t o
,

co me t o t h e t op a n d t h e t wo o r t h o d om e f ac e s t o b e a t
,
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 20 7

the bo ttom o f t h e c r ys ta l a n d h e n c e t h e s e t wi n s a r e ,

eas il y r e co g n i s e d Al so oc c u r s in l o n g bl a d e lik e for m s

.
-
,

a n d m a s s iv e a n d g ra n u l a r .

C lea v —P a r a ll e l t o t h e p r i s m p r od u c i n g t wo s e t s o f
. ,

c l e a v ag e l i n es m eet i n g at n ea r l y 1 2 0 ( s e e F ig an d
°
.
,

s e e n in a t r a n s v e r s e s ec t i on .

Colour — B l a c k or gr e e n i s h bl a c k
.
,
-
.

L ustr e — Vi tr eous tra n s p ar en t r a r e l y ; t ra n s l uc e n t to

.

op a q u e .

Fr act — U n ev en
. .

H — 5 —6 Sp Gr —
. . . .
3

F IG . 64 — . H R NB O L EN DE . F IG . 65 .
— H OR NB LEN D E
( C linop in a c oid on t he r ig /Lt .
) TR A N S V ER SE S ECT ION .

Opt . P p ro s —
C ol o ur in t hi n s ec t i on g re e n or b r o wn , ,

( b a s a l t i c h o rn bl e n d e ) T r a n s v e r s e s e c t i o n s .s ix s id e d -
,

wi t h t wo s et s o f c l e a v a g e s L on gi t u di n a l s e c t i on s wi t h .

on e s e t o f c l ea v a g e li n e s Th e s e l a tter s e c t i on s e x t in .

gu i s h a t a s mal l a n gl e u p t o t o t hi s c l ea v ag e ,

(fc. A u gi t e ) P l e oc h.r o i c in s h a d e s o f b r o w n a n d g r e e n .

Tests — P hys i ca l p r op er t i e s di s t i n c tiv e B e f ore t h e .

bl owpip e f us es ea s il y for m i n g a ma g n e t i c gl o b u l e
, , .

Va rieties— Edenite Lig h t c ol ou r e d h orn bl en d e

.
- -
.

Pargasite Da r k c ol o ur e d h orn b l e n d e
.
- -
.

Occur r ence — As a p r i m a r y m i n e r a l in a c id an d in t e r
.

m e di a t e i gn eo u s r o c k s — g r a n i t e s s y en i t e s di or i t e s e t c ; , , , .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER A L O G Y
m or e r a r e l y in b a s i c r oc k s pi c r i t e , e t c Al s o a s a m i n e ra l
, .

o f m e ta m o r p h i c o r igi n in g n e i s s e s a n d s c hi s t s ; in s o m e

ca s e s th e h o rn b l e n d e for m s p r a c t i c a ll y th e wh o l e o f t h e

r oc k wh i c h
,
ll e d hornblende r ock
is t h e n ca .

— oin —
Tr e mo it e C p S ili c a te o f c a l c i u m a n d ma g
l .

n es iu m C a O 3 M g O 4 S iOz
, . Oc c ur s in whi t e o r d a r k
. .

g r ey c rys ta l s o f t e n l on g bl a d e lik e ; a l s o c ol umn ar

,
-
,

fi b r o u s c o m p a c t a n d g r a n u l a r ; s om e t i m e s t r a n s p a r e n t
, ,

a n d c o l ou r l es s H a r d n e s s 5—6 ; s p e c ifi c g r a vi t y
.
, ,

F ou n d in s c hi sts a t Tr emol a in S wi tz erl an d a n d e l s e , ,

wh er e .

Ac tin ol it e —A s ili c a te of c a l c i u m m agn e s i u m an d

.

i r on ,
C om p r i s e s t h e gl a s s y a n d
fib ro us va r i e ti e s of a m p h ib ol e G en e ra ll y o c c u r s in l on g . ,

s l en d er gl as s y p r i s ms o f gr een i s h c olo ur
, ,
S p ec ifi c .

g ra vi ty 3 Oc c u r s in s c h i s t s .

A s b e s t os .
—
I n c l ud e s t h e fi br o us va r i e t i e s o f a m phi
b ol e Th e fib r e s a r e gen er a ll y v e ry l on g fi n e fl e xibl e
.
, , ,

a n d ea s il
y s e p a r a t e d b y t h e fi n g e r s T h e a n c i en ts a l s o .

c a ll e d it a m i a n t h us n d e fi le d i ll i n t o t h e ea s e
( u ) n a u s o ,

wi t h w h i c h c l o th w ov e n f r om it wa s c l ea n e d by t h ro w
, ,

in g it i n t o t h e fi r e Th e n a m e a m i an th u s is n ow
.

r e s t r i c te d t o t h e m ore s ilk ki n ds T h e t e r m as b e s tos ,

y .

in t h e s tr i c t e s t s e n se is c on fi n e d to t h e fib r ou s for m s o f
,

a c t i n o li t e ; bu t c o mme r c i a l a s b e s to s i n c l u d es a l s o fib ro u s

f or ms o f ser p en t i n e an e x a mpl e b e i n g th e C a n a di a n
,

as b e s to s p .

C om me r c ia l As b es t os . U n d er th e t er m co m
mer c ia l as b es t os i n c l u d e d t h r e e m i n e r a l g r ou p s :
are

1 An th op h yllit e g r o u p .

2 H orn bl en d e gr ou p — tr e moli t e a s b e s tos moun ta i n

.
, ,

l ea th e r c r oc id oli t e et c
, , .

3 S e r p e n t i n e g r o u p — pi c ro li te c h r s o t il e t a l c
.
y , , .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
un d er th e m i c ros c op e a pp ea r s as s ma ll b row n i
s ec t on s

i n ten s e l y pl eo ch roi c .

TH E M I C AS .

I nt r od u ct ion ,
-
M i ca s
di s t i n g u i s h e d by a p e r f e c t
are

bas a l c l ea vag e whi c h c a u s e s th e m t o s pli t u p i n to thi n

,

e l a s t i c pl a t e s a n d by t h e i r s pl e n d en t p ea r l y
, s o me wh a t ,

m e ta lli c l u s t re ,
Th e y a ll c r ys talli se in th e m on oc li n i c
.

s ys t e m bu t t h e for m s a pp r o xi m a t e t o t h os e of th e
,

h ex ago n a l s ys te m .

In c om p os i t i on t h ey a r e s ili c a t e s of a l u m i n i u m p ota s ,

s i um , a n d h yd r og en t og e t h e r w i th i ron
, m agn es i um , ,

s odi u m a n d li t hi um
, .

Wh en a bl un t s teel p u n c h is pl ac e d on a c l ea v e d pl a te
of m i ca a n d ligh t l y s t r uc k
,
a s ma ll s ix r a y e d s t ar is,
-

p r od uc e d Th e t h r ee c r a c k s w h i c h c on st i t ut e t h ese s tars
.

h av e a c o n s tan t r e l at io n t o th e f or m of th e c rys ta l f rom

whi c h th e pl a t e is c l ea v e d a n d on e of th e c rac k s is a lways ,

in th e di re c t i on of t h e pl a n e of symm e try M i c a s giv e a

‘

b i a xi a l i n ter f er en ce figur e in c on v e rg en t pol ar i s e d ligh t ,

and b t h e o r i e n ta t i o n o f t h i s fig u r e wi t h r e g a r d t o t h e
, y
pl an e of sym m et r y a s r e v ea l e d by th e p e r c u s s i on fig u r e
, ,

th ey a re divid e d u p i n t o t wo g r ou p s I n t h e fi r s t o f t h e s e .

g r ou p s th e M u s covi te s th e li n e j oi n i n g th e e ye s of
, ,
”

t h e i n t e r f er e n c e fig ur e is n or m a l t o t h e pl a n e o f s y m
m etr y a n d in t h e secon d g r ou p t h e B i ot i tes t hi s li n e
, , ,

is in t h e pl a n e of s ymm e try
H en c e th e f oll owi n g C l as s ifi c at io n is p os s i b l e

( a
) Th e M u s covit es .

M uscovite— p ota s s i um m i c a whi t e m i ca , .

P a r agonite — s odi u m m i c a
L ep idolite—li th i u m p ot as s i um
.

mi c a .
 D ES C RI PTI O N OF MI NER AL S P EC I ES 211

b
( ) Th e B iot it es .

B iotite— i r on
m a gn e s i u m m i c a bl a c k m i c a , .

Z innwa ldi te— li t h i u m bi o t i t e .

P hlogopite— mag n es i um m i ca .

Th e s pec ifi c gr a vi ty o f t h e m i c a s r an g e s f r o m 2 7 to
an d v e r ag e h ar d n es s is
th e a

Th e m i ca s d iffe r f r o m th e c hl or i t e s a n d ot h er m i c a c e o us
m i n e r al s in t h e a lk a li e s w h i c h th ey c on t a i n an d in t h e
, ,

e l a s t i c i ty o f t h e i r c l e avag e fl a k e s .

M U S C OV I TE : M us covy Gl as s , C ommon M ic a ,

P ot a s h M ica .

Comp — S ili c ate o f a l um i n i um po ta s s i u m , , an d h ydr og en ,

C ry st — M on o c li n i c ,
. Sy st . p s e u d o h e x a g on a l
-
.

C om For m — U s ua ll y in
. s i x s id e d -
ta b ul a r c rys ta l s .

Al s o in l a r g e pl a tes ; a l s o m ass iv e a n d in di s se m i n a t e d
,

s c al e s .

C lean — Ex tr e m e l y pe r fec t p a ra ll e l t o th e bas a l pi n a

c o ld l ar g e a n d v e r y t hi n la mi n a e b e i n g e as il s e pa t d
, y r a e .

Th e s e l a m i u m a r e fl e xi b l e an d el as t i c ( cf C h l or i t e .
,

p . W h en h e ld up t o a b r igh t ligh t t h es e l ami n ae

o f t en e xhi b i t a s t e r i s m s ta r lik e rays o f lig h t b e i n g t ra n s
,
-

m itt e d .

Colour — W h i t e bl a c k b r o wn
.
, , , y e ll ow , an d gr ee n .

r —
L ust e M or e or l e s s pe a r l y
. . Tr a n s p a r e n t to tra n s
l u c en t .

H —2 . Sp Gr
. .

Opt . P p ro s — Oc c u r s
p e l es s c o l o u r l e s s fl a k e s
as sha , ,

th e v e r t i c a l s e c t i on s s h owi n g t h e p e r f e c t b a s a l c l ea v ag e .

R e f r a c t iv e i n d e x h igh e r t h a n t ha t o f b al sa m P ol ar i sa .

t i on c o l o ur s v er y h ig h d e li c a t e pi n k s a n d g r e e n s
, .

Tes ts — B e f or e th e bl owpip e w h i t e n s an d fu s es on l y on
,

t hi n e dg e s Not d e c o m p os e d b y a c id s
. Y i e ld s w a te r in .

t h e c l os e d t u b e .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
V ia r eties — S er icite, D a mour ite, Gilber tite — S e c on d a ry .

mi c a s re s ul t i n g f ro m th e a l te r a t i on
, of nu me r o u s r oc k
f orm i n g m i n e ra l s .

Occur rence —M u s co vi t e oc c u r s a s a n
. igi n a l c on s t i tu e n t or

o f a c id ig n e ou s r o c k s g r a n i t e s W o r k a bl e q ua n t i t i e s o f
, .

m u s c ovi t e oc c u r in p e g m a t i t e s a s a t N e ll or e I n di a an d , , ,

t h e Ea s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s C a n a d a e t c M u s c ovi t e is a, ,
.

c o mm on c o n s t i t u e n t o f m e t a m or p h i c r o c k s g n e i s s e s a n d , ,

m i c a s c h i s ts Th e s e c on d a r y m i c a s o c c u r a s th e a l t er a
.

t i on p r o d u c t s o f f e l s p a r t o p a z e tc M u s c ovi t e is a v e ry
, , .

c om m o n c o n s t i tue n t of d e tr i ta l s e di m en ta ry r oc k s ,

m i c a c eou s sa n d s ton e s c l a ys e tc , , .

U ses M u s co vi te is u s e d t o c o v e r l a n t h orn s a n d f or
.
- '

l am p c h i m n eys e tc a n d in s om e c o un t r i es f or wi n dow s
-
, .
, .

M i c a in g e n e r a l iS e x t e n s iv e ly u s e d f or i n s u l a t i n g p u r
'

p os e s in t h e c on s tr u c t i on of e l e c t r i c a l i n s tr u m e n ts .

P owd e r e d m i c a is u s e d in th e m a n u fa c t u re o f w a ll p a p e r -

a n d f or givi n g t h e f r os t eff ec t on Ch r i s t m as c ar d s a s
“
,

a l u b r i ca n t an d a s a p a i n t .

P a r ag on it e .
—A so di u m m i c a ( A13 Na H 2S 13 0 1 2) cor
re s p on di n g to m us c ovi te in c o m p o s i t i on S p e c ifi c g r a vi ty,.

h ar d n e s s — C ol o ur lik e m us covi te Oc c ur s in
3 , . .

s c hi s t s a ss oc i a t e d wi th g a r n e t a n d s ta ur o li t e
, .

L EP I D OLI TE L it h iu m : M ica .

C omp — A s ili c a te of p ota s s i um li thi u m a n d a l um i n i um , ,

wi t h v a r y i n g a m ou n t s o f h y d ro x yl fl uor i n e e tc , ,
’

C ry st Sy st —M o n o c li n i c
. . .

C om Far m — O cc u r s in f or m s lik e t h o s e o f m u s co vi t e
.
,

b u t m os t l y in m a s s e s c om p o se d o f s m a ll s c al e s or ,

g ra n u l e s .

C lean — As in mu s c o vi t e .

C olour —R os e r e d lil ac vi ol et g rey s ome ti me s wh i te

.
, ,
-
, .

L ustr e — P ea r l y t r a n s l u c e n t
.
, .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER A L O G Y
m i n e ra l of m e ta m o r p h i c o r igi n in b i o t i te g n e i ss e s an d

sc hi s ts .

P H L OGO P ITE .

Comp — Va r i a bl e S ili c a t e of . a u l
m i n i um, m a g n es i u m ,

po tas s i u m a n d h yd r oge n wi th , so m e i ro n , Al M gs K H z
S i3 0 1 2 .

C ry st Sy st — M on oc li n i c
. . .

C orn F orin S ix s id e d p r i s mat i c c rys tal s c o mmon ;

. .
- -

a l s o in s ca l es .

le —
C an P er f e c t p a ra ll e l t o th e ba s a l pl an e Th i n .

l am i n ae t ough an d e l a s t i c As ter i s m o f te n S h own

, . .

Colour —W h i t e c ol our l e s s b row n C opp er r e d

.
, , , .

L ustre P ea r l y often s u b meta lli c on c l ea v a g e pl a n es

-
, .

H .
—3 Sp G r . . .

Occurrence — P h l og opi te is . a m i n e r a l r es u l t i n g f r om
t h e d ed olo m it is at ion of a n i m p ur e d ol om i t e an d is ,

t h e r e f ore fo u n d e m b e dd e d in c rys t a lli n e li m e s t on e s a s s o

c ia t e d wi th for s t er i te g ros su l a r e tc It is w or k ed in , , .

On ta r i o f rom p oc k e ty d e po s i t s oc c u r r i n g in a n Ar c h ae a n
c r y s t a lli n e li me s t on e w hi c h h as b e en b a k e d b y i nt r us io n s

of p yr ox en i te .

Z I NNW AL D I TE .

A m i ca wh os e c o mp o s i t io n is lik e t h a t o f b i ot i t e but ,

w h i c h c on ta i n s in a ddi ti on li t hi u m P a l e ye ll ow or
, , .

b rown in c ol our Oc c u r s in modifi c at i on s o f th e Z i n n

.

wa ld g ra n i t e a s soc i at e d wi t h t i n s to n e et c
, ,
.

TH E C H L OR I TES .

I nt rod uc tion — U d g e n e r a l n a m e o f c h l or i t e
n er th e
a r e i n c l u d e d ma n y a lli e d m i n e r a l s whi c h a r e r e l a t e d in

c o m po s i t i on to t h e m i c a s b u t w h i c h a r e h yd r a t e d m o r e , ,

b a s i c a n d c on ta i n n o a lk a li es In g en era l th ey ma y be
,
.
,
 D ES C RI PTI O N OF M I N ER A L S P EC I ES 2 15

c on s id er ed as hydr at e d s ili c ates of al u mi n i u m i r on an d , ,

magn es i u m .

Th e c hl or i tes a re mon o c li n i c a n d s o me m em be r s ar e ,

p s eu do h e x a g on a l Th ey a r e g r e e n in c ol ou r f rom wh i c h
-
.
,

fac t th ey d e r iv e t h e i r n a m e Th e c hl or i t e s h a v e a .

pe r f e c t ba s a l c l ea vag e givi n g fla k e s whi c h a r e fl e xibl e , ,

b ut n ot e l a s t i c (cf M i c a ) . .

Th e c hl or i t e s a r e v e ry s of t t h e i r h ar d n es s b e i n g 1 5 ,
°

V a r iet ie s — l i t es ha v e b een
N u m e r ou s s p ec i e s of c h or

d es c r i b e d but v e ry f ew a r e s u ffi c i en tl y we ll d e fi n ed t o
,

m er i t d e s c r ip ti on Am on g th e se v a r i e t i e s a r e
.

C linochlore A ch l o r i te oc c ur r i n g in mon oc li n i c ta b ul a r
.

c r ys ta l s .

Penninite Oc c u rs in p s e u do he x agon a l c rys tal s b ut is

.
-
,

r e a ll m o n oc li n i c
y .

Ver miculite an d R ip idolite Types C h l or i t e occ urr i n g in .

t ub u l ar r a di a t i n g a n d gr a n u l a r fo r ms
, , .

C H L OR I TE IN G ENERA L .

Comp — H yd rat e d s ili cat e of a u l m i n i um , i ron , an d mag

n e s iu m .

Cryst . Sys t .
— M o n o c li n i c . F o r ms p s eu do - h e x a g on a l at

t i m es .

C ont . F or m . In ta u b la r c rys tal smmon e s t in co

gr a n u l ar ma s s e s , di s s e m i n a t e d s c a l e s a n d f oli a in m eta
m or p h i c r o c k s . F r e q u e n t ly e n c r u sti n g ; al s o in for ms
w i th a c o mp a c t r a di a t i n g s tr uc t u r e .

C lean — P er fec t pa r a ll e l to t h e ba s a l pi n a c oid givi n g ,

fl e xibl e bu t n ot e l a s t i c fl a k es
, , .

Co o
l u r — G r e e n o f v a ri o u s s ha d e s
. .

L ustr e R a t h er p e a r l y F e e l s v er y s ligh t l y gr e a sy
-
.

w h en g r an u l ar or in s c a l es S u b t r a n s l u ce n t t o Op a q u e .
.

H S c r at ch e d by fi n ge r n a il Sp Gr -
. . .

Opt P r op s . In t hi n s e c t i on c hl or i t e oc c ur s e i th er a s
-

,
 EL E M ENTS OF M INER AL OG Y
ra di a t i ng a gg reg a tes filli n g c a vi t i e s or a s a n a l te ra ti on ,

p r o d uc t o f m i n e ra l s s u c h a s bi ot i t e h or n bl e n d e e tc , , .

C o l o ur g r e e n ; r e fr ac t iv e i n d e x low ; pol ar i s a t i on c ol ou rs
v ery lo w P l e oc h r oi c in g re en s a n d g r e e n i s h ye ll ow s
.
-
.

Tests — D i s t i n g u i s h e d by co l ou r a n d p h ys i ca l p r op er
.

t i es. H ea te d in c l os e d t u b e gi v es w a ter F us e s wi t h .

di ffi c u l ty on t h i n e dg e s .

O c cu rrence — N ev er a p r i m a r y m i n eral
. In a mygd u l e s .
,

a n d a s a n a l te r a t i on p r o d u c t o f bi ot i t e h orn bl en d e e t c , , .

C ommon as a m i n er a l of m etamo r p h i c o r igi n a s in t h e ,

c hl or i t e s c hi s t s .

H Y D R ATED S I LI C ATES O F M AG N ES I U M .

Th i s divi s i on i n c l ud e s ta l c s e r p en t i n e an d m ee r , ,

s c h a u m whi c h a r e a ll h d r a t e d s ili c a t e s o f m a g n e s i u m
, y .

Ta l c a n d s e r p e n t i n e ar e m on o c li n i c m e e r s c h a u m is ,

a mor pho u s , b ut is i n c l u d e d h e r e b e ca u s e of it s s i m il ar

c o m po s i t io n .

Ta lc
S erp entine— 3 M g O . 2 H zO 2 S iO2. .

M eer schaum

TA L C ( Ara bi c ,
ta lq ) .

Comp —H yd rate d s ili c ate of

. ma g n es i u m, 3M g O H O . .

4 O2
S i .

Cry st . Sy st .
—P rob a bl y mon o c li n i c .

C om . F or m — C r y s ta l s rare, ta u b la r . U s u a ll y fou n d
m a s s iv e wi th a foli a te d s t r u c tu r e w h i c h , p er m i t s it t o be
s pli t i n t o t h i n pl a t es w h i c h a r e fl e xibl e b u t n o t e l a s t i c
, ,

e l a t t ei c h a r a c t e r s e r vi n g t o di s t i n g u i s h t h e l a mi n a
( t h e o f
t a l c f r o m t h os e of m i ca ) It is a l s o fou n d g ra n u l ar
.

m a s s iv e c om p a c t a n d c r yp t o c r ys ta lli n e
, ,
-
.

C lean B a sa l a n d h igh l y p er f ec t givi n g thi n pl a te s

-
, .
 EL EM ENTS O F M INER AL O G Y
p oli s h , and is ma de
i n t o i n k s ta n d s a n d or n a m en ta l
a r t i c l es C ol ou r s : whi t e ye ll ow bl a c k H ar d n es s 3—4
.
, ,
.
,
.

It oc c a s io n a ll y p a s s es i n t o s er p e n t i n e .

French C halk — A s te at i te u sed by ta ilor s f or mar ki n g

c l ot h .

I ndur a ted Ta lc — An i mp u r e s l a t y v a r i e ty some wh a t

.
,

h ar d e r t h a n F r en c h c h alk .

S t e a t i t e a n d t h e s e ot h e r v a r i e t i e s a r e a mo r ph ou s .

Th ey a r e n e v er f oun d c r y s ta lli s e d a l t ho u gh p s eu do ,

mor ph s o f s t e a t i t e a re fo u n d in ca vi t i e s whi c h h a v e b e en
o c c u pi e d b t h m i l
y o e r n e r a s .

Occur rence Ta l c o c c u r s a s a s ec on d a r y mi n e r a l r e s u l t
.
-

in g fr om t h e h yd ra t i on o f m a gn e s i u m b ea r i n g r oc k s s uc h -

a s g a b b r os di or i t e s e tc a s in N ew Y or k a n d oth e r
, , .
,

l oca li ti es in th e Ea s t er n U n i t ed S tat es It a l so oc c ur s .

a s a talc sc h i s t a s in t h e App a l ac h i a n
,
b e l t ( North
C ar oli n a es p ec Ia lly) Tyr ol e tc S te a t i te o c c u rs a s a , , .

p s e ud omor ph or a s b ed s r e s u l ti n g from t h e meta

,

m or p h i s m oi d ec ompo s e d m ag n e s i u m r i c h r o c k s -
.

Uses — Th e s e h a ve b ee n i n di c a t e d in t h e d e s c r ip t io n
o f t h e v a r i et i es .

S ER P ENTI N E .

Comp — H yd ra t ed s ili c at e of m ag n e s i u m , 2 H 20 3 M gO
. .

2 S iO
z
.

C ry st Sy st —M on o c li n i c
. . .

Coin Farm — C rys ta l s n ot k n o w n c rys ta l s ys te m

.

p r ov e d by op t i c a l p r op er t i e s Oc c u rs ma ss iv e g r an u l a r .
, ,

a n d fib r o u s ; s o me t i m e s fo li a t e d .

C lean — On e di st i n c t p ar t i n g .

Colour —D i ff er en t s h a d e s of g r e e n t o a l mo s t bl a c k
. ,

s o m e t i m es r e d y e ll o w o r b r ow n ; it is u s u a ll y v e i n e d
, ,

a n d s po tt e d wi t h w hi t e g r e en re d e tc Th e w h i te v e i n s
, , ,
.

a r e m o s t l y s te at i t e w h i c h in m a n y c as e s e n v e l o p c r u s h e d
,

fra g men t s of th e d ar k e r s er p en t i n e t h u s p rod u c i n g v er y ,

o r n a me n ta l p a t c h e s o f b r ec c i a .
 D ES C RI PTI O N OF M I NERA L S P EC I ES 2 19

L ustre —S u br es in ous gr ea s y Tran s l u c en t t o op a q ue

.
,
. .

S o me t i m es s ligh t l y s oa p y t o t h e fe e l .

F r act — Con c h oida l t ough

. .

H — 3—4 C u t wi t h t he k n ife
. Eas il y t u r n e d i n to .

va s e s c hi mn ey pi ec es et c an d is e x ten s iv ely u sed in

, , .
,

a r c hi t e c t u r a l d e c or a t i on Sp G r . . .

Opt P rop s — U n d e r t h e m i c r o s c o pe s er pe n t in e a ppe a r s

.
,

a s a c om pl e t e o r p a r t i a l p s e u d o mor ph a f t e r an o livi n e ,

pyr o x en e or am phib ol e r oc k (s ee F ig
,
Th e a l t er a '
.

t i o n f r om Olivi n e is mos t c omm on In thi s ca s e s e r p en .

t i n e o c c ur s as r o u n d e d p s e u do m or ph ou s c r ys ta l s s h o wi n g
a n e t w o r k o f bl ac k p a r t i c l es of m a gn et i t e w hi c h h as ,

b e en th r own o ut of c om bi n at i on by th e a l t era t i on of t h e
o livi n e i n t o se r p en t i n e C ol our g r een i s h ye ll ow ; r e f rac
.
,

t iv e i n d e x l o w P ol a r i sa t i on col ours a r e gr eys of a lo w

, .

or d er a n d in s o m e c a s e s t h e m i n e r a l m a a pp ea r p r ac
, y
t i c all y i s o t r opi c .

Tests — H ea t e d y i e ld s w a t e r
. F uses on th e e dg es
,
.

wi th di ffi c u l ty R e c og n i s e d by c ol ou r an d s of t n e s s
. .

Varieties— Pr ecious or N oble S erp entine — A t r an s l uc e n t .

va riety oil gr een in c o l our

, .

A ntigorite —A l a m e ll ar v ar i e ty . .

C hry sotile —A fi b r ou s v a r i e ty oc c u r r i n g a s s ma ll v e i n s
.

in m as s iv e s e r p e n t i n e It is lik e a s b e s to s an d for m s
.
,

p ar t of t h e a s b e s tos o f c o mm er c e ( C a n ad i a n as be stos ) .

S e e a l so p 2 0 8 . .

P icrolite — A co l u m n a r v a r i e t y
. .

Op hica lcite A r oc k m a d e u p o f g ree n s er p e n t i n e in

.
-

whi t e c al c i t e R e s u l t s from t h e d e d olo m it isa t ion o f a

.

s ili c e ou s d o l o m i t e ; olivi n e a n d c a l c i t e b ei n g fi r s t fo r m e d ,

a n d t h en t h e o livi n e a l t e r i n g i n t o s e r p e n t i n e .

O c c u rr enc e — S e r p e n t i n e r es u l t s f r om t h e a l t era t i on of
.

r oc k s r i c h in m ag n es i u m t h er e for e fr om t ho s e r oc k s c on ,

t a i n i n g Olivi n e p yro x e n e o r a m phi bo l e — t h a t is p e r id o

, , ,

di t es g a bb r os pi c r i t es etc as a t t h e Lizar d P or ts o y in
, , ,
.
, ,
 EL E M ENTS O F M I N ER AL O G Y

B a n ff s h i r e , G a lw ay,
Wi c kl ow S ib e r i a a n d C a n a d a , ,
.

Th e C a n a di a n d e p os i ts a r e wo r k e d f o r a s b es t os c h rys otil e ,

form i n g v e i n s ( see ab ov e) S er p en ti n e is a l s o form e d by.

d e dolo mit is at ion ( s e e a b o v e u n d e r Ophi ca l c i t e ) .

U ses — As a b u ildi n g s to n e a n d f o r or n a men ta l w or k ,

in g en e r a l c h i e fl y i n t e r i o r d e c o ra t i on
, F ib r ou s v a r i e t i e s .

u s e d a s a s b es t os ( s e e p .

B as t ite or S ch ille r s p a r —A s e r p en t i n e r esu l t i n g

, .

f rom t h e a l terat i on of rh o mbi c p yr ox e n e e n s ta t i te or ,

b ro n zi t e Oliv e g r e en bl a c ki s h g r een or pi n c hb ec k
.
, ,

b r ow n in c olo ur Cl ea v a g e in two di r e cti on s L u s tr e

. .

o f c l ea v a g e s u r f a c e s m e t a lli c t o p ea r l y H ardn es s —4 ; .
,

s p e c ifi c g r a vi t
y ,

It is fo u n d in s er p en t i n e a t B a s t e in t h e H a r t z in t h e ,

C orn i s h s er p en t i n es an d a t s e v era l pl a c e s in t h e U n i ted

S t a t es a n d t e n d s t o e n h a n c e t h e b ea u ty o f t h e s t on e
,
.

M EER S C H A U M : S e p iol it e .
( G e r ma n ,
M eer , se a ,

an d f r o th )S chauin , .

Comp — H yd ra t e d s ili ca te of m ag n es i u m , s O . 2 M gO .

3 S i 0 2
.

Cry st Sy st — Amor ph ou s
. . .

Corn For in —In b ed s a n d in i r r e g u l ar mas s es in a ll uvi a l

. .

d ep os i t s F i n e an d ear th y in t e x tu r e
. .

Colour — Whi te g r ey i s h whi te s om et i mes wi th a fa i n t

.
,
-
,

y e ll o wi s h o r pi n k t i n t .

L ustre — D u ll a n d ear t hy Op aq ue . .

H -
2 —2 5 Ea s il y s c r at c h e d wi t h t h e fi n ger n a il
.
-
.

Sp Gr —
. . 2 Wh e n dr y fl oa t s on w ater
.
, .

Tests — D e c o m p ose d in h yd r o c hlo r i c a c id wi t h g e l a t i n

.

is a tion . G iv e s off w a t er w h e n h e a t ed H ea t e d on c ha r .

c oa l wi t h co b a l t n i t r a t e giv es a pi n k m a s s .

Occur r ence — In b e d s a n d a s n od ul a r m a s s es in a ll u vi a l
.

d e p os i t s ( s e e b e l ow u n d er U s es ) .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL OG Y
Var ieties— K aolinite —C r ys t a lli s ed . .

K aolin C hina clay — P a r t l y c r ystalli n e a n d p ar t l y amor

, .

pho n s mat er i a l .

Occurr ence — K a oli n i t e occ ur s in th e c o a l m ea s u r e s o f

.

S ou t h W a l e s a n d e l s e w h er e .

K aoli n res ul ts fro m th e a l tera t i on of th e f e l s pars of

g ran i t e s Th i s a l te ra t i on may be ca u sed by two p ro
.

c e sses :
( )
1 O r di n ar
y w e a t h e r i n g o f t h e fe l s p a r fi r s t i n t o ,

s e r i c i t e a n d t h en c e i n t o k a o li n ; b e a c t i on o f
( ) y
2 t h
g as es on th e f el s p a r ( p n eu ma tol ys i s ) S i n c e k aoli n is .

a ssoc i a t e d wi t h c a s s i t e r i t e t o u r m a li n e an d o t h e r m i n e r a l s
, ,

o f un d ou b t e d p n eu ma t o l yt i c o r igi n it a pp e ar s t h a t th e ,

secon d m o d e o f for ma t i on h o ld s a t l ea s t f or t h e C o r n i s h

oc c u r r e n ce s B oth typ e s o f d e po s i t s oc c u r bu t t h e
.
,

s e c o n d is e co n o m i c a ll y i mpo r t an t in En gl a n d ( C o r n w a ll ) .

Ot h er l oca li t i es a r e M a l ay F r a n c e Chi n a a n d th e , , ,

U n i te d S ta t es .

Uses — F or t h e ma n u fac t u re of fi n e po rc e l a i n a n d c hi n a
. .

B ol e ( G r ee k , bolos , h ) — B ol e is a
a c o l d of eart .

b row n i s h ye ll ow or r e d c l ay w h i c h giv es a s h i n i n g
-
, ,

s t r ea k w h e n s c r a t c h e d wi t h t h e n a il I n c o m p o s i t i o n it .

is a h yd rat e d s ili c a t e o f a l um i n i um wi t h m u c h i r on oxid e .

It b r ea k s wi t h a s om e wh a t c o n c h o id a l f r a c t ur e a n d fa ll s ,

t o pi e c es wi th a c r a c kli n g n o i s e wh en pl ac e d in w a ter .

B e for e t h e b l o wpip e f u s e s e a s il y t o a ye ll ow or g re e n
e n a me l .C h iefl y fo u n d in I t a l y S il es i a a n d As i a , ,

M i n or .

L it h oma rg e ( G r ee k , lithos , s ton e, a n d marga , ma r l ) .

A whi te , y e ll o w, o r r e d d i s h c l a y , of ten s p e ckle d and

‘

m o tt l e d It is a h yd r a t e d s ili c at e of a l um i n i u m
. . It
a dh er es gl y to t h e ton g ue f e e l s gr ea s y a n d yi e l ds to
s t r on , ,

t h e fi n ge r n a il a ff or di n g a s hi n i n g s t r e a k
-
, B e for e th e
v
.

bl o wpip e i n fu s i b l e
,
F oun d in C or n wa ll Sa x on y
.
,
"

, “

B oh e m i a a n d e l s ewh er e
,
.
 D ESC RI PTI ON OF MI NER AL S P EC I ES 223

F u ll e r s Ea rt h
’
g r e e n i s h b r o wn g r een i s h gr ey
-
A -
,
-
,

bl u i s h or ye ll owi s h s o ft ea rt h y m i n e r a l wi th a s oa p y
, , , , ,

f e el yi e ldi n g t o t h e n a il wi t h a s h i n i n g s t r eak a n d
, ,

a d h e r i n g t o t h e t on g u e W h en pl a c e d in wa ter it fa ll s .

t o po wd e r b u t d oe s n ot fo r m a p a s t e
,
It is a h yd r a te d .

s ili ca t e o f a l u m i n i u m B e fo r e t h e bl o wpip e f u s es t o a .
,

p or ous s l ag a n d ul t i m a t el y t o a w h i t e bl e bb y gl as s
, ,
.

F o u n d a t N ut fi e ld n ea r R e ig a t e D e t li n g n ea r M a id ,

s t on e B l e t c h in gl in S u r r ey n ea r W o b u r n in B e df o r d
, y ,

s hi r e B a t h e t c It is u s e d f o r fu lli n g or c l ea n s i n g “
, , .

w oo ll en f a b r i c s a n d c l o th ; it s a b s or b en t p ro p e r ti e s
c a u s i n g it t o r e m o v e g r ea s a n d o il m a tt er s
y y .

A LL O P H A N E (G r ee k , a llos ot h e r a n d phaino to , , ,

a pp e ar ; fr o m it s c h a n g e o f a pp ear a n c e b e f or e t h e b l o w

pip e)
C omp — H yd r a t ed s ili c ate
. of l
a u m n u m, i i Al 3
. S i0 2 .

H
5 20 .

C ry st . Sy st —Am o r p h o u s
. .

C om . F or m — As . en c r u s t a t o n s i ; s o met i m es r en ifor m .

C olour .
— S n ow w h i t e , an d h on e y or w a x ye ll o w ; so me
t i m e s bl u i s h g r ee n or b r ow n , , .

L ustr e R es i n ous or w a x y ; t r an s l u c en t
.
-
, to o p a que .

F r act — F l at c on c h oid a l Ve r y b r i tt l e
.
, . .

H —3 . Sp G r . . .

Tes ts — B e fo r e t h e
. bl o wpip e l ose s c o l ou r a n d b ec om es
p u lv er u l en t S ol u bl e in dil u t e a c id s ; in c on c en t ra t e d
.

a c id s it for m s a s ili c e ou s j e ll
y .

Occur rence — U s ua ll y oc c ur s in e n c r u s ta t i on s on j o i n t
pla n es an d fi s su r es in c h alk a n d sa n d s ton e ; or li n i n g
ca vi t i es in c l a ys a n d m a r l s ; Ch a r l t on n e a r Wool w i c h in

Ch a lk N or t h a m p t on in s a n d s t on e Al s o fou n d a t S a a r .

fi e l d in Th u r i n gi a B e a u v a i s V i r e a n d a t R i c h m o n d In
, , ,

M a s s a c h u s ett s .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL OG Y

O LI V I N E G R O U P .

Th e o livi n e g r ou p
i o f m i n e r a l s c o mp os e d o f
c on s st s

v a r yi n g a m oun t s of ma gn e s i u m s ili c at e a n d of i r on ,

s ili c a t e P ur e ma gn es i u m s ili c a t e is t h e m i n era l

.

fo r s ter i te ; p u r e i ron s ili ca te is t h e m i n era l fa ya li te .

I n ter medi ate b e t we en th e se t wo mem b e rs is olivi n e a ,

mag n es i u m i ron s ili ca t e w h i c h is t h e m o st i mp or ta n t

,

m e mb e r o f t h e g r o u p .

O LI V I N E, P e r i d ot , C h rys ol it e .

Comp — S ili c at e of ma g n e s i u m an d i ron ,

S iOz .

C ry st . Sy st — Or t ho r h o m
. bi c .

C om . F or m — P r i smat i c cr
y s ta s l u sua ll y m odifi e d wi th
d om es a n d pi n a c oid s ; a l so a s g ra i n s ma ss iv e an d
, ,

c omp ac t .

Colour — S h a d es of g re en p al e gr e en oliv e g r e en
.
, , ,

g r ey i sh gr e en b r ow n i s h r a r e ly ye ll ow
-
, , .

S tr ea k — C ol ou r l e s s .

L ustr e Vi tr eou s Tra n s p ar e n t t o tra n s l uc e n t

- . .

Fr aet — C on ch o id a l . .

H — 6 7 Sp G r —F or s t e r i t e -
. . .
,

Faya li te 4 ,

Opt P rops — In roc k S li c es .

,

o livi n e o cc u r s as s o mewh at

r o u n d e d e l on g a t e d s e c t i o n s t ra ,

F IG 66 — O I V I N E A TER
. L
v er s e d by c r ac k s a l on g whi c h
t h e m i n e r a l is u s u a ll y a l t e r e d t o
g re en i s h s er p en t i n e— t h e a l ter a
t i o n b e i n g m ar k e d b y a n e t w o r k
L -

I N G I NTO S ER ENTI NE of ma g n e t i te S ee F ig 6 6 Th e r e
P '

. . .

is n o c l e a v a g e R e f r a c t iv e i n d e x v e r y h ig h a n d p o l a r i
. , ,

s a t i on c o l ou r s b r ig h t , .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
Z O I S I TE .

C omp — S ili ca te of c a c u l i m and a u l mi n i um, wi th w a te r ,

C ry st Sy st — O rth orh o m bi c
. . .

Cont F own — P ris ma ti c c r y st a l s Often s tr i a te d l on g i

.
,

t ud in a lly C o mm on l y c ol um na r
. .

Gtea u P e rfe c t p a ra ll e l to th e b ra c h ypi n a c oid

. .

C olour — Whi te g r e y g ree n i s h s ome t i m es r ed

.
, , , .

L ustre — Vi treou s tr a n s p a r en t to t r a n s l uc e n t .

H .
—6 Sp G r . .

Opt . P p ro s .
—R e fra c t iv e i n d e x h igh p ol ar i s ati on ,

l
c o o ur s low . Th e pi n k v a r i ety t h u li te is pl e o c h r oi c in
, ,

pi n k s .

Va r iety — Thulite — A pi n k v a r i e ty . .

Occur rence — Oc c u r s in m e ta m or p h i c . r oc ks , es p ec i a ll y
t ho s e f or m ed fr om ig n eou s r oc ks rich in li m e .

EP I D OTE P is t a cit e .

Comp .
—
S ili c a te of a u l m i n i um , l i
ca c u m an d i ro n wi th ,

w a te r ,

C ry st Sy st —M on oc li n i c
. . .

C oni For m — Oc c u r s in c rys ta l s e l on ga te d a lon g

. .
t he
or t h o a xi s ;
-
( s e e F ig 6 7) a l s o g r a n u l ar . .

F IG . 67 .
—EPI D OTE .

C lea v .
-
P f er ec t, p a ra ll e l t o t h e b as a l pl a n e .

Colour .
—S h a d e s of g r e en pi s tac h i o g r ee n bl a c ki s h
, ,

g re e n a n d ,
a da r k o il g r e en .

L ustre -
Vi tr eou s ; t r a n s p a r en t to o p a q ue .

Fm ot — U n e v en .
 D ESC RIPTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 227

H .
-
6—7 . Sp Gr . .
— -
3 5 .

Opt . P p ro s — Th e s h a p e s
i i t h e r e l on g a te d
o f s e c t on s a r e e

or r o u n d e d R a r e s ec t i o n s p ar a ll e l t o th e b ra c h ypi n a c o id
.

ar e s ix s id e d a n d s h ow t h e b a sa l c l e a va g e
,
R e f ra c t iv e .

i n d e x high po l ar i s a t i on c o l our s b r igh t P l eoc h roi c in , .

g r een s a n d yell owi sh gr ee n s .

Tests B e fore th e bl o wpip e gi v e s an i r on re a c t i on

-
, .

Va rieties— Pistacite — P i st a c hi o g r e e n c ol our e d v ar i e ty

.
-
.

A rend alite —F oun d in v e r y fi n e c r ys ta l s ex t e rn a ll y

.
,

b l a c ki s h g r ee n an d of a d ar k oil gr e e n on f r ac t ure d
-
,

s u r f ac es F r o m Aren d a l in No r wa y
.
,
.

Withamite —R e d v a r i e ty v ery pl eoc h roi c

.
~

, .

Occur r ence — Oc c u r s in m e ta mor phi c r oc k s gn e i s s e s

.
,

a n d s c hi s t s Al so r e s u l t s f r o m t h e c o n ta c t me t a mor p h i s m
.

o f li m e s t o n e s an d a s an a l t e ra t i on p r od uc t o f m an
, y
fe rro ma gn es i an r oc k for m i n g s ili c a t e s
- -
.

P ie d mon t it e — An e pid ote c on ta i n i n g man ga n e se o f a

.
, ,

d ar k r e ddi s h c ol o u r B e fo re th e bl o wpipe f u s es r ea dil y

.
,

t o a bl a c k gl a s s a n d m a y t h u s be di s t i n g u i s h e d fr o m
,

pi s ta c i te an d z oi s i te w hi c h f u se on l y on th i n e dge s , .

Oc c u r s in s c hi s t s e tc ,
.

Ort h it e A a n it e
l l ,
— A c e r i u m be ar i n g e pid ot e b ro wn
.
-
,

in c ol ou r In thi n s e c t i on s ma y s h ow c r ys ta lli n e fo r m
.
, ,

a n d is pl eoc h r o i c in b r o w n s O cc u r s a s a n ac c e ss or y .

m i n e ra l in g r an i tes .

A L U M I N I U M S I LI CATES .

Th es e are s ili ca t e s of l
a u mi n i um of th e co mpo s i t i on
A120 3 S i0 2, . an d i i o f a rgill a ce ous r oc k s
ar e c h a ra c t e r s t c

a l t e r e d b y c on ta c t m e t a mor p h i s m Th e m e m be r s ar e .

Andal usite — o r t h or h o m b i c .

S illima nite— o rt h or h o m bi c .

Cy a nite tr ic lin ic h
.
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER A L O G Y
A N DA L U S ITE ( f r o m An d a l u s i a in S pa i n
) , .

C omp — Al um i n i u m s ili c a t e Al 3 S iOz ,

. .

C rys t Sy st Or th or h om b i c
. .
-
.

Corn F own — C rys ta l s com mon ma d e u p of th e p r i s m

.
, ,

wi th ba sa l pl a n e a n d som e ti m es a s ma ll ma c r od ome ( s ee
F ig . a l s o m a ss iv e .

Colour —P e ar l g r e y p u r pli s h r e d fl e s h r ed Of ten

.
,
-
, .

a l t er e d on t h e ou t s id e t o s ilv e r y m i c a .

L ustre —Vi treo us ; t ra n s l uc en t to op a q ue

. .

Fr oot — U n e v en t ough , .

H . Sp G r . .

Opt . P ps — Th e h a
ro i i i n c l us i on s of c hi a s toli t e
c ra c t e r s t c

s e r v e t o di s t i n g u i s h t h i s m i n e r a l in t hi n s ec t i on s P r i mary .

FI G . 68 .
—AN D AL U SI TE . F IG . 69 .
— C H I ASTOLI TE .

an da l u s i te oc c u r s in r oun d e d g ra i n s whi c h ar e pl e o c h roi c ,

in pi n k s t o c o l ou r l es s .

Tes ts —B e f or e t h e bl o wpip e i n fus i b l e

. G iv e s b l ue , .

c ol o u r wh e n h e a t e d wi th c ob a l t n i t rate s ol ut i on on
c h ar c o al N ot a c t e d u p on by a c id s
. .

Var ieties— C hiastolite ( G r ee k chiastos c r osse d ) M acle , , .

L a t i n i nacula a s p o t ; or fr o m muscle m d
( , a t e r u se in ,

h er a ld ry f or a n e m p ty l oz e n ge ) — A v a r i e ty o f a n d a l u s i t e .

fo un d in s o me m e ta m or p h i c r o c k s a n d in c e r ta i n s l a te s , ,

s u c h a s t he S kidd a w s l a t e o f C u m b e r l a n d a n d t h e Kill a s
'
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
C om . F m — U s ua ll y oc c ur s in l on g t hi n
or , , bl ad e lik e -

c r ys ta s , l e m b e dd e d in m i c a s c h i s t a n d g n e i ss ,

C lea n — P a r a ll e l to th e pi n a c oid s .

Colour L igh t bl u e s om e t i m e s whi te s omet i me s wi t h

.
-
, ,

t h e m iddl e of th e c r ys ta l b l u e a n d t h e mar gi n s c olo ur

l es s ; a l s o gr ey g r een a n d r ar e l y b l ac k-
, .

S tr eak Whi t e .
-
.

L ustre — Of c l ea vage fac e s r ath er p ear l y ; tran s p ar en t ,

t o s u b tra n s l u ce n t .

H — Va r i es on d ifl er en t f a c e s —4—7
. Sp Gr . . .

Opt Pr ops —
. In t hi n s ec t i on s c olo u r l e s s t o b l u e
. If , .

c ol ou r e d pl eo c h r o i c, U s u a ll y s h ow s c l ea v a g es
. .

Tests —As f or a n d a l us i te
. G iv e s a l um i n i u m r e ac t i on s . .

S h a p e an d c olo u r o f c r ys ta l s di s t i n c t iv e .

O ccu rr e nce — Oc c u r s in g n e i s s m i c a sc hi s ts an d e c lo
.
, ,

gi t es .

TO P AZ ( G r e e k i s l a n d in th e R ed S ea
,
Topaz ios , an ,

wh e n c e th e a n c i en ts p roc ur e d a s ton e whi c h how , ,

ev e r wa s n o t t h e t op a z o f th e p r e s e n t d a y)
, .

C omp — F l uo s ili c at e of al um i n i u m Al iO4 F

.
-
P ar t , 2
.

of th e fl uor i n e ma y b e r e pl a c e d by h yd r o x yl O H , .

C ry st Sy st —Or th o r h omb i c . . .

C oi n For m Oc c u r s in p r i s m a t i c
. .

c r y s ta l s m a d e up o f t h e p r i s m wi t h ,

b r a c h ypi n a c oid b ra ch yd om e b asa l , ,

pl an e a n d pyr a m id ( s ee F ig , .

C r ys ta l s s o me t i mes a pp a r e n t l y h e m i
mor phi c th e e x t r e m i t i e s b e i n g un lik e ,
.

I t is a l s o f o u n d c o l u m n a r a n d g r a n u l a r .

Clam — P er f ec t p ar a ll e l to t h e ba sa l
pl an e .

Colour —VVin e ye ll o w s tra w ye llow whi t e g r e yi s h

.
, , , ,

a n d s o m e t i m es bl u e a n d pi n k Th e pi n k c ol our o f m os t .

o f t h e t o p a z s o ld by j e w e ll e r s is h ow e v er p r od u c e d by , ,
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 231

a rtifi c i a l h eat t h e s ton e b e i n g w r a ppe d in a m a do u (a

,

ki n d o f t i n d er ) wh i c h is ign i te d an d all owe d t o s mou ld e r

, ,

a wa
y .

S treak — C o l o ur l e ss .

L ustr e — Vi tr eous ; t r an s p a r e n t t o s u b t r an s l u c e n t .

Fract —S u bc on c h o ida l to u n e v en
. .

H —8 . . Sp G r . .

Opt . P p ro s — U n d e r t h e m i c r os co p e t opa z in it s ge n er a l
.
,

p ro p e r t i e s r e s e m bl e s
q u a r t z b u t is di s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h a t
,

m i n er a l by it s b a s a l c l ea v a g e a n d by it s m u c h h igh e r r e
f ra c t iv e i n d e x w h i c h c a u s e s t h e b or d e r s o f t h e g r a i n s t o
,

b e we ll m a r k e d .

Tes ts — Al on e i n f u s ibl e Th e p o wd e r e d m i n e r a l w h e n .
,

h e a te d m o i s t e n e d w i th c ob a l t n i t r a t e a n d r e h ea t e d
, ,

a s s u m e s a bl u e c o l o u r d u e t o a l um i n i u m F u s e d w i th ,
.

m i c r oc o s m i c sa l t giv es o ff s ili c on fl u or id e w h i c h e t c h e s
, ,

t h e gl a s s .

Occurr ence — To p a z o c c u r s in ig n e ou s r oc k s gr a n i te s , ,

r hyoli t e s etc a n d g oo d c r y s t a l s a r e f o u n d p r oj ec t i n g
, .
,

i n to t h e d r us e s a s in t h e M o ur n e M o u n t a i n gra n i t e an d
, ,

in t h e li th oph y s a l c a vi t i e s of r h yoli t e s a s in C o l o ra d o It ,
.

is a l s o a m i n e ral w hi c h oc c u r s in t in b ea r i n g p e gm a t i t es -

an d i n t in v e i n s g e n e ra ll as so c i a t e d w i t h ot h e r p n e u
y ,

m at olyt ic m i n e r a l s fl uo r c a s s i t e r i te a n d t ou r m a li n e , , , .

S TAU R O LI TE ( G reek, sta ur os , a c ros s , a nd lithos ,

)
s t on e .

C omp — S ili ca t e i i H O 2 F eO of i r on a nd l
a u m n um , z
. .

5 A 12
0 3 4
S i 0 M
.
g O a n d M n O u s u a ll y p r e s e n t
22
. .

C ry st Sy st —Or thor h om bi c
. . .

C o m F or m —
. O c c u r s in p r i s ma t i c c ry s t a l s m ad e u p o f
t h e p r i s m b r a c h y pi n a c o id b a s a l pl a n e a n d s o m e t i m e s
, , ,

t h e m a c r od o m e Th e c ry s ta l s a r e c omm on l y t wi n n e d
. .

Twi n n i n g o n t wo l a w s : t h e fi r s t on a p yr a m id ( F ig .

t h e s e c on d on a b r a c h yd o m e ( F ig .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
C leav . P a ra ll e l to t h e
—b r ac hypi n ac o id .

Colour R eddi s h b r ow n b row n i s h bl a c k some ti mes

.
- -
,
-
,

y e ll owi s h b r o w n -
.

S tr ea k — C ol ou r l es s or g r e y i s h .

L ustr e —S u bvi tr e ou s t o r e s i n ou s ; t ra n s l u c en t t o
.

o p a que u s u a ll y o p a q u e
,
C r ys ta l s u s ua ll y h a v e d ull .
,

r o ug h s ur f a c e s .

FI G S .
71 AN D 72 .
—STAU ROLI TE TW I NS .

Fr oot — C on c hoid al .

H —7 . Sp G r . .

Te s
s t — Th e v a r i et i e s
. c on ta n n i i g m a n g a n es e f us e ea s il y
to a bl ac k m ag n e ti c gl a ss ,
but t h e ot h er var i eti es a r e
i n fu s ibl e .

O ccur r ence .
—S t a ur o t e li o c c ur s as a m i n er a l of m e ta
m or phi c or igi n in C a l
y s a te s , l m i ca i
s c h s t s, gn e i s s e s , e tc .

C OR D I ER I TE : I ol it e D ic h r oit e , .

Comp — S ili c at e of l
a um n u m , i i i r on ,
m a g n es i um , wi th
w at e r , I o S i0
2
.

C ry st Or tho r h om b i c
. Sy st .
-
.

C om Far i a — S h ort p s eu d o h e x a go n a l
.
-
c r ys t a s l ; u s ua y ll
mas s iv e .

C lea o — B r a c h y ,: in a c oid a l
. l
c r y s ta s O f ten divi s ibl e
p ar a ll e l to th e b a s a l pl a n e .

C olour — B l u e of v ar i ous
. sh a d es ; often d e e p b l ue w h en
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
Not ac t e d on by ac id s u n es sl p r e vi ous l y h eated wh en , it
g el a ti n i ses .

Occur r ence — Oc c ur s as a m i n era l of p n e uma tol yti c

or igi n , a s at B ota ll ac k , L os t wi thi el ,
in C or n w a ll e tc , .

S P H EN E : Tit a n it e (G r ee k , s p hen , a w edg e ,

in
a ll us i on
for m of t h e c r ys ta l s )
t o th e .

Comp —Ti tan a te and s ili ca te of c a l c i um

.
,
C a O TiOz . .

S iOz .

Cry st . S yst .
—M o n oc li n i c .

Com . Forn z
.
—
C rysta l s us ua ll y w e dg e or l oz en g e s h a p e
in h a bi t ; a l so m as s iv e C r ys ta l s of ten twi n n ed . .

C lean — P r i s ma t i c .

Colour —B r ow n g reen gr ey yellow an d bl ac k

.
, , , , .

S treak —W h i t e . .

L ustre —Ad aman ti n e or r es i n ous ; tran s p aren t to

.
,

op a q ue .

Fr oot — I m p er f e c t c on c h oid a l b r i ttl e , .

H— 5
. Sp G r
. .

Opt . P p ro s — In r oc k fo ur s id e d i
s e c t on s o c c u rs in -

loz en g e s h a p e f or ms F ig 7 3 whi c h a r e g r eyi s h p ur pl e

-
, .
,
-

in sod a r i c h r oc k s a n d b r ow n -

in s od a p oor r oc k s Re f rac -
.

t iv e i n d e x v e r y high p o l a r ,

is a tion c o l o u r s h ig h b ut ,

u s u a ll y m a s k e d by t h e b o d y

c ol ou r D i s ti n c t l y pl e oc h r o i c .

in d ee pl y c o l o u r e d v a r i e t i e s .

Tests — H e a t e d b e f or e t h e
bl owpip e t h e ye ll ow v a r i e ,

t i es r e ma i n u n a l t e re d in

F IG 7 3 S H ENE co -
l o
P
u r b u t t h e d a r k ki n d s
.
,

b e c ome ye ll ow P a rt l y
. .

l bl e in h ot h d r o c h l o r i c a c id ; o n t h e a ddi t i o n o f t in
so u y ,

l i
t h e s o u t on will b ec o m e vi o l e t if c o n c e n t r a t e d .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 2 35

—
Va rieties Gr eenovi te — A p h en e c on ta i n i n g a li tt l e
. s

o x id e of ma n g a n e s e a n d is r ed or pi n ki s h in c o lo u r
, .

L eucoxene — A va r i ety o f s p h en e a l ter i n g fr om il men i te

.

a n d o t h e r t i t a n if e r o u s mi n e r a l s t h e a l t er a t i on t aki n g,

pl ac e us u a ll y a lon g t h re e s ets o f li n es maki n g e q ual

a n g l es. M os t s e c t i on s of il m en i t e s h o w t hi s al te ra t i on
u n d e r t h e m i c r o s c op e e s p e c i a ll y w e ll in re fl e c t e d lig h t .

O cc u r renc e —.Oc c u r s a s a n or igi n a l m i n e ra l in a c id

ig n eo us r oc k s g r an i t e s yen i t e e tc It al s o oc c ur s in
, , , .

gn e i s s es an d m eta m or p h i c r o c k s r i c h in c al c i u m an d in ,

c r s t a lli n e li m e s ton e s L e u c o x e n e oc c u r s as a n a l t e r a
y .

t i on p r od u c t o f il m e n i t e a n d o t h e r t i ta n ife r o u s m i n e ra l s
, .

Z EO LI TES
TH E .

In c om po s i t io n t h e Z e oli t e s ar e h yd r a t e d s ili c a te s o f
ca l c i u m a n d alu min iu m s o me t i me s wi t h s odi u m or
,

potas s i u m (cf c ompo s i t io n of t h e fe l s p ar s) Th ey r e s u l t

. .

in g e n er a l f rom t h e a l t er at i o n of t h e f e l s p a r s a n d a l u m
in ou s m i n e ral s of ign eou s r oc k s a n d wi t h t h e p os s i b l e , ,

e x c e p t i on o f a n a l c i m e oc c u r o n l y a s s e c o n d a r m i n er al s
, y ,

filli n g ca vi t i es j oi n t s pac e s c ra ck s an d fiss ur es in s u c h

, , ,

r oc k s a s b as a l ts sc o r i ac e o u s l a v a s e t c
, Th e i r for m at io n ,
.

may r ep re s e n t t h e fi n a l s tag es in t h e c oolin g d ow n of a n

ign eou s i n tr u s i on an d t h e y a r e t h er e fo r e li n k e d u p in
,

o r igi n wi th man y or e d e p os i t s .

H eate d b e fore th e bl owpip e t he z e oli tes fr ot h or boil ,

u p ; h e n c e t h e i r n a m e z e o li t e fr om t h e G r e e k zein
, to , ,

bo il an d lithos s t on e Th e z eoli t es ar e r a th er so ft
, , .

m in er a l s t h e i r h ar d n e s s v a r yi n g fr om
, to 5 5 Th ei r .

s p ec ifi c g r a vi t i e s v ar y fr o m 2 t o Th e z e oli te s ar e
r e a dil y r e c og n i se d b y t h e i r m o d e o f oc c u r r e n c e
’

In t h i s book t h ey ar e c l as s ifi e d i n t o bi ax i al ,

2 ) u n i a xi a l i opi
( ( )
3
, sot r c .

Th e bi a xi a l z eoli t es on l y a r e c o n s id ere d h e r e a n d a r e ,

divid e d u p b y t h e i r c rys t a l s ys t e m s
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
I . Or thor hombic Na t r oli te , p r e h n i te
.
-
.

2 . M onoclinic — S t ilbi t e , p e c t o li t e l au m on i te ,
.
,

h e u l a n di t e an d h ar m ot om e ,
.

3 . Triclinic — M e s oli te . .

NATR O LI TE so da , an d lithos , s t on e
)
M e s oty p e .

Comp — H yd ra t e d s ili c a t e of a u l mi n i u m an d so di u m ,

Cyr st . bi c
Sy st .
— Or t h o r h om .

C oin Fown — S ma ll p r i s m a t i c crys ta l s k n ow n U s u a ll y

. .

in s l en d e r ac i c u l a r c rys t a l s ; a l so m a s s iv e c o m p a c t , ,

g r an u l a r fib r ou s a n d ra di a ti n g
, , .

C olou r —W h i te s om e ti mes yellowi s h or r e ddi s h

.
, .

S tr ea k — W h i te . .

L ustre —Vi tre ou s or p e a r l y ; t ra n s p a re n t t o t ran s

.

l u cen t .

H —5 . Sp Gr . .

Tes ts — . F u i b l e in an dl e fl a me gel a t i i
s c n s es wi th ac id s .

Occur r e ce s n .
—F o un d a a econ d a y m i s r n e ra l in t h e
a m ygd u l e s in t h e b a s a l t s of An t r i m , S c o t l a n d B oh e m i a
, ,

Au v e r g n e , U n i ted S ta t e s , e tc .

P R EH N I TE .

Comp — H yd r at ed s ili ca te of l i
ca c u m an d a u l mi n i u m ,
2 C a 20 A120 3 3S i0 2 H 2O
. . . .

C ry st Sy st —Or th or h o mbi c
. . .

Corn Farm — U s ua ll y foun d in

. b ot ryoid l a m a ss es ,
wi t h
a ra di at i n g c r ys ta lli n e s t r u c tu r e .

Colour — P a l e g r een s o met i mes c olo u r l e s s

. .

S trea k — Col o ur l e s s .

L ustre — Vi tr eou s ; s u b t ra n s p ar en t t o t ra n s l u c en t .

Fr act — U n e ven r at h er b r i t t l e
. .

H — 6. Sp Gr . .
—2
9 .

Tests — H e a te d in t h e
. l
c os e d tu be ,
it giv es o ff w at er .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER ALO G Y
Com . F or m — U s ual l y oc c u r s in m a s s e s co m p ose d of

div e rg en t or pa ra ll e l fib res c l os el y c ompa c te d .

Colour —Whi te o r g r e yi s h
. .

L ustre — S ilk y or s u bvi t reo us w h e n fi b r o u s ; d u ll

wh en m a s s iv e S ub tr a n s l uc en t t o op a q u e
. .

H — 5
. . Sp G r . .

Tests — H eated in th e c l os ed t u b e giv es off w a ter , .

B e fo re t h e b lowpip e fu s e s t o a whi te en a m e l G el a t i n i s es .

wi t h h yd roc hlo r i c a c id .

Occurrence — Z eo li t i c (s ee p . c o mmo n in a myg .

d u l es .

LAU M ON I TE .

Comp — H yd r a ted s ili ca te of l

a u mi n i u m an d li me ,

C ryst — M o n oc li n i c
. Sy st . .

C om Fown — Co m mo n in
. p r i s mat i c c r ys t a s l l o
a s

fib rou s , c ol umn ar .

C olour — Whi te g r ey i s h or ye ll owi s h

.
, ,
.

S t r ea k — C o l ou r l e s s .

L ustre Vi tr eou s wh en u n a l tere d d ull a n d p ulve r u l en t

.
-
,

wh e n al t er ed Tr an s pa r en t to tra n s l uc en t wh e n u n
.

a l te r e d b ut b e c o m es op a q u e a n d w h i t e o n e x po s u r e
, .

H .
4
-
. Sp Gr . .

Tests -
blowpip e fu ses wi t h i n t umes c en c e
B e fo r e th e ,

to a w h i t e e n a me l G e l a t i n i s e s wi t h h yd r o c hl or i c ac id
. .

Occur rence — Z e o li t i c (s e e p 2 3
. .

H EU L AN D I TE .

Comp — H yd ra t ed s ili cat e of l i

ca c u m an d a u m n u m l i i .

C a O Al
.
3
. 6 S iO z 5 H z O . .

Cry st . Sy st — . M on oc li n i c .

C om . F or m — C r y s ta l s
wi th c li n opi n a c oid a n d ,
or t ho
d ome l ar g e l y d ev e lop e d a l s o gl o b u l a r .

C lean — P er fe c t p ara ll e l t o t h e c li n opi n a coid

, .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 2 39

C olour — W h i te b r i c k red b row n ,

-
, .

S trea k — Whi t e .

L ustre — Vi t r e ou s ; of c li n opi n ac oid p ea r l y ;

.
,
t ra n s
p a r e n t t o s u b t r a n s l u c en t .

Fr aet —S u b c o n c h oid a l or u n ev e n b r i t tl e
. .

H .
—4 . Sp G r
. .

Tests -
B e f o r e th e
bl o wpipe i n t um e s ces , and fu s e s .

S ol u bl e in ac id s wi t h o ut g e l a ti n i sa t ion .

Occur rence — Z e o li t i c ( ee p 2 3
s . .

H AR M OTOM E ( G r e ek , ar nios , a j oi n t , an d temuo, t o

c u t : C r oss S t on e
) -
.

Comp — H yd ra te d s ili c at e of al u m i n i u m po ta s s i u m , ,

d b ar i um ,

C ry st Sy st — Monoc li n i c
. .

Corn For m — Th e c rys ta l s a r e a lw ays c r u c ifo r m pe n e

.

t r a tion t win s m u c h r es e m bli n g t h ose of s t ilbi t e

, Th ese .

ma y b e e i th er S i m pl e t wi n s or t h ey may oc c u r a s g r ou p s ,

c on s i s t i n g o f fou r i n divid u a l s Th es e f o ur lin g s s o m e .

t i me s S h o w r e e n t ra n t a n gl es w h en c e t h e n a me c r os s
-
, ,

s to n e o r t h ey m ay p r e s e n t t h e a s pe c t o f a s q u a r e p r i s m
,

c o mb i n e d wi t h f a c e s o f a p yr a m id w hi c h l a t ter a r e r e a ll y ,

p r i s m fa c e s .

Colour — W h i t e or s h a d es of ye llow gr ey etc

.
, , , .

S trea k — W h i t e .

L ustre — Vi tr eous ; s ub t ra n s p a r e n t t o t ra n s l uc e n t .

F r act —U n ev en ; b r i t tl e
. .

H —4 . Sp G r . .

Tests — B e f ore t h e bl o wpip e w h i t e n s c r u m bl e s a n d , , ,

fu se s wi th ou t i n t u me s c en c e t o a wh i t e tr an s l uc en t gl as s .

D i s so lv e s in
h yd r oc h l or i c a c id wi t h ou t g e l a t i n i s i n g .

Occur r ence — Z eoli t i c ( s e e p 2 3 .

M ES OLI TE ( G r e ek nzesos m iddl e a n d lithos s ton e ) , , , ,

.

Comp — H yd ra t e d s ili c a t e o f a l u m i n i um li me a n d s od a
"

, .

C ry st . Sy st —Tr i c li n i c
. .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI N ER AL OG Y
C orn F. o wn — U s u a ll y
oc c u rs in t u ft s c o m p os e d o f v e r y

d e li c at e a c i c u l a r c rys ta l s a l s o s omet i m e s m as s iv e .

—
C olour V h it e or g rey i s h
V. .

L ustre — Vi tr eo u s w h e n fi b r ou s or ma s s iv e s ilk y
.
, .

Tra n s p a r en t t o t ra n s l u c e n t ; o p aq u e wh en m a s s iv e .

H —5
. Sp G r
. . .

Tes ts — G iv e s off w a t e r wh en h ea t e d in t h e c l os e d t u b e .

Wi th h yd roc h l or i c a cid it g el at i n i s e s B e fo re t h e bl ow ,
.

pip e it b ec omes o p a q ue an d fu s e s wi t h w orm lik e in

,
-

t u m e s c e n c e t o a n en a m e l .

O c cu r r ence — Z eo li t i c (s e e p 2 3
. .

U n ia x i a l S il icat e s .

G en er a l Op tica l P r op e rt ie s U n i ax i a l M i n er a l s of .

U n i a xi a l m i n e r a l s b e l on g t o t h e t e t ra go n a l a n d h e x
a g o n a l c r ys t a l s y s t e m s Th e i r form in t hi n s ec t i on .

d ep en d s on t h e s h a p e o f th e c rys ta l a n d th e di r ec ti on of
t h e s ec t i on C o mm on s ec ti on s a r e r ec tan g u l ar or s ix
.

s id e d . B e t w e e n c r o s s e d n i c o l s b a s a l s ec t i on s a r e
i s otr opi c a n d l on gi tu di n a l s ec ti on s giv e s tr aig h t e x
,

t i n c t i on .

N EP H ELI N E ( G r e e k , ne p hele ,
-

a l
c ou d b ec au s e
,

it a ssu me s a c ou l d e d a pp e aran c e w h en i m mer s e d in

n i tr i c
id ) ac .

C omp — S ili c ate of a u l mi n i u m , so di u m , and p ot a s s i u m ,

Cyr st . Sy st —
H e x a g on a l . .

Coin Form — H e x ag on a l p r i s m wi th b asa l pl a n e oft en

.
,

m o difi e d ; a l so m a s s iv e .

C lean — P r i s ma t i c i n di s ti n c t ; b as a l i m p er fec t
, , .

C olour — C o l our l e s s w h i te y ell owi s h d a r k g r e e n

.
, , , ,

b r ow n i s h e t c , .

L ustre Vi tr eo us or g r e a s y t r a n s p a r e n t t o o p a q u e
.
-
.
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL OG Y
M arialite — S ili c at e . of so di u m and a u l m i n i u m wi th
sodi um c hl or id e ,

C ry st Syst Tetra g on al
. .
-
.

C ont F orrn
. Tet r a g on a l a n d di t et r ago n a l p r i s m t er
.
-
,

m in a t e d b y p yra m id s ; a l s o oc c u r s m a s s iv e a n d g r a n ul ar
a n d so met i m e s c o l u mn ar .

C leav — P r i s mat i c
. .

C olour —W h i te or p al e s h a d e s of b l ue g r een an d re d
.
, , , .

S treak — Col o u r l ess .

L ustre — Vi tr e o u s t o p ear l y or r a th e r r es i n o u s ; t r a n s ,

p a r e n t t o n ear l y op aque .

Fract — S ub c o n c hoid a l b r i t t l e
. .

H —5—6
. . S p Gr . .

Opt . P ps ro — In t h i n
i it is r ec og n i s e d by its s ec t on s '

p r i s ma ti c c l ea vag e s h igh p ol ar i sat i on c olo u r s an d th e

, ,

p re s en c e in it of s war ms of mi n ute i n c l us i on s .

Tests — B e fo r e t h e b lowpip e f u ses wi t h i n t um e sc en c e ,

t o a w h i te gl a s s I m p erfec tly d ec o mpo s e d in h yd ro

.
-

c hl or i c a c id

Occurrence — S c a p oli t e oc c u r s e i t h er in i mp u r e li me
.

s t o n es as
, t h e r es u l t oi m et a mo r phi s m or in ig n e ous ,

r o c k s in whi c h l a t t e r c a s e it is u s u a ll y a n a l t e r a t i on p r o
,

d uc t of a b as i c pl a gi oc l as e f e l s p a r .

I D OC RAS E ( G k edios lik e an d cr asis a m ix t u r e ;

r ee , , , ,

t h e c r ys ta l s di s pl a yi n g for ms whi c h h a v e b e e n
m i st ak en f or t h ose o f ot h er m i n er a l s ) : Ves uvia n it e .

Cornp —A b a s i c s ili c a t e o f c a l c i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m
. .

C ry st Sy st — Tetrag on a l
. . .

Coin F .ow n — P r i s mat i c crys ta l s u su all y wi th p yr a mid s ,

an d p r i s m s of b ot h o r d er s a n d b a s a l pl a n e ( se e F ig 2 5 ) , .

a l s o ma s s iv e .

C lean — Not v ery di s t i n c t p ar a ll e l t o fa c es of t h e ,

p r i s m b as a l c l eav a g e mor e i mp e r f ec t s t ill .

C olour B row n g reen yellowi s h

.
-
, , .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF MI N ER AL S P EC I ES 243

S tr eak — \ Vhit e . .

L ustr e — Vi t re o u s or v it r io -
r es n i ous ; su b t r an s p a r e n t
to su b t r a n s l u c en t .

Fr act —S u bc on c h oid a l
. o r un e v en .

H . Sp Gr . .

Opt P r op s
. .
-
Th i n i l
s ec t o n s , c o o u ris a p a l e ye ll o wi s h
b r own ; r e frac t iv e i n d e x v ery h ig h a n d pol a r i s at io n ,

c ol o u r s v e r y low . I doc r a s e s o me t im es show s bea u t ifu l

z on i n g .
o

Tests — B e f or e th e b l owpip e fu s ibl e wi t h i n tu mesc en c e , ,

formin g a g r ee n i s h or b row n i sh gl as s .

Occurrence —Oc c ur s in i m p ur e li me s t on e s whi c h h a v e

.

been s u bj ec te d to m e ta mo rphi s m a s soc i a t e d wi t h gros s u ,

Iar g ar n e t woll as ton i te s c a p oli t e e t c as in t h e li m e s to n e

-
, , , .
,

blo c k s of M on t e S omma Ves u vi u s , .

Z I R C ON (Ara bi c z irh a p r ec i o us s t on e ) , , .

Comp — S ili ca te of zi r c o n i u m Z r Og S iO2 ,

. .

C ry st Sy st — Tet ra go n al
. . .

Corn For m — Tetrago n a l p r i s m c o m bi n e d wi t h te t r a

. .

go n al p yr am id fo r m s m uc h r e s e mbli n g t h o se of idoc r as e
see p a l s o in r o u n d e d g r ai n s
( . .

C lean — P a ra ll e l t o fac e s of t h e p r i s m i n di st i n c t ; to ,

pyr a m i d s t ill l es s di s t i n c t
,
.

Colour —Col ou r l es s g r ey p a l e ye ll o w gr ee n i s h red

. , , , ,

di s h b r own
-
.

S tr ea k C o l ou r l e ss
.
-
.

L ustre — Ad a m an t i n e ; t r an s p ar en t to op a q ue
. .

F r act — Co n c h oidal
. .

H Sp Gr —
f
. . .

Opt . P p ro s .
—Oc c u r s in s m a ll p r i s m a ti c c rys tal s s how ,

in g in t h i n q uar e
s ec t on a s s i c r os s s ec t i on s o r e l on g a t e d,

l on gi tu di n a l s ec t i on s ; th e f or mer be in g is otr Op ic a n d t h e ,

l att e r p ol a r i s i n g in v e ry hig h c ol ou rs Th e r e fr a c t iv e
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL O G Y
i n d e x of zi r con is v er y h ig h ca us i n g th e mi n er a l to h av e ,

a n i n t e n s e bl a c k b or de r .

Va rieties— Hy acin th —Tr a n s p a re n t a n d r e d . .

r oon — C ol ou r l e s s a n d s m o k y t i n t e d
j g
a . .

Z ir conite — G r e y o r b r o w n
. .

Tests — B e fo r e t h e bl owpip e a l on e i n fu s i b l e ; but t h e

.
,

c ol ou r e d v a r i e t i es b e c om e c o l o ur l e s s a n d t r a n s p ar e n t

wh e n h ea ted Wh en p owd e r e d a n d fu s e d wi t h s odi u m

.

ca r bo n a te an d th e, p r o d uc t di ss olv ed in dil u te h yd ro
c hl o r i c a c id t h e s o l u t io n t u r n s t ur m e r i c p a p e r or an g e
,

co l o u r p r e se n c e of zi r c o n i u m )
( .

O c cu r r ence — Oc c u r s as a p r i m a r y m i n e r a l in ig n e ou s
.

r o c k e s p e c i a ll y t h e mo r e a c id g r a n i t e n e ph e li n e s ye n i t e
, , , ,

et c . It is a l so fou n d in c r ys t a lli n e li m es ton e s g n e i s s e s , ,

an d s c h i s t s It is a l s o fo u n d in a ll u vi a l d e p os i t s as s o
.

c ia t e d wi t h p r e c i o u s s t o n e s a n d g o ld .

TOU R M A L I N E ( Ci n ga l e s e , tur a ma li) .

C — B or o ili c a te of al umi n i u m T h p
onzp s r ee t y e s of
-
. .
_

c o m p o s i t i on m a y b e giv e n a s— A lk li li
( )
I a t o u
, r m a ne ,

c o n t a i n i n g Na K o r Li ; ( 2 ) ma g n e s i um t ou r ma li n e c on ,

t a i n i n g Al M g ; (3) i r o n t o u r ma li n e ( c o mmo n t o u r m a li n e
)
c o n ta i n i n g Al a n d F e I n ter m edi a te v a r i e t i es oc c ur
.
.

C ry st Sy st — H e x a gon a l r h o m b oh ed ra l ( s ee p
. .
, .

Coni F . or m — H e x a go n a l p r i s m wi t h t rigo n a l p r i s m , ,

t er mi n a te d by r h om b o h e d r a ( s e e F ig S o me ti me s .

o c c u r s ma s s iv e a n d c o m p a c t a l s o c o l u mn a r Opp o s i t e
, .

t e r m i n a t i o n s o f c rys ta l s u s ua ll y di s s i m il a r
Gteau . R h om b oh ed r a l di ffi c u l t
-
.

—
C olour C omm o n l y bl ac k o r bl u i s h bl a c k ; mo re r a r e l y
.
-

b l u e g r e en a n d r ed a n d v ery r a r e l y c ol ou r l e s s c ol ou rs
, , ,

s o m e t i m es a r r a n g e d in z on e s a b ou t t h e v er t i c a l a xi s o f

c r s ta l s
y .

S tr ea k — C ol our l ess .

L ustr e — Vi t r eo u s ; t r a n s p a r e n t t o op a q u e .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
Cry st Sy st .
—H e xagon a l
. .

Corn For m — C rys ta l s common of ten of l a rg e s iz e on e

.
, ,

fr o m R oya l s to n in M a s sac h u s etts b e i n g s a id to w e igh

, ,

n ea r l y t wo a n d a h a lf t o n s a n d t o m e a s ur e 4 5 b y ,

2 4 i n c h es in di a met e r a n d 1 foo t in l e n g t h C r ys t a l s .

m a d e u p of h e x ag on al p r i s m p yra m id a n d b a s a l , ,

pl an e (s e e F ig 7 5 a n d p Al so . .

fo un d m as s iv e c ry s ta lli n e , .

C lean — P arall e l t o t h e b as a l pl a n e ,

i n di s t i n c t .

Colour —Em era ld g r e en a n d p a l e g r e e n

.

e m e r a ld p l bl q m r i n e ) ye ll o w
( ) a e u e
( a u a a
, , ,

whi te .

S tr ea k — W h ite . .

L ustre —Vi tre ous or res i n ous ; t r a n s

.

p ar en t t o s u b tran sl uc en t C oa r se k in d s .

op a q ue .

F mot — C on c h oid a l or une v en ; b r i ttl e .

H .
—8 . Sp Gr . .

Tests — B e for e th e
. bl owpip e a l on e b eryl a n d it s v a r i e
t i e s b ec om e c l o ud e d o th er wi s e r ema i n u na l t er ed e xc e p t
, ,

t h a t a f te r p ro tr a c t e d h ea t i n g th e e dg es of s pli n t er s be
c o m e rou n d e d .

Var i i et e s — E mer a ld — Eme r a ld g r ee n a n d p a l e g re e n

. .

A guarnar ine .
— P a l e bl ue .

B ery l —Th e c o a rs e ki n d s whi c h a r e fr o m t h e i r op a c i t y , ,

u n fi t f o r j ew e ll e r y .

Occur rence — B e ryl o cc urs as a n a c c es s o r y m i n er a l in

.

a c id ig n eo u s r o c k s g r a n i t es a n d p eg ma t i t e s in t h e d r u s e s
, , ,

of wh i c h l a r g e c rys ta l s of te n p r oj e c t a s in t h e M ourn e ,

M o un t a i n g r a n i te I t is a l s o fou n d in m e t am o r phi c
.

rocks , s c hi s t s a n d c r ys ta lli n e li m es t o n e s
,
Th e ge m .

v a r i e t i es c o me f ro m Br a zil I n di a an d S ib er i a , ,
.
 D ES C RIPTI ON OF M I N ERA L S P EC I ES 2 47

U N IAX IA L Z EO LI TES .

I nt r od u c t ion —S ee p . 2 35 .

U N I AX I AL Z EOLI TES .

Tet ra go n al .

H e x agon al .

A P O P H Y LLI TE ( G r ee k ,
pp
a hu ll izo,
o to e xfoli ate ;
b e ca u s e it e xfoli at es b e fo re th e bl owpip e) .

Comp — H yd rate d s ili ca te of ca c ul i m an d po tas s i um ,

C ry st Sy st —Te t rago n a l
. . .

Corn F or m — C r ys t al s of two h ab i ts : fi rs t c o mbin a

.
,

t io n s o f s econ d o r d e r p r i s m a n d b as al pl an e givin g fo r m s ,

wi th a c u b e lik e a s p e c t ; an d secon d p r i s ma t i c c rys ta l s

-
, ,

ma d e u p o f t h e s e c on d o r d er p r i s m an d fi r s t o r d e r ,
‘

py ra m id or of p yr am id a lo n e Al so oc c ur s mas s iv e a n d
, .

f oli ate d .

C lean — B a sa l an d h ig h l y p e rf ec t .

C olour M ilk y whi te t o c olo ur l es s g reyi s h ; so meti mes

.
-
,

g ree n i sh ye ll owi s h or r eddi s h

, , .

S tr eak —C o lo u r l e ss
. .

L ustre — Vi tr e ou s ; th at of b as a l pl an e p ear l y Tr a n s , .

p aren t t o t ran s l uc en t r a rel y op a q ue .

Fract —U n ev e n ; b r i tt l e
. .

H .
—5 Sp G r . . .

Tests —H ea t e d in c l os e d
. w at e r e x
tu b e giv e
, s O ff ,

foli a t es a n d w h i ten s B e for e t h e bl owpip e e xfoli a tes

, .
,

a n d f u s e s t o a whi t e v es i c u l a r e n a m e l c o l o u r s t h e fl a me

vi ol et ( p r es en c e of p otas s i u m) S ol u b l e in h y d roc hl or i c .

a c id wi t h s e p a r a t io n o f s ili c a
, .

O cc u r rence — Typi ca ll y z e oli t i c (s e e p 2 3

. .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
C H A B A Z I TE ( G r e e k cha ba z ios, t h e ,
na me Of a s t on e

me n t i on e d in a n old G r ee k p oe m ) .

C omp — H yd r a te d s ili c a t e of a l u m i n i u m c a l c i u m an d , ,

p ot a s s i u m ,

C ry st Sys t —H e x a g on a l r h omb oh ed r a l
. .
,
.

Coin Fown — C o mbi n a t i on s of pl u s a n d m i n u s r h omb o

.

h e d r a ; a l s o m a s s iv e .

Colour —W h i t e y ell owi s h r e ddi s h

.
~

, ,
.

L u s tr e V i t r e o u s ; t r a n s p a r e n t t o t r a n s l u c e n t
.
-
.

H —4 . Sp Gr — . . 2 o6
'

Tests .
—
B e for e
bl owpip e i n tu mes c es whi ten s a n d
th e , , ,

f u se s to a gl a s s G e l at i n i s es w i th a c id. .

Va r iety — P hacolite ( G r e e k phacos a b ea n a n d lithos , , , ,

s t on e ) — A v a r i e t o f c h a b a zi t e oc c u r r i n g in co l ou r l e s s
.
y ,

l e n t i c u l a r c rys t al s .

Occurr ence — Typi c a ll y z eo li t i c (se e p 2 3 .

I s ot r op ic S i l ic a t e s .

G e ne ra l Op t ica l P r op ert ies of I s ot rop ic M in er a l s .

— Th e s e m i n e r a l s b e l on g t o t h e c ubi c s ys t e m Th e i r .

for m in t h i n s ec t i on s d e p e n d s u p on t h e i r c r ys ta l f or m
a n d t h e di r e c t i o n o f s e c t i o n Th ey s h ow n o pl e oc h r oi s m .
,

a n d b e t wee n c r o s s e d n i c o l s a r e n o r m a ll y i s o t r o pi c , e x c e p t ,

as in l euc i t e a n d g arn e t w h en p ol a r i s a ti on ,
l
c o ou r s are

p r od uce d by s tra i n in t h e m i n e r a l .

TH E G A R NETS .

I n t r od u ction — Th e ga ( L ati n g r ana tus g ra i nr n e ts , ,

lik e) a r e e s s en t i a ll y s ili c a t e s o f v a r i ous div a l en t a n d t r i

v a l e n t m eta l s Th e i r g e n er a l for mu l a is
.

”
3 S i O z
w h,e r e R is c a l c i u m m a g n e s i u m i ro n o r m a n g a , , ,

n es e a n d R
,
is i r on a l u m i n i u m or c h r om i u m
’”

,
Th e , .

foll owi n g a r e t h e p r i n c ip a l me m b e r s of th i s g r ou p
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
Inh a r d n ess t h e g arn ets ran g e from , a n d in

s p e c ifi c g r a vi t y fr o m 3 5 — 4 2 T h e i r s t r e a k is a lw a y s .

whi t e or whi t i s h an d t h e frac t ure s u b c o n c h oid a l or ,

u n ev en .

Occurrence — G a r n e ts oc cur in c r ys ta lli ne li mes to n es

.

a n d d ol o m i t e s ; in i n t r u s iv e a n d e s p ec i a ll y in m e ta
m o r phi c r o c k s s u c h as m i c a s c hi st c hl or i te s c hi s t g n e i s s
, , , ,

e tc a n d th ey a r e a l so m e t wi t h in g r a n i t e a n d s e n i t e
.
, y .

Uses — G ar n et is m i n e d fr o m m e t a m o r phi c r oc k s in
.

t h e U n i te d S tat es a n d e l s e wh ere a n d is u s e d a s a n ,

a b r a s iv e S o me v ar i et i es a r e c ut f or g e ms to n es
. .

VA R I ETI ES O F G A R NETS .

I . G R OS S U L AR ( L a t i n , g r oss ula , a go oseb err y) .

C ornp — . C a l c i um l
a u m n um i i s ili c a t e , 3 C a O A12
0 .
3
.

3 S i 0 2
.

Cry st Sy st —C u bi c . . .

Cor n F orrn — R hom b dod ec a h e dr on

. . .

C olour — P a l e oliv e g r een or g r een i s h whi te

.
,
-
o c ca s on i
a ll y ye ll o w o r pi n k .

—
L ustre Vi tr eou s ; t ran s l uc en t .

Sp G r . .

V ar iet
y
— C innamon S tone — A c a l c i um a l u m i n i u m g ar n et
.

of a lig h t i
c nna mon l s omet i me s
c o o ur ,
y e ll owi s h .

Vi tr eo u s , i
r es n o u s , or d u ll l us t r e F l a t c on c h o id a l .

fra c tur e ; s c r a t c h es q uart z wi t h d ifli c u l ty U s ed in .

j ew ell ery . Oc c u rs in Ab er d e e n s hi r e Wi c klow and , ,

e l s e wh e re .

Occurrence .
— G r os s u l a r is c h a r a c t er s t c i i of m e ta
m or p h os ed i mp u r e lime s t on e s , m whi c h it oc c u r s a ss o c i .

a t e d wi t h o t h e r li me s ili c a t e s , id o c r a se , s ca poli te , e t c .

2 . P Y R OP E ( G r e e k puropos fi e ry) , , .

C omp -
M a g n es i u m l
a u min i u m s ili c a te ,
M
3 g O A12
0 3
. .

3 S iO z
.
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES 25 1

C ryst —C ubi c
. Sy st . .

Com Farm — R a r e l y c rys ta lli s e d u s ua ll y in r o un d e d or

.

a n g u l a r fr a g m en t s .

Colour —D eep c r i ms on or mu l be rr y c olo u r

. .

L ustre —Vi t r eous ; t ran s p ar e n t to t ran s l uc e n t

. .

Fr aet —Co n c h oid al

. .

H . Sp G r . .

Occur r ence — P yr o p e o cc urs in b aS Ic Ig n eous r oc k s

.

as soc ia t e d wi t h o livin e s e r p en t i n e et c as in S a x o n y , , .
, ,

B oh e m i a ; a l s o in d e t r i ta l d e po s i t s a s in C e ylo n , .

3.A L M A N D I NE ( p r ec io u s g ar n e t ) .

Comp — I r o n al u mi n i um s ili cate 3 F e O A120 3 3S iOZ , . . .

Cry st Sy st — C u bi c
. . .

Co m . F ar m— C o m b i n a t i on of rh o mb d od ec a h e d r o n an d

t ra p ez oh e d r on .

Colour — D e e p r ed. .

L ustre —Vi t r e o us . .

Fr act — S u b co n ch oid a l
.
, v
or un e e n .

H . Sp G r
. .

Variety — Common Garnet — A b r o w n i s h r ed t ran s l u c ent -

, ,

s ub t r an s l u c e n t or op a q u e v a r i e t s i m il a r in c o m po s i t i o n
y , ,

t o t h e ab ov e .

Occurr ence — C om mo n g a r n e t is an e x t rem el y fr e q u en t

.

m i n e ra l in m e t a mor ph i c r oc k s m i c a s c h i s ts a n d g n e i s s ; , ,

a l s o in g r a n i t e s I n d e t r i t a l d e po s i t s a s in C ey lo n
.
, .

4 S P ES S A R TITE
. .

C o mp — M an g a n e s e a u l min i um s ili ca te , 3 M n O Al2O3 . .

S i
3 02 .

C ry st . S yst — C u bi c
. .

C om m —R h omb dod eca h ed r on

. F or . .

Colour —D e ep h ya c i n th , or b r ow n i s h r e d
.
-
.

L ustre —Vi t r e ou s ; s ligh t l y tr an s l uce n t on th e

. e dg es .

F ruot —I mp e r f ec tl y c on c h oid a l
. .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER A L O G Y
H — S G
7.
p r . .

Tests — G iv e s m a n g a n es e r eac t i on b e fo r e bl owpip e

. .

Occurr ence — A r a t h e r r a r e g a rn et oc c u r r i n g in g r a n i t e s
.
,

a n d e s i t es , a n d so m e s c h i s t s .

5 A N.D R A D I T E ( c o m m o n g a rn et
) .

Comp — C a l c i u m i ro n s ili ca t e 3 C a O F ezO3 3 SiOz ,

. . .

C ryst . Sy st .
— C u bi c .

C om . F or m — R h ombd o d ec a h ed r on a n d t ra p e z o h ed ron
. .

Colour .
-
D a r k b r ow n ye ll owi s h g reen , or b r ow n i s h ,
-

g re en .

L ustre —Vi treo us op aq u e . .

H . Ov e r 7 Sp G r
-
. . .

Var ieties Colop honite A c oa r s e g r an u l a r v a r i e ty .

,

w i t h a re s i n ou s l u s t r e a n d of a d a r k r e ddi s h o r b row n i s h ,

c o l ou r N a m ed a ft e r K o l oph on a c i ty in I o n i a wh e n c e
. , ,

r e s i n wa s o b t a i n e d .

Py reneite A bl a c k or g r eyi sh b l ac k var i ety

. .

G en e ra ll y oc c u r s in s ma ll op a qu e r h o mbd od ec a h e dr a .

Oc c u r s in li m es t on e in th e P yren ee s w h en c e t h e n a me , .

M elanite ( G r e ek nzelas bl a c k ) A bl ac k v a r i e t y
, ,
.
,

e i t h e r d u ll o r wi t h a vi t r e o us l u s t r e .

Top azolite — A t r a n s p a r e n t ye ll ow or g r ee n i r on lik e

.
-

v a r i e ty .

O cc ur r ence — An d r a di te oc c u r s in ig n eo u s a n d m e ta
.

m or p h i c ro c k s of a ll ki n d s .

6. U VA R OVI TE .

C omp C a l c i um.
c h r om i u m s ili ca te , 3 C a O C r
a. .

3 S i0 2
.

C ry st . Sy st .
— C u bi c .

Co m . Fo in r .
—R h omb d od ec ah e d r on .

C olour — Em e ra ld g r een
. .

S trea k — G r e en i s h w h i t e
.
-
.

L ustre — Vi treous ; t ra n s l u ce n t a t
. t he e dg e s .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
Occur r ence — L e uc i t e oc c u r s as a p m
ri a r y o n s t i t ue n t
c

o f v ol c a n ic r o c ks , a n d
\
u s ua ll y in fre s h or r e c ent t yp e s ,

s uc h a s t h e Ve s u vi a n l a va s an d in ,
l eu c i t e b a s a l t s ,
.

l euc i te p h on oli tes l e u c i t e t e p h r i t es leu c itOph yr e s an d

, , ,

l e u c itites L e u c i t e a n d n ep h e li n e a r e th e p r i n c ip al
.
, ,

m e mb ers of t h e f e l s p a t h oid g r oup w h i c h di ff er s f r om ,

th e fe l s p a rs c h e m i c a ll y by a l ow e r p e rc e n t a g e of s ili c a .

F r ee q u a r tz an d a fe l s p a th oid n ev e r oc c ur t h er e fo re in a
ro c k t og e t h e r .

S OD A LI TE ( odsa ; an d G r e ek , lithos, st o n e) .

Comp —S il ic ate . an d c h lo r id e of so di u m a n d a l u mi n i um ,,

3 N a Al S iO4
N a C 1 . .

Cryst . Syst .
-
C u bi c .

Cain . F or m -
R h o m b d o d e c a h e d r on ; l o
a s oc c ur s mas
s iv e .

C lean —
Q R h ombdodec a h e d ra .

C olour —G r ey bl ui s h l a v e n d er b l u e yell owi sh

.
, , ,
.

S treak — C o l ou r l e s s .

L ustre —Vi tr eo u s s u b tran s pa ren t t o tr an s l uc en t

’

. .

Fmet — C on c h oid a l o r u n e v en .

H .
—6 . Sp Gt .
’
.

Opt P rop s — U n d e r t h e m i c ro s c op e
. . o c c ur s in c o o ur l
l es s i s otr opi c g r a i n s h a vi n g a r e f ra c tiv e i n d e x l ower
, ,

t h a n th a t o f C an a d a b a l s a m .

Tes ts — B e for e b l owpip e f us e s w i th i n tu m e sc e n ce to a

”

c o l ou r l e s s gl a s s D ecom p os e d by h yd r o c h l o r i c a n d
.

n i t r i c a c id s wi t h s e p a r a t i o n o f g e l a t i n o u s s ili c a
,
.

O ccu rr e nce — Oc c u r s In s od a r i c h ig n e ou s r oc k s n e p h e -
.
,

li n e s ye n i te e tc , .

L AP I S L AZ U LI L a z u rit e .

C omp — S ili c ate of a l um i n i um an d s o di u m wi t h p r ob

,

a bl y so di u m s u lp h i d e .

C rys t Sy st C u bi c . . .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 255

Com . For m — C u b . es an d rh o m bd od eca h ed r a r ar e ;

u s ua ll y m a ss iv e an d com p a c t .

C lean — I mp er fe c t r h om bd odeca h ed ra] .

Colour — B e r li n bl u e or a z ur e bl ue
.

L ustr e — Vi tr eous t r a n s l u c en t t o Op a q u e .

Fract — U n e v en
. .

H — S G
p
-
r
5 5
. . . .

Tests — F u s es wi th i n t u m e s c e n c e to a wh i t e gl a s s .

D ec o m p os e d by h yd roc hl or i c a c id wi t h e v ol u t i on o f
‘

s u lp h ur e t t e d h yd r og e n a g e l a t i n ou s d e po s i t of s ili ca ,

b e i n g l e ft Th e m i n e ra l is oft en s p a n gl e d wi th i ron
.

p yr i t es .

Occurr ence It is f ou n d in c rys ta lli n e li m e s t on e a l s o

-
,

in sye n i te s e t c , .

U ses — I t is c ut a n d p o li s h e d f or orn a m e n t a l p ur p ose s

. ,

b ut is t oo s oft t o be m u c h u s e d in j e w e ll e r y An c i e n t .

Egyp t i an a m u l e t s c a r v e d in th i s m at er i a l a r e c omm on .

W h en p owd ered l az u r i t e c on s t i t ut e s t h e bl u e p a i n t
,

ul t r a m a r i n e M os t o f th e u l tr a ma r i n e is n ow h ow e v e r
. ,
- _

a rt ifi c i a ll p r e p ar e d b y h e a t i n g t og e t h e r c l ay s odi um
y ,

c ar b on a t e a n d s u lp h u r ;
,
a n d a s t h e a r t ifi c i a l pig m en t

c os t s o n l y a b o ut on e fi f t ie th t h e p r i c e o f t h e p o wd e r e d -

mi n e r a l t h e l a t t e r h a s b e e n a l mo s t e n t i r e l y s u p e r s e d e d
, .

H a uy n e ili c a t e of a l u m i n i um c a l c i u m an d
.
-
A s , ,

s o di u m w i t h s u lp h a t e o f s o di u m a n d ca l c i u m o f a
'

, ,

b r igh t bl u e o r g r e e n i sh bl u e c o l ou r w it h a c o l ou r l e s s -
,

s tr ea k a n d a vi t r e o u s o r s o m e wh a t g r ea s l u tr e It
"

, y s .

c r s ta lli s es in t h e c u bi c s y s t e m in s m a ll o c t a h e d r a a n d
y
-

r h o m bd o d e c a h e d r a but u s u all y o c c u rs in r ou n d e d o r
“

s u b a n g u l a r gr a i n s e m b e dd e d in l av a v e s i c u l ar b as al t , ,

t r ac h yt e e t c a s a t Ve s u vi u s
, . et c
, Op t i ca l p r o p er ti e s , .
,

s e e b e l o w u n d e r N os ean .

Nos e an A
— lli e d t o h a uyn e bu t
.
,
c on s s t s i on ly of
s ili ca te of a l u m i n i u m a n d s odi u m wi th so di um s u lp h a t e .
 EL EM ENTS O F M INER AL O G Y

It is ll y of a g r eyi s h or b r ow n col our It oc cu rs in

u s ua .

som e p h on o li t es .

U n d er t h e m i c r os c op e n os ea n a n d h a uyn e a r e r e c og
,

n ise d by t h e i r w e ll m a r k e d b or d e r s d u e t o i n c l u s i o n s
-
.

H auyn e is b l ue in th i n s e c t i on B oth m i n e r a l s a r e of .
,

c o u rs e i sot r o pi c
, .

I S OTR O P I C Z EOLI TES .

I n t r od uct ion — S e p e . 23
5 .

A NA L C I M E ( G r k n ee , a a lkis , w ea k ; in a ll us i on t o it s
w ea k e l ec tr i c i ty wh en h ea t e d or r u bb e d ) .

C omp . H yd r a te d s ili ca te of so di u m ,

Cry st Sys t —C u bi c
. . .

C orn Form — C r ys t a l s th e tra p e z oh ed r on v e ry c om

. ,

m on ( s e e F ig 7 7 ) a l s o oc c urs ma s s iv e a n d g ra n u l ar
. .

C lea v C u bi c ; o b s c u r e
.
-
.

Colour —M ilk whi t e ; of ten c ol our l es s g r eyi s h g r een i s h

.
, , ,

a n d r e ddi s h w hi t e o r pi n k
-
.

S treak — W h i te .

L ustre —Vi tr eou s t r a n s p a r en t to n ea r l y opa q u e

. .

Fr act —S u b c on c h oid a l a n d un e v en b r i tt l e
. .

H — Sp G r
.
5 . .

Opt . P ps — R
ro ec o gn i se d by it s i s otr opi s m an d , r ef r a c
t iv e i n d e x l ow e r t h an t h a t o f S tra i n C a n a d a b a l s am .

p ol a r i sat i on may be s h own .

Tests — H eate d in c l os e d t u b e yi e ld s w a t er B e f or e , .

bl owpip e on c h arc oa l fu s e s to a c l ear c ol ou r l e s s gl ob u l e

, , .

G e l a t i n i s e s wi t h h yd r oc h l or i c a c id .

Occurrence — Typi c a l z e oli t i c ( s e e p 2 3

. S o m et i m e s .

r e g a r d e d a s a p r i m a r y m i n e r a l o f s o m e d ol e r i t e s .
 EL E M ENTS -
O F M I NER AL O GY

f ore d es c r i b ed in t h e i r u s ua l pl ac es wi th t h e m et alli c
m i n e ra l s . Ag a i n s u c h m i n e r a l s a s roc k s a l t fl uor s p a r
, ,
-
,

b a r yte s a n d b a uxi t e h a v e a c a se f or i n c l u s i on a s me t a lli c

m i n e r a l s b u t t h e y ar e s o m u c h a t h o me in t h e n on
,

m e ta lli c divi s i on t h a t f e w m i n e ra l ogi s t s w ou ld a tte m p t t o

e vi c t t h e m .

TI TAN I U M (Ti) .

Ti ta n i u m h a s n o t b ee n f oun d in a fr e e s ta te in n a t u re .

It is a g re yi s h m e t a l a n d r e s e m bl es t in in its c h e m i c a l
,

p rop er ti e s a n d lik e t h a t m e ta l is c a pa b l e of for m i n g t wo

, , ,

o xid e s TiO a n d TiOz On l y t h e l a tte r o c c u r s in n a t u r e

.
,

a n d c o n s t i t u te s t h e t h r e e m i n er a l s

R u t il e , TiO2 Tetra g on a l .

An a tase , TiO, Te t ra g o n a l .

B ro oki t e, TiO2 Or t h or h o m bi c .

Ti ta n i u m oc c u r s ili c at es t h e c h i e f of whi c h is
in so me s ,

s ph e n e C a O TiO S iO2 ( s e e p
, 2
. . .

Ti tan i u m ox id e O c c u r s in s o m e o f t h e i r o n or e s ; f o r

e x a m pl e il me n i t e is a n o xid e o f i r o n a n d t i t a n i u m a n d
, ,

m a n y m a g n e t i t e s c o n t a i n v a r y i n g q u an t i t i e s o f t i t a n i u m ,

givi n g t h e t i t a n ifer o us ma g n e t i te s Th e se t i ta n ifer ous .

i ron ore s w ill b e d es c r ib e d u n d er t he h ea di n g o f I ro n ,

s i n c e t h e y a r e w or k e d f o r t h a t m e ta l S om e s ma ll a m ou n t
.

o f t i t a n i u m is u s e d in t h e m e ta ll u r g y o f s t ee l t h e t i t an ,

if e r o u s i r on o r e b e i n g s o me t i m e s s m e l t e d in t h e e l ec t r o
fur n a c e di r ec t f or t h e p r o d uc ti on of fe r ro t i t a n i u m a ll oys -
.

Th e o xid e of t i ta n i u m r u t il e is n ot a ppli e d t o a n y
I n d us t r i a l p u r p os es e x c e p t f or i m p a r ti n g a pi n ki s h c ol ou r
,

to a r t ifi c i a l t e e t h a n d a ye ll o w c ol ou r t o p orc e l a i n ;
,

c e r ta i n q ua li t i es f e tc h a h ig h p r i c e o n t h e m a r k e t .

Ti t a n i u m m e t a l h a s a li m i te d a ppli c at i o n in t h e m a n u ~

f a c t u r e o f s p e c i a l s t e e l s a n d f or e l e c t r i c l a m p s
,
.
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 2 59

Tests — Ti ta n i u m m i n e r a l s c o l ou r t h e m i c r o c os m i c
. b ea d
e ll o w w h e n h ot c ol o u r l e s s w h e n c o ld in t h e o xidi s i n g
y , ,

fl a m e an d ye ll ow h ot vi ol e t c old in t h e r e d u c i n g fl a me , , .

Ti tan i u m m i n e ra l s wh e n fu s e d wi t h s odi u m ca r bo n at e
,

on c h ar c o a l di ss olv ed in h yd r ochl or i c a c id an d a f e w
, ,

g r ai n s of tin a dd ed giv e a vi ol e t sol u t i on Th e b es t

,
.

t es t f or t i t a n i u m h ow e v er is a s fo ll o w s : H e a t t h e
, ,

m i n er a l wi t h s odi u m c ar b on a t e on c h ar coal a n d di s s olv e

t h e mass in s u lph u r i c a cid to w h i c h h a s be e n a dd e d a n ,

e q u a l q u a n t i ty o f w a t e r C ool dil u t e wi t h wa te r On .
, .

t h e a ddi t i on of a d ro p o f h yd r og en pe ro xid e t h e s ol u t i on ,

b ecome s a mb er c ol ou r e d .

TI TA N I U M OX I D ES .

Th e m i n era l s whi c h c on s i s t of t i ta n i u m o xid e a re t h r ee

in n u m b e r : R u t il e (te t r a g o n a l ) a n a ta s e ( t et r ago n a l ) a n d , ,

b r ooki te ( ort ho r ho mbi c ) .

R U TI L E .

C omp —Ti tan i u m ox id e TiOz , .

r t .s —
C y s Sy t Tet ragon al . .

C ont For m
. Tet ra g on a l p r i s m s ter m i n a te d by pyra
.
-

m id s . D i tet r a gon a l for m s a l s o d e v e l o p e d

-
C r ys t a l s .

fr e q u en t l y a c i c u l a r a n d ra di a t e l y g r ou p e d in t h e i n te ri or
,

o f ot h e r m i n e r a l s e s p e c i a ll y in q u a r t z
, C r ys t a l s a t t i m e s .

t wi n n e d on t h e s e c o n d or d e r p yr a m id givi n g for m s
be n t a t a s h a r p a n gl e c a ll e d ge n i c u la t e or k n e e s h a p e d
,
-

t w in s . Twi n n i n g m a y be r e p ea te d u n t il w h ee l s h a pe d -

m u l t ipl e t w i n s r es u l t C r ys t al s oft e n s t r i at e d lon g it ud in

.

a ll A l s o c o m p ac t a n d ma s s i ve
y. .

Clean — P oo r p ar a ll e l t o t h e p r i s m s ( I 1 0 ) a n d
Colour —Re ddi s h b r ow n r ed yell owi s h a n d b l a c k In
.
-
, , , .

t hi n s ec t i on fo x y r e d .

S trea k — P a l e b r o w n .

L ustre — M e t a lli c a d a m a n t i n e op a q u e or s u bt r a n s
, , ,

paren t .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
F r aet .
— S u b co n c h o id a l or un e v en b r i t t l e .

H —6. Sp Gr . .

Tests — Al on e i n fu s i b l e . M i c r o c os m i c h ea d in ,
o x idis

in g fl a m e ye ll ow h ot c ol ou r l es s c old in r e d u c i n g fl a me
, ,

y e ll o w h o t V i o l,e t c o ld F u s e d m a s s di s.so lv e d in s ul

p h u r ic a c id t h e n ,
dil u t e d wi t h w a t e r giv e s wi t h a d r op o f , ,

h yd rog en p eroxid e an a mb er c ol ou r ed s ol ut i on,

-
.

Occurrence R ut il e oc c urs a s a p r i ma r y m i n e r a l in ac id
.
-

ig n eous roc k s a l s o in me ta mo r phi c roc k s g n e i sses — ,

m i c a sc hi s t s a n d ph ylli t e s (c l a y s l a te n e e dl es) As a c ic u
-
.

l a r c r ys t a l s in q u a r t z a n d f e l s p a r (s a g en i t i c i n c l u s io n s) .

As g ra i n s in a ll u vi a l d e p os i ts r es u l t i n g fr o m th e d es tr u c
t i on of a c id ig n e ou s roc k s As a n a l terat i on p ro d uc t o f
.

o t h e r t i ta n ife r ou s m i n e ra l s .

A NATAS E Oct a h e d r it e ( L a t i n a na tasis e r e c t io n , ,

,

in re fe r en ce t o t h e l en g th o f t h e p r i n c ip a l a xi s ) .

Co mp ose d of t i ta n i u m oxid e bu t t h ou gh te t ra g on al , ,

di ff er s from r u t il e by c r ys ta lli s i n g in s l en d er n ear l y tran s ,

p a r e n t t et r agon al p yr a mid s of a b row n c ol ou r p ass i n g ,

i n to i n dig o bl ue a n d bl ac k ; a l s o in t a b u l a r c rys ta l s wi t h
h
t e b a s a l pl a n e p r o m i n en t H a r d n e s s — 6 S p ec ifi c
.
, .

g ra vi ty , C o l o u r l e s s s tr e a k N e v e r p r i m a r y .
,

b u t a l t e rs fr o m t i t a n i u m m i n era l s Oc c u rs in g r an i te .
,

d ol e r i te s c hi s t s h a l e s sa n d s t on e a n d li mes ton e
, , , , .

B R OOK I TE
Al s o c on s s t s o f i i
t ta n u m i
id e but u n lik e r util e an d ox , ,

an at a s e ,
c r s t a lli s e s in
y t h e o r t h or h o m b i c s
ys t e m I t .
.

oc c u r s m os t l y in t h i n pl a t y h a i r b r o w n r e ddi s h a n d i r o n
, ,
-
, ,

bl a c k c r ys t a l s ta b u l a r p ar a ll e l to th e m ac ropi n ac oid
, .

H ar d n es s —6 S p ec ifi c g r a vi ty 4 It is b r i tt l e an d
, .
, .
,

h a s a c o l o u r l es s s t r e a k O c c u rr en c e a s f or a n a t a se f or
.

i n s tan c e it is c om mon in r ott e n d ol e r i tes a s a t Tr e m a do c

, ,

in Nor t h W a l e s It a l s o o c c u r s in B a v a r i a N or w a y
.
, ,

a n d B r a zil .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL O G Y
M on azi t e d s u s ua ll y c on s i s t of mon a zi t e n atu r a ll y
sa n

c on ce n t r a t e d wi t h o t h e r h ea v y m i n e r a l s s u c h a s m a g n e ,

t i t e r u t il e il m e n i t e zi r c on g a rn e t e tc
, , , S e p a r a t i on is
, ,

e ff e c t e d by e l e c t r o ma g n e t i c s e p a r a t or s t h e ma g n e t s o f
-
,

whi c h a r e a dj us t ed t o v a r yi n g i n t e n s i t i es M ag n eti t e .

a n d il m e n i t e a r e fi rs t r e m ov e d a n d m on a zi t e u s u a ll y , ,

t h e m o s t f e e b l y m ag n e t i c l as t R u t il e zi r c o n a n d ,
.
, ,

s ili c e o u s m a tt e r p a s s i n to t h e r e j e c t Th e m a n u fa c t u re .

o f t h e t h or i a f r om t h e s e p a ra t e d mo n a zi t e is a c o m pli

c a te d a n d p ur e l c h e m i ca l O p e r a t io n
y .

W h en foun d in q ua n ti ty t hor i an i t e is a v a l ua bl e sou r c e ,

o f t h or i a b u t o n l in C e l o n is i t p r od u c e d o n a c om
y, y
m er c ial s c a l e .

TH O R I A N I TE .

Conzp . Th 0 2U 3 OS
-
.

C ry st Syst C u bi c
. . .

C orn For nz —C u b e
. . .

Colour — B l a c k . .

S treak — B l ac k .

Sp . Gr .

TH O R I TE .

Conip —Th S iO4 . .

Cry st Sy st — Tetr ag on al
. . .

Colour —B l ac k . .

S treak — D a r k b r o w n .

L ustr e — Vi t r e o us on f r es h f
s ur ac e s .

C lean — P r i s m at i c .

Fr act — Co n c h oid a l
. .

H . Sp Gr
. .

M ONAZ l TE .

Comp — P h os ph a te of th e i
c er u m m et a l s wi th t h or i u m
s ili c a te .

Cry st . Sy st — M o n oc li n i c
. .
 D ES C RI PTI O N OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 263

C om . F ar m — C o mpl e x fl a t t en e d
c r ys t a s ,l co mm o n l y
p ar a ll e l t o 1 0 0 or e l on ga te d a l on g th e or th o a xi s Twi n n e d -
.

on 1 0 0 B o t h co n t ac t a n d p e n e t r a t i on t wi n s a r e k n ow n
. .

Al so occ u r s m as s iv e o r a s r o ll e d g r a i n s .

Colour — P a l e ye ll ow t o d a r k r e ddi s h b r o wn
.
-
.

S trea k —W h i t e . .

L ustre —Re s i n ou s . .

C lean —B as al u s ua ll y im p er f ect .

F r aet —C on c h o id a l oru n e v e n
. .

H . Sp Gr . .
—5 .

Opt . P p ro s — R e fr a c t iv e in dex , D ou bl e r e fr ac t i on
p os i t iv e 0 4 5 ; , op . ax . pl pe r p en di c u l a r t o 0 1 0 an d n ear l y
.

p a ra ll el to 1 0 0 .

It oc c u r sg r a n i t e s a n d p e g m a t i t e s b u t on a c o m
in ,

mer c ia l s ca l e it is o b t a i n e d on l y f r o m s a n d s wh e r e a
c e r t a i n a mo u n t o f n a t u r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n h a s g o n e o n .

TU N G S TEN ( W ) .

Tun g s t e n i s n ot fou n d n ativ e b u t is p r od uc ed in th e

,

for m of a g r e yi s h bl ac k -
p o wd e r wh i c h h as a s p ec ifi c
,

gr a vi ty of a b o ut 1 7 .

Th e na me t un g sten wa s fi r st use d by C r on s t e d t , an d

s ign ifi e s h ea v y s t on e .
”

Th e c h i e f o re is w o lf r a m ,
w h i c h is u s ua ll y a s soc i ate d
w i t h t i n s t on e a n d f o r a l on g t i m e t h e s e p a r a t i on o f
,

t h es e m i n e r a l s wa s a m a t t e r o f s o m e di ffi c u l t y It is .

e ff e c t e d both by e l e c tr om a gn e t i c s e p a r a t i on an d by ,

r oa s t i n g t h e c r u s h e d or e w i th s odi u m ca r bo n a t e by ,

whi c h op er a t i on s odi u m t un g s ta t e is for m ed a n d th e t in ,

or e s c a n be r e m o v e d In t h e c a s e o f s e e ra l tin m i n i n g
. v -

c o m p a n i e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f w o lf r a m e n a bl e s p r o fi t s t o b e

m a d e w h i c h bu t f or th e
, m ix e d m i n era l s wo u ld be “

i m p os s i b l e .

Tun g s t en or es ( c h i e fl y w olfr a m ) a pp e a r on th e m ar k e t
in t h e f o r m o f c o n c e n t r a t e s v a r y i n g b e t w ee n 6 0 p e r c e n t
, .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL O G Y
and 7 0 p e r c e n t g s t i c a c id ( VVO3 ) an d a r e p u r c h a s e d
. tu n ,

on t h e b as i s o f t h e i r t u n g s t i c a c id c o n t e n t S e v e n t y pe r .

c e n t ma t e r i a l i s e x c e p t i on a ll g oo d q u a li t a n d g r a d es
.
y y ,

l ow er t h a n 6 0 p e r c e n t a r e s a l ea bl e b u t a r e s u bj e c t t o
.
,

p e n a li s a t i on .

Th e w or ld s p r od uc t i on o f t u n g s t e n or es in 1 9 1 2
’

a m ou n t e d t o r at h e r o v er t on s o f c o n c en t r a t e s ,

e s t i m a t e d f o r t h e p ur p os e s o f c a l c u l a t i on
, at a n a v er a g e ,

of 6 0 p er c en t W O B u r m a a n d th e S h an S t a t e s p r o
3
. .

d u c e d a b out ton s P or tu g a l a b out

, t on s a n d ,

t h e U n i t e d S t a tes a b ou t ton s Th e 1 9 1 2 p r od u c t i on
.

wa s th e l a r g es t in a n y on e yea r Th er e d oe s n ot a pp ear
"

t o b e a n y s l a c k e n i n g in th e d e m an d .

U ses eta — Th e c h i e f u s e of t u n g s t en ( e i th e r as m e ta lli c

,

t u n g s t e n o r in th e f or m of f e r r o t un g s t e n a ll oys p ro d u c e d
,
-

in t h e e l ec tr i c f u r n a c e ) is f o r t oo l s t e e l s O th er u s e s a r e .

f o r t h e ma n u f a c tu r e of e l e c t r i c fil a m en t s Tu n g s t en s a l t s .

a r e us e d a s m o r d an t s a n d f o r fi r e r oo fi n p u p os e s
p g r -
.

Two o xid es of t u n gs t e n a r e k n ow n — W O2 a n d WO3 .

W O3 is k n ow n by th e n a m e of t u n g s t i c a c id a n d f rom ,

it a r e for m e d v a r i ou s s a l t s c a ll e d t u n g s t a t e s s e v e r a l o f ,

w h i c h oc c ur a s m i n er a l s Tun g st i c a c id W 0 o c c u r s
.
, 3,
a s t h e m i n e r a l t un g s t i c o c h r e f ou n d a s a n a l t e r a t i o n
,

p r o d u c t o f t h e m i n e r a l t u n g s ta t e s Th e t u n g s t e n .

m i n er al s a r e
Ox ide Tu n g s t i c oc h r e W O , 4

W olfr a m ( F
H u b n e r i t e M n W o4 ,
.

Tungstates
F er b er i te ( R e in it e ) F e W O4 , .

S c h ee li te C a W O4 ,
.

Tests —Tu n g s t e n s a l t s c ol o ur t h e m i cr oc os m i c b ea d
.

b l ue in th e r e d u c i n g fl a m e Tun gs ten m i n e ra l s f u s e d
.
,

wi t h s odi um c a r b on a t e an d di s s olv e d in hyd r oc h lo r i c

ac id giv e on t h e a ddi t i o n o f a s m a ll pi e c e o f t in o r zi n c
“

, , ,

a bl ue s ol u t i on w h en h e a t e d .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL O G Y
Occur rence — W olf r a m . p n e u m a t o l yt i c v e i n s
oc c u r s in
s ur ro un di n g g r a n i t e m a s s e s a s in C or n w a ll ( S t Au s t e ll ) , .
,

Z i n n w a ld M a l a y B olivi a e tc
, ,
As soc i at e d m i n er a l s a r e
, .

t i n s ton e a n d q ua r t z Th e di s i n teg r at i on of t h e s e t in
.

w olf r a m v e i n s r e s ul ts in th e f or ma t io n of a ll uvi a l or
pl a c er t in an d w olfra m d e p os i t s ; s u c h d e p os i ts a r e
w or k e d in m an y o f th e l oc a li t i e s m en t i on e d a bo v e .

W olf r a m may a l so be foun d a s a meta som at i c d e pos i t ,

r e pl a c i n g li m e s t o n e .

S C H EELI TE .

Comp — Tu n gs tate of c al c i um Ga wO4 , .

C ry s t Sy st —Te t rag on a l
. . .

Com Fow n— C rys ta l s are t etra gon a l p yram id s va r i ou s l y

.
,

m odifi e d by o th er a n d l e s s s ym met r i c a l p yr a mid a l fac e s .

U s ua ll y o c c ur s r en if or m w i t h a c o l u mn a r s t r u c t ur e ; a l s o
,

m a ss iv e a n d g r a n u l ar .

a —
C le n P er f e c t p a r a ll e l to th e p yra m id .

Colour —Y e ll owi s h w h i te or b row n i s h s o me ti mes

.
,

a l mo s t o r a n g e ye ll o w -
.

S tr eak — W h i t e .

L ustr e V i tr e ou s i n c li n ed t o a d a man t i n e
.
, tr a n s
p a r e n t t o tr a n s l u c e n t .

Fr oot — U n e v en b r i tt l e
.
,
.

H .
—5 Sp Gr . . .

Test — Tu n g s t en r ea c t i on in b o ra x b ead bl u e in r e d u c ,

in g fl a m e Th e f u s e d mas s o b ta i n e d by h ea t i n g on c h ar
.

c o a l wi t h s odi u m c a r b on a t e a n d c h a r c o a l w h e n di s s olv e d ,

in h yd r oc h l or i c a c id a n d t in a dd e d giv e s a bl u e s ol u t i on , .

Occur r ence — S c h e e li t e oc c u r s u n d er t h e sa m e c i r c u m
.

s ta n c e s a s w o lf r a m a n d h u b n e r i t e — th a t is in v e i n s as s o ,

c ia t e d wi t h t i n s t on e q u a r t z t op a z a n d o t h e r m i n e r a l s
, , ,

o f p n e uma t o l yt i c or igi n a s a t C a ld b e c k F e ll ( C u m b e r,

l an d ) C or n w a ll Z i n n w a ld H a r z S a x on y D r a g on
, , , , ,

M o un ta i n s (Ar iz on a ) a n d Tr u mb u ll ( C on n ec t i c u t), .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 267

TA NTA L U M ( Ta ) .

Tanta lum meta l is p r od u c e d by m ean s of t h e el e c tr i c

f u rn a c e It is a h a r d w h i te d u c t il e m et a l o f gr ea t
.
, ,

t e n s il e s t r en gt h h a vi n g a s p ec ifi c gr a vi ty o f
,
and a

m e l t i n g p oi n t of
-
5 0 t o 2 3o o C°
I t s i n d u s t r i al u s e s
,
°
.
,

wh i c h a r e s ma ll a t p r e s e n t i n c l u d e t h e m a n u fac t u r e o f
,

s m a ll l a b or a t ory c r u c ibl e s e l ec tr i c fil am e n t s a n d f or
, ,

s p e c i a l s t e el s s u c h as d e n t a l a n d s u r gi c a l i n s t r u m e n t s
, .

F or t h e a ddi t i on t o s t ee l it is m o r e u s u al to e m pl oy f e r r o
ta n t a l u m a ll oy s wh i c h a r e m a d e fr o m t a n tal i t e in t h e
,

e l e c t r i c fu r n a c e Th e on l y s ou r c e of an y comm er c i a l
.

i m p or tan c e is th e mi n e r a l ta n ta li t e w h i c h is s old on a
b a s i s of 6 0 p er c en t Ta 20 5 a n d w h i ch is c h i e fl y obta i n ed
.
,

fr o m th e n e igh b ou r h oo d of G r een b u sh es in W es tern ,

Au s t r a li a wh e r e it a l s o oc c u r s in a s soc i a t i on wi th t in
,

s t o n e an d w o lf ra m P r ob a bly n ot m o r e t h an 1 0 0 ton s in
.

al l h a v e b e en e xp or t e d a n d s i n c e 1 9 0 9 n on e h as t h e r e
,

b e en m i n e d owi n g to th e s m a ll d em an d .

A p ar t of th e ta n ta l u m in ta n ta li te is a l mos t i n v ar i a bl y
r e pl a c e d by t h e c l ose l al li e d m e ta l columbi urn ( n i o bi u m )
y ,

a n d wh en t h e a m ou n t o f t h e l a tt e r e x c e e d s t h e f o r me r ,

t h e m i n e r a l is k n ow n u n d e r t h e n a m e o f c ol u mb i t e
n i ob i t e
( ) .

TA NTAL I TE C ol u mb it e .

Cmnp —N i ob a t e a n d t a n ta l a t e of i ro n a n d ma n g an e s e
. .

Cry st Sy st — Or th o r h o mbi c
. . .

Com For ni —Oc c u r s as e l o n g a te d c r ys ta l s wi t h se v e r a l

. .

p r i s m s ma c r o a n d b ra c h yp in ac oid s on e or mor e
, ,

p yr a m id s m a c r o a n d b ra c h yd ome s an d b a sa l pi n aco id
, , .

Th e mos t c omm on t wi n pl an e is a f a c e o f th e b ra c h y
do me Of t e n m a s s iv e .

Colour — B l a c k g r e y o r b r o wn
.
, S ome t i m e s ir i
, .

d e s c en t .

S tr eak — D a r k r e d to bl a c k .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
L ustre — S u b meta lli c to s u b r e s in ous
. .

C lean — 1 0 0 an d 0 1 0 Th e for m er is . the mor e p er fec t .

Fr act —S u b c on c h o id a l to u n ev e n
. .

H —6. . Sp Gr
. .

M O L Y B D EN U M ( M o ) .

M o l yb d e n u m d oes n ot oc c u r in a fr ee s tate in n atur e ,

bu t m a y be p r e p a r e d f r om it s s u lphid e ( m o l yb d e n i te )
di r ec t in t h e e l e c t r i c f u rn a c e or by th e r ed uc t i on of its
,

o xid e by m ea n s o f c a r b on o r b y t h e Th e r m i t p r o c e s s (s ee
,

u n d er Al um i n i u m) Th e m e ta l h a s a s p ec ifi c g r a vi ty of
.

a b o u t 9 m e l t s a t a b o u t 2 oo o C a n d is whi te or g r e y i s h
°
, , .
, ,

a nd b r i tt l e M ol yb di c a c id ( M 0 0 3 ) is s o m e t i m e s m e t
.

wi th a s t he m i n e ra l molybd in e or m ol yb di c oc h r e a n d ,

r es ul t s f r o m t h e s u r fa c e a l t e r a t i on o f ot h er m o l ybd e n u m

m i n er a l s .M ol yb di c a c id for m s s a l ts k n ow n a s molyb
d ate s ; w u lfen i te is l ea d m ol ybd ate P b M oO4 M ol ybdi c ,
.

a c id is e mpl oye d on l y in t h e l a b or a t or y Amm o n i u m .

mol ybd ate is a s p e c i a l re ag en t f or t h e d e t ec t i on of p h os

p h o r ic a c id a ,s m a ll q u a n t i t y a dd e d t o a n a c id s o l u t i on

c on ta i n i n g ph o s p h a t e s p r od u c i n g a f t e r s om e t i m e a ye ll o w

p r ec ipi tat e ; a l so u s e d in maki n g e xplo s iv e s .

Th e p r i n c ip a l u se of mol ybd e n um is in th e m a n u
fa c t ur e o f s p ec i a l s te e l s a n d f or t hi s p ur p ose fe rro
,

m ol ybd e n u m a ll oy is f r e q u e n t l y u se d in pl a c e of th e m eta l .

M o l ybd en i t e ( M OS2) is th e on l y s ou r c e o f i mp or ta n c e ,

a n d o r e s c on ta i n i n g it c a n be r ea dil y c o n c en t r a t e d by a

c o m bi n a t i on o f t a b l e d r e s s i n g a n d o il fl ota t ion
-
It is a -
.

wid e l y di st r ib ut e d or e bu t f r e q u en t l y oc c ur s in s ma ll
,

v e i n s or v ery fi n e l y scatter e d t h rou gh th e r oc k M olyb

, .

d en it e c on c e n t r a t es a r e u s u a ll y so ld a t s o m u c h p e r u n i t
on a b a s i s o f 9 0 t o 9 5 p e r c e n t M OS b u t s a l e s o f low e r
.
,
2
g r ad e s c a n be e ff ec t e d Th e w or ld s p r od u c t i on of
.
’

m ol ybd e n i te p r ob a b l y d o e s n ot a m oun t t o m or e th an a
f e w h u n d r e d t on s a n n u a ll y b u t t h e d e m an d a pp e a r s t o
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
C olour — L ea d g r ey . .

S trea k — G r ee n i s h l ea d g r e y (cf G ra phi te ) . .

L ustre — M eta lli c op a qu e s e c t il e a n d a l mos t ma ll ea b l e

.
, , ,

H —1
.

e a s il r t h d b fi n e r n a il Sp G r
y s c a c e y g
-
. . . .

Tests — H eat ed in tub e fume s o f s u lph u r di oxid e ; ,

ye ll ow g r ee n fl a m e -
H eat e d on c h a r c o a l y i e ld s a s tron g
.

s u lph u r o u s o d o ur c o a t s c h a r c o a l wi t h e n c r us t a t i on o f
,

m ol yb d en u m o x id e whi c h is ye ll o w h ot whi te c o ld
, , .

Whi te en cr u s tat ion b l u e wh e r e t ouc h e d wi t h r ed uc i n g

fl a me c opp e r r e d n e ar as sa y ; m i c r oc os m i c b ea d g r e en
, .

Occurrence — F o un d in p eg m a t i t e d yk es a n d q u a r tz
v e i n s a s a t Q u e b ec C an a da ; Nor w a y a n d New S ou th
, , ,

W a l e s Or igi n al or a s a n i mp reg n a t i on as a m i n e ra l o f
.
,

c o n ta c t m e ta mo r phi s m a l s o .

Use F or s t e e l h a r d e n i n g
.
-
.

U RAN I U M ( U ) .

U ra n i u m whi c h Is n o t fo un d n a t iv e is a h a r d whi t e
, , ,

m e ta l h a vi n g a s p ec ifi c g ra vi ty o f 1 8 7 a n d m e l t i ng a t a
, ,

whi t e h e a t It is a c on s t i t u en t o f t h e r a r e m i n e r a l s
.
,

pi tc h b l e n d e ( uran i n i t e) a nd c a r n ot i t e whi c h for m t h e ,

c hi e f so u r c e s of u r a n i u m M e ta lli c u r a n i u m is p r e p a r e d
.

by r e d u c t i on o f i ts o xid e wi th ca r b on in t h e e l ec t r i c f u r
n a c e b u t it is c o mme r c i a ll o f b u t li t t l e i m po r t a n c e In
, y .

fa c t pi t c hbl en d e a n d c a rn ot i te a re p r a cti ca ll y w or k e d
,

s ol e l f o r t h e i r o n t e n t o f r a di u m w hi c h is c o n t a i n e d in
y c ,

a ll u r a n i u m m i n e r a l s .

U ra n i u m f or ms t wo o xid e s a n d fro m t h e s e a c om pl ex ,

g r oup of uran i u m s a l t s is d e r iv ed Th e u s es of t h e o xid es .

a s s uc h a r e v e r li m i t e d c h i e fl y in gl a s s s ta i n i n g a n d
y
-
,

p h o tog ra ph y .

Th e r e is p ra c ti c a ll y n o ma r k et f o r ur an i u m b ut t h e ,

d e ma n d f or r a di u m is o n t h e i n c r ea se a n d t h e m in era l s ,
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 271

ar e v al u e d di n g t o t h e i r pe r cen t ag e of U SOS whi c h

a c c or ,

a lw a ys ca rr i e s a d e fi n i t e p r o p o r t i o n o f r a di u m Th e .

so u r ce s o f t h e m i n e ra l s a r e f e w The U n i t ed S ta t es ar e .

s t a t e d t o h a v e p r od u c e d in 1 9 1 2 ca rn o t i t e e q u iv a l e n t t o

a b o u t 2 5 t o n s of U 3 0 8 fr o m t h e d ep o s i t s of C o lo ra d o a n d

U a t h S
. o m e pi t c h bl e n d e is o b t a i n e d fr o m C o r n w a ll
a n d Au s t ra li a b u t t h e p r i n c ip a l s o ur c e is J oa c hi m s t h a l
, ,

in B oh e m i a .

The c hi e f u r an i u m m i ner a l s a r e

U ra n i c oc h re , U 0 3
Ox id es m
( 2
.

l P it c h b l e n d e , U 3
O 4
.

U r a nites
To r b e rn i t e ,

Au t u n i t e ,
C a rn ot i t e v a n ad at e
,
of U and K .

Tests —In t h e m i c r oco s m i c be a d ur an i u m c o m po u n d s

.
,

giv e a lig h t mos s g r een c ol ou r , b ot h h ot an d c old in t h e ,

o xidi s in g fl a m e .

P I TC H BL EN D E U r a n in it e .

Comp —Ver y v a r i a bl e M ay b e c on s id er e d as a u ra n a te .

of u r a n i u m u ra n y l og et h e r w i t h t h or i u m zi r con i u m
( ) t , , ,

l ea d e tc S p ec ifi c n a me s — c lev ite b rogg eri te e tc

,
.
, ,
.

h a v e be e n giv en t o pi t c h bl en d e s o f v a r y i n g c o mp os i t i o n s .

C rys t Sy st —C u bi c
. . .

Corn For m — C ommon l y oc c ur s m a s s iv e b o tryo ida l o r

.
,

in g r a i n s .

Colour — Ve lv e t bl a c k g r eyi s h o r b r ow n i s h
.
, .

L us tr e — S u b m e ta lli c gr eas y pi tc h lik e an d d u ll

.
, ,

op aq ue .

S tr ea k — B l a c k o ft e n wi th a b r ow n i s h or g r ee n i s h
,

t i ng e .

H . Sp G r ( a s s iv e ) to 9 7 ( c rys t al li s e d )
m . . .

Tests — B e for e t h e bl owpip e a l on e i n fu s ibl e Wi t h , ,

.

s o di u m c a r b on a t e i t is n o t r e d u c e d bu t u s u a ll iv e s an
y g ,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
i of l ea d oxid e a n d may e v olve a n ar s en i c a l
e n c r u s ta t on ,

o d ou r . Wi t h b ora x o r m i c roc o s m i c s a l t it giv es in t h e

o xidi s i n g fl a m e a e llow a n d in t h e r e d u c i n g fl a m e a
y ,

g r een he a d of u ra n i u m D i s s olv es s l ow l y in n i tr i c a c id
.

wh en p owd e r ed .

Occurrence — U r a n i n i t e occ u r s a s a p r i mar y c on s t i t u e n t

.

o f ig n eou s r oc k s g r a n i t es a n d p e g m a t i t e s
, or in v e i n s of

l ead t in an d C opp er m i n er a l s a s a t J oa c hi ms t h a l ( B oh e
, , ,

m ia) a n d J o h an n g e or g en s t a d t ( S a x on y) a n d a t m an y ,

l ocali t i e s in Co r n wa ll a n d e l s ewh er e .

Uses — Th e pi t c hbl e n d e o f j oac hi ms t h a l is t h e c h i e f

s ou r c e o f r a di u m .

U r a n ic Och re U r a n oc h r e U ra con ite — A h yd ra t e d

, ,
.

s u lph a t e of u r a n i u m occ u r r i n g in a n e a r t h p u lv er u l e n t
, y
c o n di t i on a t J oa c hi m s t h a l C or n w a ll C a lli n gt o n e t c , It , , .

is of a l e mon ye ll o w or or a n g e c olo u r
-
.

Z ip p eit e —Ava r ie ty of t h e a b ov e mi n er a l b ut con ta in s

.
, ‘

mor e s u lp h u r i c a c id an d s o m e t i mes ov er 5 p e r c e n t of
, .

co pp er o xid e It oc c u r s in d e li c a t e a c i c u l a r c r ys t a l s
.
,

r o se tt e s a n d w a r t c r u s ts a n d a c c o m p a n i e s u r a n i c o c h r e
y ,
.

B e for e t h e bl owpip e wi t h m i croc os m i c s a l t it giv es in t h e

, ,

o xidi s i n g fl a m e a e llowi s h g r e e n a n d in t h e r e d u c i n g
y
-
,

fl a me a n e mer a ld g r een b e a d -
.

C a r n ot it e — A v a n a d a t e o f u r a n i u m a n d p ot a s s i u m
.
,

fou n d a s a n i mp r eg n a t i on in s an d s ton e in C olo ra d o( In

c o l o u r it is c a n a r e ll o w I t is of i m p o r t a n c e a s a so ur c e
y y .

o f r a di u m .

U RA N I TE .

Th i s n a m e e mb r a c e s t wo s p e c i es
1.Tor b er n i te c opp er u r a n i te
, ,

Te t r a g on a l .

2.Au tu n i t e li me u r a n i t e
, ,
Or
t h or h omb ic .
 EL E M ENTS OF M INER AL OG Y
S tr eak .
— Y e ll owi sh .

L ustr e — S uba da m a n t in e.
, or c ea l v a g e fac es p ear l y .

H 2 . Sp Gr
-
. .
—3 o 5'

Te s
s t —G iv e s n o r ea c t i on f or
. co pp er , oth e r wi s e it s
b eh avi ou r wi th r ea g e n ts r es e m bl e s th at of to r b e r n i t e
a a b ov e
(q u .
) .

Occur r ence . As f or t o r b ern i t e .

C H R O M I U M ( C r) .

C h r om i u m n e v e r fou n d in n atu re e x c e p t in c om bi n a
,

t i o n is p r od u c e d by r e d u c t i on o f its o r e s by c a r bo n in t h e
,

e l ec t r i c f u r n ac e or by th e Th e r m i t p r oc e s s d e s c r ib e d
,

u n d er Al u m i n i um It is a b r illi a n t w h i t e m e t a l h a vi n g a
.
,

s p e c ifi c g ra vi ty of a b o ut 6 a n d m e l t i n g at a b out ,

2 o oo
,
C It p os s e s s e s th e p r o p e r t i e s o f i m p ar t i n g t o
°
.

i ron a n d s tee l a h igh d eg r e e of h a r d n es s an d ten a c i ty ,

a n d f or t h a t rea s on h a s b eco m e in r e c e n t ye a r s o f g r e a t

i n d ustr i a l i mportan c e F or th i s p u r p os e a n all oy of i r on

.

a n d c h r om i u m ( fe r r o c h r o m e p r od u c e d in th e e l e c tr i c
-
,

f u rn a c e) is c o m mon ly u s e d it is c h ea p er to m a k e m e l t s
, ,

a t a l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d is c o n s e q u e n t l y b e t t e r u n d e r
,

c o n t ro l t h a n t h e p u r e m e ta l Th e c omp ou n d s o f c h r o m i u m .

a r e a l s o o f c on s id e r a bl e i n d u s t r i a l i m p or t a n c e a n d a r e ,

u s e d a s pig m e n t s a n d in v a r i ou s i n d u s tr i e s s u c h a s d y e i n g , ,

t a nn i n g a n d p h ot og r a p h y
, C h r om i te is a l so u se d in t h e .

m an u fa c t u r e of r e f r a c tor y b r i c k s f or f u r n a c e li n i n g s .

Th e c hi e f sou r c e o f c h r om i u m is c h r om i te (c h r o m e i r on
o r e ) a n o xid e of i r on a n d c h r o m i u m F e O C r 0
, T h e , .
2 3
.

w or ld ’s p r od uc t i on of c h r om i te is p r ob a bl y u n d er
t o n s a n n u a ll y ; th e p r i n c ip a l p r o d u c i n g c o un t r i es in or d e r
o f i m p o r t a n c e a r e N e w C a l e d on i a R h od e s i a R u s s I a a n d , ,

G r ee c e .

Tests — C h r om i u m mp ou n d s p r od uc e a fi n e gr ee n
co

l
c o ou r in bo th b ora x a n d m i c r oc o s m i c b ea d s .
 D ES C RI PTI O N OF MI N ER AL S P EC I ES 2 75

C H R OM I TE : C h r o mic I r on C h r o m e I r on
, Or e .

C omp — Oxid e of i r on a n d c h r o mi um F e O C rzOs ,

. .

C ry s t Sy st — C u bi c . . .

C orn Fown —Oc c u r s in oc tah e d r on s b u t is c o mmon l y

.
,

foun d m a s s iv e h a vi n g a g ran u l a r or c o m p a c t s tr uc tur e

,
.

Colour —l ron bl a c k a n d b r own i s h bl a c k

.
-
.

S tr eak — B r ow n .

L ustr e — S u b m e ta lli c o ft en fa i n t
. , .

Fmot — U n e v en s om e ti m es ra t h e r ,
flat b r i tt l e .

H . Sp Gr . .

Tes ts — I n f u s ibl e in
. xidi s i n g fl a m e w h il e in th e t e o ,

d uc in g fl a m e it o n l y b e c om es s lig h tl y r o u n d e d o n t h e
e dg e o f s pli n t e r s w h i c h o n c ooli n g a r e ma gn e t i c
,
R ed uc e d .

on c h ar c oa l t o m ag n e t i c o xid e B o r a x a n d m i c r oc o s m i c .

b ea d s b ea u t if u l C h r o m e g r e e n
,
Th i s c o l o u r may be -
.

r e n d e r e d m o r e i n t e n s e b y fu s i on on c h ar coal wi t h me ta lli c

t in .

Occurr ence — C h r o m i t e p r i ma r y m i n e ra l of
oc c u r s as a

u l t ra b a s i c r oc k s p e r id o t i t e s a n d t h e i r a l t e r e d r e p r e s e n t a
, ,

tiv es s e r p en t i n e s
,
U s u a ll y t h e c h r o m i t e oc c u r s a s s m a ll
.
,

g r a i n s b u t by th e s egr e ga t i on of th es e g r ai n s or e b odi es
,

m a y b e f or m ed a s t h os e o f Nor wa y R h o d es i a S myr n a
, , , ,

a n d Ne w C a l e d on i a Th e s e or e b o di e s c o n s i s t o f a p e r i
.

d o t it e e x t r e m e l y r i c h in c h r o m i t e B e i n g v e r y o bd u ra t e .
,

c h r o m i t e o c c u r s in d e t r i t a l d e p o s i t s .

M AN G A NES E ( M n ) .

M a n g an ese d oe s bi n e d s tate in
n ot occ u r in u n c om

n atu re b u t m a y lik e c h r o m i u m b e p r o d u c e d in t h e
, , ,

e l ec t r i c f u r n a c e a n d b y t h e Th e r m i t p r oc e s s s ee u n d e r
(
Al u m i n i u m ) It is a li g h t pi n k y g r e y m eta l m e l t i n g a t
.
,
-
,

a b o ut 1 9 oo a n d h a vi n g a s p ec ifi c g r a vi t b
°
C , .
, y o f a o u t
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
U ses , etc .
— Th ei f a ppli ca t i on o f m an gan es e is in
ch e

th e m a n u fa c t ur e of a ll o ys s uc h a s s pi e g e l e i s en a n d f e r r o
,
-

m an g a n es e c on t a i n i n g fr o m 1 5 t o 8 0 p e r c en t m a n ga n es e
, .
,

a n d s ili c o ma n g a n ese c on t a i n i n g f r o m 1 5 t o 2 5 p e r c e n t
-
, .

s ili c on a ll o f w h i c h ar e u se d a n d a r e o f g r e a t i m p o r t an c e
, , ,

in th e s t ee l i n d u s tr y .

Th e c h i e f s ou r c es o f ma n g a n e s e a n d it s s a l t s a r e th e
o xid e m i n e r a l s P yr ol u s i t e is a l so u sed a s s u c h f or a
.
, ,

n u m b e r o f p u r po ses s u c h a s t h e d ecolo r i s a t i o n o f gl a s s
, ,

a s a d r ye r in t h e m a n u f ac t u r e o f p a i n t a n d v a rn i s h a n d ,

in d r y b a tt e r i e s a n d v e ry l a r g e l y f or t h e m a n u fa c tu r e o f
,

c h l or i n e,
b r om i n e a n d o x yg en of p er man ga n a tes a n d
, ,

o t h e r m a n g a n e s e c o m p ou n d s Th e p e r m a n g an a te s of .

s odi u m a n d p o tass i um a r e u s e d a s di s i n fe c ta n ts .

F or c h e m i ca l u s es a h i gh p e r c e n ta ge of m a n g a n e s e in
t h e fo r m o f p e r o xid e is d e man d e d 8 0 p e r c e n t M n , .

b e i n g ta k en a s t h e b a s i s p r i ce L i me s h ou ld b e p r e sen t .

in q u a n t i t i es l es s t h a n 2 p er c e n t F or m eta ll u r gi c a l .

p u r p os es 5 0 p er c en t M n is a c o m mo n b as i s Or es . .

o f i r o n c on t a i n i n g m a n g a n es e a r e s me l t e d di r e c t f o r t h e

p r o d u c t i on of man g a n es e pig i r on but s u c h or es s h o u ld -

,

b e r eg a r d e d a s i r on or e s a n d t h e ma n ga n e s e w o uld n ot b e
,

p a id f or e x c e pt a t t h e s a me r a t e as i r on .

Th e w or ld s p r od u c t i on o f m a n g an e s e or es a mo u n ts
’

t o a b ou t t on s a nn u a ll y Th e c h i e f p r od uc e rs .

a re I n di a R u s s i a B r a zil a n d G e r m an y
, , , .

M a n g a n ese is v e r y wid e l y di s tr i b ut ed a n d r e pl a ce s t o a ,

r ea t e r o r l e s s er d e g r ee t wo s e t s o f e l e m e n t s : F i r s t t h e
g ,

a lk a li n e e a r t h s c al c i um
,
b a r i u m a n d m a gn e s i u m ; a n d
, ,

s e co n dl y , a lumi n i um an d i r on P ur e l y ma n gan es e .

m i n e r a l s o f t h e g r ea t es t i mp or ta n c e ar e th e o xid e s oth e r s ,

a re t h e c a r b on a t e s ili c a t e a n d s u lp h id e
, M a n g a n e se
,
.

m i n er a l s a r e t h er e f or e
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
th e a l t era t i on o f r oc k s c on ta i n i n g m an g a n e s e b ea r i n g -

m i n e ra l s s ili ca t e s etc
, B y t h e w ea t h e r i n g o f s u c h r oc k s
, . ,

t h e ma n g a n e s e a gg r e g at e s t o g e t h er a s n od u l e s a n d l a yer s
in t h e r e s id u a l c l a y w h i c h f or m s on t h e o ut c r o p o f
,

w ea th e re d r oc k Th us is for m ed a r e s id ual or l a t e r i t i c
.

d e p os i t ; s u c h d e p os i ts a r e w or k ed in I n di a B ra zil a n d , ,

Ar k a n s a s I t will be s e e n t h a t a l l d e p o s i t s o f m a n g a n es e
.

o xid e s h a v e b e e n f o r m e d b t h e b r e a ki n g u p o f t h e ma n
y
g an es e b ea r i n g m i n era l s of ig n e ou s an d m e ta mor phi c r oc k s
-
.

B y t h e me ta m o r p h i s m of s e di m en t a r y or r es id u a l ma n
g a n e s e d e p os i ts t h e re a re for m e d w or k a bl e d ep os i ts of
h a u sm a n n i te b r aun i te a n d fr a n kli n i te a s in S w e d en
, , , ,

P i ed mon t a n d at F ra n kli n F u r n a c e U S A
, , . . .

Tes ts . M a n g an es e m i n e r a l s g iv e di s t i n ct iv e b ea d
r ea c t i on s Th e b or a x a n d m i c r oc os m i c s al t b e a d s a r e
.
-

r e ddi s h vi ol e t in t h e o xidi s i n g fl a m e a n d c o l o u r l e s s in t h e
-

r e d uc i n g fl a me Th e s o di u m ca r bon at e hea d is bl u i s h
.
-

g re e n .

P Y R O L U S I TE ( G r e e k pur , ,
fi re , and l uo, to w a s h f r om ,

i ts p ow er of re movi n g the g r e en and b r ow n t i n t s

fr om c ommon gl as s) .

C omp — M a n g a n e s e di ox id e M n Oz , .

C ry st Sy st — M ay be or th orh o mbi c u s ua ll y p seu d o

. .
,

m or p h ou s .

Coin Fown — Oc c u rs in p s e u d omor ph s a f te r man ga n i t e

.
,

p oli an i t e etc U s ua ll y oc c u r s ma s s iv e or r en if or m a n d
, .
,

s o m e t i m e s wi th a fib r o u s a n d r a di a t e s t r u c t u r e .

Colour —; I r on gr ey or d a r k s t e e l gr ey
. .

S tr eak — B l a c k or b l u i s h bl a c k s o m e t i me s s u b me t a lli c -
,
.

L ustr e — M e ta lli c op aq ue
. .

Fr act — R a th e r b r i tt l e
. .

H — 2 —2 5 ; o fte n s o il s th e fi n g e r s
°

Sp Gr . . .

Tests — B or a x b e a d ; a m e th ys t in o xidi s i n g fl a m e c ol ou r ,

l e s s in re d uc i n g fl a me M i c roc os m i c b ea d r ed vi ol et in
.
,
-
 D ES C RIPTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 2 79

o xidi s i n g fl am e . S odi u m car b on at e b ea d , o p a q ue b l u e

g ree n .

Occurrence —S ee p 2 7 7 . . .

Us es — S ee p 2 7 6
. . .

P ol ian it e — M a ng an es e di o xid e M n Og
. H ar d n e ss , .
,

6 S p e c ifi c g r a vi t y 5 Lik e p yr o l u s i t e in a pp e a ra n c e
,
.

a n d c ol o ur S o m e t i m es s h ows m i n ut e t e tr a g on a l c r ys ta l s ;
.

i s omor p h ou s wi th t i n s ton e S n Oz Oc c u r r en c e as f or , .

o t h er o xid e s o f m a n g a n es e .

P S I L OM ELA N E ( G r e e k psilos s mo ot h a n d inelas , , , ,

bl a c k ) .

Comp — H yd ra t e d o xid e of ma n g an ese w i t h or w i th out ,

va ryi n g a mo un ts o f b a r i u m a n d p otas s i u m .

Far m — Amor p h ou s .

C om Fown — Am or p h ou s m a s s iv e b ot r y
.
, ,

o id a l r e nifo r m a n d s t a l a c t i t i c ( s e e F ig
, ,
.

Colour —I r on bl a c k p a s s i n g i n to da r k
.
,

s t e e l gr e y .

S treak — B r o wn i s h bl a c k a n d s hin i n g
.
-

L ustr e — S ub me ta lli c l oo k s a s if a n
.
,

a tte m p t h a d b ee n ma d e t o poli s h t h e
m i n e ra l ; o p a q u e .

H —5 — 6 Sp Gr
F IG
. . . .

Tests H ea te d in c l ose d t u b e giv e s PSI LO M ELAN E

.
, .

wa t e r Wi t h b o r a x a n d m i c r oc o s m i c b ea d s
.
,

giv es th e u s u a l a m e th ys t c o l ou r e d b ea d S olu b l e in -
.

h y d roc h l or i c a c id wi t h e vol u t i on o f c hlor in e '

.

Occur r ence — S e e p 2 7 7 . .

U ses — S e e p 2 7 6 .

W A D (in a ll u s i on to th e w a ddi n g lik e for m s ome t i mes -

a s s u m e d by t h e mi n era l Th e n a m e wa d is .
“ ”

a ppli e d t o g ra p h i t e in C u m b e r l a n d
) .

C omp — V ery v a r i a bl e bu t r e s e mbli n g t h a t of p s il o ,

mel an e .
 EL EM ENTS O F M I NER AL OGY
Coin Fown — Amor p ho u s e ar th y r en if or m a r b or es
.
, , ,

c e n t e n c r u s t i n g o r a s s t a i n s a n d d e n d r i t es
, ,
Of t e n l oo se l y .

a gg re g a t e d .

Colour —D ull b l a ck bl u i s h l ea d g rey b r ow n i s h b l a c k

.
, , ,
-
.

L ustre — D u ll ; op a q ue
. .

H 5
— 6 u
-
s u a ll y q u i t e s o f t Sp G r — 3 . . .

Tests — B e f ore t h e b l o wpip e giv es t h e u s ua l ma n ,

a n es e r ea c t i on s wi t h t h e fl u x e s
g .

Var ieties —Ear thy C oba lt As bolan —A v a r i e ty of wa d , . ,

c on t a i n i n g s o me t i m e s a s m u c h a s 2 r c ent of c o bal t
3 p e .

o xid e .

L amp adite — An oth er v a r i ety whi c h yi e ld s somet i mes

.
,

a s m u c h a s 1 8 p e r c e n t o f c o pp e r o x id e .

Occur rence —W a d r es u l t s f r o m th e d e c om po s i t io n o f
.

o t h e r ma n g a n e s e m i n e r a l s a n d g e n e r a ll o c c u r s in d a m p
y , ,

low l y i n g pl a c e s ( s e e p
Uses — Not a s v a l ua b l e a s th e t wo p r ece di n g m
-
.

i n e ra l s ,

b ut is s o met i m e s u se d in t h e ma n ufac t ur e of c hlo r i n e ,

a n d a l s o s e r v e s f or u m b e r p a i n t ( s ee a l s o p .

H aus ma nn it e .

Comp —M an g anese o xid e M n 3 O ,

C ryst Sy s t — Te trago n a l
. . .

C orn For in Co m mon l y oc c u rs in pyra mid a l f orms ;

. .
-

freq uen t l y t wi nn ed Al so ma s s iv e a n d g ra n u l ar . .

Colour —B r ow n i s h b l a c k
.
-
.

S tr eak — Ch es tn u t b r ow n
. .

L ustre —S u bmeta lli c op a q ue

. .

Fract —U n e v en . .

H 5.
-
S p G r . .

Tests — U s u a l m an ga n e s e r e ac t on s i wi th th e fl u x es .

Occur rence —S ee p . 2 77 .

B ra u n it e .

Comp — Oxid e m an g an e s e , a Os , u s u all y wi t h

of

a b out 1 0 p e r c e n t o f s ili c a ; m a y t h e r e for e be c o n s id e r e d

.

a s a s ili c a t e o f m a n g a n e se .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER ALOG Y
C lean — P a ra ll e l t o th e f a c e s o f t h e r h omb oh e d ron
i e in th r e e di r e c ti on s
. .
, .

Colour —Va r i ou s s h ad e s of r os e r e d ye ll owi s h g r ey

.
,
-
,

a n d b r ow n i s h .

S tr eak — Whi t e .

L ustre —Vi tr e ous i n c li n i n g t o p ear l y ; t ra n s l u c en t to

.
,

s ub t ra n s l u c e n t .

F met — U n e v en ; b r i ttl e .

H . Sp Gr . .

Tests — B e f or e bl owpip e
. i n f u s i b l e but c h an g e s to , ,

g r e y b r own a n d bl ac k a n d d ec re pi ta te s s tr on gl y G iv e s
-
, .

t he u s u a l m an g a n es e a m e th ys t i n e c o l o u r t o t h e b or a x or
m i c r oc o s m i c b e a d s D i s so lv es w i th e ff e r v e s c en c e in
.

wa r m h yd r oc hl or i c a c id On e xp os ur e t o th e a ir th e .
,

r e d v a r i e ti e s l o s e c ol o u r .

Occur rence — Oc c u r s a s a v e i n s ton e in l ea d a n d s ilv e r

.

l ea d ore v e i n s ; a l s o a s a meta so ma t i c r epl a c e m en t of

li mes to n es .

R H O D O N I TE ( G r e e k , r hodon , a r os e) : M a ng a n es e
S p an
Com — M an ga n es e s ili c a t e , M n O S i0
p .
2
. S om e o xid e
of i r on , ca c u l i m , ma g n e s i u m , or zi n c us ua ll y p r e se n t
, .

S om e car b on ate u sua ll y p r es e n t ,

ca u s i n g it t o e f fe r v es c e

wi th a c id .

C ry st Sy st — Tr i c li n i c
. .

C oin For m — Ta b u l a r c rys ta l s ; c om mon l y mas s iv e

.

a n d c l e a v a bl e .

C lean — P er f e c t p ar a ll e l t o p r i s m .

Colour — F l es h r e d ligh t b r ow n i sh r ed g r een i s h or

.
,
-
,

y e ll o wi s h w h e n i mp u re a n d o ften bl ack on e xp ose d

,

s ur fa c e s C ol ou r d a r k en s on e xp os ur e oft en b ec ome s
.
,

n ea r l bl a c k f r o m ddi t i n a l o xid a t i on of t h e ma n
y a o

g an e s e .

S tr eak — W h i te . .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER A L S P EC I ES 283

L ustre — Vi t r eous ; t r a n s p ar en t t o op a q u e ; u s ua ll y
.

t r a n s l u c e n t o r op a q u e .

Fr act —U n e v e n ; oc c as i on a lly c on c h oid a l ; v ery t ough

.

wh en mas s iv e .

H . Sp Gr . .

Tests — B e f or e bl owpip e bl a c k e n s an d fu s es wi t h s ligh t

,

i n tum es c en c e In th e o xidi s i n g fl a m e giv es a ma n gan es e

.

r eac t i o n wi t h b or a x a n d m i c r oc o s m i c s a l t .

Var iety — F owler ita — A v ar i e ty co n ta i n i n g zi n c . .

Occurr ence Oc c ur s a s a v e i n s t on e in l e a d an d s ilv e r

.
-

l ea d v e in s ( a s at B r ok en H ill as s oc i a t ed wi t h ,

di a l ogi te an d q ua rt z .

Uses — R h od on i t e w h e n c u t a n d po li s h e d is s o m e t i me s
, ,

u s e d f or o r n a m e n t a l i n l a id w o r k It ma y a l s o be u s e d .

f or i m p a r t i n g a vi o l e t c o l our t o gl a s s ; a n d on s t on e
wa r e w h e n m ix ed wi t h th e c om mon s al t gl a zi n g it
, ,

f orm s a bl ac k or if s p ar i n gl y u se d a d ee p vi o l e t bl ue
, ,
-

gl a ze .

AR S EN I C ( As ) .

Ar s en i c is fo un d n at iv e u s uall y as s oc iat ed wi t h ot h e r
,

m et al s in c om b i n a t io n it is v er y wid e l y di s t r ib u t e d a n d ,

oc c ur s in m o s t p r it io m in e r a l s a n d in s u lp h u r I t i
y s .

u s ua ll y ob t a i n e d fr o m m i s pi c k e l a r se n i ca l p yr i t e s ) by
(
di s t ill a ti on in r e tort s R es u bli me d ar s e n i c is an e x tr e m e l y
.

b r i t tl e s t ee l gr ey m eta l of a b r illi an t l u s t r e an d ha vi n g a
,
-
,

s p e c ifi c gr a vi ty of I t is e m pl oye d in s ma ll q ua n t i ti e s
in t h e m a n u f a c t ur e o f s h ot a n d c er ta i n a ll oys b u t it s ,

c h i e f u s e is as t h e o xid e w h i t e a r s e n i c o r a r s en i ou s
“

a c id As O ) in th e m an u fa c t u r e o f i n se c t i c id es a n d f or
( z s ,

us e in gl a s s ma ki n g pig m en t s a n d
-
, a n t i fo u li n g c om
,
-

pos i tio n s In C or n w a ll a n d D e v on w h i t e a r s en i c is
.

r efin e d f r om t h e vol a t ili s e d c r u d e o xid e o r soo t “ ”

,

o b t a i n e d by r o a s t i n g m i s pi c k e l o r t in an d o t h er o r e s In .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
th e U n t e i d S t a t es it is hi efl y ob ta i n ed a s a by p rod uc t
c -

f rom th e s mel t i n g of c opp er or e s .

Co mpl et e s tat i s t i c s of th e w or ld s p rod uc tio n of a rsen i c

’

a r e n ot a v a il a bl e bu t in 1 9 1 2 it p r o b a bl y a mo un t e d t o
,

a bo ut t on s of w h i c h En gl a n d p r od u c e d
, t on s ,

a n d th e U n i t e d S t a t e s a b o u t t on s .

Th e econ omi ca ll y i m po r ta n t m i n e r a l s of a r s en i c a r e
mi s pi c k e l ( F e AS S ) a n d r ea lg a r (AS S ) Ar s e n id es a n d .

s ul p h a r s e n id es a r e v e ry c o m m o n a s m i n e ra l s B ri efly .
,

it ma y be s t a t e d t h a t ar s e n i c d e p os i t s a re of fo u r m a i n
typ es : ( 1 ) M i s pi c k e l d e po s i ts b e dd e d wi t h s c hi s t s ;
m i pi c k e l a s v e i n s wi th S n ( Co r n w a ll B oh e mi a ;
( )
2 s ) ,

lg nd o r pi me n t a s a go f m i pi ck el
3) r e a ar a s s an o s

( T r a n s y lv a n i a ,
Chi n a ) (4 ) s u l p h a r se n id e s of N i C o C u , , ,

Pb ( Fre i b e rg S ud b u r y an d H a r z )
, , .

Th e c hi ef a r s en i c m i n e r a l s a re t h e r e f or e

Na t iv e i
ar s e n c , As .

Oxide Whi t e a rse n i c ,

ASZO3 .

Or p ime n t, AszS a
S ulp hi des f .

[ R ealg a r , AS S .

M i s pi c k e l F e As S
S ulpha rseni des
, .

C ob al ti te C oAs S , .

K upfern i c k el NiAs
Arseni des
, .

S ma l t i te COAS T ,

Tests — Ar sen i c co mpo un ds

wh en h eate d On c h arcoal
,
.

giv e a white en c ru stat ion f ar fr o m t h e a s say an d a t t he ,

s a m e t i me f u mes h a vi n g a g ar li c od o u r ar e e mi t t e d .

H eated in t h e op en t ub e a r s en i c com po un d s giv e a whi te

,

s ub li ma t e H eated in t h e c l os e d t u b e wi t h sodi u m c a r
.

b o nate a bl ac k ar sen i c m i r ro r is fo r med

, .

NATI VE A R S EN I C .

o m —
C p Arsen i c , As ; often wi th s o me ant i mo n y , and

t r ac es of o t h er m e ta l s .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI N ER ALOG Y
H . 2 Sp Gr -
. . .

Tests — H e a te d in l
d t u b e r e ddi s h yell ow s ub li
c os e ,
-

mat e . H ea te d on c h a r c oa l w h i t e s u bli mate f a r f r om ,

a ss a y wi t h s m e ll o f g a r li c
,
H eat e d in Op en t u b e w h i te
.
,

s u bli m a t e a n d g ar li c s m e ll .

O ccu r rence — Oc c u r s in v e i n s a ssoc i at e d wi th a n t i m on y

o r e s a s a t K a p n ik in Tr a n s y lv a n i a K oo r d is t a n in As i a t i c
, ,

Tu r k e y et c It a l s o o cc u rs a s a d e po s i t fro m s o m e h ot
, .

s p r i n g s a s a t S t e a m b o a t S p r i n g s N e v a d a e tc
, an d a s a , , .
,

s u bli m a t e fr o m v o l c a n oe s a t Na pl e s e t c , .

R EA L G A R .

C onip Ar s e n i c s u lp h id e , AS S
. .

C ry s t Sy s t — M on o c li n i c
. . .

Cor n Form — P r i sm a t i c c r ys ta l s ,
. ra r e ; u s ua ll y o c c u rs

m as s iv e g ran u l ar an d .

Colour —F i n e r e d or o ra n g e
.
,
.

S treak —R e d o r o r a n g e .

L ustre — R e s i n o us ; t ran s p aren t

. t o tra n s l u cen t .

Fraet —C on c h oid a l or un even

. .

H — I S—2
.
‘

. Sp Gr
. .

Tests — As f or o r pi m en t ( s ee a b ov e p , .

Occurr ence — Oc c u r s
d wi th or pi m en t t o whi c h
a s soc a t e i ,

m i n e r a l it c h a n g e s o n e xp os u r e Oc c u r s a s d e p os i t s f r om .

h ot s p r i n g s a n d a s a v o l ca n i c s u b li ma t e Co mm on in .

v e i n s wh e r e it ma y oc c u r a s n es ts or n od ul es in c l ay or
, ,

as s oc i a t e d wi t h c i nn a b a r as in Tu s c a n y G a li c i a an d
, , ,

S pai n .

M I S P I C K EL Ar s en ica l P yr it es , Ar s en o P y r it e -
.

Comp . S u lph a r s e n id e o f i r on F eAs S In Some , .

v a r i et i e s c ob a l t is p r e s e n t r e pl a c i n g s om e o f t h e i r o n
, ,

f rom mere t ra c es up t o 9 p er c e n t .

Cry st Sy st — Or t ho rh o mb i c
. . .

Com For ni — P r i s m m os t l y t e r m i n a te d by h or iz on ta ll y
.
,

s t r i a t e d pl a n e s of t h e b r a c h yd om e ; a l so m a s s iv e .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 2 87

C ieno — P a ra ll el to fa c e s o f p r i s m
. .

Colour — Tin wh i t e or s ilv er w h i t e i n c li n e d t o s tee l

.
, ,

r
g ye , a n d t a rn i s h i n g p a l e c o pp e r c o l ou r on e xp os u r e .

S tr eak — D a r k g r e y i s h bl a c k -
.

L ustre — M e t al li c . .

F r act — U n e v en ; b r i t t l e G iv es s p a r k s wh en s tru c k
. .

w i t h s t e e l a n d t h e n e m i t s o d ou r of g ar li c
,
.

H .
5 5 6 -
S p G r -
. . .

Tests —B e for e t h e
. b l owpip e giv s ri se , e to a r sen c a i l
fu m es an d fu s es t o a
,
e c r acted b gl ob u l w h i h is att
y t h e ,

m a g n et I n c l os e d t u b e gi v e s fi r s t t h e r ed s u bli ma te o f
.
,

a r s e n i c s u lp h id e an d s ec on d t h e bl a c k s u bli m a t e o f n a t iv e
,

a r s en i c w i th h yd roc hl or i c a c id giv e s s u lp h u r , .

Occur rence — Oc c u r s in t in c opp e r a n d e s p ec i a ll y l e a d , ,

a n d s ilv e r v e i n s Ex a m pl es of t h e p n eu ma t ol yt i c v e i n s
.

n an d c o pp er a r e t h os e of C o r n w a ll Ta vi s t oc k B o f a l
( t i ) , ,

l oc k D olc oath etc ; of t h e h yd at ogen et ic v ei n s ( l ead

, , .

a n d s ilv e r a r e t h os e of A n d r ea s b e r g r z ib r a m
) ,
P an d , ,

S a xo n y .

A NTI M ONY ( S b) .

An t i m on y in f r e e sta te is of e x tre mel y r ar e oc c u r r en c e

a .

Th e c h i e f s ou r c e of t h e m e ta l is t h e s ulp h id e s t ib n i t e ,

a n t i m on i t e b S w i c h is w id e l y di s t r ib u t e d b u t f o un d
( ) S 2 3
h , , ,

in wor k a bl e q u a n t i t i e s in c om p a r a t iv e l y f e w l oca li t i es ,

M et a lli c a n t i m on y is a t in wh i t e v e ry b r i tt l e m e ta l w i t h , ,

a c ry s t a lli n e s t r u c t ur e It h a s a s p ec ifi c g r a vi t y of .

a n d m e l t s a t 6 30 C F or t h e p r o d u c t i on o f t h e m e t a l
°

.
,

t h e su lp h id e f r ee d f r om it s g a n g u e b y liq ua t i on is r e
, ,

d u c e d in r e v e r b e r a t or y f u r n a c e s or t h e c r u d e ore is v ol a ,

t il is e d in a bl a s t f u r n a c e a n d t h e c on d e n s e d f u m es r e d u c e d
,

in r e v e r b e r a t ory fu r n a c e s On th e m a r k e t t h e liq u at e d .

s ulp h id e is ca ll e d c r u d e an t i m on w i l ”
y
“
h l e t h e m e t a is ,

Th e fi r s t q uali ty of r e fi n e d
”
c a ll e d r e gu l u s o f an t i m on y .

a n t i mon y is k n ow n a s s ta r a n t i m o n wi g f ”
y o n t o t h e e r n ,
2 88 EL E M ENTS O F M IN ER AL OG Y

lik e ma r ki n g s on it s f
s ur a c e . i mon yTh e c h i e f us e of ant

is in t h e p r od u c t i on of a ll oys s u c h a s typ e a n d a n t i ,

f r i c t i on meta l s a n d p ewt er It s c om p oun d s a r e u s e d in

.

pig me n t s a n d in m e di c i n e An ti m o n y or e is u s ua lly s old

.

on a 5 0 p er c e n t b a s i s g o ld a n d s ilv er b e i n g p a id f or by
.
,

s o m e s m e l t er s m or e p ar t i c u l a r l y in F ra n c e wh e r e t h e
, ,

v ol a t ili sa t i on p r o c e ss is em plo yed An ti mon i a l l ea d or e s .

,

fr ee f r o m gold an d s ilv er a r e c om mon l y s m e l ted di re c t

,

f o r h a r d or
“ “
a n t i mo n i a l l ea d Th er e a r e n o a c c u r at e .

s t at i s t i c s p ub li s h e d b u t th e w or ld s p r od u c t i on o f m e t a l
’

p r ob a b l y a m ou n t ed t o som ewh er e r o un d
’

t on s in
1912 . Chi n a is th e l a r g es t p rod u c er ot h er s our c es o f or e ,

a n d m e ta l b e i n g F r a n c e Aus t r i a H u n g a r y I ta l y J a p a n
,
-
, , ,

P or t ug al et c Non e is p rod uce d in th e U n i te d S ta tes

, . .

Th e m i n er a l s of an t i mon y a r e of t h r ee t yp es : F i r s t l y ,

t h e s u lphid e a n t i m on i t e S b2S 3 ; se c o n dl y t h e o xid es ;

, , ,

th i r dly t h e s ulp h an timon id e s

,
An t i m on y m i n er a l s a r e
.

t h en

Element Na t iv e a n t i m on y S b , .

S en a r mon t i te, s O3 (c u b i c ) .

Va l e n t i n i te S b20 3 ( o r th O
Ox ides ,

r h om b Ic ) .

C e r va n t i te S b20 3 S b20 5
, . .

An t i m on i te s Sa ,
.

K e r me s i te 2 s Sa S bZO3 , . .

a me s on i t e 2 P b S
j s s S ,
. .

F a ma tin it e , 3 C q .
s S5 ( s ee

S ulphantimonides p ,

B o u r n on i t e ,

( s ee p . e tc .

Th e ox id e s w ea t h er e d p r od uc ts of th e s u lp h id e
oc c u r a s

or es ; s u lphid e an t i mo n d e p o s i t s o c c ur c hi e fl y a s v e i n s
y .

Tes ts An t i mo n y c o mp ou n d s h e a t e d on c h a r c oa l giv e
.
-

a wh i t e e n c r u s ta t i on n e a r t h e a s s a ; h ea t e d in t h e o p en
y
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
F ract .
—S ub c on c h oid a l ; s ec t il e ; b i tt l e
r , bu t th in
Q

l a mell ae s ligh tl y fl e xibl e

, .

H —2. Sp Gr . . .

Tests — H ea t e d in o p en tu be
i m on i te giv e s off a n t i
, an t

m o n on s an d s u lp h u r ou s fu me s t h e ,

f o r m er c o n d en s i n g a s a whi te n on
v ol a t il e s u b li ma t e wh il e t h e l a t t er m ay ,

be r e c og n i s e d by th e o d our On c h a r .

c oa l f u s e s a n d giv e s a whi te e n c ru s t a
,

t i on n ea r t h e a s s a y ; a l s o fu s e s e a s il y
in t h e fl a m e o f a c a n dl e .

Occ u r r ence —Oc c u r s in v e i n s a s s o

.

c ia t e d wi t h o t h e r a n t i m o n y or e s an d ,

h a vi n g q u a r tz d o l om i t e c a l c i t e o r
, , ,

b ar yt es a s a v e i n s ton e a s in C or n
, ,

w a ll W e stph a li a S a x on y e tc
, , , .

U ses — An t i m on i te is t h e c h i e f s ou r ce
.

o f t h e a n t i mon y of c o mm e r c e An t i .

m on i to h a s l on g b e en u s ed in S yr i a
F IG SQ — A NTI
E
f or d a r k e n i n g th e e ye lid s
“
:

M O N ITE .

J A M ES ON ITE .

C onip — S u lphid e
. l e a d a n d a n t i mon y 2 P bS Sb2S 3
of , . .

C ry st Sy st Orth or h om bi c
. . .

Cor n For m — Ac i c u l a r c r ys ta l s o fte n wi th fea th er lik e

. .
,
-

fo r ms ( pl u mos i te or fe at h e r or e ) a l s o fi br ou s or m a s s iv e
, .

C lean — P er fe c t b a s a l .

Colour —D ar k l ea d g r ey
,

. .

S tr eak —G reyi s h b l a c k
.
-
.

L ustr e — M eta lli c .

H — 2—
.
3 Sp G r
.
—6 . . .

Tests —An t i mon y r e a c t i on s in op en t u b e H eate d on .

c h a rc o a l wi t h so di u m c a r b on a t e a n d c h a r c o a l giv e s m e ta l ,

l ic hea d of l ea d S o l u bl e in h yd r o c h l or i c a c id p r e c ipi ta te
.
,

of l e a d c hlo r id e b e i n g for m e d on c ooli n g .

Oc c ur r en ce — Oc c u r s wi t h an t i mon i te in Co rn w a ll e t c , .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 29 1

K e r mes it e . R e d Ant imon y , 28 b 8

2 3
8 b 2
.0 3 . Col our
r ed , r e s u i m on i t e
l t s f rom a l ter at io n of a n t .

C erv a n t it e S b20 3 S b20 5

, Y e ll o w . . .

S e n ar mon t it e S b20 3 W h i te
, . .

Va l e n t in it e S b20 3 ,
.

BI S M U TH ( )
B i .

B i s mu t h oc c u rs f r ee s tate in n a tur e often as s o

in t h e ,
~

c ia t e d w i t h s ilv e r g o ld c opp er l ea d
, , a n d o th er m e ta l s , , .

It is a g r eyi s h wh i te m e ta l w i t h a s ligh t l y r e ddi s h t i n g e

-
, ,

l us tr ous an d v ery br i tt l e a n d h a vi n g a s p ec ifi c gra vi ty of

, ,

a n d me l t i n g at 2 6 4 C B i s mu th is o bta i n e d by
°
.

s m e l t i n g it s o r e s in s m a ll r e v er b e r a tor f u r n a c e s or
y
c r u c ibl e s Th e ma i n sou r c e is n a t iv e bi s m ut h but it is
.
,

a l s o f oun d in t h e a n o d e s li m e s f rom th e e l e c trol yt i c ,

r e fi n i n g o f c o pp er a n d l ea d Th e ma r k e t f or bi s m u t h is
.

v e ry un c e rta i n an d t h e r e a r e n o r eli a bl e sta ti s t i c s of

,

p rod uc t i on a v a il a bl e bu t it may be ta k en a s so me wher e

,

r ou n d 40 0 t on s in 1 9 1 2 of w h i c h p r o b a b l y t wo t hi r d s
,
-

c a m e fr om B olivi a Oth e r s o u rc e s a r e Au s t ra li a P e r u
.
, ,

an d S p a i n Th e u ses of b i s m ut h ar e li m i t e d F Ii s ible
me ta l is an a llo y o f b i s mu th l ea d a n d t in whi c h m
. .

, el t s , ,

a t 94 5
°
C B i s mu th sa l t s ar e u sed in me di c i n e
. .

Th e m i n er a l s of b i s mu t h a r e
Element Na t iv e b is m th B i , .

Oxide B i s m ut h o c h r e bi s m u t hi te B I O , ,

S ulp hide B i s m u t h i n e B izS 3 , .

Th e o xid e w eath er i n g p rod uc t of t h e oth er

oc c u r s a s a

or e s. Th e s u lph id e is foun d in v e i n s a s s oc i a t e d wi t h
t in ( B o livi a ) ; th e n a t iv e m e t a l is a s s o c i a t e d wi th Co b a l t

Tests .
-
B i s mu t h co m po un d s , w h e n h ea te d on c h a rc oa l
wi t h so di u m ca r b on a te an d c h a r c oa l giv e a b r i tt l e
, ,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
me ta lli c b ea d H ea t e d wi t h p ota s s i u m i odid e an d s ul ph u r
.
,

bi s mu th c o m p ou n d s giv e a n en c r u s ta t i on ye ll o w n ea r t h e ,

as s a y s c a r l e t in t h e ou t e r p a r t s
,
S ol u t i on s o f bi s mu t h .

s a l t s b ec o me m ilk y on t h e a ddi t i on o f w a t e r owi n g t o t h e ,

f o rma t i on of i n s ol u bl e b as i c c o m po un d s whi c h are r e ,

di s solv e d on th e a ddi t i on o f ac id s .

NATI VE B I S M U TH .

Gorup —B i s mu t h B i S ome t i m es wi t h
.
,
. t r ac e s of s ul

ph ur ar s en i c a n d t e ll ur i um
, , .

Cry st Sy st —H e x a g on a l r h om b oh e d ra l
. .
, .

C om F own — Oc c ur s in r h om b oh e d ra m u c h r e se m
.
,

b li n g c u b e s in f or m U s ua lly foun d ma s s iv e foli at ed o r .

, ,

g ran ul ar ; a l so in r et i c u l a te d or pl umose for m s .

l a —
C e n P ara ll el t o th e fac e s o f t h e r h om b oh e d ron an d ,

p er f ec t .

C olour —S ilv er whi te wi th a fa i n t t i n g e o f r e d

.
, .

S tr eak —S ilv er whi te .

L ustre — M etalli c eas il y tarn i s h e s op aqu e .

Fract — Wh en c old b r i ttl e ; wh en h eated it is s om e

.
, ,

wh at mall eab l e se c t il e .

H — 2—2 5 Sp Gr °
. . .

Tests — H e a te d on c h ar c oa l n a tiv e bi s muth f uses a n d

.
,

vol at ili se s f or m i n g a n ora n g e r ed en cr ustat ion W h en

,
-
.

f use d in a l a dl e it c rys ta lli ses r e a dil y D i s solv e s in n i tr i c

, .

a c id wi t h s ol u t i on b e c o m i n g m ilk y wh en w a ter is a dd e d .

H e ate d on c h a r c oa l wi th potas s i u m iodide an d s u lph u r ,

giv e s a b r illi an tl y c ol oure d en c r us t at i on yellow n ea r ,

assay s ca r l et f a r th e r a w ay
, .

Occurr ence — Oc c urs in v e i n s a s soc i ate d wi t h t in an d

.

s ilv e r m i n e r a l s a l s o wi th p r i t es c o pp e r p r i t e s q uar t z
y , y , , ,

etc .
,a s in B o livi a e t c , .

U ses — Thi s is t h e on l y or e f rom whi c h t h e bi s muth of

c o mm e r c e is p r o c ur e d i n a n y q ua n t i t
y .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
Te t ra dy m i t e ( bi s mu th ) .

Tellurides H e s s i te (s ilv e r) .

C a l av er i te (g old ) .

S ylv a n i t e p e t zi te (gold a n d s ilv er )

, .

S ulphtellur ide N a gya gi te ( gold a n d l ea d) .

Th e ll ur id es a r e e x tr e me l y i mp or tan t s o ur c es of gold
te ,

a n d oc c ur a s v e i n s i m p r eg n a t i on s a n d l e n t i c u l a r d e p os i t s
, ,

in C o l o r a d o ( C r ippl e Au s t r a li a ( Ka l
n d Tr a n s lv a n i a
g o o r l ie
) a y
Tes ts —Te ll ur i u m c om po un d s wh en h e a te d in t h e
, .

c l o s e d t u b e wi t h s t r on g s u lph u r i c a c id giv e t h e l a t t e r a
,

b r illi an t r e ddi sh vi ol et c ol our -

.

NATI VE TELL U R I U M .

Comp —Nea rl y p u r e ll i u m wi th
te ur , a li tt l e g old and

I ron .

Cryst Syst H e x a gona l

. .
-
.

C orn Fown — C r ys ta lli s e s in h e x ag on a l p ri s ms wi th th e

.

ba sa l e dg es modifi e d mostl y foun d ma s s iv e an d g ran ul a r .

Colour Tin whi te .

-
.

S treak — Tin whi t e . .

L ustre M e ta lli c ; b r i tt l e
.
-
.

H —2. Sp Gr . .

Tests — H e a te d in th e p e n t ub e it form s a whi te s ub

o

li m
.
,

a t e of t e ll u r o u s a c id whi c h f u s e s t o s ma ll t r a n s p a r e n t
,

c o lo u r l e s s d ro p s b e f o r e t h e b l o wpip e .

Occurrence — Oc c ur s in th e M a r i a L or e tt o M i n e n e a r ,

Z a la th n a in Tr a n s yl v a ma w h e r e it wa s f or me r l y wo r k e d
, ,

f or th e s ma ll q u an t i ty of gold (l e s s t h an 3 p er c e n t ) .

w h i c h it c on ta i n s .

Te ll u r ic Oc h re — S a id t o c o n s i s t o f t e ll u r ou s a c id
.
,

a n d h a s b e e n f o u n d a t t h e a b ov e loc a li ty ( s ee u n d e r

Na t iv e Te ll ur i um) in s ma ll w hi t i s h a n d ye ll owi s h
s ph e r i c a l ma s s e s a n d a l s o a s a ye ll o wi s h ea r t h y e n c r us
,

f a t i ou .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 2 95

S Y L VA N I TE : G r a p h ic Te ll u ri um .

Te ll ur id e o f g old a nd s ilv er ( s e e p .

B LAC K TELL U R I U M : Nag y ag it e .

Te ll u r id e a n d s ul ph id e of l ea d an d gold ( s ee p .

TETRA D Y M I TE : Te ll u r ic B is mut h .

Comp Te ll ur id e of b i s mu th ; s u lph u r a n d s e l e n i um
.
-

s o m e t i m es p r e s e n t .

C ry st Sy st — H e x agon a l
. . .

C om For m — C r ys ta l s o f t en t a b u l ar ; al s o fo un d
. .

ma ss iv e g r a n u l ar a n d f o li a te d
, , .

C lea n — B a s al a n d v ery pe r f e c t ; l a me ll ae fl e x ibl e .

Colour P a l e s tee l gr ey
.
-
.

L ustr e — M eta lli c ; s pl en d e n t

. .

H . 2 ; s o il s p a p e r
-
Sp G r —7 6 . . .
-
.

Tests — H ea t e d in o p e n t u be giv es s u b li ma t e o f
.
,

t e ll ur o us a c id ; h ea t e d o n c h a r c oa l giv es off whi te ,

f u mes f us e s an d v ol a tili s e s c om pl e te ly .

O ccu rr ence — Ass oc i a te d w i t h t e ll u r id es o f g old .

Z I NC (Z n ) .

Z i n c is a bl u i s h w h i t e b r i t t l e m e t al p os s e s s i n g a c rys tal
-
,

li n e s tr uct ur e a n d is r e p or te d t o h a v e b ee n fo u n d n a t iv e
,

in Au s t r ali a It m e l t s a t 5 2 0 C a n d h a s a s p ec ifi c
°
.
.
,

g r a vi ty of a b out At a t e m p e r a t u r e b e t w e e n 1 0 0 C
°
.

a n d 1 5 0 C it m a y b e r o ll e d o u t i n t o s h e e t s or d r a w n i n t o
°
.

w i r e b u t a t 30 0 C it r e v e r t s t o a b r i t t l e c o n di t i on a n d
°
, .
,

m ay b e r e a dily p o wd e r e d u n d er th e h a m m e r It b e c om e s .

s u p er fi c i a ll y t a r n i s h e d in m o i s t a ir a n d is s o l u bl e in ,

dil u te a c id s .

Z i n c is ob ta i n e d by h e a t i n g in r e t or t s a t a h igh
t e m p e r a t u r e it s r oa s t e d or c al c i n e d or e s in a d m ix t ur e
wi th c oa l or c ok e Th e zi n c o xid e is r e d u c e d to met al
.
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
whi c h b ei n g v ol at il e di s til s a n d is c on d e n s e d S me l t
, , ,
.

in g in e l ec t r i c fur n a c e s h a s b e en e xp er i me n t e d wi t h ,

b ut con s id er a b l e di f fi c u l t i e s m u s t ye t b e o v er c om e b e f o r e
t hi s m e t h od ca n b e p ro n ou n c e d a s u c c e ss M et a lli c .

zi n c (s p e l te r ) is u s e d c hi e fly f or c oat i n g (g a lv an i s i n g )
i ro n a n d in t h e ma n u fac tur e o f th e v ar i ou s a ll oys
, ,

k n ow n a s b r a s s Z i n c o xid e a n d zi n c s ulphid e a r e
.

both u s ed a s pig men ts a n d a r e s omet i me s s p ec ifi ed in

,

pl a c e o f whi te l e a d ; th ey a re l es s p oi s on ou s an d r eta i n
t h e i r c o lo ur b e tte r t h a n whi t e l ea d a l t h ough t h e i r c ov e r ,

in g p ow e r is i n fer i or .

Th e c hi e f s o u r c es o f zi n c a r e bl e n d e a n d c a l a mi n e .

Th e f or me r o f t en e xi s t s in v a s t q u a n t i t i e s a ss o c i a te d
wi th ga l e n a whi c h is a n obj e c t i on a b l e c on s ti t uen t from th e
,

poi n t of vi e w of t h e zi n c s m e l te r Th e m etall urgi c a l .

t r ea tm en t o f t hi s r e f ra c t o r lp id l g ”
y
“
s u h e o r e h as o n

b een a p rob l e m an d a l th ou gh g re at i mp r ov e men t s h a v e

,

b ee n eff ec t e d in mec h an i ca lly s e pa r at i n g th e t wo v a l ues

by we t d r e s s i n g o il fl ot a t i on e t c a n d v ar i ou s c h e m i c a l
, , .
,

a n d m e ta ll u r gi ca l p r o c es s es h a v e b e e n d e vi s e d it d oe s ,

n ot e t a pp e a r t o h a v e b e e n s o lv e d b t h e i n t r od u c t i on
y y
o f a p roc e s s o f u n iv e r s a l a ppli c a t i o n P r i n c ip ally owi n g .

t o t h e i m p r ov e d m e th o d s o f m e c h a n i c a l s e p a ra t i on l a r g e ,

d e p os i ts of zi n c l ea d s u lphid e or e s a r e b e i n g op en e d u p
-

in S ib e r i a B u r m a e t c in a ddi t i on t o th os e in Aus t r a li a
, , .
,

a n d e l s e wh er e .

Th e wo r ld s p rod u c t i on o f s p e l t e r in 1 9 1 2 a mo un te d t o
’

ra t h e r l ess t h a n t on s Th e U n i t e d S tat e s .
,

G er m an y a n d B e lgi u m a r e t h e l a r g e s t p r o d u c e r s b u t
, ,

t h a t f r om B e lgi um is e n t i re l y f r om i m p o r t e d or e Th e .

c h i e f zi n c o r e p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r is t h e U n i t e d S t a t es
y
-
.

Th e p er c e n ta g e of zi n c in t h e or e m i n e d is fr e q u e n t l y
v ery low a n d often a v e ra g es 3 p er c en t bu t thi s is
‘

, .
,

i n c r eas ed by c on c entrat io n The B r ok e n H ill di str i c t .

in N e w S ou t h W a l e s p r o d u c es a b ou t 2 0 p e r c e n t of t h e .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
v ar y fr om mere tr a c e s u p t o 1 2 p er c en t Oc c a s i on a ll y .

t ra c e s o f i r on o xid e a r e p r e s e n t .

C ry st Sy st —H e x a g on a l
. . .

C orn For m — C r ys ta l s n ot c om mon ; u s u a ll y f ou n d

.

m a s s iv e fo li at ed g r a n u l a r or in di s s e m i n a t e d g ra i n s
, , , .

C leao . B a sa l a n d v ery p e r fec t

-
, .

Colour D ee p r e d bu t w h e n in t h i n s ca l e s by tr a n s
.
-
,

m itt e d ligh t d e e p ye ll ow , W ea th ers to w h i te c r us t of .

zi n c c a r b on at e .

S treak —Or a n g e y e ll ow
. .

s —
L tre S uba d a man tin e ; tran s l u c en t to s u b tra n s l uc en t
u . .

F r aet — S u b c on c hoid a l b r i ttl e

. .

H —4
. Sp Gr . .

Tests —H ea t e d in
. l d tu b e it bl ac k en s b ut on c os e , ,

c o oli n g r e v e r t s t o it s or igi n a l c o l o u r D i s s olv e s ina c id s .

wi th o ut eff er v es c en c e B e fo re b l owpip e a l on e i n f u s ibl e .

,

in th e r e d uc i n g fl a me on c h a r c oa l it y i e ld s a whi t e ,

e n c r u s t a t i on of zi n c o xide whi c h t urn s g r e en w h en ,

m oi s t e n e d wi th c o b a l t n i tra t e sol u t i on a n d r eh ea te d in t h e
r e d uc i n g fl a me .

Occurr ence — O cc u r s wi th f r a n kli n i te will e m i te a n d , ,

c a l c i t e in t h e f a mo u s F r a n kli n f u r n a c e or e d e p o s i t N e w
, ,

J e rs e y,
a n d is p r ob a b l y o f m e ta m or phi c o r igi n

s ee be low p
( , .

F RA N KLI N I TE .

C omp — Va r i a b l e . Oxid e of i ron zi n c, , a nd ma n gan e s e ,

C ry s t Sy s t —C u b i c
. . .

Coin P orin —Oc tah ed ra o f te n r ou n d ed

. .
, at th e e dg es ;
a l so in r o u n d e d g ra i n s an d m a s s iv e , .

Colour — B l a c k . .

S treak B lac k .
-
.

L ustr e — M eta lli c ; op a q ue

. .

F r act — U n e v e n b r i tt l e
. .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NERA L S P EC I ES 2 99

H Sp G r — o7
5
°

. . .

Tests . xidi s i n g fl a me bor a x b ea d a me th ys t

In o ,

c o l o ur e d d ue t o man gan es e ; in r e d uc i n g fl a m e bot t l e

, ,

g r e en d u e t o i r on s odi u m c a r bon a t e b ea d bl u i s h gr e en
, ,
-

wi th c ob a l t n i t rate g r e e n i sh m a s s on c h ar c oa l d u e to
, ,

zi n c .

Occurrence — Oc c ur s a t F ra n kli n F u rn ace Ne w j er s e y

.
, ,

as s oc i a t e d wi t h w ill e m i t e zi n c i te an d c a l c i t e ; , ,

sa
y 5 0 p e r c e n t f r a n kli ni t e 2 5.
p e r c e n t will e m i t e , 5 p e r .
,

c e n t zi n c i t e 2 0
.
p e r c e n t ca l c i t e
,
T h e zi n c m in e r a l s oc c ur
. .

as r oun d e d g r a i n s in a c r ys t a ll in e li m e s to n e an d a r e
‘

p r oba b l y th e r e su l t of m etamor phi s m .

B L EN DE S p h a l e r it e, B l ack J a ck ( G e r man , blenden ,

t o b li n d d e l ud e ) , to .

C omp — S ulp h id e o f zi n c Z n S P a r t of t he zi n c is
.
, .
,

h o w e v er u s u all y r e pl a c e d by i r on a n d a li t t l e ca d mi u m
, ,

is o f t e n p r e se n t b u t n e v e r r ea c h e s 5 p er c e n t
, .

C ry st Sy s t — C u bi c
. . .

Cor n For m —Tetr ah e d ra an d r h ombd o dec ah e dr a c om

. .

mo n . Of te n t wi n n e d a n d modifi e d th e f orm s b e i n g th e n ,

diffic ul t to d e ter mi n e ; a l s o oc c u r s mas s iv e an d c omp ac t ,

a n d oc c as i on a ll y b ot r yo id a l o r fib r ou s .

C lea n — P ar a ll e l to th e fa c es of th e r h ombd od ec ah e dron

a n d hi g h l y p e r fe c t .

C olour —U s u all y bl a c k or b r ow n ; s ome t i mes yell ow

.
,

whi te an d r a r e l y c o l ou r l ess
,
.

S tr eak — VVh it e t o r e ddi s h b r ow n

.
-
.

L ustre — R e s i n ou s t o a daman t i n e ; tr an s p ar en t t ran s

.
,

l u c e n t or op aq u e
, .

Fr act — Co n c h oid a l b r i t tl e
. .
_

H .
4 S p G r -
. . .

Tests — B e fo r e b lowpip e
.
,
l
a on e i n fus ibl e ,
v ery diffi
or

c u l tl y f u s ibl e Wi t h . sodi u m c ar b on ate on c h ar c o a l in

th e r e d uc i n g fl a m e it co l our s th e flame s t r on gl y gr e e n .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NERAL OG Y
On c h ar c oa l wh en r oas te d in th e o x idi s i n g fl a me a n d
, ,

t h en i n t e n s e l y h ea t e d in th e r e d uc i n g fl a me it y i eld s an ,

e n c r us ta t io n o f zi n c o x id e whi c h is ye ll o w wh e n h ot an d
, ,

whi te wh en c old a n d w h i c h a ss umes a g r een c ol our wh en

,

h ea t e d wi th cob a l t n i tr at e s ol ut i on S ome v ar i e t i es fi r s t .

giv e a r e ddi s h b row n coat i n g of o xid e of c a d mi um ;

-

b l en d e is sol ub l e in h ydr o ch l or i c ac id wi th li b er at ion ,

o f s u lph u r e tt e d h yd r og en Th e s ol u t i on giv e s a whi te

.

p r ec ipi tat e of zi n c s ulphid e on th e a ddi t io n of a mmo n i um

s u lphid e .

Occur r ence — B l e n d e is e x tr e me l y c o mmo n l y fo un d

a s s o c i a t e d wi t h g a l en a in v e i n s in whi c h t h e v e i n s t o n e

is u s u a ll y c a l c i t e d ol o mi t e fl u or b a r yt es an d q u ar tz a s
, , , , ,

in C ar diga n s hi r e C or n w a ll C o l or a d o (As p e n a n d R i co)

, , ,

B r ok en H ill etc B l e n d e a l so oc c u r s a s a
.

m e ta s oma t i c d e po s i t r e pl a c i n g t h e c a l c i te o f li mes ton e s

, ,

a s in D er b ys hi r e C u mb er l an d W es tph a li a C ol or a d o
, , ,

L dvill an d S ilv er P ea k ) a l so o c c urs a s a

( ea e e tc ; , .

c h e m i c a l p re c ipi t a t e a s a t G a l e n a K a n s a s
, , .

'

C ALAM IN E (columns, a r ee d) .
S mit h s on it e of th e
Am e r i c an s
C omp .
-
Z inc c ar b on a t e , Z n C Oa . Th e
zi n c how ,

e v er is oft e n p ar t ly r e pl ace d by
,
i r on or m a n g a n e s e ; a
li ttl e li me mag n e s i a or oxid e
, , of c a d m i u m is o f t e n

p r es en t .

Cry st Sy st — H ex ago n a l r ho mb oh ed ra l
. .
,
.

C om Form — C rys ta l s modifi e d r h om b o h ed r a ; c om

.
,

mou l y f oun d mas s iv e r en if or m b o tryo id a l s ta l a c t i ti c

, , , ,

e n c r u s t i n g g ra n u l a r a n d ea r th y
, , .

C leao —R h omb oh e d ra l ; p er f e c t
. .

Colour — W h i te g r eyi s h g r een i s h b r own i s h whi te , ,

-

S tr eak —Whi t e
.
, .

. .

L ustre — Vi treous i n c li n i n g to p ear l y s ub t ra n s par en t

, ,

t r a n s l u c e n t or op a q u e
,
.
 ELE M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
Varieties —Tr oostite —A . v ar i e ty of will emi te o c cu rr i n g
in l a rg e l
cr
y s t a s .

Occur rence W ill emi te o c c urs a ss o c i a ted wi t h zi n c i te

.
-
’

a n d f r a n kli n i t e a t F r a n kli n F u r n a ce Ne w j e r se y ( s ee ,

p . Al so a t Vi e ill e M on tagu e an d M o r es n e te
e lgi u m n d Rai b l C i hi
( B ) a , ( a r n t a
) .

H EM I M OR P H I TE : C a l a min e o f t h e Am er i c an s .

El ec t r ic C a l a min e G a l mei S il icat e of Z in c , ,

.

Comp —H yd rated s ili c ate of zi n c H 20 2 Z n O S iOz ,

. . .

C ry st Sy st —Or th or h om bi c
. . .

Coin Faria —M od ifi ed or th or ho mb i c p r i s ms th e oppo

.
,

s i t e e x t r e m i t i e s t er m i n a t e d b di s s i m il a r fac e s ; c r ys t a l s
y
fr e qu en t l y twi n n ed ; a l so m as s iv e g ran u l ar fi b ro us , , ,

ma mm ill a t e d en c r u st i n g a n d s ta l a c t i t i c or b an d e d
, , , .

C h an — P er fe c t pa ra ll e l to th e f ac es of th e p r i s m .

Colour — W h i te ye ll owi s h b row n s ometi mes f ai n tl y

.
,
-
,

g reen i s h or bl u i s h s o m e t i mes han ded in b l ue or whi te .

S treak — W h i t e .

L ustre — Vi tr eou s s ubpe ar ly on b asa l pl an e ; s ome

t i me s a d a ma n t i n e ; tr a n s p a r e n t t o t r a n s l u cen t or o p a q ue , .

F r aci —U n e v en b r i ttl e ; b ec ome s el ec t r i c w h en

.

h eate d an d p h os pho r es c en t wh en r u b b ed
, .

H .
5 Sp G r -
. . .

Tests — H e ate d in th e d ec r epi ta te s lo s e d be it

'

c tu , ,

whi t en s an d giv e s off w a ter ; h eate d b e for e b l owpip e

,

a lo n e ,a l m o s t i n f u s ibl e On c h a r c oa l giv e s a whi t e

.
,

e n c r u s ta t i on wh e n m o i s t e n e d wi t h c ob a l t n i tr a t e an d ,

h eate d in ox idi s i ng fl ame G el at i n i ses wi th ac ids ; de .

c o mpo s e d by a c e t i c a c id wi t h g e l a t i n i sa t io n S ol ub l e
‘

in a s t r o n g sol ut i on o f c a u s t i c po ta s h .

Occurrence —Oc c ur s b oth in v e i n s or b e d s a c c ompa n y

.

in g t h e s u lphid e s of zi n c i ro n an d l ea d a n d wi t h c a l a m i n e
, , , .

Oc c u r r en c e s a r e a s f or c a l a m i n e a nd bl en d e ( se e p .

H em i mor phi t e is a v al ua b l e zi n c or e .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES
G OS LAR I TE (G os l a r in t h e H a rz ) : W h it e Vit riol .

C omp — H yd ra t e d zi n c s u lph at e Z n S O4 7 H 20 , . .

C ry st Sy st —Ort h orh om bi c
. . .

C om F own — P r i s m a t i c c r ys t a l s a l so f ou n d s t a l a c t i t i c
.

a n d e n cr u s t i n g .

C lean — P e r f ec t ; p ara ll e l t o th e b ra c h ypi n a coid .

Colour —W h i t e . .

S tr ea k — VVh it e
. .

L ustr e — Vi t r eou s tr a n s p ar en t t o tr a n s l uc en t .

Tas te — As t r i n g e n t m et alli c an d n a u s e o us ; b r i tt l e
, , .

H —2. Sp Gr . .

Tests — H e a t e d in c l os e d t u b e it b o il s an d giv e s ,
off

w at e r f u s i n g to an o pa q u e whi te ma s s ; h e a te d
, on

c h a rc oa l f us es wi th e bu lli ti on an d giv e s an en c r us ta t i on
, ,

o f zi n c o xid e C ob a l t n i tr a t e t e s t gr een m ass R eadil y

.
,
.

s o l u b l e in w a t er t h e so l u t i on y i e ldi n g a wh i t e p r ec ipi t a t e
,

o f b a r i u m s u lp h a t e o n t h e a ddi t io n o f b a r i u m c h l or id e

s o l u t i on p r es e n c e of s u lph a t e
( ) .

Occur r ence — G o s l a r i t e r es u l ts f r om t h e d ec o m po s i t i on
.

o f bl e n d e a n d is f o u n d s p a r i n gl y in s o m e o f t h e C orn i s h
,

m i n e s a n d at H o l yw e ll in F li n t s hi r e Th e c hi e f loc a li ty, .

is t h e R a m me l s b e r g M i n e G os l ar Th e m i n er a l is n ot , .

pl e n t if ul en o ug h to be of mu c h if of an y c omme r c i al , ,

i m po r tan c e .

C A D M I U M ( Cd ) .

C a dm i um is a bl u i s h wh i te m e tal h a vi n g a b r illi an t -
,

l u s tr e a n d c l os e l y r e s em bli n g zi n c It is v ery m a ll ea bl e
, .

a n d d u c t il e h a s a s p ec ifi c g r a vi ty o f a b o u t 8 5 a n d m e l t s
'

, ,

at 320 C It is u s ual l y foun d in n a tur e as th e s ulph id e

°
.

( g r ee n oc ki t e ) wh i c h is h o w e v e r o f r a r e o c c u rr e n c e
, , It , .

a l s o oc c u r s in s m a ll q u a n t i t i e s as s oc i a t e d w i t h zi n c s u l ,

h id e a n d car b o n a t e C a d m i u m is o b t a i n d a s a b
p . e y
p r od uc t in th e di s t ill at i on Of zi n c or e s in wh i c h it s e ld o m ,

o c c u rs in gr ea te r a moun t t h an 0 4 p er c en t an d u s u a ll y .
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER ALOG Y
l e s s C a d m i u m is c h i efl y u s ed in t h e m a n u fac tur e o f
.

“
f u s ibl e a ll oys Ar t ifi c i a l c a diu m s u lphid e is a v a l ua bl e
.
”

y e ll o w pig m e nt T h e r e is n o g r ea t d e ma n d f o r t h e m e ta l
.
,

a n d t h e p r o d u c t i on d ur i n g t h e l a s t f e w yea r s h a s r e m a i n e d

p r ac t i c a ll y s ta t ion ary S il e s i a t h e c hi ef s ou rc e p r o
.
, ,

d u ce d a b o ut 4 2 t o n s in 1 9 1 2 a n d s m a ll q ua n t i t i es w e r e ,

p r od uce d in En gl an d an d th e U n i ted S t at es .

G R EENOC KI TE .

C omp —C a d m i um s u lphid e C d S , .

C ryst Sy st —H e x a g on a l ( h e m i mo r p h i c ) ; t h e oppo s i te
. .

e x t r e m i t i e s o f c r s t a l s di s s i m il a r l y m odifi e d
y .

Colour — H on ey c i tr on o r ora n g e ye ll ow
.
, ,
.

S tr ea k — B e t w e e n o r a n g e ye ll o w a n d b r i c k r e d .

L ustre — Ad a m an t i n e r e s i n ou s n ear l y tra n s p are n t

.
,
.

H —3 . Sp Gr . .

Tests H eat e d in c lo s e d t ub e t urn s c ar m i n e r ed an d

-

,
-
,

r e v e r t s t o it s o r igi n a l c o lo u r o n coo li n g ; in Op e n t u b e ,

giv e s off s u lp h ur ou s f um es ; h eat ed on c h a rc o a l y i e ld s ,

a r e ddi s h b r ow n e n c r u s t a t io n
-
D i sso lv e s in h yd r o c h lo r i c.

a c id wi t h e v o l ut i on of s u lph u r e tt e d h y d r og e n
,
.

Occur r ence — Oc c u r s a s a c o a t i n g to s o me zi n c o r es a n d
.
,

is a s s oc i a t e d wi t h zi n c or es L oca li t i es a r e —B i s h op s .

t o w n ( S c ot l a n d ) P r z ibra m ( B oh em i a )
, F r ieden s v ille ,

( P e n n s ylv an i a
) .

TI N (S n ) .

Tin is sa id
h a v e b een f oun d n at iv e bu t if s o is of
to , , ,

v e ry r ar e o c c u r r en c e It is c h i efl y f oun d in th e for m o f
.

t h e o xid e c a ss i t er i te ( t i n s t on e ) whi c h m a y be r eg ar d e d a s
, ,

th e s ol e s o u r c e of t h e m e ta l Tin is a b r ig h t whi t e .
,

m e t a l ma ll eabl e a n d d uc t il e
,
It h a s a s p e c ifi c g ra vi ty of
.

a n d m e l ts a t 2 3 2 C A ba r of th e m e tal wh en b en t
°
.
, ,

e m i t s a c r a c kli n g s o u n d Th e c hi e f u s e o f t in is in th e
.

ma n u fa c t ur e of t in pl a te ( s h ee t i ron wi t h a v er y t h i n
- -
 EL EM ENTS O F M I NER AL O G Y
Tes ts — H ea te d on c h a rc oa l w i th s odi u mc a r b ona t e a n d
c h a r c o a l t in c o m p ou n d s a r e r e d uc e d t o t h e m e t a l
,
wh ic h ,

Is s o f t a n d m a ll e a bl e Th e e n c r u s ta t i o n giv e n by h e a t i n g
.

t in c o m p o u n d s a l on e on c h a r c oa l wh en m o i s t en e d wi t h ,

c o b a l t n i tr a te a n d s tr o n gl y r e h e a t e d is a b l u e gr een ,
-

c ol o ur .

C AS S I TER I TE ( G r e ek , cassi teros , t in ) . TI N

S TON E .

Coinp .
-
Tin o xid e , S n Oz .

C ry st Sy st — Te tr a g on a l
. . .

Coin F or rn —Te tr a gon a l p r i s ms te r m i n a te d by tetra

. .

on a l p r a m id s ; l f w i d Al
g y c r
y s t a s o t e n t n n e s o o c c u rs .

ma s s iv e a n d s om e t i m es di s s e m i n a t e d in s ma ll g r a i n s ;
,

a l s o fi b r ou s .

Colour —U s ua lly b l a c k or b r o wn r a r e l y ye ll ow or
”

.
,

c o lo u r l es s .

S tr ea k — Whi t e o r p a l e g r ey t o b r ow n i s h .

L ustre — Ad a man t i n e an d on c r ys ta l s us ua ll y v e r y
.
, , ,

b r illi a n t C r ys ta l s w h en o f p a l e c ol our n ea r l y tr a n s
.
, ,

pa r en t ; wh en d ar k op a qu e , .

Fract — Sub c on c h o id a l or un e v en ; b r i tt l e
H —6—
.
, .

.
7 S p Gr . . .

Tes ts — Al on e i n f u s ibl e
. b e f or e th e b l o wpip e Wi th .

s o di u m c a r b o n a t e o n c h a r c o a l it f u s e s t o a l o b u l o f
g e ,

m e ta lli c t in H e a te d on c h a rc oa l w i th s o di u m c a r b on
.

a te , f u s e d m a s s m o i s t e n e d w i th c o b a l t n i t r a t e a n d
s t r on gl r e h e a t e d iv e s a bl u e g r e e n c o l ou r
y g
-
.
,

Va rieties Wood T n — A v a r i e t y o f c a s s i t e r i te in wh i c h i ,

t h e s t r u c t u r e is c o m p a c t a n d fib r o u s i n t e r n a ll y e x h ibi t ,

in g c o n c e n tr i c b a n d s wh i c h c a u se it s o m e wh a t t o ,

r e s e m bl e w oo d ; it o c c u rs in r e n if o r m m a s s es .

Toad s Ey e Tin A v a r i e ty s h o wi n g th e c h a ra c t e r s o f
.
-

w oo d t in b u t on a s m a ll e r s c a l e
, .

S treai n TWA—M e r e l y c a s s i t e r i t e r o ll e d a n d w a t e r wor n , ,

 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 30 7

an d h as l t e d f rom t h e w ea r i n g a way o f t in v e i n s or
r es u

o f r oc k s c on t a i n i n g t h e o r e I t oc c u r s in t h e b ed s o f .

s t r e a m s a n d in th e a ll u vi a l d e po s i t s wh i c h bo r d e r t h e m
,
.

M uc h of t h e t in s e n t i n t o t h e m ar k e t is d e r iv e d fr o m t h i s
s ou r c e .

O ccur r ence — C a s s i t er i t e
p n e uma to l yt i c v e i n s
oc c u r s in ,

as soc i a t e d w i t h a c id r oc k s gr a n i t e s a s in C orn w a ll , The , .

m a i n oc c ur r e n c e of c a s s i te r i t e is in q u a r tz v e i n s a s so ,

c ia t e d wi t h fl u o r t o p a z t ou r m a li n e a xi n i t e
, a n d a pa t i t e
, , , ,

a s in C o r n w a ll S a x o n y a n d B o livi a, F ully on e h alf o f

,
.

t h e w o r ld s s u ppl y o f t in is o b t a i n e d f r o m pl a c e r d e po s i t s
’

r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f t in v e i n s L ocal i t i e s of .

a ll u via l t in d e p o s i t s ar e Ma l a y S t a t e s ; t h e i s l a n d s o f
-

B a n k a a n d B ill e ton n ea r S um a t r a ; C o rn w a ll
, M o un t
B i sc h off i n Tas ma n i a e t c
, , .

S TA N N IN E ( L at i n , s tannurn , t in ) . TIN P Y R I TES .

B e ll M et a l Or e .

C omp .
-
S u lp h id e of t in , co ppe r , a nd i r on C ug S F e S
, . .

S u Sz . Z i n c is
ll y p r es e n t inu sua v a r y in g q ua n t i ty .

C ry st Sy st — C ubi c (te tr a h ed r a l )
. . .

Cor n F ar m — C rys ta l s ra r e c o m bi n a t i on s of c u b e an d
.
,

t e t r a h e d r on ; c o mm on l y o c c u r s m a s s iv e g r a n ul a r a n d , ,

di s s e m i n a t e d .

C o lou r — S te e l g r e y wh e n p u r e i r o n bl a c k s o m e t i m e s , ,
.

b r on z e or hell m e ta l c ol o u r o c c a s i on a ll y w i th a bl u i s h ,

tar n i s h ; o f t e n y e ll ow i s h f r o m ad m ix t u r e wi t h c o pp er
pyr i te s .

S trea k — B l a c ki s h
.
~
.

L ustre — M et a lli c ; o p a q u e .

F mot — U n e v e n ; b r i tt l e .

H —4 » 5 1> G r — I s 4 5 -

Tests —Hea t e d
- s
p en t u be s ta nn m e g iv e s off s ulph ur
In o , ,

for m i n g f um e s o f s ulp h ur di o xid e a n d a l s o f or m s a s u bl i ,

m a t e o f tin o xid e c l os e t o t h e a s s a y ; h ea t e d on c h ar c oa l it ,
 EL E M ENTS OF
‘

M I N ER AL OG Y
f u s e s a f te r l on g r oa s t i n g to a b r i t tl e m e ta lli c gl ob ul e ,

w h i c h in th e o xidi s i n g fl a m e giv e s o ff s u lph u r a n d

, , ,

c oa t s t h e s u pp o r t w i t h whi t e t in o xid e Th e r o as t e d .
,

m i n e r a l a ff or d s in b ora x t h e r ea c ti o n s f or Ir on a n d
, ,

co
p p e n

Occur r ence — Oc c ur s . d wi th c as s i te r i t e C opp er

a s s o c a te i ,

pyr i te s bl en d e or g a l e n a as in C orn w a ll a n d Z i n n wa ld
, , ,
.

Wh e n o c c urr i n g in s uffi c i e n t q u an ti ty it is wo r k e d f or ,

b oth c opp er a n d f or t in .

L EA D ( P m .

N a t iv e l ea d is k n ow n b ut is of e x c e e di n gl y ra re ,

o c c urr e n c e L ea d is a b l ui s h g r ey meta l wh os e fr es h l y
.
-
,

c ut s u r f a c e s h ow s a b r igh t m e t a lli c l u s t re whi c h h ow ,

e v e r q u i c kl y o xidi s e s o n e xp o s u r e t o t h e a ir
,
It is s oft .
,

m a y b e s c r a t c h e d wi th t h e fi n ger n a il a n d ma k e s a -
,

bl a c k s tr ea k on p a p er Th e s p ec ifi c g ra vi ty of th e me ta l
.

is 1 1 4 It f u s es a t 3 2 5 a n d c ry s t a lli s es w h e n
°
°
o . .
C .
,

c oo l e d s l o wl y It h a s li tt l e t e n a c i ty a n d c a n n ot b e
.
,

d ra wn i n to wi r e but Is h o wev e r r ea dil y r oll e d or

, , ,

p r es s e d i n to thi n s h eets or e x u d e d w h en in a s e m i ,

m ol te n s ta t e t h r o ug h di e s to f or m pipi n g I ts p rop e r ti e s .

a r e m a te r i a ll y a ff e c t e d by t h e p r e s en c e o f s ma ll q U a n t it ie s

of i m p ur i ti e s .

L ea d is v ery ea s il y r e d u c e d fr o m its c omp o un d s a n d ,

is r e a dil y s o l u b l e in dil ut e n i t r i c a c id ; h yd r o c h l or i c an d
s u lph ur i c a c id s h a v e b u t li ttl e a c t i o n It f or m s s e v e ra l .

c o mp o u n d s of c omm er c i al i m p or ta n c e ; f or e x a mpl e ,

li th arg e a n d r e d l ea d a r e o xid e s wh i te l ea d is a ba s i c ,

car b on a t e .

F or p rod uc t i on of l e a d th e o re c on ta i n i n g gal en a
th e ,

o r c e r us s i t e is fi r s t p a r t l t d l i d d t h -

y r o a s e o r c a c n e a n e n
7

s me l t e d in r e v e r b e ra to r o r bl as t fur n a c e s M o s t l d
y e a A

o r e s c o n t a i n s ilv e r a n d t h i s m e t a l is o b t a i n e d b c u p e ll a
,
y ,

t i on o r o th e r m e an s fr o m t h e l ea d , .
310 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OG Y
t i on (a go od te s t ) R oa s t e d wi th s odi u m c a r b on ate an d
.

c h a r c o a l o n c h a r coa l l e a d mi n era l s a r e r e d u c e d t o me ta lli c

,

l ea d whi c h s how s a s a l ea d gr ey b ea d b r igh t whil e h ot

, , ,

but d u ll wh e n c old whi c h is m a ll ea b l e a n d ma r k s , ,

p a p er .

G A L ENA ( G r e e k qu illi ty a s it was s up

, g a lene,
t ra n ,

p o se d f or me r l y to po sse s s s oothi n g me di c i n a l p rop er

t i e s ; o f t e n ca ll e d b l u e l ea d or bl ue or e by m i n er s ) .

Comp — S u lphid e of l ea d P bS S ulphid e of s ilv er is ,

.

a lw a ys p r es e n t a n d g a l e n a is on e o f t h e m o s t i m po r t a n t
,

sou r c e s o f s ilv er Wh en c on ta i n i n g s ufli c ien t s ilv e r to

.

”
b e w or t h e x t r a c t i n g it is t e r m e d a r g e n t if e r ou s ga l en a
,
.

Z i n c c a d m i u m i r on co pp e r a n t i m on y a n d gold h a v e
, , , , ,

a l so b e e n d e t e c t e d in a n a l yse s o f t hi s m i n er a l Th e r e .

a r e a pp a r e n t l n o e x t e rn a l c h a r ac t e r s whi c h s e r v e to
y
di s t i n g u i sh e v en th e highl y a rg en t ifer ou s or es f rom
o r di n a r y g a l e n a ; t h e q u e s t i on c a n o n l y b e s o lv e d by

an al s i s
y .

C ry st Sy st —C u bi c
. . .

C orn F or m —C u b e oft e n modi fied by oc ta h ed ra l an d

. .
,

o th e r pl a n e s ( s e e F ig a l s o oc c u r s m a s s iv e a
. n d ,

c o a r s e l y or fi n e l g ran u l a r
y .

C leao — C u b i c a n d p er fec t m an y s p e c i m e n s c r um bli n g

.
,

r e a dil i n t o s m a ll c u b e s wh e n r u b b e d or s t r uc k
y .

C olour —L ea d g r e y . .

S treak — L ea d g r e y .

L ustre — Meta lli c op a q u e ; o ften d ull d u e t o tarn i s h , .

—
F r u t F l a t e v e n or s ub c o n c hoid a l
o .
, , .

H . Sp G r . .

Tests —H e a t e d in th e op en t ub e g al en a giv es off ,

s u lp h u r o u s f ume s On c ha rc oa l it e m i t s s u lph u r ou s
.

f um e s for ms a ye ll o w en c r u s tat i on o f l ea d o xid e a n d

, ,

f us e s to a m a ll ea bl e m eta lli c gl ob u l e H e a te d wi th .
 D ES C RI PTI ON O F M IN ER AL S
°

P EC I ES 31 1

p ota s s i um i odid e a n d s u lp h ur on c h a r c oa l it f or m s a ,

b r illi an t en c r u stat i on D e c om p os e d by h yd r oc h l or i c a c id
.
,

wi th e v ol ut i on of s u lp h u r e tte d h yd r og e n On c ooli n g .

t h e so l u t i o n w h i te c r ys t a l s o f l ea d c h l o r id e a r e d e po s i te d
, ,

w hi c h ar e s ol u bl e on h ea t in g .

Occur rence —G a l e n a oc c u r s in b e d s a n d v e i n s
. M e ta .

s o ma t i c l e a d a n d zi n c v e i n s o c c u r in li m e s t on e as a t ,

D e r b ys hi re F l in ts h ire C u m b e r l an d S a l a ( S w e d en )
, , , ,

R a ibl a n d B l e ib er g ( C a r i n t hi a ) L e a dvill e ( C o l or a d o)
, , ,

U t ah Wi s c on s i n e t c
,
H yd a t og e n e t ic or p r i ma r y v e i n s
,
.

is a n ot h e r i m p or t an t m od e o f oc c u rr e n c e o f g a l en a ; it
is t h e r e a s soc i a t e d wi th zi n c bl e n d e p yr i t e s q u a r tz a n d , , ,

b ar y te s a s a t C a r diga n M i n e ra I s l e o f M a n C or n wa ll
, , , , ,

D e r b ys h i r e As p e n a n d R i c o ( C o l o ra d o ) B r ok e n H ill
, ,

w h e r e th e ga l e n a is a s so c i a te d w i th s ilv e r a n d ,

a t F r e e r g ( S a x o n y) .

U ses — G a l e n a is t h e m os t i m po rt a n t or e o f l e a d n e ar l y
.
,
,

a ll t h e m e ta l o f c o mm e r c e b e i n g d e r ive d f r om th i s
s ou r c e .

M INI U M : R e d Ox id e of L ea d .

Comp — L ea d o xid e P h3 O4 , .

Corn Far m — P u lv e r u l en t
.
-
. .

Colour — B r ig h t r ed s c a r l e t or
.
, , or a n ge r ed .

St rea k — Ora n g e ye ll o w
. .

L ustre — F a i n t g r e a s y or d ull , , o pa q ue .

H . 2 3 Sp Gr
- -
. . .

Tests — B e fore th e
. bl o wpip e in r e d uc i n g fl a m e yi e ld s ,

g l o b u l e s o f m e t a lli c l ead O t h e r l e a d t e s t s giv en .

.

Occ u r r enc e — Oc c u rs a s s oc i a t e d wi th g a l e n a a n d s o m e ,

t i m e s wi th c e r u s s i t e .

U s es — .Th e r ed l ea d of c o mm e r c e whi c h h as th e sa me ,

c o m p o s i t i on a s m i n i u m is a r t ifi c i a ll p r e p ar d b h e a t i n g
y e
,
y
l ea d o xid e ( li t h a r g e ) o r c ar b on ate in c on t a c t w i th a ir ,

in a f u r n a c e a t a m od er a t e t e m p e r a t u r e R e d leald .
 EL EMENTS OF MI N ER AL O G Y
is u se d in t h e ma n u fa c t ur e of fli n t gl a ss and a sol as a

pai n t .

A N G L ES ITE ( fi r s t f ou n d in An gl e sey) : L ead

Vit r iol .

C omp — S u lp h a te o f l ea d P hS O ,

C ry st Sy st — Or th or h om bi c
. . .

C o m For m — .P r i s m at i c c r ys ta l s som eti me s t a b u l ar in ,

form a n d o c c a s io n all y in p yr a m id s va r i ou s l y mo difi ed

,
.

Th e fa c e s o f t h e p r i s m a n d m a c r opi n ac o id a r e o f t en
v er t i c a ll y s tr i ate d ; a l s o ma s s iv e a n d oc c a s i on a lly s t a l a c
t it ic . ,

Colour W h i t e some t i m es wi th a bl ue g r ey g r ee n
.
-
, , , , or

y e llow t i nt .

S tr ea k — C ol ou r l es s .

L ustr e — U s uall y a d a ma n ti n e some ti m e s i n c li n i n g , to

r e s i n o u s o r vi t r e o u s t r a n s p a r e n t t o op a q ue .

Fm et — C on c h oid a l ; v er y b r i ttl e .

H .
3 S p G r -
. . .

Tests — S o l u b l e in w a t e r bl owpip e d ec r e p i
. B e for e t h e ,

t a t es a n d in t h e o xidi s i n g fl a m e fu s e s t o a c l ea r gl o b u l e
, ,

w h i c h on c ooli n g b e c ome s m ilk whi te In th e r e d uc i n g .

fl a m e eff e r v e s c es a n d yi e ld s m eta lli c l e a d Wh en d is

s o lv e d b a r i u m
.
,

c hl or id e t h r ow s d o w n a d e n s e whi t e p r e
,

c ip ita t e o f b a r i um s u lph ate if a dd e d to t h e s ol u t i on ,

( p r es e n c e o f s u lph a t e
) S u lph a t e is a l s o i n di c a t e d b
.

y t h e

s ilv er c oi n t e s t ( se e p .

u e —
Occ r r nce An gl e s i t e wh en foun d in s u ffi c i en t q u an ,

t i ty is a v a l u a b l e l ea d or e
,
It is u s u a ll y as soc i at e d wi t h
.

ga l en a a n d r es u l t s fr om th e d ec o m p os i t io n of th at
,

m i n e ra l in t h e u pp e r p or t i on o f l e a d v e i n s L oc a li t i es .

a r e — P a r y s M i n e in An g l e s ey C or n wa ll D er b ys h i r e
'

, , ,

C u mb er l a n d L ea d H ill s B r ok en H ill
, M e xi co
, ,

e tc .
 EL E M ENTS O F M I N ER AL O G Y

L e ad h ill it e — A g y i s h whi .t e m i n er a l fou n d a t L ea d

re -

H ill s in S c otl an d a n d c on s i s t i n g of s u lp h a te an d c arb on

,

a t e o f l e ad It s pli t s i n t o l a m i n ae w h i c h a r e fl e xibl e
.
, .

TH E P Y R OM O R P H I TE S ET .

Th e “
pyromorp hite s et i n c l u d es th ree m i n er a l s P yr o
m or ph ite , m i m et i te v an a di n i te whi c h a r e isomor
, an d ,

p h o u s
. T h e y c r
y s ta lli s e in t h e h e x a g o n a l s
ys t e m a n d ,

h a v e u s u a ll y l on g p r i s mat i c c r ys ta l s Th e i r c ol our s a r e .

u s u a ll vivid T h e i r m p i t i o n i s
y c o . os

Pyr o morp hite 3 P b 3

P 2
0 8
P b C lz
. .

M ini etite 3 P b3
An S
. P bC 12 .

Vanadinite 3 P b3
V20 8
P b C 12
. .

Th e pyr o mo r phi te set oc c ur a s s o c i a t ed wi th hyda t o

g en et i c l ea d d ep os i ts a s at n u merous m i n es in Co rn w a ll
, ,

D er b y s hi r e C u mb e r l a n d F li n ts hi r e L e ad H ill s S ax on y
, , , , ,

B oh e mi a H ar z M e xi co a n d th e U n i te d S t ate s
, , ,
.

P Y R OM O R P H I TE ( G r ee k pur , ,
fi re , mor phe,
an d

f or m in a ll us i on to th e a n gu l ar
, f or m a s s u me d by
th e glo b u l e a f t er fus i on b e f or e t h e b lowpip e ) G r ee n
L ea d Ore .

C omp — P ho sph ate an d c hl or id e of l ea d 3 P b3 P20 8 .

P b C lz ; s om et i me s wi t h s ma ll q u a n t i t y of ar s e n i c a n d
calc i um .

C ry st Sy st — H e xa g on a l
. . .

C ont F or m — P r i s ma t i c c r ys ta l s ma d e u p of p r i s m ,
.

pyr am id a n d b asa l pl an e (s e e F ig
,
c ry s t a l s .
,

u s ua ll y a gg r e g a t e d a n d fo r m i n g c r u s t s ; a l s o r e n if o r m

a n d b o t ryo id a l .

C leav —P ar a ll e l to th e fac e s of th e p r i s m in tr ac e s
.
, .

Colour —G r een ye llow an d b r ow n of di ff ere n t s ha d e s

.
, , ,

t h e c o lo u r s s ome t i mes v e r y vivid .

S treak — W h i t e o r ye ll owi s h w h i t e -
.
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 315

L ustr e . R e s i n ou s su b t ran s p aren t to s u bt r a n s l u

c en t .

F rac t .
—
S u b c o n c h oid a l or u n e v en b r i ttl e .

H .
—4 Sp Gr . . .

Tests —H ea t e d in c l os e d
. b e giv es a wh it e s u bli m a t e tu ,

o f l e a d o xid e b efore bl owpip e a l on e f us es ea s ily c ol ou r , ,

in g t h e fl a me bl u i s h g r e e n On c h a r coa l f u s e s t o a-
.
,

gl ob u l e wh i c h w h en c ool as s u mes a c rys t a lli n e a n g ul ar

, , ,

for m b ut wi th out b e i n g r e d uc e d to m et a lli c l ea d ; a t th e

,

sa m e t i m e t h e c h a r c oa l b ec o m e s c oa t e d w i t h w h i t e l ea d

c h l o r id e a n d ye ll o w l ea d o xid e Wi t h s odi um c a r b on at e .

o n c h a r c oa l y i e ld s a m e t al li c l e a d b e a d
,
C h l or id e giv en .

b y m i c r oc o s m i c c o pp e r o xid e b ea d t e s t ; s o l u bl e in
h yd roc h l o r i c a c id H ea te d w i th mag n es i u m in c l os e d
.

tu be , giv es s m e ll o f ph os ph or e t te d hyd rog e n wh en

m oi s te n ed .

Occurrences — P yr omor p h i t e is fou n d in c ompa n y wi t h

.

ot h e r o r e s o f l e a d a n d wh e n pl e n t ifu l is s m e l te d ( se e
, , ,

a b ov e p , .

M I M ETI TE ( G r e ek mimetes , , a mi mic , f r om it s re

se p yr omor ph i t e G r e e n L ea d Or e
m bl a n c e to .

C omp — Ar s en a t e an d c h l or id e of l ea d 3 P b3 AszO
.
, S
.

P b C lz .

Cy st Sy st —H e x a g on a l ; i s omor ph ou s wi th ro mor
r . .
py
p h it e .

C om . F or ni .
— In
f or m r e s e mbli n g pyromor phi t e .

—
C o our P a l e ye ll ow b r own w h i t e
l , ,
.

S treak — Whi t e or w hi t i s h , .

L ustre — R e s i n ou s . .

H . S p G r —7 . .

Tests —H ea t e d in t h e c l o s e d t ub e it b eh a v e s lik e p yr o
.
,

m or p h it e ; s ol u bl e in hydr oc hl or i c a c id On c h a r c oa l .
,

in t h e r e d u c i n g fl am e yi e ld s m e t a lli c l e a d g iv e s off a n , ,

a r s en i c a l o d o u r a n d co a t s t h e c h a r c oa l wi t h l e a d c h l o r id e
, ,
 EL E M ENTS O F M IN ER AL O G Y

l e a d o xid e , a n d a r s en io us oxid e . F l a m e ol or ati o

c n, bl ue
a n d g r e en .

Var ieties— C ampy lite ( G r eek , kanipulos, v ed , in a ll u c ur

s io n t o t h e c u r v e d fa c e s o f t h e c r s ta l s ; a v a r i e t f
y ) y o

m i m e t i t e o c c ur r i n g in b a r r e l s h a p e d c r ys ta l s of a b row n -

or y e ll o wi s h c ol ou r
‘

Occur rence S ee p 3 1 4 .
-
. .

Va n a d in it e — A v an a d ate a n d c hl or id e of l ead
. ,

3 P b 3
V2
0 8
P b C 12 ; i s o.m o r pho u s wi t h m i m e t i t e a n d p y ro

m orp h ite C ol our is r u by r ed oran g e b r ow n or

.
, ,

y e ll o wi s h .

L in a r it e ( Li n a r es in S p a i n ) —A r a r e m i n era l c om
,
. ,

p os e d o f s u lph ate a n d o xid e of l ea d an d c opp er wi th ,

wat er It c r ysta lli s e s in th e m on o c li n i c sys te m h a s a

.
,

d ee p a z u r e bl u e c ol ou r a n d giv e s a p al e b lu e s tre ak It , .

is f ou n d in C um b e r l a n d S p a i n S a x on y e t c , , , .

C R OC O I S I TE ( cr acas , s a ff r on) : C r ocoit e , C ro w

c ois e .

Comp — L ea d c h romat e P bC r O4 ,
.

Cry st Sy st — M on oc li n i c
. . .

C om F ar m — P r i s m at i c c r ys ta l s m odifi e d ; a l s o o c c ur s
.

in a n i m p e r f e c t l y c o l u mn ar o r g ra n u l a r c on di t i on F a c es .

o f t h e p r i s m o f t e n s t r i a te d l on gi t udi n a ll
y .

C lean — P r i s mati c t ol er a bl y di s ti n c t ; b as al c l eav ag e

, ,

l es s s o .

Colour — H ya c i n t h re d of di ff er en t s h a d es
. .

S tr eak — Or a n g e ye llow .

L ustre — Ad a man t i n e to vi tr eo u s ; tr an s l ucen t ; s ec t il e

. .

H .
—3 Sp Gr . . .

Tests H eat e d in c l os e d tub e d ec r epi ta tes a n d

.
,

b l ac k en s but r e ver ts to its or igi n a l c ol our on cooli n g ;

,

on c ha r c oa l is r e d u c e d t o m e t a lli c l ea d wi th d e fl a r a t ion
g ,

a n d c o a t s t h e c h a r c o a l wi t h a n e n c r us t a t i o n o f c h r o m i u m

a n d l e a d o xid e s B or a x b ea d e m e r ald g r een

.
, .
 EL E M ENTS O F M I N ER AL O G Y

C R O M F O R D I TE P h os g e n it e H or n , L ea d .

Conip —A . ra r e m i n e ra l , i i g
c on s s t n of c h or l o c a r b on a t e
-

of l ea d P bC 12 Pb C O3
, . .

Corn For m — C rys ta l s p r i s mat i c

. .

Colour —W h i t e gr ey or yell ow
.
, , .

S tr ea k — Whi t e .

L ustre —Ad aman t i n e ; tran s par en t

. l
t o t ra n s u c e n t .

H .
—3 . Sp G r . .
—
6
Tests — D i s s olv e s wi th e ffer ve s c e n c e in h yd roc hl or i c
ac id . Chl or id e given in m i c r ocos m i c c o pp e r o xid e b e a d
see p
tes t ( .

O ccur r ence .
—Oc c u r s at C r o m f or d ,
n e ar M a t l oc k , in
D e r b ys hi re ; C orn wa ll , e tc .

I R ON
L a t i n fer r a in ) ( F e ; , .

I ron is n e x t t o a l u mi n i um th e m os t wid e ly di s tr i b u ted

, ,

a n d a b un d a n t m e ta l c on s t i t u t i n g a b o u t 4 6 p e r c e n t of
, .

th e e a r t h s c r u s t I t is f ou n d n a t iv e in m et e o r i t i c m as s e s
’
.

a n d in e r u p t iv e r o c k s m os t l y a s soc i a te d wi t h oth e r ,

m e tal s — c g n i c k e l c ob a l t etc , , ,
.

M e ta lli c i r on is u n a ff ec t e d by d r y a ir b ut o xidi s e s t o ,

u n d e r t h e i n fl ue n c e o f m oi s t a ir C a s t i r on
“
r us t .
,

w r o ugh t i r o n a n d s tee l a r e th e f or m s in whi c h i r o n

,

o c c ur s in c om m er c e Th e i r di ff e re n t p r op e r t i e s a r e
.

p r i m a r il y d ue to th e p r e s en c e o f v a ry i n g a mou n ts o f
c a r b on S te el is a ga i n divid e d i n t o s e v e r a l c l a s s es o r
.

g r ad e s e a c h n a me d a f ter its p a r t i c u l a r p r op er t i es ( m ild

, ,

h ar d , t h e u s e t o whi c h it is p u t ( t oo l s t ee l e t c ) o r , .

t h e m e tal Wi t h w h i c h it is a ll oye d ( m a n g a n es e c h r o m e , ,

n i ck e l or t u n g s t en s t e e l )
,
Th e se s p ec i a l s t e el s h a v e b een .

f oun d in p r a c t i c e t o be e s p ec i a ll y v a l uabl e f or diff ere n t

p u r po se s s u c h a s a r mo u r pl a t e, g u n s h igh s p e e d c utt i n g
, ,
-

t oOl s r a il s s pr i ngs e t c
, , N i c k e l s te el is o f p a r ti c u l a r
,
.

i mpor tance it s t e n s il e s t r eng th a n d e l as t i c i ty b e i n g

,

en or m ou s l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f or di n a r y s t e e l .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 31 9

P ig i ron , fr o m wh i c h a ll th e v a r i ous g ra d e s o f i ron a n d

s t e e l a re o b t a i n e d is p r o d u c e d in t h e b l a s t fu rn a c e by
,

r e d u c t i on o f it s o r e by c o k e Th e wor l d s p r od u c t i on o f
’
.

pig i ro n in 1 9 1 2 a pp r o a c h e d t on s .

Th e c hi e f or e s o f i r on ar e t h e o xid e s : red h em a t i t e
( z s)
F e O c
, o n t a i n in g 7 p
0 e r c e n t F e w h e n p. u re ;
.
b r o w n

h e ma t i t e or li m on i t e c on t a i n i n g 5 6 9 p e r

c en t . F e ; ma gn e t i t e ( F e3 O4 ) c on t a i n i n g , p e r c en t .

F e ; a n d t h e c ar b on a te s id e r i te ( c h a l ybi t e ) or s p a th i c
, ,

i r on or e ( F e C Oa) c on t a i n i n g 4 8 3 p e r c en t F e M a gn e
,
°
. .

t i t e o f e x c e p t i on a l p u r i t y oc c u r s in l ar g e q u a n t i t i es in
S w e d en a n d is t h e s o ur c e o f t h e n ot e d S w e di s h i r on
’

, .

U n d e s i ra bl e i m p ur i t i e s in i r on or e s a r e a r s e n i c s ulp h u r , ,

a n d p h o s ph or u s e x c e p t i n t h e ca s e o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e
,

of b as i c or n on b e s s e me r s t ee l s I r on or es c on t a i n i n g
-
.

3 p0 e r c e n t F . e a n d u pw a r d s a r e p r o fi t a b l y s m e l t e d b u t ,

t h e v a l u e o f i r on or e s ( in c omm on wi t h mos t ot h er or e s ,

of c o ur s e d e p e n d s o n t h e i r s i t u a t i on a n d a l s o on t h e
) ,

c om po s i t i o n o f t h e i r a n g u e in a ddi t i on t o t h e i r i r on c on
g
ten t . F o r e x a m pl e a n i r on or e c on t a i n i n g 30 p e r c en t
, .

F e a n d a g an g u e o f s ili ca a l u mi n a a n d li m e in s u c h
, , ,

p r op or t i on s t o ma k e it s elf fl u x in g m ay be m or e va l ua bl e
-
,

t h an a r i c h e r o r e c on t a i n i n g i m p u r i t i e s w h i c h it w ou ld be
n ec es s a r
y t o r e m o v e M o s
. t i r o n o r e s in Eu r o pe r e q u i r e

s o m e m e c h a n i c a l c l ea n i n g a n d in s o m e c a se s e l e c t r o
,

m a g n e t i c s e p ara t i on is e m pl oy e d R oa s t i n g or ca l c i n i n g
.

is a l s o f r e q u e n t l y r e s or te d to f o r th e p u r p os e o f r e m o vi n g
w a t e r c a r b o n i c a c id a n d s u lp h u r
, ,
.

C on s id e r a bl e q ua n t i t i e s o f th e n a t u ra l o xid es a n d s ili
c a t e s ar e m i n e d a n d p r e p a re d f o r th e m a r ke t f or u s e in
°

t h e m an u f a c t u r e o f p a i n ts ; a n d a s li n o l e u m fill e r s F or .

e x a m pl e oc h r e s a r e hy d r a t e d f e r r i c o xid e s ; s i e n n a an d
,

u m b e r a r e s ili c a t e s o f i r on a n d a l u m i n i u m c on t a i n i n g ,

i r o n a n d m a n g a n e s e r e d or b r own o xid e s a r e t h e h yd r a t e d
o r a n h yd r o u s o xid e s o r m a y b e p r o d u c e d b y t h e c a l c i n a
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
ti o n o f c a r b on a tes wh er e by , a wid e ra n ge of s h a d es is
o b ta i n e d .

NATI VE I R ON .

C omp — I r on F e ; u s ua ll y a ll oye d w i t h n i c k e l or s o m e
,

o th e r m e ta l or m ix e d wi th o th e r i r o n c o m p o u n d s
, .

C ry st Sy st — C u b i c
. . .

C om For m — Oc t a h e d ra ; g e n e ra ll y m as s iv e a n d wi t h
.
,

a So m e wh a t g r a n u l a r s tr u c t ur e .

C lea o —Oc ta h e d r a l
. .

Colour —I r on g r ey . .

S tr eak — I ron g r ey .

Fr act —H a c kl y it is a l s o ma ll e a b l e a n d d u c til e
. .

H . Sp G r . .

Occur rence — Na t iv e i a l or i g i n h as b eeni r on of t er r e s tr

r e p or t ed a s o c c u r r i n g in B ra zil Au v er g n e B oh e m Ia a n d , , ,

in g r a i n s di s se m i n a t e d in b a s a l t f r om t h e G i a n t s C a u s e
’

wa y ( I r e l a n d ) a n d e l s e wh e r e Th e l a r g e s t m a s s e s k n ow n
, .

t o b e o f t er r es t r i a l or igi n o c c u r in D i s k o I s l a n d a n d e l s e
wh er e on th e c oa s t o f W es t G r e en l a n d w h e r e m a s s e s ,

r a n gi n g u p t o 2 5 t on s In w e igh t w e a t h er ou t f r o m a

ba sal t . Na t iv e i r on a l s o o c c ur s a s g r a i n s in s ome
pl a c er d e po s i ts a s a t G or g e R iv e r New Z ea l an d a n d in
, , ,

P i e d mon t Na t iv e i ron m ay be for m ed by th ea l te ra ti on

.

o f i r on m i n e r a l s a s in Ea s t e r n C an a d a , .

M e t e or i c i ron is f ou n d in m e teor i t e s (ma s s e s w hi c h

h av e fa ll en from t h e o ut e r a tmos ph e re on t o th e s u r f a c e
o f t h e e a r th a n d whi c h m a y c on s i s t e i t h er e n t i r el y o f
,

i ron or p a r t l y of olivi n e a n d oth e r s ili c at e s) M et eor i c

,
.

I r on Is u s u a ll y a ll oye d wi th n i c k e l a n d s mall q u an t i t i es of
c ob a l t ,
ma n g an ese t in c h ro m i um s u lph ur ca r b on , , , , ,

c h l or i n e c o pp er, a n d p h OS p h o r u s f It r u s t s m u c h l e s s
,

r e a dil t h a n t e rr es tr i a l i r on o n a c c ou n t o f t h e n i c k e l
y
-

wh i ch it c on ta i n s Th e m i n er a l s olivi n e e n s ta tit e
.
, ,

a u gi t e a n d a n or th i t e h a v e b e e n f o un d in m e t e o r i t e s A
"

.
,
 EL E M ENTS OF MI N ER ALO G Y
O ccur r ence — M agn e t i te C or n
o c c ur s in D e v on s h i r e ,
w a ll a n d oth e r l oc a li t i e s in En gl a n d a l s o in m a n y pl a c e s
, ,

in S c o t l a n d a n d I r e l an d a n d i n d e e d in m os t p ar t s of t h e
,

wor ld . In N or w a y S w e d e n a n d S ib e r i a it is f o u n d in
, ,

c o n s id e ra b l e q u a n t it i e s a n d c o n s t i t ut e s o n e o f t h e m o s t
,

v a l ua bl e or es o f i ron
As bl a c k s a n d s m a g n e t i t e oc c u r s in pl a c e r d e p os i t s
, ,

a s in t h e S t L a w r e n c e a n d C o l u m bi a r iv er s M os t l ar ge
. .

d e p os i t s o f mag n et i te o c c u r a s s e gr e g a t i o n s in ig n eou s
r oc k s c h i e fl y in t h e m o r e b a s i c r oc k s g a bb r o s n o r i t e s
, , , ,

a n d s o m e t i m e s s ye n i t e s a s a t Ta b e r g a n d Ki r un a , in ,

S w e d en a t t h e Adi r on d a c k s in t h e U n i t e d S ta t e s a n d in
, ,

th e U ra l s M a g n e ti te a l s o oc c u rs a s l e n t i c u l a r b a n d s
.
,

i n t e r fo li ate d wi t h s c h i s t s a s in S c a n di n a vi a U ra l s , , ,

C a lifor n i a S a x on y e tc
, , .

H EM ATI TE ( G r ee k haima bl o od ) : S p e c u l ar , , I r on
L a t i n specu l um a m i r ro r ) K id n e O
( , y r e , , .

C omp — O xid e o f i r on F ea I r on 7 0 p e r c e n t, .
, .

Cl ay a n d s an dy i m p u r i t i es a r e s om e t i m e s p r e s en t .

Cry st Sy st — H e x a gon al
. . .

C orn F o
. r m — R h o m bo h e d r o n o f t e n modifi e d a n d f r e
.
,

q u en tl y in th i n a n d t a b u l a r for m s ; a l s o in m i c a c e ou s o r
fo li ate d a gg r eg a t e s r en ifor m g ra n u l ar a n d a m or ph o u s
, , , .

C om m on l y fib ro us i n t er n a ll y .

C lea v — P oo r ; p a r a ll e l t o t h e r h o mb oh e d r on a n d t h e
.

b a s a l pl a n e .

Colour S te el g r ey or i ron bl a c k In p a r t i c l e s s u ffi
.
-
.

c ie n tly t h i n t o t r a n s m i t lig h t it a pp e a r s bl oo d r e d ; e a r th
y ,

for m s a r e r e d .

S tr ea k —C h e r ry r e d
. .

—
L ustr e W h en c r ys ta lli s e d m eta lli c an d h ighl y s pl en
.
,

d e n t (s p e c u l a r i r on ) In fib r ou s v a r i e t i e s s ilk y ; in
.
,

a m o r p h o u s v a r i e t i es d u ll a n d e a r t h O p q u e e x c e p t in
y , a .
,

v e ry th i n pl a t e s .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 3 23

F r act .
-
S u b c o n c h o ida l o r un e ven .

H . Sp G r . .

Tes ts — B l owpip e r e a c t i o n s
. as f or m a gn e t i t e . B e co m e s
ma gn e t i c h e a t i n g ; s o l u bl e in a c id s
on .

Var ieties— Sp ecula r I r on A v a r i e ty .

- of h e m a t i t e oc c u r
i g
r n in o m bo h e dr a l c rys ta l s bl a c k in
rh ,
c ol o u r a n d wi t h a
,

m e ta lli c s pl en d e n t l u s tr e .

M icaceous H ematite — F oli a t e d an d m i c a c e ous f or m s . .

Kidney Ore — A r e n iform v a r i e ty wi th a m eta lli c l u s tr e

. ,

e s p e c i a ll y o n t h e m am m ill a t e d s u r fa c e B e n ea t h t h i s .

F IG. 81 .
—H EM ATI TE , K I D N EY ORE .

f
s ur a c e kidn ey or e u s u all y di s pl ays a ra di a t i n g or div er
g e n t l y c o l u m n a r s tr u c t u r e .

R eddle — Th e m o s t ea rt h y v a r i e ty of h e m a t i t e a mo r
.
~

p h on s r e d in co l our ; u s ed in t h e man u fa c tur e of c r ayon s

, ,

f or po li s h i n g gl a s s a n d as a r e d p a i n t , .

Occur r ence — H e ma t i t e oc c u r s in poc k et s an d holl ow s

.
,

r e pl a c i n g li m es t on e AS an e x a m pl e o f t h i s m o d e o f
.

oc c u rr e n c e th e g r ea t d e po s i t s of U lv e r s t on in N o r t h
, ,

L an ca s h i r e ma y be giv e n H er e th e h e ma t i t e o c c u r s in
,
.

i rr e gu l a r mas s e s on th e s ur fac e of t h e C a r b on if e ro u s
li m es t on e a n d p r oba bl y r es u l ts fr om t h e r epl a c e m en t
,

o f t h a t li m e s t on e by h e m a t i te b r ou gh t f r om t h e hi gh l y

f err u gin ou s Tr i a s s i c s an d s ton es wh i c h ov er li e th e li m e

s t on e s M e t a so ma t i c d e po s i t s of a s i m il a r n a t u r e oc c u r
.

in F o r es t o f D ea n C u m b er l an d S p a i n Elb a U ta h a n d
, , , , ,

e l s e wh e r e Th e g r e at h e ma t i t e d e po s i t s o f th e L a k e
.
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
S u p e r i or gi on ( M e s a bi ) p r o ba b l y r e s u l t f r om t h e a l te ra
re

t i on a n d c on c e n t r a t i o n o f i r o n s ili c a t e s M e ta mor ph i c .

d e p os i t s of h e m a t i te i n t e r f oli a te d wi th c rys ta lli n e s c hi s t s

, ,

o c c u r in S c a n di n a vi a .

M a rt it e .
— P b bl y p
d omor ph of h ema t i te a f t e r
ro a a s eu

ma g n e t i t e It mo s t l y o c c u r s in s m a ll bl a c k oc ta h e d r a
.
,

wh i c h giv e n r e ddi s h b r ow n s tr ea k -
.

LI M ON I TE ( G r eek , leini on , a m e a d ow ) : B r ow n
H e ma t i t e .

C omp — H yd ra te d o xid e of i ron , 2 F ez O3 3 H 2O

. . I r on ,

60 p er c en t .

C ryst Sy s t — Amor ph ou s
. . .

C oin For ni Oc c u r s in ma m m ill a te d or s ta l ac t i t i c

. .
-

f or ms h a vi n g a ra di a t i n g fi b r ou s s tr uc t ur e r e s e m bli n g
, ,

t h at o f h e m a t i t e ; a l s o in d u ll ea r th y c on di t i on a n d in
c on c r e t i on s .

Colour — Va r i ou s s h a d es o f b r o w n on fr a c tur e s u r fac e s ;

.

wh en e ar th y ye ll ow or b r own i s h ye ll ow Th e e x ter i or s
,
-
.

o f m a m m ill a t e d a n d s t a l a c t i t i c f or m s f r e q ue n t l y e x h i b i t a

bl a c ki sh gl a z ed c oat i n g .

S tr ea k — Y e ll owi s h b r o w n
.
-
.

L ustre — S u b m e ta lli c in s o me v ar i e ti es ; somet i m e s

.

s ilk y s om e t i m e s d u ll or e a r t h y
, .

H — 5
. Sp G r . .
—4 .

Tests — H e a t e d in th e l
c os e d tu b e giv e s wat er G iv es
, .

o th er i r on r ea c t on s i ( see p . D i s t i n g u i s h e d b y s t r ea k
a n d fo r m .

Var ieties— B og I r on Or e — A l oos e p or o us ear th y for m .

, ,

o f li mon i t e f o un d in l o w l y i n g or s w a m p y gr o un d o f t e n
,
-
,

i mp r eg n a t i n g a n d e n v el opi n g fr a g m en t s of w ood l e a v e s , ,

m os s e s ,
etc .

P ea I r on Or e — A . v a r i e ty of li mon i t e h a vi n g a pi s oli t i c
str u c tur e .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI N ER AL O G Y
wa ll , L a k e One g a in R u s s i a j a c k s on I r on
S a x on y, ,

M o u n ta i n in t h e U n i t e d S ta t es e t c , .

Turg it e — A h yd ra te d i r o n o xid e 2 F e 20 3 H zO D is , . .

t in gu is h e d f r o m li m on i te by h a vi n g a r e d s tr ea k a n d ,

f r o m h e m a t i t e by c o n t a i n i n g w a t e r .

P Y R I TES ( G r ee k pur , ,
fi r e) : P yr it e ,
I r on Pyr it es ,

M u n d ic .

C omp — S u lp h id e o f i r on
.
, F e Sz .

Cy S
r s t —
stC u i b
p yr i t e typ e ( s ee p
y . c . .

Com F or nI —C u b e ,
. a n d p yr i t oh e d r on
. .

Th e fa c e s of t h e c u b e a r e o f t e n s tr i a t e d th e s tr i ae of on e ,

fa c e b e i n g a t r igh t a n gl e s t o th os e of t h e a dj a c en t f a c e s
s e e F ig l m iv d l w i
( . I t a s o o c c u r s a s s e in n o u e s h c h , ,

h a v e g e n e ra ll y a r a di a t i n g s t r u c t u r e in fi n e l y di s se m i n a te d ,

c r s ta l s o r p a r t i c l e s a n d it oc ca s i on a ll pl t h a l c i te
y y ,r e a c e s e c

in f o s s il s h e ll s .

C olour — B r on z e ye ll ow to p a l e b r a s s ye ll ow
. .

S trea k G r e e n i s h or b r ow n i s h b l ac k
.
- -
.

L ustre M e ta lli c s pl e n d en t ; op a q u e
-

,
.

Fr aet — C on ch oid a l u n e v en ; b r i t tl e S tr ik es fi r e w i th
.
,
.

s t e e l f or w h i c h r e a s on i t wa s f or m e r l y u se d i n s t ea d o f
,

fli n t in t h e old w h ee l l oc k fi r e a r m a s te el wh ee l b e i n g -
,

ma d e t o r e v o lv e r a pidl y by m ea n s o f c l oc kwor k a ga i n s t a
pi ec e of p yr i t es f rom whi c h s p a r k s w e re th r ow n off i n to
,

t h e p a n o f t he w ea p on .

H . 6 -
( c om p a r e C o pp e r P yr i t e s p Sp , . .

Gr .

Tests — H e a te d in c l o s e d t u b e giv e s s u b li ma te of s u l ,

p h ur l ea vi n g a ma g n et i c r es id ue B ora x b ea d , yell ow in
, .

o xidi s i n g fl a m e b ott l e g r e e n in r e d u c i n g fl a m e
,
H ea te d on .

c h a r c o a l wi t h s o di u m ca r b on a t e giv es m a g n e t i c re s id u e ,
.

B l ac k s ta n i
ilv er c o i n t es t S ol u bl e in n i tr i c a c id in
in s .
,

s ol u b l e in h d r oc hl or i c a c id
y .

Occurr ence —P yr i te s is a m i n e r a l o f v e r y c o mm o n o c c u r
.
 D ES C RIPTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 327

r en c e in m a n y p a r ts of th e wor ld It oc c ur s n ot co mm on l y
.

a s a n a c c e s s o ry m i n e r a l in i gn eo u s r o c k s m or e o f ten it is
s e c o n d a ry . It oc c u r s in v e i n s a n d a s c on c r e t i o n s a n d
,

n od u l a r f o r m s in s e di m e n t a r y r o c k s .

In som e c a s e s p yr i t e s c o n t a i n s e n o ugh g o ld t o p a y
w or ki n g f or t h a t me t a l P yr i te s is n ot wor ked di r ec t ly
.
'

a s a n o re o f i r on t h e s u lp h u r w h i c h it c on t a i n s r e n d e r i n g
,

it c om p a r a t iv e l y wor t h l e s s f o r t h a t p u r p os e ; b u t a g o od
d ea l of t h e s ulp h ur i c a c i d a n d s ulph a t e of i r on ( c opp e r a s )
o f c o mm e r c e is d er iv e d f r o m it s d e c o m po s i t i o n W h en .

p r e se n t in s h a l es or c l ays it s d e c om p os i t i on an d o xid a t i on
,

giv e r i s e u p on t h e r o as t i n g of t h e p yr i tou s s h a l e or c l a y
, ,

t o s u lph u r i c a c id Th i s c o m bi n es wi t h t h e a l u m i n a p r e
.

s en t, a n d u p on t h e a ddi t i on o f po ta s s i u m c om pou n d s ,

al u m a h yd r ou s s u lph a t e o f a l u m i n i u m a n d p o t a ss i u m )
(
is for m e d . In t hi s wa y s om e o f t h e a l u m o f c o mm e r c e
is p r e p a r e d . S u lp h u r is a l so p r oc ur e d f r o m p yr i t es b u t ,

of lat e e a r s t h e m a r k e t h as b ee n p r i n c ip a ll u ppli d b
y y s e y
n a t iv e s u lph u r .

M A R C AS I TE .

A m i n e ral id e n t i ca l in co m po s i t i on wi th p yr i tes F e Sz , .

C r ys talli s es in th e or t h or h om bi c s s t e m , o c c u r r i n g in
y

F IG . 82 . M A R C A ITE
— S ,
TW I N N EII ( D O V ER ) .

b l
t a u ar l w h i c h a r e oft en r e p ea t e dl y t w i n n e d p ro
c ry s t a s , ,

d uc in g p se u d o h e x a g on a l for m s ( s ee F ig
-
Th e.

n a m e s c o c k s c om b p yr i t e s a n d s p ea r p yr i t e s a r e giv e n

t o s om e o f t h e a gg r e g a t e s o f t h e s e t w i n n e d c r ys ta l s w h i c h ,
 M ENTS
EL E OF M I N ER ALO G Y
o cc u r C ha lk a n d oth e r s e di me n ta r y d e p os i t s Al s o
in t h e .

oc c u r s in ra di a t i n g f o r m s e x t e rn a ll n od ula r I t is of a
y ,
.

pa l e r c o l o u r t h a n p y r i t e s a n d d e co m po s e,s m o r e r a pidl y .

It is u s e d f o r t h e s a me p ur p os e s a s o r di n a r y p yr i te s a n d ,

wa s f or me r l y c ut an d p oli s h e d f o r o rn a me n t s .

P Y R R H OTI N E (G r ee k pur r ho te , ,
re ddi s h ) : M ag
n et ic P yr it es P yrr h Ot it e ,
.

Comp — S u lphide of i ro n F It o ft e n c on t a i n s
,

n i c k e l s om eti mes u p to t d i t h n v a l ua bl e
, 5 p e r c e n a n s e .
,

a s a s o u r c e o f th a t m e t a l .

C ry st Sy st — H e x ag on a l
. . .

C oi n F or m — S o met i me s oc c u r s in h e x a g on a l p r i s ms
.
,

w h i c h a r e fr e q uen t l y ta b u l a r ; g en era ll y ma ss iv e .

C lea v P a ra ll e l t o t h e b as e
.
-
.

Colour —R e ddi s h or b r o wn i s h b r o n z e or c oppe r c ol our

.
,

r e a dil t a r n i s h es o n e xpo s u r e
y .

S tr eak — D ar k g r e y i s h b l a c k -
.

L ustr e —M e ta lli c ; op a q u e
. .

Fr act U n e ve n or i mp er fec t ly c on c hoid a l ; b r i ttl e ;

.
-

ma g n et i c .

H . Sp Gr . .

Tests — S o l u bl e in h yd r oc hl or i c id wi t h e v o l ut i on of ac ,

H 28 . B e fo r e t h e bl o wpip e fu s es in t h e o xidi s i n g fl a m e
,

t o a bl a c k m a g n e t i c gl o b u l e ; in r e d u c i n g fl a m e on c h a r
c oa l it is c o n v e r t e d i n t o a gl o b u l e o f r e d o xid e o f i r o n .

D i s t i n g u i s h e d fr o m p yr i t e s b y its i n fe r io r h a r d n es s a n d
by it s c o l o u r ; fr o m C o pp e r p yr i t es by it s c ol o u r ; fr o m
k u pfe r n i c k e l by its s p ec ific g r a vi ty an d bl owpip e r eao
t i on s .

Occur rence — Th e m os t i mp or ta n t o cc u r re n ce of pyr r h o

t i n e is t h a t o f S u db u ry C a n a d a w h e r e t h e m i n e r al
, ,

c a r r i e s a s m a ll p e r c e n t a g e o f n i c k e l f or w h i c h m e ta l it ,

is w or k e d Th e or e b odi e s oc c u r a s s eg reg a t io n s fr i n gi n g
.

a b a s i c ig n e ou s r o c k (n or i t e i m p r e g n a t i o n s a n d in
) a s , ,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
i r o n B es id e s oc c ur r i n g in t h e Co a l M ea s u r e s c l ay
.
,

i r on s to n e is a l s o foun d in l a yers a n d n od ul e s in ot h e r
f o r mat ion s .

Oolitic I rons tone — An i r on c ar bo n a t e w h i c h h a s r e

.

pl ace d t h e c a l c i u m c a r b on a t e of a n OOllt li meston e ‘

r e t a i n i n g t h e s t r u c t ur e o f t h e o r igi n a l r o c k a s in t h e ,

c e l e b r a t e d Cl e v e l a n d i r o n o r e .

O cu e ce
c r r n .
— S om e C h a l yb i t e d e p o s i t s m a y be fo r me d
by di r ec t p r e c ipi ta t i on as in s om e b og i r on or e d e p o s i ts
, .

Th e s e s e di m e n ta r y d e p os i t s o f C h a l y bi t e m a y be a l t e r e d
i n to li mon i te s h e ma t i t es a n d ma g n et i te s a n d t hi s h a s
, , ,

oc c u r r e d in t h e L a k e S u p er i or
( M e s a bi
) d e p os i t s T h e .

s e di me n t a r c h a l y bi tes i n c l u d e t h os e o f t h e C oa l M ea s u r es
y
m e n t i on ed a b ov e typi c a l l o c a li t i e s b ei n g S ou th W a l e s
, ,

S ou t h S ta ff or d s h i r e a n d t h e o th e r B r i t i s h c oa lfi e l d s a n d
, ,

t h e Eas t e r n U n i t e d S ta t e s c oa lfi e ld s Th e me ta s o ma t i c .

c h a l bi te s a r e e x t r e m e l i m p o r ta n t d e p o s i ts ; in them
y y
i ron c arb on at e h as r e pl ace d c a l c i um c ar b on at e of li m e
s t on e s, r e ta i n i n g ma n y o f t h e o r igi n a l fea t u r e s o f t h e

r oc k o oli t i c s t r u c t u r e f o s s il s e tc ) T o t hi s c l a s s b e lo n g
( , , .

t he Cl e v e l a n d or e s

C O P P ER AS ( G r eek , ruela s, bl ac k ) : G ree n Vit ri ol ,

M e l a nt e r it e .

C omp — H yd ra t e d lph ate of i ron F e S O4 7 H zO

su , . .

C ry st Sy st — M on oc li n i c
. . .

C om F or m — Wh e n c r ys t a lli s e d it o c c u r s in a c u t e l y
.
,

p r i s ma t i c cr ys ta l s bu t it is mor e c omm on l y fou n d ma s s iv e

,

o r p u lv e r u l e n t ; a l s o b o t r o id a l r e n if o r m a n d s t a l a c t i t i c
y , , .

C olour — Va r i ou s s h a d es of g r een t o w h i t e ; e xp os e d
.

s u r fa ces g e n e r a ll o f e ll o w i s h o r e ll o wi s h b r o w n
y a y y
-

c ol ou r , a n d wi t h a vi t r ifi e d or gl a z e d a pp ea r an ce at ,

t i m es r e s e mb li n g a f ur n ac e s l a g .

S tr ea k — C o l our l es s .

L us tr e — Vi t r eou s ; s u b t ra n s p a r e n t or t r an s lii c en t
. .
 D ES C R IPTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 33 1

F r aet .
— Co n c h oida l b r i t t l e .

Taste .
,
—
S w e et i s h a s t r i n g e n t
a n d m e ta lli c , n a u s e ou s .

H —2 Sp Gr
. . . .

Tests —H ea te d b e fo r e t h e b l owpip e , b ec o mes ma g n e t i c

. .

G iv es g re en gl a s s wi t h bo r a x S o l u bl e in wa te r t h e
a .
,

s o l u t io n t u rn i n g b l a c k on t h e a ddi t i on o f t i n c t u r e o f n u t

g a ll s .

Occu r rence — C o pp eras r es u l t s fr om t h e d ec om pos i t i on

.

of p yr i t es t h e s u lp h ur p r es en t in t h e l a t t er mi n era l
,

b e c omin g oxidi s e d t o s u lp h ur i c a c id w h i c h c om bi n i n g , ,

w i th t h e i r o n a n d ta ki n g u p a c e r ta i n a m ou n t o f w a t e r ,

for m s c oppe r a s C opp e r as is f o u n d w h ere v er p yr i t es

.

oc c u r s .C opp e r a s M ou n t Oh i o a n d G o s l a r in
, ,

t h e H a r z ar e n ot e d l oc a li t i e s
, .

Uses — C oppe r a s is u s e d by f a r me r s d ye r s a n d in k
.
, ,

ma n u fa c t u re r s a s it yi e ld s a bl a c k c o l ou r wi t h ta n n i c
,

a c id . W h en t rea t e d w i th p ota s s i um fer r oc ya n id e (yell ow

p r u s s i at e of po ta s h ) it form s th e pig m en t k n own a s ,

P r uss i a n bl ue .

VI VI A N ITE : B l u e I r on
- Eart h .

C o mp — H yd r at ed ph os p h a t e of I r o n, F e 3 P zOS 8 H zO . .

I ro n p e roxid e is s o met i me s p res en t .

C ry st Sy st — M on o c li n i c
. . .

Corn Far m — C r ys ta l s m o difi e d p ri s m s g en e r a ll y

.
, ,

v e r y s ma ll an d oft en f or mi n g div er g en t agg r eg a t i o n s ;

,

al so oc c ur s r a di a t i n g r e n if or m a n d a s e n c r u s t a t i on s
, ,
.

C lea o —C lin 0 p in ac oid al h ighl y p e r fe c t

. .

Colour — W h i te or n ear l y c ol our l e s s w h en u n a l te r e d

.
, ,

b u t u s u a ll y d e e p bl u e or g r een W h en vi e we d p a r al l e l .

t o t h e v er t i ca l a xi s it u s u a ll y a pp ea rs b l u e wh il e a t
, ,

r ig h t a n gl e s t o t h e v e r t i ca l a xi s it look s g r ee n Th e .

m i n glin g of t h es e t wo c ol ours giv es r i s e t o th e di r t y bl u e

c o l o u r wh i c h t h e mi n e r a l g e n e r a ll y p re s e n t s .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
S tr ea k .
—B l u i s h w h i te -
so m e t i me s l
c o our e s s, l soo n
,

c han gi n g t o i n dig o bl ue ;
c o l o u r of d r
y p owd e r liv e r ,

b ro wn .

L ustre P ea r ly to v i tre ou s ; t ran s p a r e n t or tran s lu

.
-

c e n t t u r n i n g op a q u e on e xp os u r e
, .

Fr act Not o b s er v a bl e ; s ec t il e ; t hi n la mellm fl e xibl e

.
-
.

H .
—2 . Sp Gr . .

Tes ts —B efor e blowpip e fus es l os e s it s c ol ou r an d

.
, , ,

b ec om es c o n v e r te d to a g r eyi s h bl ac k ma g n e t i c gl ob u l e -
.

Wi th t h e fl u x es giv e s i r on r ea c t i on s H e at e d in gl a ss
, .

t u b e it w h i t e n s e xfo li a t e s a n d y i eld s w a ter ; s ol u bl e

, , ,

in h y d roc hl or i c a c id P ho s p h o ru s i n di c a t e d by mag
.

n e s iu m t e s t a n d by y i e ldi n g a bl ue fus e d m ass wi t h

,

c o b a l t n i t ra t e o n c h a r c oa l .

Occur rence —Vivi an i t e is f o un d a ssoc i a te d wi t h i r o n

.
,

c o pp e r a n d t in o r e s ;
,
it a l so oc c u r s in c l a y m u d an d , ,

p ea t a n d e s p ec i a ll y wi th bog i r o n ore S o m e ti mes it

, .

is fo u n d in o r up on fos s il b on e s a n d s h e ll s L oc a li t i e s
-
.

a r e — S e v e r a l m i n e s in Co rn wa ll a n d D ev on in p eat ,

s w a m p s in S h e t l a n d in t h e I s l e o f M a n o c c u rr i n g wi t h
( ,

t h e h or n s o f t h e e lk a n d d e e r ) B od e n ma i s in B a v a r i a , ,

Tr a n sy lv a n i a e tc ,
.

LI EV R I TE I LVA I TE : , Y e n it e .

C omp — S ili c at e of i r on a n d c a l c i u m H 20 C a O 4 F e O ,
. . .

F e 0
2 3
.
4 Oz
S i . A li tt l e oxid e of ma n g a n es e is fr e q u en tl y
p r e s en t .

C ryst . Sy st — Or t h or h o m bi c
. .

C om F ow n — P r i s ma t i c c r st a s, l th e id es o f t en d ee pl y
s
.
y
i d l on gi t u di n a ll y ; a l s o c o mp ac t
s tr a t e a n d m a ss iv e .

Colour —B l a c k or b r ow n i s h bl ac k
.
-
.

S tr ea k — B l a c k b r own i s h o r g r e e n i s h
, ,
.

L ustr e — S u b m e ta lli c ; op aq u e
. .

Fr ack — U n e v en ; b r i ttl e .

H —6 Sp G r — °

1
. . .
4 .
 EL E M ENTS O F M IN ER AL O G Y

I ser ine — A v a r i et y i g m o st l y in th e for m o f

oc c u rr n

l oos e g r an u l e s or s a n d a n d fr e q ue n t l y in o c tah e d r a l
,

crys t a l s w h i c h a r e p r o b a b l p s e u d o m o r ph s
, y .

K ibdelophane —A v a r i e t y r i c h in t i t a n i u m
Occur r ence —Oc c u r s a s a n ac c e s s o r y c o n s t i t u en t in th e
. .

mo r e b a s i c r oc k s n or i t e s e s p e c i a ll y ; s o met i me s a s
,

l a r g e s e g re g a t i on s a s a t Ta b er g a n d Eke rs u n d Nor w ay
, , ,

Q ue b ec in t he Adi r on d a c k s M i n n es ota e tc It o c c u r s
, , ,
.

a l so in v e i n s whi c h are p rob a bl y of p n eu matol yt i c

o rIgI n .

I ser i n e wa fi rs t foun d
s o u rc e of th e R iv er
n ea r th e s

I s er in S il es i a w h e n ce th e n a me It a l s o oc c u rs in t he
, , .

for m of s an d m ix e d wi t h m a g n et i t e on th e s h or e of t h e
, ,

M e r s ey n ea r l y o ppo s i te Liv er p o ol
, Ti ta n ife rou s i r o n .

s a n d is a l s o a b u n d a n t in t h e Ter t i a r r o c k s o f Vi c t or i a
y
a n d a l on g t h e s h o r e s of N e w P l mo ut h in Ta r a n a ki
y ; ,

Ne w Z e al a n d w h er e th e d e po s i t e x t e n d s f o r s e v era l
,

m il e s t o a d e p t h of m a n y fe e t .

C O B A LT ( C ® .

Cob a l t is a m a ll ea b l e m eta l c l o s e l y r ese m bli n g

ni c kel in a pp ea r a n c e It p os s e s s e s a high m e l t i n g
.

poi n t ( b et w een 1 5 oo C a n d 1 8oo

,
°
. It c a n b e
,
°

p r od u c e d by t h e r e d uc t i on of its o xid es b y c a r b on .

C ob a l t h as b e en u s e d f or pl at i n g meta l s It s a r t ifi c i a lly .

p r e p are d c o mp ou n d s a re u s e d as pig men t s ( bl u e s) .

O th e r u s e s a re in a llo y s an d po t te r y .

Th e c h i e f sou r c e s of c ob a l t a r e t h os e of Ne w C a l e d o n i a
a s b o li t e a n d On ta r i o C an ada w e r e it is a ss oc i a t e d
( ) ,
h ,

wi t h a rs en i c n i c k el a n d of te n a c on s id er a bl e a mou n t of
, ,

s ilv e r .

C ob a l t d e p os i t s of ec on om i c v al u e oc c u r In t h r e e m a i n
w a ys a s c o b a l t v e i n s c a r r y i n g s mal t i te and c ob al ti t e a s ,
 D ES C R IPTI ON OF MI N ER AL S P EC I ES 3 35

co b a l t ife r o u s p yr r h o t i n e ( S u db u r y) a n d a s a s b o li te , ,

w h i c h r e s u l t s fro m t h e w e a t h e r i n g o f c o b a l t ife r o u s b a s i c
roc k s ,
a n d is a n a l o g o u s t o t h e g a r n i e r i t e d e po s i t s o f

n i c kel N w C a l e d on i a )
( e .

Th e m i n e r al s of c ob a l t a r e t h e re f or e ,

A r senide S m a l t i t e , C o Asz .

Ar senide a nd S ulp hide C ob a l t i t e , C o As S .

B loom
”
Er yt h in e C 0 3 AS ZOS 8 H20 , . .

As b o li t e O xid e o f m a n
.

g a n e s e , som et i mes c on t a i n
in g up to 4 0 p e r c en t .

c o b al t o xid e .

Tests —C o b a l t m i n e r a l s c ol ou r b oth b or a x an d m i c r o
.

c os m i c b ea d s a r i c h bl u e Th e r es id u e ob t a i n e d by .

h ea t i n g c o b a l t m i n e r a l s wi t h s o di u m ca r b o n a t e an d
c h ar c o a l is fe e bl y m a g n e t i c .

Th e n a me c o b a l t is d e ri v ed fr om t h e c obbold s or i m p s
for m e r l y s u ppo sed t o r es id e in m i n e s .

C o b al t m i n er al s w ea t h er on t h e i r e x te r i or t o pi n ki s h
c ob a l t bloo m s t h e c ob a l t i n di c ator s
“
.
,

S M A LTI TE Tin W h it e C ob a l t .

C omp —C ob a l t a r s en id e C oAsz Co n ta i n s u s u all y

, .

s o m e i r on a n d n i c k e l .

C ry st Sy st C u bi c
. .
-
.

Com For m — Oc t a h e d r o n
. c ub e an d r h o m bd o d ec a , ,

h ed r on v a r i ou s l y m o difi ed
, U s u a ll y occ u r s m as s iv e o r
.

r e t i c u l at e d .

C leao — Oc ta h ed r a l an d t ol er a bl y di s t i n c t ; c u bi c l e s s
.
,

di s t i n c t .

Colour Tin w h i te a ppr oac h i n g s t ee l gr ey w h en ma s

.
-
,

s iv e . Ta rn i s h e s on e xp os u r e s o m et i mes i r id e sc e n t l y , .

S tr ea k — G r ey i s h bl ac k
.
-
.

L ustre — M e ta lli c .
 EL E M ENTS O F M IN ER AL O G Y

F r ac t .
— G ra n u lar an d un e ven ; b ri ttl e .

—
I1 .
—6 . Sp G r . .

Tes ts — H e a te d in c l os e d t u b e giv es a s u bli mate of ,

m e ta lli c a r s en i c ; in t h e op e n t u b e a s u bli m a te of a r s e n i ou s ,

o xid e On c h a r c oa l giv e s o ff a n a r sen i c a l o d o ur a n d

.
, ,

fu s e s t o a gl ob u l e w h i c h yi eld s wi t h b or a x r e ac t i on s f or
,

c ob a l t Th e p re s en c e o f c o b a l t is o ft e n i n di ca t e d by t h e
.

o c c u r r e n c e o f a pi n ki s h c oa t i n g ( c o b a l t bl oo m
) on t h e

s u r fa c e o f t h e m i n e r a l .

O cc u r re nc e —S m al t i t e oc c ur s in h yd a t og en e tic v e i n s
.

a s s oc i a t e d wi t h c a l c i t e q u a r t z b a r yt e s a n d s ilv e r n i c k el
, , , , ,

and c o pp e r m i n e r a l s Th e m a i n s ou r c e of s u ppl y is
.

C ob a l t O n ta r i o Oth e r l oca li ti e s a re S c h n ee b e r g F r e i
, .
,

b e r g a n d An n a b er g in S a x on y L e ss i mp or tan t a r e
,
.

s e v er a l m i n e s in C o rn wa ll j oac hi m st h a l in B oh e m i a , ,

et c .

C O B A L TI TE .

Comp — S ulp h id e a n d a rs en id e o f c oba l t C oAs S , .

C ry s t Sy st — C ubi c
. . .

C om F or m — P yr i t oh e d ro n
. U s u a ll y f ou n d m a s s iv e
. .
,

g r a n u l a r an d c o m p a c t
, .

C olou r S ilv e r w h i te w i th a r e ddi s h t i n g e

.
, .

S tr ea k — G r e yi s h bl a c k
.
-
.

L ustre — M e ta lli c . .

H . Sp G r . .
-
6
Tes ts — H ea t e d l
b e r e ma i n s u n a l te r e d ; in
in c os e d tu ,

th e op e n tiI b e it y i eld s t h e s u bli mat e o f a r s e n i ou s o xid e ,

a n d giv e s O ff s u lp h u r o u s fu m e s C ob a l t b ea d wi t h bo r a x . .

D ec o mp os e d b y n i t r i c a c id .

Occur r ence — Wi t h s m a l t i te ( s e e a b ov e ) .

ERY TH I N E ( G r eek , ery thr os

,
red
) C ob a l t B l o om .

m o —
C p H yd r a t e d a r s e n i a t e o f co b a l t C 0 3 As2 0 8 8 H20
, . .

C a l c i u m n i c k e l a n d i r on o xid es
, , fr e q u en t l y p r e se n t .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER ALO G Y
S t r ea k — B l ac k
i i g a n d r e s i n ou s
, sh n n , .

Occu ence
r r — O c c u r s wi t h t h e o t h e r o r es o f c o b a l t a n d
.
,

o f m a n g a n e s e e s p ec i a ll y a t M i n e L a M o t t e in M i s so u r i
, , ,

U S A
. . . A v e ry i m p or ta n t oc c urr e n c e is in N ew C a l e
d on i a wh er e th e a s b ol a n d e p os i t s r e p r esen t th e s u p e r
,

fi c ia l a l t er a t i on o f a c o b a l t ife rou s s e r p en t i n e (of G a r .

n ie r it e a n d N i c k e l
) .

N I C K EL ( Ni ) .

Ni c k el w h i c h
,
ne v er oc c u rs n a t iv e ,
is a w h i t e m a ll e a bl e

me ta l , ff ec t e d by m oi s t or d ry a ir a n d ca p a b l e of
un a ,

t a ki n g a hig h p oli s h It is o b t a i n e d by t h e r e d u c t i o n
.

o f it s o xid e o r b y t h e M o n d p r oc e s s w h i c h c o n s i s t s in
“
,

t h e f or m a t i o n o f a v o l a t il e n i c k e l c a r b o n y l p r o d u c e d by
p as s i n g c a r b on m on oxid e ov e r h ea ted n i c k e l o xid e an d ,

t h e di ss oc i a t i on of t hi s c o m p o u n d a t a h ig h e r t e m p e r a
t u r e i n t o n i c k e l in a g r e a t s t a t e o f p u r i t y a n d c a r b o n
mon o xid e w h i c h c a n be u s e d a g a i n
,
Th e o r e is u s u a lly
.

fi rs t t re at e d f or th e p rod uc t i on o f ma tt e a n d wi thi n ,

re c e n t ye a r s t h e c o pp er n i c k e l o r e s of C a n a d a h av e b e e n
-

s u cc es s fu ll y s me l t e d f o r t h e di r e c t p r o d u c t i on o f mon e l
m eta l an a ll oy o f n i c k e l a n d c opp er w h o se a ppli c a t i on s
”
, ,

a r e o f i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r ta n c e .

Ex c ep t f or d e po s i t i on by e l e c tr ol ys i s on ot h e r m eta l s
( n i c k e l -
pl a t i ng
) t h e u s e o f n i c k e l in a p u r e for m is u n
,

i m p or tan t bu t it h a s v e ry e x ten s iv e a ppli c a ti on s in t h e

,

for m Of a ll oys wi t h ot h e r m et al s — f or e x a mpl e G er ma n ,

s ilv e r an a ll oy of c o pp er n i c k el a n d zi n c in v a r i n g
( , , y
p ropo r ti on s ) w h i te m etal n i ck e l b r on z e s e tc
, , Th e , .

m a n u fa c t u r e o f n i c k e l s tee l a ll oys c on t a i n i n g fr o m 2 5
t o a s mu c h a s 3 5 p e r c e n t n i c k e l a b s or b s t h e l a r g e s t
.

p r op o r t i on o f t h e n i c k e l p r o d u c e d N i c k e l s t e e l h a s a
g r eat er h ard n e ss a n d t en s il e s t r en g t h t h a n c ar b on s tee l ,
 D ES C RIPTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 3 39

and is use d f or ar m ou r pl a te ,
s t r u c tu r a l , and o th er

p ur po s es .

Ab ou t t on s i k e l w e r e p rod u c e d in 1 9 1 2
of n c ,

t h e mo s t i m p or ta n t s ou r c e b e i n g t h e n i c k e life r o u s
p yr rh ot i n e ( wi t h w h i c h is a s s oc i a te d a r s e n i c c opp e r , ,

a n d c ob a l t a n d w hi c h
, o ft en c on t a i n s a c o n s id e r a bl e

a mo u n t o f s ilv e r ) o f S u db u r y O n t a r i o ; t hi s di s t r i c t p r o
,

d u c e d in 1 9 1 2 a b ou t t on s of or e a v e r agi n g a b ou t ,

3 p er c e n t n i c
. k e l a n d 1 5 p e r c e n t c o pp e r N e w . .

C a l e don i a fo ll ow s wi t h a p r o d u c t i on in 1 9 1 2 o f a b ou t
t on s N i c k e l d e p os i t s m a y b e divid e d i n t o t h r e e
.

t y p es s i m il a r t o t h e c o b a l t d e p o s i t s — t h a t is ve i n s , ,

n i c k e life r ou s h i d i k lif s e rp e n ti n e
'

py r r o t n e s a n ,
n c e e r o u s

( g a r n i er i te ) .

Th e m i n e r a l s o f n i c k e l a r e

{
C l
K u p f er n ic keL Ni As
h oa n t h

M e r t e N iS
ill i ,
i te , N iAs z
.
.
.

Emer a ld n i c k e l ,

N i c k e l vi t r i ol N iS O4 7 H zO
B loo ms
.
, .

Ni c k e l bl o om ( a n n a b e r gi t e ) ,

Ni3 As20 8 8 H zO . .

S ilica te f G a r n ie r it e h,y d r a t e d n i c k e life r o u s ma

g
l n e s iu m s ili c a t e .

Tests —B l o wpip e
. i
r ea c t on si k e l a r e p oo r In
f or n c .

t h e b o r a x b e a d n i c k e l c o m p ou n d s giv e a r e d d i s h b r o w n
,
-

c o l o u r in o xidi s i n g fl a m e w h i c h c h a n g es to a fl e c ke d
,

O p a q u e g r e y in t h e r e d u c i n g fl a m e ; in t h e m i c r oc os m i c

b e a d t h e c o l our s a r e r e ddi s h b r own s N i c k e l c om -

.

p oun d s giv e a f ee bl y ma g n eti c r e s id ue wh en h ea te d on

c h a r c o a l w i t h s o di u m c a r bo n a t e N i c k e l or e s o xidi s e o n
.

t h e s u r fa c e t o a g r ee n c o l ou r t h e n i c k e l bl o o m s d u e t o
, ,

t h e fo r ma t i o n o f o x ys a l t s o f t h e m e ta l .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y

K U P F ER N I C K EL ( G ma l pf opp nd er n,
f
ll fi ,
c er , a

i k l fa l e )
n c e N I C C OLI TE
, C op p e r Nic k e l
s . : ,

Ar s e n ica l N ic k e l .

C omp — N i c k e l a rs en id e NiAs An t i mon y an d t rac e s , .

o f c o b a l t i r o n a n d s u lp h u r a re so me t i m e s p r e s e n t
, , ,
.

C ry st Sy st — . H e x a g on a l . .

C o m F o
.r m — U s ua ll y fo u n d m as s iv e .

C olonic — P a l e c opp er r ed lik e th a t of a n ew p en n y ; ,

s o m e t i me s wi t h a t a r n i s h .

S trea k — P a l e b r o wn i s h b l a c k -
.

L ustro M e ta lli c ; op a q ue
.
-
.

F rock U n e ve n ; b r i tt l e
— .

H —5 . Sp G r . .

Tes ts — B e fo r e} t h e bl o wpip e giv e s ar s e n i c a l f u me s a n d , ,

fus es to a gl ob ul e a n d t hi s fus e d s ub s ta n c e if s ub se
, ,

q uen tl y h ea te d in a b or a x b ea d a ff or d s r eac t i on s f or ,

n i c k e l ( o xidi s i n g fl a m e r e ddi s h b r o w n ; r e d u c i n g fl a m e
,
-
,

o p a q u e g re n d a l so f o r c o b a l t a n d i r o n l bl
y) a , S o u e i n .

n i t r i c a c id .

Ooouwonoo —K u pf e r n i c k e l is u s ua ll y a s s oc i a te d in
.

h yd a tog e n e t ic v e i n s w i th c o b a l t s ilv er a n d c o pp er or es , , ,

a n d is o n e o f t h e p r i n c ip a l s o u rc es of m e t a lli c n i c k e l .

e ca r —
Chi f l o li ti es a e C o b a l t ( On ta r i o) C or n w a ll S a x on y , , ,

H a r z e tc (s ee Oc c u r r en c e s of S ma l ti t e p
,
.
,
.

C H L OANTH ITE W h it e Nick el .

C omp — Ni c k e l a r s en id e NiAsz At t i me s m uc h , .

c o b a l t r e pl a c e s t h e n i c k e l c a u s i n g t h e m i n e r a l t o g r a d u a te
,

i n t o s m a l t i t e s o m e t i me s i r o n i s a l s o p r e s e n t .

C ry st Sy st —C u b i c
. . .

C om For m — C u b e ; u s ua ll y ma s s iv e
. .

Colman —Tin w h i t e .

S Wea k — G r e y i s h bl a c k -
.

H .
—6 . Cr .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
so di um b on a te a n d c a r b on giv e s a m e ta lli c ma g n e ti c
c ar ,

m as s o f n i c k e l .

Ooou wmco — Oc c u r s c hi e fl y a s n od u l e s in c l a y i r on st o n e
.
,

a s in S o u t h W a l e s ; a l s o a s s oc i a t e d in v e i n s wi th o t h e r

n i c k e l a n d c o b a l t m i n e r a l s a s a t C o b a l t On t a r i o C
( ) , or n ,

wall S a x on y a n d es p ec i a ll y t h e G a p M i n e L an c aster
, , ,

C o P e n n s ylv a n i a U S A
.
, , . . .

Emer a l d Nic k e l : Z a ra t it e .

Comp — H yd rat ed c a r b on a t e of n i c k e l NiC Os 2 Ni , .

In s o me o f t h e p a l e r v a r i e t i es a li t t l e o f
t h e n i c k el is r e pl ace d by ma g n e s i u m .

C m For m
o .
— Oc c ur s a s a n e n c r u s ta t io n som e t i me s ,

m i n u t e l y ma mmill a t e d a n d s ta la c t i ti c a l s o m as s iv e a n d
c o m p ac t .

C omm— Eme ra ld g r een .

S tr ea k —P a l m t h a n t h e co l ou r
y .

L ustr o — Vi tr eou s ; t ra n s p a ren t to t ra n s l uc en t .

H —3 . Sp G r . .

Tests — H e a t e d in c l o s e d b e giv es off w ate r a n d tu ,

c a r bo n di o xid e l e a vi n g a d a r k m a g n e t i c r e s id ue
, G iv e s
, .

t h e u s ua l n i c k e l r e ac t i on wi th b ora x D i s s olv e s wi t h .

e ff e r v e s c e n c e w h en h ea t e d in dil u t e h y d roc h l o r i c a c id .

Occurr ence —Oc c u r s a s a c oa t i n g t o ot h e r n i c k e l

mi n e ra l s a n d is a ssoc i a te d wi t h c h ro m i te a n d se r
,

p en t i n e .

Nic k e l I n d icat ors .

Th e h yd r a t ed an d o xidi s ed n i c k el mi n e ra l s f or m on t h e
e x t er io r o f o t h e r n i c k e l m i n er a l s and a r e k n ow n a s ,

“
n i c k e l bl oo m s o r n i c k e l i n di ca t o r s
”
Th ey a r e a l l .

g r ee n in c o l ou r an d th e m a i n s p ec i es a re
,

1 Emer a ld n i c k e l (s e e a b ov e )
. .

2 N i c k e l vi tr i o l ( m or es on it e) N iS O4 7 HzO
.
,
. .

N i k l bl oo m a n n a b er gi t e ) N i As OS 8 H 2 O
3 . c e ( 3 z , . .
 DE SCR I PT I ON
MI N ER AL S P EC I ES OF 34 3

An n a b e rg i t e N 3 An S i 8 H z,O — A h y d r a te d a r
. .

s e n ia t e o f n i c k e l r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e d e c o m p o s i t i on o f

k u pfer n i c k e l a n d oc c u rr in g a s a c oa t i n g of ca p iliar y
,

a ppl e g r e e n c r s t a l s
y
-
.

G A R N I ER ITE N OU M EI TE ,
.

Comp — Es s en t i a ll y a h yd r a t e d n i c k el mag n es i u m s ili

c a te , v e ry v ar i a bl e
bu t .

C om For m —Am o r p h ou s so ft a n d fr i a bl e
. .

m — '

Co m Appl e g r een t o n ea r l y w h i t e .

L ustr o — D u ll . .

Sp G r . .

Tosts .
-
Ad h e r e s t o t h e t o n g u e
H e at e d in c l ose d t u b e .
,

giv es w a t er In bo r a x b ead giv es n i c k e l r e ac t i on s In

.
, .

mi c r oc os m i c b e a d g iv es n i c k e l r ea c t i on an d l e a v e s a n
, ,

i n so l u bl e s k e l e t on of s ili c a i n di c a t i n g a s ili c at e , .

Oocuw onoe — Oc c u r s in se r p e n t i n e n e a r Nou m ea N ew

.
,

C al e d on i a in v e i n s a s s oc ia te d wi t h c h r om i t e an d t a l c
,
.

A r e s id ua l d e po s i t r i c h in n i c k e l is for m e d b y t h e d e c a y
, ,

of t h e n i c k e life ro u s se r p e n t i n e Al s o a t R iddl e ( O re gon ) .

,

W e b s te r ( Nort h C a roli n a ) a n d R evd a ( U r a l s ) An im ,

.

po r tan t s ou r c e of n i c k e l .

G e nt h it e — A h yd r a t e d n i c k e l mag n e s i u m s i li c a t e
.
,

r e l a t e d t o g a rn i e r i t e .

C O P P ER (C u ) .

Th i s met a l w h i c h in wid e ly dis co m bi n a t i on is a

tr i b u te d an d a b un d a n t fo un d n at iv e e l e men t is a l so
, .

C opp er h a s a s p ec ifi c g r a vi ty of a b ou t a n d me l t s

at a b o u t C I t is a c om p ar at iv e l y s of t bu t e x
.

t r e m e ly t ou g h m e ta l v e r y d u c t il e a n d ma ll e a bl e w h en
,

p ur e a n d n e x t to s ilve r t h e b e s t c on d u c tor o f e l ec t ri c i t y
, , , .

C opp er is ob ta i n e d from it s o res ( u s u a ll y s ulp h id e )

b y a n e l a b or a t e s e r i e s o f me t a ll u r gi c a l o p e r a t io n s ,
 ELE M ENTS OF MI NER AL OG Y
co mmo n l y c on s i s t i n g o f r oa s t i n g xp el p a r t of t h e
,
to e

c o m bi n e d s u lp h u r, fu s i o n in bl a s t o r r ev e r b e r a to r y f ur

n ac es f or t h e p r o d u c t i on o f a c o n c e n t ra t e d d ou b l
s u lphid e o f c o pp e r a n d i r o n (c a ll e d ma t te) w h i c h is ,

r e d u c e d t o c r u d e me t a lli c c o pp er in a r e v e r b e ra t o r y

f u rn ac e or in a B e s s em e r c on v er ter B l as t furn ac e s ar e .
-

s o m e t i m e s u s e d f o r o r e s r i c h in s u lph u r f o r t h e p r od u c ,

t i o n of co pp e r m a t t e p
( y r i t i c s m e l t i n g — l o u t ili s i n g ,

t h e h e a t p r o d u c e d by t h e oxid a t i on of t h e s ulp h id e s ,

wi th th e a id o f li ttl e o r n o f u e l) or f or t h e f ur th e r ,

c o n c e n t r a t io n of m a t te f r o m t h e fi rs t r e v er b era tor y
fu rn a c e fus i on Oxidi s e d or e s m a y b e r e d u c e d in a
.

bl a s t fu rn a c e wi th coa l or c ok e b u t ar e b e s t s m el ted
-
,

in a d m ix t u r e wi t h s u lp h id e o r es In t h e c a s e of n a t iv e
.

c o pp e r t h e or e is c r u s h e d a n d th e m et a ] s e p a r a t e d
, ,

fro m its g a n g u e by d r ess i ng m e l te d in s ome for m ,

of r e v er b e ra t or fu rn a c e C o pp e r o f t h e n e ce s sa r
y .
y
p u r i ty f or u s e a s c on d uc t i n g wi r e s is ob ta i n e d fro m
-

t h e c r ud e m e ta l b y e l e c t r o l y s i s F r om p oor ore s an d
.

r es id u e s f r o m t h e p r i t e s u s e d in t h e m a n ufa c t u r e o f
y
s u lp h u r i c ac id c o pp e r is
, o b tai n e d by r oas t i n g wi t h
c omm on s a l t l ea c h i n g ou t t h e s o l u bl e c opp er c h l or id e
,

wi t h wa te r a n d d ep os i ti on of t he m eta l o n sc ra p i r on or
,
-

by e l ec t r o l ys i s .

C opp e r is e x t en s iv el y u s ed in t h e m an ufa c t u re o f
a ll o s
y s u c h a s b ron z e
, g u n,
m e-
t a l b e ll m ,
e t a l -

( c o pp er

a n d t in
) b r ass
, ( c o pp e r zi n c, a n,d s o m e t i m e s t in
) a n d ,

so m e o t h er s of g r eat t ec h n i c a l i m por ta n c e s uc h a s ,

p h os ph or a n d ma n ga n e s e b r on z e s (c opp e r an d t in wi th ,

s m a ll p e r c e n t a g es o f ph o s ph or u s or fe r r o ma n g a n e s e -

) .

Th e c hi e f s ou rc e s of c opp er a r e n a t iv e C opp er c opp e r ,

p yr i t es e r ub es c i te an d m a l a c h i te As soc i ated wi t h
, , .

c 0 p p e r or es a r e f r e q u e n t l f o u n d t h f ll wi n g m t l
y e o o e a s ,

r e c o v er a bl e a t o n e o r ot h e r s ta g e o f t h e i r t r ea t me n t

g old s ilv er pl a t i n u m p a ll a di u m bi s mut h et c

, , , , , .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
M a l a c h i te
C ar bonatos ,

Az u r i t e ,
C h r ysoc oll a C u O S iOz 2 H 2O
, . . .

D i op t a s e C uO S iOz H zO
, . . .

At a c a m i t e ,

Tests C opp er oxid es c ol ou r th e fl a me e mera ld g ree n

-

wh en moi s ten e d wi t h n i t ri c a c id , a n d c opp er c h l or id e

c ol o u r s t h e fl a me an i n ten se s ky bl u e Th e m Ic r o .

c o s m i c b ea d is g r ee n in t h e o xidi s i n g fl a m e a n d o p a q u e ,

r e d in t h e r e d u c i n g fl a me Th e b or a x b ea d is s o me wh a t.

s i m il ar W h en h ea te d wi th s odi u m c a r b on a te a n d c a r b on
.

o n c h a r c o a l , c o pp e r c o m p o u n d s giv e a r e ddi s h m a s s ,

whi c h s p eedil y bl ac k e n s .

NATI VE C O P P E R .

Comp —P ure C opp e r s o met i mes c o n ta i n i n g a li t tl e,

s ilv e r a n d bi s m u t h .

C ry st Sy st — C u b i c
. . .

C om F or m
. C r ys t al s fr eq u e n t l y twi n n ed n o c l eav a g e
.
-
,

a l s o oc c u r s m as s iv e S o me t i m e s in t h i n s h e e t s o r pl a t e s
.
,

filli n g n a rrow fi s s u r es Ar b or e s c en t fo r m s a r e a l s o of
.

fr e q u en t oc c u r r e nc e an d a t t i m e s it is fo un d in c on fu s e d
,

t h r ea d s fi lif or m
, .

C olonic — C o pp er r e d .

S treak —M e t a lli c a n d s h i n i n g .

L ustr e — M e t a lli c .

F mot —H ac k 1y ; d uc til e a n d ma ll ea bl e
. .

H .
—3 Sp G7 . . .

Tests — B e for e bl o wpip e f u ses eas il y a n d on c ooli n g , ,

b e comes c oa te d wi th bl ac k o xid e of copp er D i s solv e s .

in n i t r i c a c id a n d a ff or d s a bl u e sol ut i on on a ddi t i on
,

o f a m mo n i a .

Ocozl w moe — .Na t iv e copp er oc c u r s a s a m e ta so ma t i c

d e p os i t filli n g c r ac k s a mygd u l es a n d for m i n g t h e c e men t
, , ,
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER A L S P EC I ES '

34 7

of s and s ton e s a n d c on gl o m e r a t e s Th e i m m e n s e L ak e .

S u p e r i or d e po s i t s a r e o f t h i s t yp e Th e c o pp e r is a s s o .

c ia t e d wi t h n a t iv e s ilv e r a n d a m as s of 4 2 0 ton s w e i h t
g,

h as b ee n fo u n d Ot h er l oc a li t i e s of t h i s t y p e a r e Chili
.
,

l d wi k r man d i n d W is
Q u e e n s a n Z c a u
(,
G e y) R h o e s a a , ,

c on s i n Na t iv e c opp e r a l so oc c u rs in t h e u pp e r p a r t
.

o f c o pp e r l o d e s — t h e g o s s a n or z o n e o f w e a t h e r i n g Th e , .

B u r r a B ur r a a n d ot h e r l oc a li t i e s in Au s tr a li a h a v e a l s o
,

y i e ld e d l a r e s u ppli es o f
g n a t iv e co pp e r .

C U P R I TE ( L a t i n ,
eu
pm m , co pp er ) : R e d Ox id e of

C op p e r .

Comp —Oxid e of co pp e r ,
GuzO . C o ppe r , 88 8 p e r

c en t .

C ry st . Sy st — . C u bi c .

C om . F arm — Oc t a h ed r on and r ho m b d od e c a h e d r o n
s o m e t i m es ma s s iv e or ea r t h y a n d oc ca s ion a ll y c a pill ar y , .

C loa m—P a r a ll e l t o fac es of oc ta h ed ron .

Com ma — D i ffe r e n t s h a d e s o f r e d e s p ec i a ll y c o c h i n e a l ,

r ed .

S trea k .
—B r o wn i s h -
r ed a n d s hi n i n g .

L ustr e — Ad ama n t i n e or ,
s u b m e t a lli c to e ar t hy ; s ub

t r a n s p a r en t t o n e a r l y o p a q u e .

F mot — C on c h oida l u n e v en b ri t t l e
.
, .

H .
—4 . Sp G r
. .
-
6 °
I
5 .

Tesl a -
B e fo r e t h e
bl owpip e co l ou r s t h e fl a me e mera ld ,

g reen . On c h a r c oal f u s es to a gl o b u l e o f me t a lli c ,

c o pp e r Wi th t h e fl u x es it give s th e u s u a l c oppe r
.
,

r e a c t i on s S o l u bl e in a c id s
. .

Var ieties R u b C opp er — C r s t a lli s e d c u p r i t e

y y
-
. .

Tile Or e — A r e d or r eddi s h b r ow n ea r t h y v ar i e t y -
,

g en e r all y con ta i n i n g o xid e of i ron .

C lmle otr iolzl te —( G r ee k eha lkos c opp e r a n d tl mx h a i r )

'

. .
, , , ,

C on s i s ts of d eli c a te s tr a ig h t i n t e r l a c i n g fib rou s c r ys ta l s
, , ,

o f a b e a u t if u l c oc h i n e a l r e d c o l o u r .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OG Y
O ccur rence — Oc c u r s in
z on e o f w ea t h er i n g or th e ,

g os sa n o f c o pp e
, r l o d es L o c a li t i es a r e C o r n w a ll .
,

Ch es sy ( F ra n c e) Li n ares ( S p a i n ) L a k e S u p e ri or Chili
, , , ,

P e ru B u rr a B u r ra ( S ou t h Aus t ra li a )
, .

Te n or it e , M e l a c on it e .

Comp —C opp er o xid e C opp er p e r c e n t , C uO .

,
.

C om F or.m — Oc c ur s m o st l y in a bl a c k p owd er ; a l s o
in d ull bl a c k m a s s e s a n d in b ot r yoid a l c o n c r e t i on s
, ,
.

S ome t i m e s in s hi n i n g a n d fl e xibl e s c a l e s .

H —3
. Sp G V . wh e n m a s s ive
. . .

Tes ts — G iv e s th e u s u a l c opp e r r e a c t i on s wi t h t h e
.

fl u x e s b u t is i n f u s i b l e a l on e in th e oxidi s i n g fl a me
, .

S o l u bl e in a c id s
Occur rence —In t h e z on e o f w e a th e r i n g or g o ss a n o f
.

, ,

c o pp e r l o d e s Ab u n d a n t in t h e c opp er m i n es o f t h e
.

M i s s i s s ippi Va ll ey a n d in Te n n e s s ee U wh e re it is ,

wor k e d F or mer l y w or k ed in th e L a k e S up e r io r c opp e r

.

r e gi on .

C O P P ER P Y R I TES C H A L C O P Y R I TE , .

Comp — S ulp h id e of c opp e r a n d i r on C u2S F eg S , .

3
.

C opp er 3 2 5 —34 p er c en t .

r s S s —
C y t y t Tet ra g on a l
. . .

C om Fow e — C r ys ta l s a pp r o xi ma te to c u bi c fo r m
. .

Wedg e s h a p ed f or m s are c o mmon F r e q uen t l y t wi n n e d

-
. .

G e n e ra ll y fo u n d ma ss iv e .

Colour — B r a s s yell ow f req u en t l y wi t h a t ar n i s h w h i c h , ,

is s o me t i me s i r id es c en t ( p eacoc k c o pp e r ) .

S trea k G r ee n i s h bl a c k v er y s li g h t l y S hi n i n g
.
- -
.

L ustr e — M eta lli c ; op a q u e .

Fm et — Co n c h oid a l u n ev e n , .

H .
—4 S p G V—
4 I . . .
‘

Tests D ec r e pi ta t es wh en h e a te d in t h e c lo s e d t u b e
.
-
,

a n d giv e s a s u bli ma te o f s u lph u r B e fo r e blowpip e o n .

 EL E M ENTS OF MI N ER AL O G Y
Twi n n i n g fr eq u e n t l y giv e s a s t e ll a te g r ou pi n g of t h r ee
i n divid ua l s Al s o oc c u r s m as s iv e a n d wi th a g ra n u l a r
.
,

o r c om p a c t s t r uc t u r e .

C lea vage — P oor p r i s mat i c .

C oloW — B l a c ki s h l e a d g r e y ; oft e n wi t h a bl u i s h or
.

g r e e n i s h ta r n i s h .

S tr ea k — S a m e a s c o l ou r so me t i m e s s hi n i n g .

L ustr e — M e ta lli c .

F met C on c h oid a l -
.

H .
-

3 . Sp G 7 . .

Tes ts -
O n c h a r coa l , b oil s , u l t i m a t e l y f u s i n g t o a gl o b u l e
of co pp er . S ol u b l e in h ot n i t r i c a c id , b u t l ea vi n g a p r e
c ip it a t e o f s u lphu r Oth er c opp e r r ea c t i on s giv e n
. .

Occu rrence — C o pp e r gl a n c e is a v e r y v a l u a bl e or e b u t ,

d oes n ot oc c u r in v ery g r ea t a b un d a n c e Oc c u r s in v e i n s .

a n d b e d s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h o t h e r c o pp e r o r e s a s in C o r n ,

w a ll S ib er i a S a xo n y K on g s b er g ( Nor w ay) M on t e
, , , ,

C at i n i ( I t a l y) M e xi c o P e ru B olivi a Chili e tc
, , , , ,
.

C OV ELLI N E .

A copp er s u lphid e C u S oc c ur r i n g ma s s iv e u s u a ll y
, , ,

bu t k n o w n in h e x a g o n a l c r ys t a l s I n dig o bl u e in c olo u r . .

Is for me d in t h e zo n e o f s e c on d a r y e n r i c h m en t in c o pp e r
v e i n s Thi s z on e is s i tua t e d b e tw e e n t h e g o ss a n a n d t h e
.

u n a l t e r e d z on e a n d in it o cc u r p r o d u c t s o f t h e c h e m i c a l
,

a c t i o n b e t w ee n t h e o r igi n a l v e i n s t u ff a n d d e s c e n di n g

s o l u t i o n s a n d it o ft e n fo r m s t h e r i c h es t p a r t o f t h e l o d e
,
.

C o v e lli n e is fou n d in C h ili M a n s feld ( G e r m a n y) e tc , ,

.

ER U BE S C I TE ( L a t i n em bosco t o r e dd en ) B O R , , ,

N I TE Va r ieg a t e d C o p p e r Or e .

Comp — S u lp h id e o f c o pp e r a n d i r on C o mp os i t i o n .

v a r i es t h e r a t i o o f i r on a n d c opp e r b e i n g exp r es s e d
,
f or
t h e a v e r a g e b y t h e fo r m u l a C F eS ,
11
,, 3
.

C ry st Sy st C ubi c
. .
-
.
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 35 1

Com . F o we—
C r ys ta l s of c u b e a n d oc ta h e d r on k n o wn ,

b u t m o s t c omm on l y m a s s iv e .

Colonic — C opp er r e d or pi n c h b ec k b r o w n ; t a r n i s h e s ,

s p e e dil y o n e xp o s u r e .

S t rea k — P a l e g r e y i s h bl ac k a n d s ligh t l y S hi n i n g -
, .

L M i ra — M e ta llic .

F mot —S m a ll c on c h oid a l a n d u n e ve n ; b r i t t l e
, ,
.

H — 3 . Sp G r . . .

Tesl a — H ea t e d in o p e n t u b e yi eld s s u lp h u r di oxid e ,

fu me s b u t giv es n o s u bli ma te F us es in t h e r e d uc i n g
, .

fl a me t o a b r i ttl e ma g n e t i c gl ob u l e S ol u bl e in n i t r i c .

a c id l e a vi n g a d e p o s i t o f s u lp h u r
, D i s t i n g u i s h e d b y it s .

t arn is h an d by t h e r e d c o ou r o n a l fr es h s ur a c e f .

O ccur rence —Er u b e sc i te

v er y v a l ua bl e or e of is a

c o pp e r It oc c u rs in t h e z o n e o f s ec on d ar y e n r i c h me n t
.

of c o pp e r l o d e s a s s oc i a t e d wi t h c o pp e r p r i t e s c o v e lli n e
, y , ,

e tc . It oc c u r s in s o m e o f t h e C o rn i s h m i n e s wh e r e it is ,

k n o wn a s h or s e fl e s h or e ; M on t i C a t i n i ( I ta l y ) M an s fe ld
-

( G e rma n
y ) ; N o r w a y e t c , .

S U L P H I D ES O F C O P P ER , A R S EN I C , A N D
A NTI M ONY .

Tet ra hed r ite 4 C q S b2 8 3 ,

. .

Tenna ntite 4 C q AszS3 , . .

F a ma tinl ze
‘

Ena rg ite 3 C 112S AS2 S ,

.

TETR A H ED R I TE : G r ey C o p p er , F a h l er z .

C omp — S u lp h id e o f c o pp e r i m on y 4 C q and ant , .

S b2S 3 P . a rt o f t h e c o pp er is
o f t e n r e pl ac e d b
y i ro n ,

z in c S ilv e r or m e r c u r y P a r t of t h e a n t i m on y is oft e n
, ,
.

r e pl a c e d b y a r s e n i c s e ld o m b bi s m u t h I t s o m e t i mes
y , .

c o n t a i n s 30 p e r c e nt s ilv e r in pl a c e o f p a r t
. o f t h e

c o pp e r a n d is t h e n c a ll e d a r g e n t ife r o u s g r e y c o pp e r o r e
, ,

or s il v e r » f ah le rz , b u t is t h e n m or e of t he n atur e of

ste p h an i t e (p .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER ALO G Y
C r yst . Sy st .
-
C u bi c
h e d r i t e t y p e (s e e p
, t e tr a .

C om F or m — Te t r a h e d r a l c rys ta l s u s u a ll y m o di fi e d ;
.
,

c r ys t a l s fr e q ue n t l y t wi n n e d Al s o ma s s iv e wi t h a co m .
,

p a c t g ra n u l ar or c r yp toc rys ta lli n e s tr u c tur e

, , .

C olonic — B e tw ee n s t e e l g r e y a n d i ron bl a c k .

S tr ea k — N ea r l y t h e s a m e a s t h e c o l ou r .

L ustre — M e ta lli c ; op a qu e but v er y t hi n s pli n t e rs o f ,

it a r e s u b t ra n s l uce n t a n d a pp e a r c h er r y r e d by t r a n s
,

m itt e d ligh t .

F m ot —S u b c o n c h oid a l or un e v en ra th e r b r i tt l e
. .

H —3
. Sp G V —S I . .
'
.

Tests Th i s m i n e r a l v a r i e s in it s c h e m i c a l b e h a vi o u r
.
-

a c c or di n g t o th e di ff e r en t s u b s t a n c es w h i c h t h e v a r i e t i e s

c on t a i n In t h e c l os e d t u b e t h ey a ll f u s e a ff or di n g a
.
,

d ee p re d s ubli mat e of a n t i mon y s u lp h id e In t h e op en

i
.

t u b e fu ses a n d giv es o ff s u lph u ro u s f u me s a n d for ms a

, ,

w h i te s u b li ma t e i n s id e t he t u b e Th e mer c ur i a l var i e t i es .

give m i n u te gl ob ul es of q u i c k s ilv er On c h a r c oa l .
,

fus es an d y i e ld s a c c or di n g t o t h e c on st i t u en t s p r es en t
, ,

w h i te en c r u s ta t i on s of a n t i mon y o xid e a r s en i c o xid e or , ,

zi n c ox id e or a yellow e n c r us tat i on of l ea d o xid e Th e

, .

zi n c en cr u s tat i on b e c ome s g reen wh en moi s t en ed wi th

c ob a l t n i t r a t e a n d r e h e a t e d H e a t e d b e for e t h e bl owpip e.

w i t h s odi u m ca r b on a t e y i e ld s s c a l e s o f m e ta lli c c opp er

, .

S ol u b l e in n i t r i c a c id ; a r s e n i c o xid e a n t i mo n y o xid e , ,

a n d s u lp h ur r e m a i n i n g .

Occur r ence — Oc c u r s a s s oc i a t e d wi t h o t h e r or e s o f
c o pp e r a n d wi th p y r i t e s g a l e n a bl e n d e e t c
,
L oc a li ti e s
, , , .

a r e L e v a n t ( C o r n w a ll ) An d r e as b er g ( H a r z ) F r e i b e r g
, ,

a x on y r z ib r a m m i C ili livi
( S ) P , ( B o h e a) h B o a a n d , , ,

Ar k a n s a s a n d C o l ora d o

TEN NA NTI TE .

Comp S u lp h id e of c opp er a n d a r s en i c 4 C u 2S A5 2S a3
“

O ft en c on ta i n s a n t i m o n y c a u s i n g it t o g ra d e tOwa r d s
. .

t e t r a he d r i t e .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
Coh a n — S t ee l g rey "
or l ea d g r e y , an d so met i me s
b l a c ki s h .

S tr eak — S a m e a s c o ou r l .

L ustr e — M e ta lli c ; op aq u e .

Fmet — C on c h oid a l or un e v en ; b r i ttl e .

H .
—3 Sp G7 . . .

Tes ts — On C h a r c oa l fu s es ea s il y givi n g a t fi r s t a w h i te
.
, ,

e n c r u s t a t i on of a n t i m o n y o xid e a n d a ft e r wa r d s a ye ll ow ,

F IG . 83 .
—BOU R NONI TE WH EEL , ORE .

on e of l ead o xid e Th e r e s id u e h ea ted wi t h sodi u m

.

c arb on a t e on c h a r c o a l yi e ld s r e ddi s h fl a k es o f m e t a lli c

c opp er .

Occur r ence — O c c u r s wi t h ot h e r or es o f c o pp er F i rs t .

fo un d in S t En d e lli on ( C or n w a ll) ; a l s o oc c u r s a t
.

Ka p n ic ( Tr a n s ylv a n i a ) , S a x on y , Cl a u s t h a l , An d r e a s b e r g ,

an d Ne u do r f ( in t h e H a r z ) C h ili
, , B o livi a , et c .

C HA L CA NTH I I E, B L U E V I I R IOL : C y a n o
' ‘ ’ ‘

s it e , C o pp e r Vit r io l .

Comp — H yd r a te d s u lp h at e o f c opp e r , C u S O4 5 H 20 .

C ry st Sy st —Tr i c li n i c
. . .

C om F or m.
— In t r i c li n i c c r ys t a l s ; a l s o c o m p a c t mas
s iv e s t a l ac ti t i c a n d e n c r u s t i n g
, .

Comm— S ky b l ue s o me ti me s g r een i s h , .

S tr ea k —C o l ou r l e s s .

L ustr e —Vi t re ou s ; s u b t r an s p a r en t t o t ran s l uc en t

. .

Fm ot — R at h e r b r i tt l e .

Teste — Na u s e ou s a n d m e ta lli c
. .

H . Sp G V . .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF MI N ER AL S P EC I ES 355

Tes ts -
H e a te d in t h e l
b e giv es wa t e r S ol u
c os e d tu , .

bl e in wa t er t h e s o l u t i on c oa t i n g a C l ea n s t r ip o f i r on
,

wi t h m eta lli c c o pp er B y t h i s m ea n s m u c h c opp er m a y

.

o ft e n b e p r o c u r e d fr o m t h e w a t e r p u m p e d fr om c o pp e r

m i n es H ea t e d on c h a rc oa l wi th s odi u m c ar b on a t e a n d
.

C a r bo n i e ld s m e t a lli c c o pp e r
y , .

Occu r rence — R e s u l t s fr o m t h e a l t e r a t i on o f C opp e r

p yr i t es a n d oc c u r s th er e for e in t h e z on e of weath e r i n g
,

o r g o ss a n o f c o pp e r l o d e s as in C o r n wa ll in t h e R a m , ,

mel s be r g m i n e in th e H a r z e t c , .

B r och ant it e W a r r in g t on ite L a ng it e

,
— Th e s e , .

t h r e e m i n e ra l s a r e h yd r a t e d s u lp h a t es o f c o pp e r of a n ,

e m e r a ld g r e e n c o lo u r .

M A LAC H I TE ( G r eek ma looke m ar s h m a llow f rom , ,

-
,

it s g r een co l ou r ) .

Comp — H yd r ate d c a r b on ate of c opp er C u C Og C u , .

( O H )2 .

Cry st . Sy st .
— M on oc li n i c .

C om . F or m— C om mon l y oc c u r s m a s s iv e e n c r u s t i n g , ,

l
s ta a c t it i c , or s t a l ag mi t i c a n d wi t h a s m oo t h
, m a m m il ,

F IG . 84 .
—M ALAC HITE , STALAC T ITIC .

l a t ed or b o t r yo id a l s ur fa ce ( s ee F ig I n ter n a l s truc
.

t ure ft e n
o div e r g e n t l y fib r ou s a n d c o mp ac t Al s o oc c u r s .

g r a n u l ar a n d e a r th y .

Colour — B r i gh t g r e e n ; di ff er en t s h a d es o f th e c ol o ur
fo ll owi n g a c on c en t r i c a ll y b a n d e d a r r an g e m en t .

S tr eak — Of t h e u n c ry st a lli s e d v a r i e t y pa l e r t h an t h e ,

c olo u r .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OGY
L ustr e — S lig h t ly s ilk y on s u r face s b r o k en p a r a ll e l wi t h
t h e fib r o u s s t r u c t u r e S omet i mes ea r t h y or d u ll. Th e .

c r ys t a l s h a v e a n a d a ma n t i n e l u s t r e i n c li n i n g t o vi t r eo u s ,

a n d t h ey a r e t r a n s l u c e n t o r s u b t r a n s l u c e n t In th e mas .

s iv e m a m m ill a t e d s t a l a c t i t i c a n d s t a l a g m i t i c c on di t i on s
, , , ,

t h e m i n e r a l is o p a q u e .

H .
—4 S p G r .
— 4 . . .

Tests H e at e d in c l os e d t u b e it giv es off w a ter a n d

.
-
,

bl ac k e n s D i s s olv e s wi th e ff er v es c en c e in a c id s B efor e
. .

bl owpip e a lo n e fu s es a n d c ol our s th e fl a me e mer a ld

, ,

g r e en On c h a r c oa l r e d uce d to me ta lli c c opp er C olo u rs

.
, .

b ora x b ead g reen .

Occurr ence — M a l a c h i t e is fou n d in t h e z on e of w e a th er

in g or g os s a n o f c opp e r lod es L oc a li t i es ar e— C orn .

w all C u mb er l an d C h ess y ( F r an c e) S p a i n S i b er i a
, , , , ,

B u rr a B u rra M i n e ( S out h Au s tr a li a) Chili P en n s ylv a n i a , , ,

e tc . Th e c o l ou r b a n di n g m ar k s th e s u c c es s iv e d epo s i ts
-

of t h e m i n e ra l whi c h h a s in m o s t c a s e s
, r e s u l t e d fr o m
, ,

t h e p e r c ol at io n of w at e r t h ro ugh c opp e r b ea r i n g r o c k s -
,

a n d th e s u b s e q u e n t d e p os i t io n of th e di s so lv e d c a r b on ate
in fi s s u res o r c avi t i e s t h e sol ut io n h a vi n g a pp ar en t l y ,

d r ipp e d in s l owl y an d th e w ater e va p o ra te d t h u s fo r mi n g

, ,

a se r i es of l a ye r s in t h e s a me w a y t h a t s t a l a c t i te s a n d

s t al a g m i t e s of ca l c i t e a re f o r m e d b y p e r c o l a t i o n o f w a t e r

t h r ou g h li m es t on e M a l ac hi te is v a l u abl e a s a n ore of
.

c o pp e r It is a l s o wh e n ou t a n d p o
.
, li s h ed u s e d f or ,

o rn am en ta l p u r po ses Ver y l ar g e mas s es of mal ac hi te .

h a v e b ee n p ro c u r e d b ot h f r om S ib eri a a n d Au s t r ali a .

AZU R I TE, C H ES S Y LI TE : B l ue C arb on at e of

C opp e r .

Comp — H yd rate d c ar bo n ate of c opp er 2 C u C O3 C u , .

( O H )2 C o m p a r
. e c o m po s i t io n of ma l a c h i te .

Cry st Syst — M on oc li n i c
. . .

C om Form — M o difi e d p r i s m s ; a l s o m a s s iv e an d e ar t h y
. . .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
Tes ts H ea te d in c l o s ed t u b e bl a c k en s a nd give s off
.
-
,

w a te r B e fo r e bl owpip e i n fus ibl e bu t d ec repi ta te s a n d

.
, ,

c o l o ur s t h e fl a me e mera ld g r e e n Wi t h s odi u m c a r .

b on a t e o n c h a r coa l yi eld s meta lli c copp er Is d ec o m, .

p os e d by ac id s wi th out effer v es c en c e ( whi c h s er v e s to

di s ti n g ui s h it fr o m m a l ach i te) It is n ot h ow e v e r .
, ,

c o mpl e t e l
y s o l u b l e Wi t h t h e fl u x es it giv es t h e u s u a l
.
,

C o pp e r r ea c t i o n s .

Oeour renoe —Occ u r s in t h e z on e o f w e a t h e r i n g or g os s a n

.

o f co pp e r l o d es a n d wh e n f o u n d in s u f fi c i e n t q u a n t i t
, y ,

c o n s t i t u t es a c o pp er or e o f s o me v a l u e a n d is e as il y ,

r e d u c e d w h e n m ix e d wi t h li me s t on e I t s e ld o m f r om .
,

it s i mp u r i t i e s yi e ld s m o r e t h a n I O p e r c e n t C opp er
, . .

L oc a li ti es a re — C orn w a ll S a x on y B a v ar i a S ib e r i a , , , ,

S ou t h Au s t r a li a C h ili a n d t h e U n i t e d S ta te s
, , .

D iop t a s e (Gr ee k ,
die , t h r o ugh , an d p
otomal , t o s ee
)
°

Eme r a l d C op p er .

Comp —H yd r a te d s ili c a t e of
. pp er C u O S iOz HzO co ,
. . .

C ry st Sy st — H e x a g on a l r h om b oh e d r a l
. .
,
.

C om For m — C r ys t a l s
. c o m bi n a t i o n s of p ri sm a n d ,

r h o mb oh e d ro n s o m e t i mes fo u n d ma s s iv e .

C loae —R h o mb oh ed r a l a n d p e r fec t
. .

(Solemn Em er a ld g r ee n
-
.

S tr ea k — G r e e n .

L ustr e — Vi tr e ous t r an s p a r en t to s u b tra n s l uc e n t .

F met — C on c h oid a l or u n ev en b r i tt l e .

H —5. Sp Gr . . .

Tests — R e s e m b l e s c h r ysoc oll a in it s r ea c t io n s b ut

.
,

di ff ers f ro m it in y i eldi n g g e l ati n o u s s ili c a wh e n dis

so lv e d
in h yd r o c hlo r i c ac id .

Occur r ence —In th e z on e of w ea th e r i n g or go s s an of

c opp e r lod es as a t C h ili N a s sa u S i b er i a

, , , . D i o p ta s e is ,
f ro m its ra r i ty of n o i n d us t ri a l i mp or ta n c e
, .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NERAL S P EC I ES 3 59

ATA C A M I TE : R e molin it e (b ot h na m es fr om l oc a li
t i e s in S ou t h Am e r i c a) .

Comp —H yd r ate d o x yc hl orid e of co pp er ,

C u C l, 3 C u .

( O H ).
C ry st . Sy st —Or t h or h om bi c
. .

Com . F or m— P i s ma t i
r c c r ys t a s l n ot co mmon ; fr e
q uen t l y ma s s iv e a n d l a me ll a r .

Comm— B r ig h t d ee p g ree n to bl a c ki s h g re en -
.

S t rea k — Appl e g re e n .

L us tre —Ad a m an t i n e t o vi tr eou s ; t r an s l uc en t to sub

t r an s l u c en t .

H —3
. Sp G r — 4 . .

Tesl a -
H eat e d in c l ose d t u b e , it
giv es off w a t er a n d
f or m s a g r ey s ubli m a te Ea s il y s ol u bl e in ac id s On . .

c h a r c oa l f u s e s in t i m e t o m e t a lli c co pp er c o l o u r i n g t h e
, ,

fl a me a z ur e bl ue (c h l or id e) an d for mi n g a b rown i s h a n d ,

g r eyi s h wh i t e d epos i t on t h e c h arc oal wh i c h v ola tili se s

-

in t h e r e d uc i n g fl a me a g ai n gi v i n g a n a z ur e bl ue ,
-

c o l or a t i on .

Occur rence — Oc c ur s in t h e z on e of w ea t h e r i n g o r g ossa n

o f c o pp e r l od e s O cc u r s a t B ota ll a c k a n d S t J u s t ( in
. .

C o rn wa ll ) Lo s R e moli n os an d t h e Ata ca m a D es ert (in

,

S o u t h Am e r i ca ) S p a i n S ou t h Au s tr a li a e t c
, , , .

L ib et h e nit e A h y d ra t e d p h o s ph a t e o f c o pp e r
. ,

4 C u O P O H O o f a d a r k o liv e g r e en c o l o ur o cc urr i n g
z
. .

s z , ,

b ot h c rys t a lli se d a n d m a s s iv e in C orn wa ll H u ngar y t h e , ,

U ra l s et c
, .

Ph os p h oc h al c it e — A h yd r a te d ph os p h a t e o f c o pp er
.
,

6 C u O P 2O 3 H20 o f a n e m er a ld or bl a c ki s h g r ee n c ol ou r
.
5
.
, ,

s o me t i m e s c ry s t a lli se d b u t m o s t l e n c r u s t i n g an d m as
y ,

s iv e. H a r d n es s —5 It is f oun d n e ar B on n on th e
, .
,

R h i n e in H un ga ry a n d Co rn w a ll
, , .

L ir oc on it e —A hyd rate d a rs en at e of a l u m i n i um an d
.

c o pp e r v a r i a b l e in c o m po s i t i on
,
In c olOII r s ky bl ue o r .
,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
v er dig r i s g r e en Or th o r h omb i c H a r d ne ss 2 5 Oc c urs
. .
,
°
.

in C orn w a ll H u n g a r y e t c , ,
.

C l i n oc l as e a n d Ol ive n it e a r e a l s o a r se n a t es o f
C opp e n

Lib e t h e n i te p h os p h och alc ite li r ocon i te C li n oc l ase

, , , ,

a n d o liv e n i t e o c c u r in t h e g os s a n s o f c o pp e r l o d es a n d ,

ar e o f n o c o mm e rc i a l v a l u e .

M ER C U RY ( H g ) .

M e rc u r y (q u i c k s ilv er ) e xi s t s n at iv e , bu t as suc h is an

un i mp or ta n t s ou r c e of t h e m et a l It is a s ilver whi t e .

me ta l liq uid a t o r di n a r y t emp er a tu r es It b o il s a t 3 6 0 C

, .
°
.
,

a n d h as a s p ec ifi c g r a vi t y o f 1 3 5 9 Wh en p u r e it is u m .

a ff e c te d by d r y o r mo i s t a ir M e r c u r y c o m bi n e s wi t h
.

m os t m e tal s to fo r m a ll oys c a ll e d a m a lg a m s whi c h , ,

d ec om p os e on b ei n g h e a te d wi t h v ol a t ili sa t io n of metalli c
,

me r c u r y .

M er c ur y is ll y ob ta i n ed from it s or e C i n n a b ar
u s ua ,

H
( g ) y S b,
r oa s t i n g in a n o xidi s i n g at m o s p h e r e wh e r e b y ,

t h e s u lph u r is o xidi se d t o s u lph ur ou s a c id a n d t h e fr ee d ,

m e ta l vol a tili s e d a n d c on d e n sed It m a y a l so b e ob t a i n e d

.

b y di s t ill a t i on i n r et or t s in p r e se n c e of li me or i r on ,

w h i c h c om bi n i n g wi th th e s u lph u r lib er a tes th e mer

, ,

cur
y . T h e p re se n c e of a n t i m on y in t h e o re is n o t

u n c o m m on a n d r e n d er s t h e c oll e c t i on o f t h e m e r c u r y
,

diff i c u l t .

Th e d e m a n d f or me r c u r y d oe s n ot a pp e a r t o b e on t h e
i n c r eas e It s c h i e f u s e s a r e f o r t h e e x t ra c t i on of g o ld
.

a n d s ilv e r fr o m t h e ir o r es f or t h e ma n u fa c t u r e of f u l
’

m in a tes m ir r or s p igme n ts a n t i f o u li n g p a i n ts a n d in
, , ,
,
-
,

m e di c i n e It is a l s o s t a t e d t o b e e mpl oye d in pl a c e of
.

r oll ers f or fl oa t i n g t h e r e v olvi n g ligh ts of ligh t

h ou s es .

Th e on ly s ou r c e o f the m e ta l is i
c n na bar ,
a nd ma n y of
36 2 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
r es id ue b e l e ft t h e p res e n c e of s ilv er may be d et e c t e d by
,

fu s i on wi th s odi u m c ar b o n a t e on c h a r c oa l .

Ocoil wenee — N a t iv e m e rc u r y oc c u r s a s fl u id glob u l es

.

s c a t tere d t h r ou gh t h e me r c u r lphid i n n a b ar
y s u e C
( s e e ,

p a s a t Al m a d e n S p i n) I dria C r n i ol a A i
.
( a
( a
) u s t r a , , ,

et c . It is s o me t i m es fo u n d in s o m e q u a n t i ty filli n g
c a vi t i e s Na t iv e m er c ur y oc c ur s r a t h e r s p a r i n gl y a n d
.
,

t h e m er c u r y of c o mm e r c e is d e r iv e d fr o m c i n n a b a r .

Nat ive Ama l g a m : S il v e r Ama l g a m .

C omp — S ilv e r an d m er c u ry . M er cury 6 5 2 p e r c e n t .

,

s il ver 34 8 p er cen t .

Cry st Sy st C u bi c . .
-
.

C om For m —R h omb d o deca h edr on ; a l s o o c c u r s ma s

.

s iv e .

Colma n—S ilv er whi t e .

S f r eak — As c olo u r .

L ustr e — M eta lli c ; op a q u e .

Fmet — C on c h oid a l ; un e v en b r i t tl e an d g ra tes un d er ,

t h e k n ife w h en c u t .

H —3 . Sp G r —I
4 . . .

Tests — H e at e d in c l os e d t u b e t h e m er c u r y s u b li m es
.
,

a n d c on d e n s e s o n t h e c old po r t i on o f t h e t u b e l e a vi n g a ,

r es id u e o f s ilv e r B e for e b l owpip e merc u ry v o l a t ili s es

.
, ,

a n d a gl o b u l e o f S ilv e r is l e ft D i s s olv e s in n i t r i c a c id . .

Am a lg a m w h en r u bb e d on c o pp e r c o mm un i c a t e s a
, ,

s ilv er l u s t r e
y .

Va r iety — Arquer ite — A l e s s a r gen t ife r o u s f or m of

a ma lg a m fo un d a t t h e m i n e s o f Ar q u e r os in C o q u i m b o , ,

C h ili It is s oft an d d uc t il e
. .

Ooouwenoe — Occ ur s wi t h C i nn ab ar a t Al ma d e n (S p a i n )
.
,

e tc .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NERAL S P EC I ES 36 3

C I NNA BA R .

Comp — S ulp h id e of mer c ury H gS U s ua ll y c on ta i n s , .

i m p u r i ti es of C l a y e t c , .

C ry st Sy st H e x ag on a l (r h om bo h e d r a l )
. .
-
.

C o m . F or —
m Oc c u r s in r h o mbo h e d r a p r i s m s e t c , , .
,

c r s ta l s o f t en t a b u l ar U s u a ll y m a s s iv e g r an u l a r a n d
y .
, ,

s o met i m e s for mi n g c ru s t s .

la —
C m P ri s ma t i c an d pe r fec t .

Colour — C o c h i n ea l r ed s omet i mes b r ow n i s h or d ark

.
,

c o l ou r e d .

S tr ea k — S c ar l e t .

L us tre — “ m en ma s s iv e of t en d u ll ; of c rys ta l s a d a , ,

m an t in e s u b tr a n s par en t t o Op a q u e
, .

F mot — S u bc o n c h oid al ; u n e v e n ; s ec til e

. .

H—2 . Sp Goa .

Tests — H e a t e d in op en t u b e , y i e ld s a s ub li ma t e o f
.

m et a lli c m e r c ur y , a l s o a b l a c k on e of s u lp h id e of m e r c u r y
a n d f u m e s of s ul ph u r di o xid e H e at ed in c l ose d t u be , .

g iv es a bl a c k s u bli m a t e w hi c h b e c o m e s r e d if d e t,a c h e d
a n d r u bb e d on a s t r e a k pl a t e H eat e d wi t h s odi u m ca r .

bon a t e an d c a r b on in t h e c l os e d t u b e, giv es me t al li c
m e rc u Iy H eat e d on c h a r c oa l wi t h po t a ss i u m i odid e
.

a n d s u lp h u r , giv es g r e e n i s h fu m es an d s lig h t g r e e n i s h

e n c r u s t at ion .

Var iety — H ep a tic Cinnaba r —A v a r i ety of liv er b rown .

-

c o l o u r a n d s o m e t i m e s g ivi n g a b r o w n i s h s t r e a k
, .

Ooour r enoe — Ci n n a b a r o c c u rs as h yd a t oge n et ic v e i n s

.
,

i m p r e g n a t i o n s a n d s t o c kw o r k s
, C om m on a ss oc i a t es .

a n d v e i n s t on e s a r e — C o pp e r p yr i te s m i s pi c k el r ea lg a r , , ,

s t ib n i t e q u art z c al c i t e an d o ft en bi t u m en Th e mos t
, ,
.

i mp or ta n t l oca li t y is Al ma d e n ( S p a i n ) wh e r e t h e ,

m i n er a l oc c u r s as i m p r e g n a t i on s or s mal l v e i n s in q u ar t
zi t e. I d r i a (C a rn i ol a ) is a l so an i mp or ta n t l oc a li t y .

Oth e l oc li t i e a
r a s r e — Tu s c an y S er vi a C a lifor n i a ( Ne w , ,

Al ma d e n Ne w I d r i a ) Te x a s M e xi c o C h i n a e t c
.
,
Th e , , , .
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL OG Y
v e i n s oc c ur mos t l y in s l a tes a n d li mes ton es s om et i mes in ,

ig n eous rock s .

Ci n n ab ar a f for d s n ea r l y a ll th e merc u ry of comme rc e .

Th e p a i n t v er mili on whi c h h a s t h e s a me c o mpo s i tio n

,
”
,

is p r e p a r e d f ro m t hi s ore .

C a l ome l .

M e rc u r y lo r id e H g2C l2 fo un d a s so c i a te d wi t h c in
ch , ,

n ab ar C o l ou r : w h i ti s h g r ey i s h a n d b row n i s h H a r d
.
, , .

n ess 1—
, 2 S p ec ifi c G r a vi ty
.
,

S I LVE R L at i n (a rgentum) A
( g; , .

S ilv er oc c u r s in n a t ur e in t h e fr ee s ta te oc c a s i o n a ll y ,

99 p er c e n t p u r e b
. u t g e n e r a
,
ll y c o n t a i n i n g c o pp e r g o ld , ,

o r o t h e r me t a l s It is a whi te m e ta l whi c h n e x t to
.
, ,

g old is t h e mos t m all ea bl e an d d uc t il e of all meta l s Its

,
.

s p ec ifi c g r a vi t y is 1 0 5 a n d it m e l t s a t , C I t is .

u n a l t ere d b y d r y o r m oi s t a ir S ilv e r o c c u rs a l so a s .

s u lp h id e a n d s u lph o s a l t s a s a r s en id e a n t i m o n id e a n d
, , ,

c hlo r id e s a n d a l s o a s s o c i a t e d wi t h l ea d co pp e r zi n c a n d
, , ,
,

o t h e r o r es Th e ma i n s o u r c e of s ilv er is t h e n a t iv e a n d
.

o r s ili c eo u s or es m i n e d p r i ma r il y f or t h e i r
”
dry ~

s ilv e r c o n te n t s A l a r g e a n d i n c r ea s i n g p r o p o r t i on o f t h e
.

w or ld s o ut p u t is ho wev er d er iv e d fr om t h e s me l t i n g o f
’
, ,

m e t a llife r ou s o r es s u c h a s C opp er a n d l e ad wh en t h e
, ,

s ilv e r is fi n a ll y r e co v e r e d fr om t h e c r u d e me t a l s S ilv er .

is r e c ov e r e d fr o m it s or e s c h i e fl y b y a m a lg a m a t i on wi th
m e rc u r y c hl or i n a t io n or b y c ya n id a t i on bu t t h e l a t ter
, , ,

p r oces s is n ot appli c a bl e wh en t h e s ilv e r is p re sen t in

a n y t h i n g bu t a v er y fi n e s t a t e o f divi s io n as s o di u m o r ,

p otas s i u m c ya n id e a c ts t oo s l o wl y S ilv er an d g old a r e .

a lw a ys r e co v e r e d t og e t h e r in t h e fo r m o f a n a ll o w h i c h
y ,

is a ft er wa r d s r e fi n e d o r p a r ted S ilv er c on ta i n i n g g old

, .

is c a ll e d d or é s ilv e r R e fi n e d s ilv e r u s u a ll y c on t a i n s
“ ”
.
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
C ry st . Sy st —C u bi c . .

C om . For m — O c t a h e d r o n ; mos t l y fou n d filif or m or

ar bor esc en t ; a l s o ma s s iv e .

Colom —S ilv e r w h i t e'

r Ta rn i s h es r ea dil y . .

S a
tr e k — S ilv e r whi te a n d S hi n i n g
. .

L ustr e M e talli c .
-
.

Fmot — H a c kl y s ec t il e ma ll eabl e a n d d uc t il e
—
.
, , , .

H .
3 Sp G r . . .

Tests — S ol u bl e in n i t r i c a c id
. A c l ean pi ec e of c opp er .

i mmers ed in t h e s ol ut io n b ec o mes c o ate d wi t h s ilve r a n d ,

a pi n c h of c o m m o n sa l t o r a d ro p of h yd r o c hl o r i c a c id

wh en a dd edol ut io n t h row s d ow n a whi te p re

to t h e s

c ip it at e o f s ilv er c h lo r id e B e fo r e t h e bl owpip e on .
,

c h a r c o a l fus es r ea dil y t o a s ilv e r glob u l e whi c h c r s ta l

, y ,

li ses on c ooli n g .

O cc u rr en ce — Na t iv e s ilv e r oc c ur s in th e zo n e o f w e ath e r
in g o r g os san of s ilv er s u lp h id e l o d e s a s at K ong s b er g ,

( N o r w ay
) Co m s t o c k L o d e S i e r r a N e v a d a S a xo n y B o
, , , ,

b e mi a etc Nat iv e s ilv er oc c u rs in e r up t iv e a n d s e di

, .

m en ta ry r o c k s for m i n g s t r i ng s o r v e i n s ,
It is fr e q uen t l y .

as s o c i a t e d wi t h n a t iv e co pp e r a n d g a l en a b u t is o ft e n s o ,

fin e ly di s s emi n ate d t h at it is i n vi si b l e t o t h e n a k ed e ye .

A R G ENTI TE S I LVER G LA N C E ,
.

Comp — S ilv er s ulp h id e A S ilv er 8 7 , n .

, 1 p e r c e n t .

Cryst . Sy s t —C u bi c. .

C om . F or m . Cu be an d oc t a h e d r on ; a sol oc c u r s

i l d a r b or es c en t a n d m os t c o mm on l y ma s s ive
r e t c u at e , , , , .

C olour — B l ac ki s h l ea d g r ey
. .

S treak — S a m e a s c ol ou r a n d s hi n i n g , .

L ustre — M e t a lli c ; op a q ue .

—
Fmot S m all s ub c on c h oid a l or un ev en s ec til e , , .

H .2 -
Sp G 7 . .

Tests — H e a t e d in o p en
. tu b e giv , es o ff su lph urou s
f umes On c h a r c o a l , in
. o xi di s i n g fl ame , fu s es wi t h
 D ES C RIPTI ON OF MI N ER AL S P EC I ES 36 7

i n t u m es c en c e giv es off s u lp hu rou s fu mes a n d yi e ld s

, ,

m e talli c s ilv er S ol u bl e in dil u t e n i t r i c a c id

. .

Occurrence Ar g en t i te is a bo u t t h e m os t c om m on o r e
.

o f s ilv er a n d a ffor d s a l a r g e p r o p or t i on o f t h a t m e t a l
,
.

Ar g e n t i t e is fo un d p re c ipi t a t ed w i t h c opp e r p yr i t e s in t h e
K u pf e r s c h i e fe r of M a n s fe ld ( s ee p S ilv e r gl a n c e .

c h i efl o c c u r s a s h yd a t oge n e t ic v e i n s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h
y ,

o t h e r s ilv e r m i n er a l s a n d w i t h p y r i t es a n d ot h er m e t a lli c ,

s u lp h id e s a n d w i t h c a l c i t e
,
Th e m os t i m p o r tan t l oc a li ty
f or t h i s ty p e is B u t t e ( M on ta n a ) O th e r s a r e Ton o p ah .

N e va d a C b l O n t ar i o r ok en H ill N w S
( ) o a t ( , ) B ( e o u t h ,

W al es ) M exi c o P er u B oli v i a C h ili Sa x on y B oh e m i a

, , , , , , ,

K on g s b er g ( Norw a y) e tc ,
.

S TEP H A N I TE : B rit t l e S ilv er Or e .

Comp — S u lphid e of s ilv er an d an t i mon y 5 Ag gS S b2Ss , . .

S ilv er 6 8 5 p e r c e n t
, .

C ry st Sy st — Or t h or h o mbi c
. . .

C om For m — C o mm on l y in fl a t t a b u l a r p r i s m s c r ys t a l s
.

fr eq u en t l y t wi n n e d A l s o oc c u r s m a s s iv e an d d is s e m i
.

n at ed .

Colour — I ron bl ac k . .

S f r ea k I r on bl ac k -
.

Frock — U n ev e n ; b r i t t l e .

H —2 . Sp Gr . .

Tests — H e a t e d in c l o s e d t u b e fu s es wi t h d e c r e pi t a ,

t i on a n d giv e s a s li g h t s u bli m a te of s u lp h id e o f a n t i m o n y
,

a fter l o n g h ea t i n g On c h a r c oa l it fu s es t o a d a r k
.
,

m eta lli c gl ob u l e a n d en c r u s t s t h e s u pp o r t wi th a n t i mo n y
,

o xid e Th e gl ob u l e h ea t e d in t h e r e d u c i n g fl a m e wi t h
.

s o di u m c ar bo n a t e y i e ld s m e t a lli c s ilv e r S ol u bl e in .

dil u t e n i t r i c a c id l ea vi n g a r es id u e of s u lp h u r a n d
,

a n t i mo n y o xid e A c l ea n s t r ip o f c opp e r pl a c e d in t h e
.

s o l ut i on b e c o m e s c oa t e d wi t h s ilv er .
 EL E M ENTS O F M I N ER AL O G Y

Occur r ence — O c c u r s in v e i n s wi t h o th e r or e s o f s ilv e r

a t m a n y of t h e l o c a li t i e s giv e n f o r a r g e n t i t e — S a x on ,
y
H u n g ary , B oh e mi a , H a rz ,
M e xi c o , P er u , an d C a li
fo r mi a .

R ED S I L V ER O R ES . R U B Y S I LV E R .

Of h
t e s e t h er e a re t wo s p ec i es
1 y . Py
A
3 n sr a rg S s
—D
r ite, a r k r e d o r e . . .

2 . P
r oustite, 3 Ag S A S S — Lig h t r e d o r e
2 Z 3
. . .

Occurr ence —Oc c u r in v e i n s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h ot h er or es

.

o f s ilv e r , e s p e c i a ll y An d r e a s b e r g ( H a r z , S a x on , B o
) y
b em i a, K on g sb e r g ( Nor w a y) , S p a i n , C or n w all , M exi c o,
Chili C ol or a d o
, , e tc .

P Y R AR G Y R I TE ( G ree k pm , ,
fi r e, a n d a rg uy es, s ilv er )
Da r k R e d S il v e r Or e .

Comp —S u lphid e of s ilv e r an d a n t i mo n y 3An s S3 , . .

S ilv e r 5 9 9 p e r c en t
,
.

Cr ys t Syst H e x a go n a l (r h omb oh e d ra l )
. .
-
.

C o m F or m.
— H e x a g o n a l p r i s m t e r m i n a t e d by t h o m ,

b oh e d r on a n d v a r i o us l y m o difi e d c r ys ta l s ; s o met i me s
,

t wi n n e d c o m mo n l y oc c u r s m a s s iv e .

C lee o R h om boh e d r a l ; r a t h e r p er f e c t
.
-
.

C olonic — B l a c k to c oc h i n ea l re d .

S etr a k — C oc hi n ea l r ed .

L ustre — M eta lli c a da man t i n e t r an s l uc e n t t o op a q ue .

c l — C on c h o id a l
. .

H . 2 Sp G r
-
. .

Tes ts — H e at e d in t h e o p e n b e giv es s u lp h u r ou s tu ,

fume s a n d a w h i t e s ubli mat e of a n ti mon y oxid e On .

c h a r c oa l s pi r t s a n d fu s e s ea s il y t o a gl ob u l e o f s ilv e r

s u lp h id e a n d c o a t s t h e s u pp o r t whi t e
,
Th e g l o b u l e .

h ea t e d wi t h so di u m c a r b on a t e a n d C h a r c oa l on c h a r c oa l

y i e ld s m e ta lli c s ilv e r D e c o m p o s e d in n i t r i c a c id l ea vi n g
.
,

a r e s id u e o f s u lph u r a n d a n t i mo n y o xid e .

O c cur r ence — S ee a bov e .

 EL EM ENTS O F MI N ER AL OG Y
C ry st . Sy st — . M on o c li n i c .

C om . F o m — P i s m ti c
r r a cr
y s t a s, l and u s ua ll y oc c u r s

ma s s w e .

Comm — I r on bl ac k .

L ustre — M et a lli c .

H — 2 —
3
. S p G r . . .
-
6
Occur rence — Oc c u rs wi t h o t h er s ilv e r o r es in M e xi c o ,
C a liforn i a , an d Chili .

H or n S il ve r K e r a r g yr it e C e r a rg yr it e
, , .

Comp —S ilv e r c h l or id e Ag C l S ilv e r 7 5 3 pe r c e n t , .

,
.

C ry st Sy st — C u bi c
. . .

C om For m — C u b e ; u s u a ll y oc c u rs m a s s iv e a n d wa x
.

lik e a n d f r eq u e n tl y in e n c r u s ta ti on s
, .

Colour P a l e s h a d e s o f g r e y s om e t i m es gr een i s h o r
.
-
,

bl u i s h a n d wh en p u re c ol ou r l es s As s u mes b row n i s h
, , , .

t i n t s on e xp os u r e
S trea k —S hi n i n g
.

L ustre R es i n ou s p ass i n g i n to a d a ma n t i n e ; tr a n s
.
-
,

p a r e n t t o s u b t r a n s l u c e n t o r n e a r l y op a q u e , .

B oot — S o m e w h a t c o n c h o id a l ; s ec t il e c u tt i n g lik e ,

wa x .

H —1 . S p Gin— 5 5 . .

Tests — S ol u bl e in a mm on i a , b u t n o t in n i t r i c a c id .

F u s e s in t h e c an dl e fl a me On c h ar c oa l yi e ld s a gl ob u l e .
,

o f m e tal li c s ilv er W h en pl ac e d in t h e m i c r ocos mi c

.

sa l t b ea d whi c h c o pp er o xid e h a s b een a dd e d it giv es

, to , ,

w h e n h e a t e d in t h e o xi d i s i n g fl a me a n i n ten s e a z u re ,

bl ue c o l ou r t o t h e fl a me ( p re sen c e of C h l or i n e) A pl a te .

o f i r on r u bb e d w i t h t h e m i n e ra l b ec o m e s s ilv e r e d .

Oc u r e e
c r n c — O c c u r s wi t h n a t iv e s ilv e r a n d o xidi s e d
s ilv e r c o m p o u n d s in t h e z on e o f w ea t h e r i n g o r g o s sa n

o f s ilv e r s u lp h id e l o d e s S o m e l o c a li t i e s a r e S a x o n y .
,

B r o k e n H ill ( N e w S o u t h W a l e s ) At a c a ma ( C h ili ) C o m , ,

s t oc k L od e C a lifo rn i a
( ) etc , .
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I NER AL S P EC I ES 37 1

G OL D ( Au ; L a t i n , d ur u m) .

G o ld oc c u r s v ery w id e l y
di f fu s e d in n a t u r e c h i e fl y ,

in t h e fr e e s t a t e b u t i n v a r i a bl y a ll o ye d wi t h s ilv e r or
,

C opp e r ,a n d oc c as io n a ll y wi t h bi s m u t h m er c u ry a n d , ,

o th er me t a l s N a t iv e gold h as b e en k n ow n t o c on t a i n
.

a s m u c h a s 9 9 8 p e r c e n t g o ld b u t a s a r u l e r a n g e s fr o m
.
,

8 5 p e r c e n t t o 9 5 p er c en t th e b a l a n c e b e i n g u s u a ll y
. .
,

s ilv er f o r t h e m o s t p a r t G old w h e n p u r e is t h e m os t m a l
.
, ,

le a b le a n d d u c t il e o f al l m e t a l s b u t b ec o m es b r i tt l e in t h e
,

p r es en c e of s m a ll a m ou n t s of bi s m u th l ea d a r sen i c et c , , , .

It h as a s p ec ifi c g r a vi t y of 1 9 3 a n d it m e l t s a t a b ou t ,

C Na t ive g o ld is r ec ov e r e d fr om a ll uvi a l de
.

p o s i ts b y s om e f or m of w at e r c on c e n tr a ti on foll o we d ,

b y a ma lg a m a t i o n w i t h m e rc u r y Th a t oc c u r ri n g in .

v e i n s is m ill e d a n d gr ou n d p r e vi ou s t o a ma lg ama t i on
in t h e c a s e o f fr e e m illi n g o re s ; or w h en of a p a r t ly
“ ”
,

r e fr ac t o r y t h e g old is v e r y fi n e l y
”
or w h e n
“
n a tu r e ,

divid ed by c yan id a t i on — Le by s ol u t i on in s odi u m or

, ,

p ota s s i u m c ya n id e In m a n y mi n es t r ea t men t by m er
.
,

c ur
y i s o ft en foll o w e d b
y c ya n id a t i o n o f t h e t a ili n g s f or

t h e r e c ov e r y of t h e u n a m a lg a m a t e d fi n e a n d c o m bi n e d
gold F i n e gr i n di n g of or es a n d t re at m e n t by cyan ide
.

is b ec o m i n g m or e u s u a l in p r a c ti c e ; b u t it is s o me t i m es
p r evi ou s l y n ec e ssa r y t o r oa s t or e s to e li m i n a t e a r s e n i c
a n d a n ti m o n y c o m p o u n d s w h i c h d e c o m p o s e t h e c ya n id e ,

t h u s c a u s i n g e x c e s s iv e c on s u m p t i on G o ld is a l s o r e .

c o v e r e d by c h l o r i n a t i o n a n d a l s o b y s m e l t i n g wi t h l e a d
,

o re s.

G old is ch e i fly use d j ewe ll e ry It

for i
co na ge an d .

is u s u a ll y a ll oye d
wi t h s ilv e r o r c opp e r t o w i t h s t a n d
w e a r b e tt e r Th e p u r i t y or
. fi n e n es s of g old is
,
“
,

e xp r es s e d in p a r t s p e r t h e s t a n d a r d f o r c o i n in
t h e B r i t i s h Em pi r e b e i n g 9 1 6 6 p a r t s o f g o ld t o 8 3 4

o f c o pp e r In En g l a n d t h e l e g a l s t a n d a r d f o r j e w e ll e r y
.
 EL E M ENTS OF M I NER AL OG Y
is t h e c a ra t 5, of 92 2, 1 8, 1 1 2 , or p a r ts p er 24 . Pu re

g o ld is worth 154 4 s 1 1 5d p e r ou n ce t r oy . . .

Th e p r opo r t i o n o f g o ld in s u c h a ll oys is k n ow n as fi ne
n es s ,
”
an d xp res s e d e i th e r in c a ra t s (t w e n ty four th
is e -

p ar ts ) or t h ou s an d th s Th u s p ure or fi n e g old is sa id to .

b e 2 4 c a r a ts o r fi n e B r i t i s h gold c o i n is 2 2 ca r a t s
, .

fi n e o r 9 1 6 6 t h o u s a n d t h s fi n e Th e g old c oi n of C ou n t r i es
,
.

fo ll owi n g t h e F re n c h s ys tem t h e U n i te d S ta tes an d G er ,

ma n y is 9 0 0 fi n e Au s t r i a n d u c a t s a r e of n ea r l y fi n e g old
, .
,

or a b ou t 2 3 c a r a t s fi n e n e s s F o r p u r p os es o f pl a t e j e w e l .
,

l e ry w a tc h c a s e s e tc th e s tan d a r d of 1 8 ca r a ts or 7 5 0 is
,
-
, ,

l eg a l bu t t h e l ow er s ta n d ar d s of 1 6 a n d 1 4 c a ra ts a re a l s o
,

g en era l Th e M i n t p r i c e of fi n e or 2 4 c a ra t g old i s 8 4s I 1 5d
.
, ,
. .

p e r o u n c e a n d o f s
, t a n d a r d o r 2 2 c a r a t g o ld 77 s 9 d , , , . .

Th e t ota l w o r ld s p r o d u c t i on o f g o ld a moun t e d t o
’

n ea rl o u n c fi n e i n 1912 o f w h i c h n ea r l y
y es ,

4 0 pe r c e n t wa s p r od u c e d in t h e Tra n s v a a l a n d n e a r l y
.
,

2 0 p e r c e n t in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
. O th e r o f t h e l a r g e .

p r od uc i n g c ou n tr i e s a re Au stra li a R us s i a M exi co , , ,

I n di a a n d R h od es i a Th e B r i t i s h Em pi r e is r e s p on
, .

s ibl e f o r a b ou t 6 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t i r e w or ld s o ut p u t
’
. .

An o f fi c i a l U n i te d S t a t es p u b li c at i on s ta te s t h a t o f t h e ,

g old p r o d u c e d in th at c oun tr y 2 4 p er c e n t wa s fr o m ,
.

a ll u vi a l d e p o s i t s 68 p e r c en t fro m d e e p m i n es 5 5 p e r
, .
,

c e n t f r o m c o pp e r o r e s a n d I f m l d
.
i p e r c e n t r
, o ea o r e s . .

G old oc c u r s in t wo c l a s s es o f d e p os i ts — a ll u vi a l ( fr e e
g o ld) a n d v e i n ( free g old a n d t ell u r id e s )
,
.

Th e c hi e f o f t h e te ll u r id es a r e—P e t zi t e ( Ag Au )2Te , ,

s y lv an i t e , c a l a v e r i te
( A u A
g) T e
2
n a g a i te
y g , , ,

Aus 1 4 S b3 Te 7 Sl 7 a n d m a ld on i t e Au2B i ,
.

NATI VE G OL D .

C omp .
— P ure
g old Au o r g old a ll oye d wi th s ilve r t h e
, , ,

l atter me ta l h a vi n g b ee n k n o wn t o a mou n t t o o v e r 2 6 pe r
c en t C opp er i r on p a ll a di u m a n d r h o di u m h a v e a l so b e en
.
, , ,
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OG Y
p r i ma r y g ld b ea r i n g r oc k G old is fou n d in th e r es id u a l
o -
.

o r l a t e r i t i c d e p os i t s fo r m e d o n t h e o u t c ro p o f w e a th er e d

g old b ea r i n g r oc k Th e g r e a t pl a c e r d e p os i ts h ow ev er
-
.
, ,

oc c u r in t h e v a ll e s a n d m a b e o f r e c e n t or a n c i e n t d a t e
y y, ,

a n d ma b f g d p d e e p l e ad
y e a t t h e s u r a c e o r a t a r e a t e t h ( ) .

S u c h pl a c e r d e p os i t s a r e e x e mplifi e d by t h e b an k e t o r ,

c on gl o me r a t e s o f t h e R a n d S o u t h Af r i c a t h e s h a ll o w ,
,

pl ac er s of th e U r a l s a n d S ib er i a I n di a Chi n a G old , , ,

C oa s t Al ask a ( Kl on d yk e ) B r i t i s h C ol umbi a W e s t e rn
, , ,

U n i t e d S t a t e s ( C a liforn i a M on t a n a , S ou t h A m e r i c a ,

( E q u a d o r C h,
ili B o ,livi a A u s t r a
, li a ( B a ll a r a t R iv e r ,

Tor r e n s ,
All u vi a l g old is fo u n d in s m a ll q u a n t i t i e s
in t h e d ep os i t s o f s e v e r a l B r i t i s h r iv er s in C or n w a ll , ,

Nor t h W a l e s Wi c kl ow L ea d h ill s an d S ut h er l a n d s hi r e
, , ,
.

Th e a ll u vi a l g o ld h a s b een d e r iv e d fr o m th e t r u e v e i n s
”
th e r e e fs o f t h e g o ld m i n e r Th e s e r e e fs a r e t r u e .

v e i n s of qu ar tz pyr i tes an d fr e e gold u su all y a s soc i at e d

, ,

wi th a c id r oc k s b ut s o met i m es wi th t r a c h yt es a n d es i tes
, , ,

a n d e v e n wi t h b asa l ts S u c h oc c u r r e n ces a r e — B e n dig o

.

a n d B a ll a A u s t r a li a ) M o un t M o r g a n n s l an d
)
ra t
( , (Q u ee ,

S i e rra N e va d a (C a lifo rn i a ) No v a S c o t i a Tr e adw e ll

, ,

M i n e ( Al a s k a) C h ili B ra zil S a xo n y U r a l s M ysor e

, , , , ,
.

In G r ea t B r i ta i n g o ld is w or k e d in No r t h W a l e s in ,

q ua rtz v e i n s in th e M e n e vi an s l a tes of M iddl e C a mb r i a n

a ge . Th e m i n es a r e s i tua ted n or t h of D olg ell y on t h e ,

Tr aws f yn n yd d R oad .

G ol d Ama l g a m .

Occ u r s ll whi te or ye ll owi s h w h i t e gr a i n s

in sma -
,

w h i ch c r u mb l e eas il y It is s om et i mes foun d crys t a l

.

l is e d Comp — G old an d mer c ur y wi t h s ilv er th e gold

.
,

a v e r agi n g a b o u t 4 0 p e r c e n t Th e m i n era l is u s u a ll y .

a ss o c i at e d wi t h pl a t i n u m an d occ u r s in C a lifor n i a , ,

C o l u mbi a U r a l s a n d Aus tr a li a e t c
, , ,
.
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 375

G OL D TELL U R I D ES .

Occur r ence — Th e g old

ll u r id e s oc c u r in v e i n s a s s oc i
. te
a t e d wi t h p r i t e s a n d o t h e r s u lp h id es a n d w i t h f r ee g o ld
y , .

Th e c hi e f l oca li ti e s a t w h i c h g old t e ll u r id e s a r e wor k e d

a r e W e s t e rn Au s t r al i a ( K a lg oor li e C o l o r a d o ( C r ippl e
) ,

C r eek) a n d Tra n s ylva n i a ( Na gya g

, Th e g o ld ,

t e ll u r id es a r e

1 . Sy lvanite — Te ll u r id e of g o ld a n d s ilv e r .

2 . C ala ver ite — Te ll u r id e of g old a n d s ilv e r .

3 N a
.
gy g
a i te — Te ll u r id e an d su lp h id e of l ea d an d

g old .

S Y LVA N I TE G r a p hic Te l l u r iu m .

Comp — Te ll u r id e of g o ld and s ilv er ,

24 5 p e r c en t .
; Te 6 2 ,
1
p e r c en t . An t i m on y and l ea d
so m e ti me s p r esen t .

C ry st . S ys t — M on o c li n i c
. .

C om For m —Th e c rys t a l s a i e o ft e n a r r a n g e d in m or e

.
" '

o r l e s s r eg u l ar li n es b ea r i n g a fa n c if u l r e s e mbl a n c e t o
,

wr i t i n g w h e n c e t h e n a me g ra p h i c Al s o oc c u r s ma ss iv e
, .

a n d g ra n u l a r .

C olour S t ee l g re y t o s ilv e r w h i t e ; s o m e t i m e s
.

y e ll o wi sh .

S tr ea k — S a m e a s c ol o u r .

L ustre — M et a lli c .

Fmet — U n e v en .

H .2 Sp Gr -
. . .

Tests — In t h e op en
. b e b eh a v e s lik e n at iv e te ll ur i u m tu ,

p 2 9 4) .B e for e t h e r e d.u c i n g fl a m e giv e s o n c h a rc o al ,

a ye ll o w m a ll e a bl e m e t a lli c gl o b u l e a f t e r l on g h e a t i n g .

An e n c r u s ta t i on of t e ll ur i c a c id is a l s o f or me d ou t h e
'

c h ar c oa l .
37 6 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL OG Y
C A LAVER I TE .

A t e ll u r id e o f
g old a n d s ilv er P a l e yell ow ,

in c o l our H a r d n e s s 2 5 S p ec ifi c g ra vi ty 9 H igh er
.
, .
, .

p er c en ta g e of g old t ha n h a s s ylv an i te Oc c u r s in C a l a .

v e r as Co un ty C ol or a d o , .

NAGY AG ITE : B l ac k Te ll u r iu m .

Comp — Te ll u r id e a n d s u lp h id e of g old a n d l ea d .

An t i mo n y is u s u a ll y p re se n t . Th e g old v a r i e s from l e s s
t h a n 6 t o m or e t h a n 12 p e r c e n t .

C ry st —Tetr ag on a l
. Sy st . .

C om F ar m.
— U s u a ll y fou n d fo li a t e d an d ma ss iv e .

Coh a n —D ar k l ea d g rey .

S treak — Da r k l ea d g rey .

L ustre —M eta lli c ; Op a qu e

. .

Fmot — S ect il e ; thi n l a mi n ae ; fl e xibl e

. .

H . 1 -
Sp G r . .

Tests — H e ated in Op en b e it giv es a s u bli mat e o f tu ,

a n t i mon i a t e a n d t e l l u r a t eo f l e a d a n d a n t i m o n ou s a n d
’

t e ll ur ou s ac id in t h e h ig h e r p a r t s o f t h e t u b e Th e .

a n t i mo n o u s a c id v o l a t ili s e s wh en r e h eated an d t h e ,

t e ll u ro us ac id a t a h igh t e m p er a t u r e f u s e s t o c ol o u r l es s
, ,

t r a n s p ar e n t d r o p s .

P LATI N U M (P t) .

P l at i nu m
o c cu rs n a t iv e a n d in t h at fo r m c o n s t i t ut e s
,

p rac ti c a ll y t h e s ol e sour c e of t h e m e ta l It is a g r eyi s h .

whi te l us tr ous me ta l h a vi n g a s p e c ifi c g ra vi ty of
, ,

a n d me l t i n g a t 1 7 6 o C It is m all eabl e an d d uc t il e
°
.
, ,

a n d ma y b e w e ld e d a t a b r igh t r e d h ea t It s r es i s t a n ce .

t o a c id s a n d t o c h e m i c a l i n fl uen c e g e n er a ll y ren d e r s it o f
p a r t i c u l a r u s e in t h e l a bor at or y an d in th e e l ec t r i c a l an d
o t h er i n d us t r i e s It is a l s o l a r g e l y u s e d as a c a t a l yt i c
.

a g e n t in t h e m a n u fa c t u r e o f c h e m i c a l s b y t h e c on t a c t

p roc e s s in d e n t i s tr y a n d in j e w ell er y P l a t i n u m is r e fi n e d .
 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
Occur r ence — P l at i n u m is fo u n d in g r a i n s in pl a c er
d ep os i ts of t h e U ra l s Ch oc o ( S ou t h Am e r i c a ) An t i oq u i a
, ,

( B r a zil , e t c
) Th e. U r a l d e p o s i t s a r e t h e mo s t i mp or ta n t ,
an d a re d c hi efl y a t N is c h n e Tagils k Th e pl a t i n u m
t r eate .

is d e r iv e d from b a s i c ig n e o us r o c k s p e r id ot i te s wi t h ,

c h r o m i t e e tc
, Oth er i m p or ta n t oc c u r re n c es of pl at i n u m
.

a r e k n ow n f r o m m e t a m o r phi c a n d s e di m e n t a r r oc k s a n d
y ,

in s o me s u lphid e o r e v e i n s .

P A LLA D I U M ( P a ) .

P a ll adi um o cc ur iv e in c r u d e pl a t i n u m an d in
s n at ,

s ma ll q u a n t i t i e s in c u p r ifer ou s p yr i t e s p a r t i c u l ar l t h o se
y ,

c o n ta i n i n g n i c k e l a n d p r r h o t i n e I t is a s ilv er whi t e
y .

m e ta l as h ar d b ut n ot s o d u c t il e as pl a t i n u m ; it
—
, , ,

o xidi s e s m o r e r e a dil y t h a n t h at m e t a l H ar d n ess 5 .

,

s p e c ifi c g r a vi t
y
— 1 2 ; m e l t i n g p oi n t 1 5 46
, C -
, ,
°
.

Pa ll a di u m is m uc h use d in d en t a l all oys a s a c ata ,

lyser f or c oa ti n g th e s ur f ac e s of s ilv er r e fl e c tor s u sed

,

in s e a r c hligh ts e t c a n d in t h e c o n s t r u c t io n o f d e li ca t e
, .
,

g rad uat ed s ca l es .

Th e c h i e f sou r c e o f s u ppl y is t h e C Op p e r n i c k e l o re -

o f S u d b u r y On t a r i o fr o m w h os e m a t t e it is r e c ov er e d
, , .

Th e es t i mate d p r od u c ti on of p a ll a di u m in th e S ta t e s in
1 9 1 1 f r o m d om e s t i c a n d i m po r t e d s o u r c e s a mo u n t e d t o

a b ou t oun c es ; w h il e t h e U n i t e d S t at e s is s t a t e d t o

h a v e i mp or t ed in 1 9 1 2 n earl y o un c e s whi c h w ou ld ,

p rob a bl y e qu a l ab o ut h a lf t h e t ota l w or ld s p r od uc t i on ’
.

Th e m e ta l is al s o fo un d wi t h pl a t i n u m in B r a zil S a n ,

D o m i n g o a n d t h e U ra l s a n d u s u a ll y c o n ta i n s i r idi u m
, ,

a s w e ll a s pl a t i n u m .

OS M I U M ( Os ) .

Os m i u m oc c u r s iv e in c ru d e pl at i nu m a n d in
nat

os m i r idi u m , an a ll oy wi t h i r idi u m It is a bl u i s h g r e y
.
-

m et a l ,
and has a s p e c ifi c g ra vi t y o f an d me l t s
 D ES C RI PTI ON OF M I N ER AL S P EC I ES 3 79

a b ov e z 3oo C It is t h e h ea vi e s t an d l eas t fu s ibl e of

,
°
.

metal s No r e li a bl e s t a t i s t i c s a r e a v a il a bl e a s t o p r o
.

d u c t i on It is of li ttl e c ommer c i a l i m p or t an c e an d t h e
.
,

s u ppl is in e x ces s o f t h e d e ma n d
y .

I RI DI UM I
( r) .

I idi u m
r iv e in c r u d e pl a t i n u m a n d a lloye d
oc c u r s nat
,

wi th o s m i um a s osm i r idi u m It is a s tee l wh i t e meta l .

-
,

h a vi n g a s p ec ifi c g r a vi t y Of a n d m e l ti n g at a b out

C It s c h i e f a ppli c a t i on is f or h ar d e n i n g
.

pl a t i n um a n d f or t ippi n g t h e p oi n ts of go ld n ib s It s .

c h i e f s ou r c e is c r u d e pl a t i n u m Th e r e a r e n o a v a il .

a bl e s ta t i s t i c s r e l a t i n g t o t h i s m o s t co s t l m e t a l of t h e
y
pl a t i n um g r ou p Th e d e ma n d is s tea dil y i n c r ea s i n g
. .

I R I D OS M I N E ,
OS M I R I D I U M .

Comp — An a ll oy of i r idi um an d os m i um in v a r i a bl e
p rop ort i on s .

Cry st Sy st —R h om boh e d r a l
. . .

C o m F a.r m — Oc c ur s c hi e fl y in s ma ll fl at te n ed g r a i n s , .

Colman— Tin whi te t o s t ee l g rey .

L ustr c —M e t a lli c . Sp G r I9
3 . . .
-
°

Occur r ence —B oth t h i s m i n era l a n d i r idi u m ar e fo un d

.

wi th pl a t i n u m in g old w as h i n g s in th e U r a l s B i n g era ,

( N e w S ou t h W a l e s
) in S o u t h A m e r i c a a n d in C a na d a
, , .

Use — I r id os m i n e is u s e d f or t ippi n g t h e n ib s o f g o ld
.

p en s .

R H OD I U M R
( )h .

R h o di u m iv e pl a t i n u m an d in t h e c opp e r
oc c u r s in nat

o r e s of S u db u r y On t ar i o It is a whi t e m e ta l d u c t il e
, .
, ,

a n d m a ll e a bl e a t a r e d h e a t It h a s a s p ec ifi c g r a v i t y o f.

1 2 1 a n d m e l t s a t a bo u t 2 ooo C It s c h i e f s o u r c e i s °
, , .

c r u d e pl a t i n u m in w h i c h it is s a id t o e xi s t t o t h e e x t e n t
,

of 2 p e r ce n t o n t h e a v e r a g e It h as f e w a ppli c a t i on s
. .
,
3 80 ELE M ENTS or M I N ER AL OG Y
bu t is use d in t h e m a n u fa c t u r e of t h er mo -
c o u pl es ,
an d

f or cr u c i b l es .

R U TH EN I U M ( )
R u .

R uth en i u m o cc ur s n a t iv e in c r u d e pl a ti n u m in wh os e ,

r e fi n i n g it is o b t a i n e d t og e th e r wi t h os m i u m It is a .

w h i t e h ar d a n d b r i t t l e m e ta l of a s p e c ifi c g r a vi ty o f
, , ,

I t h as n o i n d u s tr i a l a ppli c a t i on a n d n o s ta t i s t i c s
,

a r e a v a il a bl e .
382 EL E M ENTS OF M I N ER AL O G Y
wi th q u a r t z Th e p la gioc l a s e o c c ur s in l a t h s a n d s o m e g l a s s ,

is u s u a l ly p r es en t .

v
B a s a l t —A b a s ic ol ca n ic ign eo u s r oc , c o n s is tin g o f l a t h s o f l a b r a k
v
.

d o r ite f e l s p a r with a ugi t e or ol i in e , a n d g l as s o p h it ic s t r u e

, ,

t u r e co mmo n Oc c u r s a s s h ee t s o r d y es O f te n a mygd a
. k .

lo id a l .

B as ic R oc k s — gn e o us r oc k s c o n tain in g le s s t h a n 5 2 p er c e n t o f
I .

s il ic a a n d c h a r a c te r i s e d b y t h e mi n e r a l s l ab r a d o r i t e f el s p a r
v
, ,

a ug ite an d o l i in e ,
Ex a mp l es a r e ga bb r o d ol e r ite, a n d . ,

b a s al t .

Be i
dd gn — A c h ar ac t e r is t ic of sed i me n t a r y d e p o s its wh ic h h a e v
v v
.

b e e n l a id d o wn in s u c c e ss i e l a ye r s e a c h l a y e r h a in g h a d time
v
,

t o b e c o me i n d i id ua l is e d b e f o r e t h e d ep os it io n o f t h e n e x t A .

b r o a d er t e r m, s t ra tifi ca t on is u s e d wh e n t h e be d s a re o f i ,

d iff e r e n t n a t u r e s .

B r ec c i a .
-
A roc k
f ra g me nt s b o u n d t o ge t h e r
co n s i s t in g o f a n g u l ar
in so me in d o f c e me n t in g ma t e r ia l k I f t h e r oc f ra gme n t s ar e k
v
.

we l l r o u n d ed e id e n c in g t h e r e b y t r a n s p o r t a tion t h e r e s ul tin g
, ,

r oc k
is a c on g l ome ra t e .

C on ta ct M e ta mor ph i m
b y h ea t u s u a lly
s . Th e
-
a l te r a t io n o f a r oc k ,

s u p p l ie d b y t h e i n t r u s io n o f a n ign e o u s b o d y , a n d h e n c e t h e

t e r m is b r oa d l y e u i a l en t to Th er mal M e ta mor ph is m q S ee v .

un d e r e t a mo r h i s m
p M
C oun try R o ck — Th e r o c k in wh ic h a l o d e o r e in is s it u a te d In v .

C o r n wa l l t h e k il l a s a s l a te is th e c o u n t r y r oc k o f t h e t in
v
, ,

c o pp e r e in s .

Detr ta l De po s it s — S e e a bo e u n d e r All u ia l D e p os it s
i v v .

Dior t e —A s ub b a s ic p l u ton ic ign e o u s r o c k c o n t ai n in g p l ag ioc la s e

i .
-
,

f e l s p a r wit h s ome o r th oc l as e a n d h or n b le n d e
, H o loc r y s ,
.

t a l li n e .

Dolerit e — A b a s ic h y p ab y s s a l ign e o us r oc k c o n ta in in g la b ra d or ite

vi
.
,

f el sp a r , a u g i te , a n d o l i ne u s u a l l y o p h i t ic in s tr u c tu r e .

Dy k e — An ign eo u s in t r u s io n h a in g f or m u s u a l l y v a wa ll l i -
ke
v
. ,

er t ic a l , a n d a p p e a r in g a t t h e s u r f a c e a s a t h in b a n d o f r o c , k
o f t e n t r a c ea b l e f o r gr e a t d is t a n c e s A S il l is a s h ee t o f ig n e o u s .

r oc k
l y in g n ea r ly h o r iz o n ta l A d y e m a y be c om e a s il l a n d . k ,

vice vet sci /

.

En r i ch men t , S ec on da ry S e c o n d a r y e n r i c h me n t i s o f g r e a t
v
.

e c o n o m ic i m p or t a n c e i n S i l e r c o p e r a n d o t h e r l o d e s T h es e
p , .

l o d e s d ec o m p o s e a t t h e s u r f ac e , a n d t h e s u l p h id e s b e c o me c o n
v e r te din to o x y s a l t s , w h i c h a r e c a r r ie d d ee p e r in to t h e l o d e b y
d e s ce n d in g w a te r s I n t h e z o n e i n t e r m e d i a te b e t w e e n t h e
w e a t h e r e d o u t c r o p a n d t h e u n a l t e r e d s u l p h id es —t h a t i s , in t h e
.

z o n e o f se c o n d a r
y e n r ic h m e n t — c h e m i c a l a c t io n t a e s p l a c e k
b e t we e n t h e d e sc e n d i n g w a t e r s b e a r in g o x y s a l t s a n d t h e u n
a l t e r e d s u l p h id e s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t a n e w s e r ie s o f mi n e r a l s
 TERM S U S ED IN EC ON O M I C G EOL OG Y 38 3

is f o r me d w h o s e me m be r s a r e o f t e n e r y r ic h i n t h e a l u a b l e v v
me t a l o f t h e l o d e B y th is c h e m ic a l c o n c e n t r a t io n wo r a b le
. k
o r e b o d ies m a y r es u l t f r o m r a t h e r l o w g r a d e or es See -
.

1
P 3 5 .

Fiss ure Ve in s - O r e bo d ies w h ic h h a e fi l l e d p r e e x is t in g v -

v
.

fi ss u re s O f te n s u c h fi s s ur e ein s ma y s h o w a b an d in g o f th e -

v
.

c o n t e n t s i n d ica t in g s u c ce s s i e d e p o s it ion s
,
.

Ga b b r o —A
b as ic p l u to n ic ig n e o u s r oc c o m p o s e d o f l a b r a d or it e k
v
.
, , ,

f e l s p ar an d d ia l l a ge so me t i me s wi t h o l i i n e o r h yp e r s t h e n e
H
.
,

oloc r ys t a l lin e in s t r u c t u r e A Norite is a h ype r s t h e n e g a b b r o , .

c o n ta in in g l a b r a d o r i te d ia l l a ge , a n d h yp e r s t h e n e , .

G a n g ue , Vein st one — Th e .min er al s of no p a r tic u l ar e c on o m ic

v v v
.

a l ue th a t oc c u r wi t h t h e al u a b l e min e r a l s in e in s and
l od e s .

. v
G eod e s — C a i tie s u s u al l y i n ig n eo u s , roc ks ,
in t o wh ic h p r oj ec t
we l l f o r m e d m in e r al s
-
.

Gneiss , S c h is t .
-
M mo r ph ic
p r o d uc e d b y p r e s s u r e a n d
eta r oc ks ,

h e n c e s h e a r in g , o n a ll in d s o f r oc s , th e c h ar a c te r s o f t h e k k
r e s u l t in g gn e i s s o r s c h i s t d e e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e o f th e
p
o r ig in a l u n a l t e r e d r o c k
Th e c o n s ti t u e n t min er a l s o f t h e se .

k
r oc s s h o w a
p a r a ll e l o r f olia t e d s tr u c tu r e , whic h i s c o ar se in
t h e gn e is se s a n d n e r i n t h e s c h is t s fi
F or e x a mp l e b y t h e .
,

s h ea r i n g o f a p o r p h y r it ic g r a n i te th e q u a r t z is g r o u n d d o w n

v
,

t h e l ar g e f e l s p ar c r y s ta l s h a e t h e ir c o r n e rs r o u n d ed off an d ,

t h e m ica is d r a w n o u t i n t o s t r e a s o f t e n wr a p p in g r o u n d t h e k ,

f e l s p ar s ; t h u s is p r od u ce d a n a u ge n o r e ye d g n e iss B o th -
.

ign eo u s a n d sed ime n ta r y r oc s ar e me t a mo r p h ose d t o p r od u ce k

g n e i s s a n d s c h i s t s .

Gos sa n .
—Th e w ea t h e r e d d e c o mpo s ed u p pe r p ar t o f a n or e or

d e p o s it I n t h is r eg io n o f t h e ore od y t h e min e r al s o f d e p t h b
v
.

h a e be e n a l t er e d in t o ox y s al ts F or e x a m p l e a lod e c a rr yin g .
,

ga l e n a a n d bl e n d e a t d e p t h c o n s is t s in t h e go ssa n o f c er u s s i te , ,

a n g l e s it e , c a l a min e h e m i mo rp h it e a n d o t h e r o x s a l t s o f l e a d
y
v
, ,

a n d z in c Na ti e me ta l s f r e u e n tl y oc c u r i n th e g os s a n , a n d q
v
.

o f te n co n c e n tr a tio n t a e s p l a c e b y t h e r e mo a l o f l ig h t e r o r k
l es s s t a ble ma t e ri a l , t h e r e b y p r o d u c ing r ic h r e s id ua l d e p os it s
c a p in g a l o w e r gr a d e o re
p
-
.

G r an it e — An a c id
p l u to n ic ig n e ou s r oc k con s is t in g o f q ua r t z , or t h o

c l ase a n d mic a o l oc r ys t a l li n e in
. H s t r uc t u r e .

G r a n ulite me w h a t d o ub t f u l o r ig in p r oba b l y r e s u l t
-
A r oc k of so

v
.
,

i n g e it h e r f r o m t h e c o m p l e t e g r i n d i n g d o w n b y m o e m e n t o r b y
t h e in t e n s e t h e r m al m e t a m or p h is m o f a n ig n e o u s r o c k Th e .

mi n e r a l s a re in r o u n d e d c l ose l y p a c k ed gr a in s , .

H yd a t o g e n e s is — A r o c e s s o f o r e d e o s it io n i n w h ic h t h e o r e
p .
p
b od y h as be e n d e p o s i t e d f r o m s o l u tio n a n d r e p r e s e n t s t h e n a l , fi
s t a ge i n t h e i n t r u s i o n o f a n i g n e o u s m a g m a Th is n a l s ta ge fi
v
c o n s is t s o f t h e e o l u t io n o f h e a t e d w a t e r s o f e n o r m o u s C h e mic a l
 EL E M ENTS OF MI NER AL O G Y
a c ti v i ty v
dis s o l in g a n d t r a n s p o r ti n g mos t me ta l s o f
c ap a b le o f
v
,

e c o n o m ic al ue Th e s e s o l u t ion s ma y fi n d t h e ir wa y g r e a t
v
.

d i s t a n c e s f r om th e i r p a re n t s ou rc e , b u t e e n t ua ll y , b y c o ol in g
o r C h e mica l a c tio n , t h e y a r e c o mp e l l e d t o d e p o s i t th e ir l o ad
v
,

a n d d o s o e it h e r i n c a it ie s o r fi
s s ur e s ( l od e s ) o r b e t wee n t h e ,

g ra in s o f l oos e s e d im e n t s ( imp r eg n a t io n s ) .

Ig n eous R ock s Th o se r o c k s wh ic h h a e c o n solid a t e d f r om a

.
-
v
s t a t e o f f u s io n Th e ir s tr uc t u re d e pe n d s on th e ir mo d e of c o ol
v
.

i n g a n d o c c u r r e n c e , a n d h e n c e ig n eou s r o c k s a r e d i id e d in t o
t h r e e gr o u p s

1 . P l a tonic R ocks— th os e t h a t h a e c oo le d sl o wl y a t a g r e a t v
d e p th a n d h e n c e p os se s s in g a c oar se l y h ol o c r ys t a l lin e
,

s tr u c t u r e , a n d o cc ur r in g in g re a t m as se s .

2 . Hypa by ssal or Dy ke R ocks —th ose th a t h a e be e n r a t h e r v

r a p id l y c o o l e d b y be in g i n t r u d e d n ea r e r t h e s u r f a c e a s

k
d y es o r s ill s Th e c o mmon s tr u c t u r e s ar e th e p or
.

p h yr it ic or o p h i t ic a n d g l as s m a y b e p r e s e n t
, .

3 Volcanic R ocks— t h o s e r o c s t h a t h a e b e e n p ou r e d o u t a t
k v
v
.

t h e s u r f ac e a n d h a e t h e r e f or e b e e n r a p id l y c o ol e d
, ,

a l l o win g l it tl e s c o p e f or c r y s ta l l isa t ion Th e y a r e

v
.

g l a ss y o r fi n e g r ai n e d of t e n p os s e s s in g s te a m c a i t ie s
-
,

o r a my gd u l e s a n d s h o win g fl o w s t r u c t u r e s d ue to

v
,

m o e me n t d u r in g c o n s ol id a t ion .

Th e g r ea t d iv is ion o f th e ign e o u s r oc s d e p e n d s on t h e
s ec o n d k
t h e s i l ic a p e r c e n t a ge o f t h e r oc s k
Th e s il ic a p e r c e n tag e n d s . fi
e x p r e s s io n in t h e c o n s t it u e n t m i n e r a l s o f a n y p a r t ic u l a r r o c k .

k
Th e f o llo win g s e l e ton t a bl e w ill be f o u n d u s e f ul

Pl u t o n ic H yp a by s sa l Vl
o ca n ic
D i vi si on . M i ne r a l s R epre R e p re Re p te

s e n t a t iv e . s e n t a t iv e . se n t a t iv e .

G r a n i te Q ua r t z Ob s id ia n
F e l si te Pitc h s to n e
Rh yo l i t e
I n te r me d ia te
S ub -
a c id 66—5 2 O r th oc l a s e S ye n i t e P o r p l Iy r y Tr ac h y t e
M ic a
H o r n b le n d e

S ub 66 —5 2 Pl a g io c l a s e D io r ite Por p h y An d e s ite

H o r n b le n d e r 1 te

B a s ic Pl g ia o c l a se G ab br o D ol e r i te B asal t
Py roxen e

v
O l i in e
 EL EM ENTS OF M I NER AL O G Y
Ob s id ia n An .
-
a c id v o lc a n ic
ig n e o u s r oc k . the r es u l t o f th e r a p id

c o o li n g o f an a c id ma g ma la s sy . G , and w it h a co n c h o id a l
f r ac t u r e .

Or g in a l M in era l —S ee
i . u n d er P ri ma r y Mi n er a l, b e l ow .

Out c rop — Th e a r e a o . wh ic h a p a r t ic u l a r r oc v
c o mes to t h e
er k
s u r f ac e o f t h e
gr o u n d Th e d i me n s io n s a n d f o r m o f t h e o u t .

c r op d e p e n d o n t h e n a t ur e o f th e r o c i ts i n c l in a t io n ( i f k
b e d d e d ) t o t h e h o r iz o n t a l t h a t is , it s d ip —a n d t h e f o r m o f th e
,

g r ou n d .

P e g ma t te — A i v
i g n eo u s r o c , e r y i mp or t a n t f r o m
a r ie ty o f a c id k v
v
.

a n e c o n o mi c
p o i n t o f i e w C o n s i s t s o f u a r t z , o r t h o c l a s e . q ,

a n d mi c a w i t h a n e x t r e me l ,
y coa r s e s tr u c t ur e e p r e s e n t s th e . R
l a s t p o r tio n o f a n ig n eo u s m a g ma , a n d in it a r e c o n c e n tr a te d
s u b s t a n c e s e x is t in g o n l
y i n e r y s ma l l a mo u n t s i n o t h e r p ar ts v
o f th e ma gm a th e r e b
y l ea d i n g t o th e
, f o r m a t io n o f s u c h m i n er a l s

a s g a r n e t , t o u r ma l i n e z ir c o n , c a s s it e r it e , fl u o r e tc e gm a P
v
,
.
,

t i te s we r e i n tr u d e d in a e r y fl uid s ta t e a n d o c c u r a s d y e s k
v
, ,

s t r in g s and e in s a r o u n d
, t h e b o r d er s o f g r a n i t e m as s e s .

Ec on o mica l ly imp or ta n t f or mic a o r t h o c l a s e , a n d t in , .

P er d ot te —S ee
i i un de r Ig n e ous R k oc R k oc s
p o o r in s il ic a , c o n

v
. .

t a i nin g m uc h o li in e li t tl e o r n o f e l s p ar , .

P h on ol t e i — A t r ac h te ( s ee a b o e u n d e r g n e o u s R oc k )
y v I c o n t a in
—t h a t
.
, ,

i n g f e l s p a t h o id is , n ep h e lin e , l e u c i te ,
n o s e a n , or h a uy n e .

i
P t c h s t on e — An a c id v o l c a n ic ig n e o u s r oc C h ie fl y g la ss ; k .

h as d u l l , p it c h y l u s t r e
a an d a fl a t f r ac t u r e B l a c is h o r . k
gr ee n is h .

P la c ers — S e e . und er A l l u ia l v D e p os it s .

P ne u mat oly s is — A p r oc e s s of or e f or ma t io n b r o ugh t a b ou t by th e

v
.

a ge n c y o f h ea te d g a s e s a n d a p o u r s r e p r e s e n ti n g a l a t e s ta ge i n
th e i n tr u s io n a n d c o o l in g o f a n ign eo u s m a g ma Th e s e g as es .

a r e c h e mic al a g e n t s o f g r e a t
p o we r a n d b y t h e ir in te r a c t io n
v
,

w ith wa te r e tc l e a d t o t h e f or ma t ion of m a n y a l u a b l e l od e s
, .
, .

Th e p n e u ma t ol yt ic or e d e p os i ts ac c omp a n y in m o s t c a se s
in tr u s io n s o f g ra n it e a n d a r e as s oc ia te d wi th a p e c u l ia r s e t o f
,

min e r a l s wh ic h f or ms a u se f ul in d ica tio n to t h e p r o sp e c t or

t o u r ma l i n e , t o p a z , z in n wa l d i te , l e p i d ol it e fl u or a x in i t e e tc , , , .

Th e t in d e p o s its o f C o r n wall ar e of p n e u ma tol y tic or ig in , a n d

a r e a s s oc ia t e d w i th l a r g e g r a n i te i n tr us io n s .

P r ima ry M inera l , Or ig na l M ne ra l —A min e r a l wh ic h w a s f or me d i i

a t t h e s a me t im e a s t h e r o c i n w h ic h i t i s f o u n d , i n c o n t r a k
d i s tin c t io n to 21 S econ d a r y M n e ra l f o r me d l a t e r t h a n t h e r oc i k .

F o r e x a mp l e b io tI t e i n a g r a n i te is a n or ig in a l m in e r a l
,
I f th e .

b io ti te is a l te r e d t o C h lo r i te t h e c h l or i te is s p o e n o f a s ,
k
s ec o n d a r y s i n ce it s f or ma tio n wa s l a te r t h a n t h a t o f t h e
,

g r a n ite in w h ic h i t o c c u r s .

Q uar tz Fe l s t e — i
An a c i d h yp a b y s s a l i gn eo u s r oc k ,
comp ose d o f
c r y s ta ls o f q
ua r t z a n d o r t h o c l a s e s e t i n a fine r g r o u n d m ass ; -

o c c u r s a s d y e s or s il l s k .
 TE RM S U S ED I N EC O N O M I C G EOL O G Y 387

R h y oli t e —An a c id v o l c an ic ig n e o us r oc k ,
e x h ib i t i n g fl o w s t r uc
t ur e , a n d c a r r y i n g S p o r a d ic c r y s t a l s o f
q ua r t z a n d o r th o c l a s e .

S a lin e R es id ue —Th e d e p o s it s f o r me d b y t h e d r y in g u p o f e n c l o s ed
.

b o d ie s o f sa l t wa t e r Th e s ub s ta n c e s oc c u r r in g i n t h is wa y a r e
.

c h ie fl y c h l o r id es i od id es , a n d s u lp h a t e s o f Na , K , M g C a
, , ,

wit h n it r a te o f Na a n d b o r a t e s o f C a a n d M g Th e g r e a t
v
.

G e r ma n d e p o s it s o f S t a s s f u r t a r e o f e n o r mo u s a l u e , a n d in
fi
t h e m a d e n ite o r d e r o f d e p o s it io n o f t h e m in e r a l s h as be e n
f ou n d ( s ee p e p o s i ts o f r oc
. D
sa l t a r e c o mm o n in m o s t k
c o u n t r ie s a n d ar e th e a c c om
, p a n im e n t s o f d e ser t co n d i t io n s ,

( see p .

S ec on d a ry En rich men t —Se e ab o v e .

S ed i m en ta y
r R o c k s — Al l r oc ks t h at h a e a n v o r ig in o th e r t h an
t h a t o f ig n eo u s a c t io n ; t h e r e f ore t h o se r o c
b ee n k s t ha t h a v e

f o r me d b y t h e a g e n c y o f r u n n in g wa te r b y m a r in e a c t io n , b y ,

c h e mi c a l m e a n s , e tc Th e y o cc u r in l a y e r s , b e d s , o r S t ra ta ,
v
.

a n d a r e c a ll ed t h e S tra ti e d R oc k s a n d ar e d i id e d b y t h e ir fi
v
,

o r g an ic c o n te n t s i n to g r o u p s o f a r y in g a g e s c a ll e d t h e ,

G e olo g ica l S y s te ms p Th e S e d ime n ta r y o c s R k

v v
.

fi
ma y b e c la s s i e d b y t h e ir m o d e o f or igin i n to s e e r a l d i is io n s
1 . M e c h a n i c a ll y f o r me d roc k s — c o n g l om e r a tes , g r i ts , s an d
s ton e s , c l ay .

2 . O r ga n ic a l l y f o r med r oc k s— lim es t on e s , c oa l s , fl in t , p h o s
h
p a t e e tc
v
.
,

3 . C h e mic a ll y f o r me d r oc k s— sa l i n e r e s id u e s , s in te r , tr a e r
t in e , e t c .

S e g r e g a tio n , M a g ma ti c —S e e u n d e r a g m a t ic S e g r e g a t io n
. M .

Sy e n it e — A s u b a c id p l u t o n ic ig n e o u s r oc k c o m po se d o f o r t h oc la s e
. ,

and h or n b l e n d e ( a u g i t e m ic a ) , wit h a l itt l e p l a g i oc l ase

H
, .

o l o c r y s t a llin e .

Trach y te —A . s u b ac id v o lca n ic ig n eo u s r oc k , c o n s is t i n g of ph en o
c r y s t s o f o r t h o c l a se se t in a gr o u n d ma s s -
of la th s of t h e sa m e
m in e r a l a nd gl a s s .

Tuff -
A r oc k c o mp o s ed o f f r a g me n t s of v o l c a n ic o r ig in wh ic h h a e v
v
.

b e e n t h r o w n o u t d u r i n g a n e r u p t io n an d ha e c o n so l id a te d
v
,

k
in t o r o c a r o u n d t h e o l c a n o .

U l tr a b a s ic Ig n e ou s R o c k — S ee abo v e .

Ve in — S ee a b o e
. v .

Z on e s L o d e —A l o d e is d i is ibl e in t o t h r e e z o n e s :
of v
1 Th e Depth—a z o n e c omp ose d o f th e u n a l te r e d or e
. .

2 Th e G ossa n— th e s u r f a c e p or t io n o f t h e l o d e c o n t ai n in g
v
.

n a t i e m e ta ls o x id e s , a n d o x y sa l t s th e r e s u l t of t h e
, ,

we a t h e r in g o f t h e o r e .

T E m — in te r me d ia te
3 h e .Z on e of S econ d a r
y n ri ch en t a z on e

b e t w ee n t h e fi r s t t wo z o n e s i n wh ic h in te r ac t io n ,

b e t w e e n t h e u n a l te r e d or e a n d w a te r s f r o m t h e g o s sa n
h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e p r o d u c t io n of new m in e r a l s , u s u a ll y
o f g r e a t e c o n o m i c i mp o r t a n c e .
 TH E G EO L OG I C AL S Y S TEM S

N a me . No te s .

S up e r fi c ia l d e p o s it s g l ac ial d e p o s its , b r ic k
e d f o r br ic —
,

P L EI s To C ENE e ar th e tc W or k ear th a n d k
v
.
,

gr a el in B r i t a in .

Th e cr ags of Ea s t An gl ia . F or mer l y wor k e d

f or ma r lin g f o r p h os p h a te n od ul e s
an d .

No t r e p r e s e n t e d in B r itain L ign ite s a b r oad . .

O c c u r s in t h e s l e o f W igh t I
C o n t a in s a .

t h in lime s t o n e
H
.

Oc c u r s in t h e L on d o n b a s in a n d th e a mp

s h ir e b a s in S a n d s a t b ase f o llo we d b y th e
.
,

EOC EN E L on d on c l ay , a n d t h a t b y t h e B ag sh ot
san d s Econ o mic a lly u se f ul f or b r ic s a n d
. k
g l as s s a n d .

v
C o e r s a l a r ge a r e a o f S o u t h Eas te r n Engl a n d -
.

At t h e ba se is t h e W e a l d C l a y , f oll o we d b y
R
C ETAC EOU S G
r e e n sa n d s a n d ault a n d th e n b y t h e G ,

C h al k I
mp or ta n t f or b r ic s b uild in g
. k ,

s to n e c e me n t l ime a n d wa t e r
, , . .

O cc u rs in a b e l t s t r e tc h in g f r om Y or s h ir e t o k
Dor s e t L ia s c lay s b el ow f oll o we d b y
v
.
,

Ool it e l ime s to n e s a n d c la y s a b o e mp o r . I
t a n t f o r b u il d in g s t o n e ir o n o r e s g yp s u m, -
, ,

a n d w a te r
v
.

Two d i is io n s in En gl a n d : B un te r p eb b le
b e d s be l o w, Ke u p e r s a n d s ton e s a n d ma r l s
TR IA S
abo e v r o id e s
. P v
salt , b u ild in g s to n e ,
g yp s u m , a n d wa te r .

’
PER M I AN Red s a n d s to n e s of P e n r it h , ma gn e sia n l ime
s t on e o f N o r t h u mb r ia
B u il d i n g s t o n e -

v
. .

Th r e e ma in d i i s io n s : a t t h e b a s e C a r bo n
i f e r o u s L im es to n e , f o l l owe d b y il ls t o n e M
C A R B O N I F ER O U S
G r it f o l lo w e d b y th e C oa l e as u r es M
v
.
,

G r e a t e co n o mic a l u e f o r c oa l ir o n s to n e , ,

. fi r e c la y lime s ton e , b uil d in g s to n e , lea d

, ,
C
I
a n d r oa d m e t a l
O
v
.

Z
O D EV ONI AN AND
S la te s o f D
e o n s h ir e a n d C o r n wa ll ; r e d
sa n d s to n e s o f W e l s h bo r d e r s i h
E
L
O L D R ED S AN D F i f e , S o u t h W e s t re l a n d , e tc
-
,
C a t
B uild in g
n e s s,
I
A
.

S TO NE
P s to n e , t i n , a n d c o
p p er .

S h a l e s a n d l ime s t on e s o f W e l sh B or d e r s
S ILU R I AN S ou th e r n U
,

p l a n d s o f S c o t l a n d , e tc
U
.

S l a te s of Nor t h W a l e s , S ou th e r n
OR D VI I
O C AN
La e is tr ic t e tc S l ates
k D ,
p
.
l a n d s,
.

G r i t s a n d s l a te s o f N o r t h W a l e s Lime s to n e
H
.

C AMB R IA N o f N o r th W e s t -
ig h la n d s S l a te s g o l d .
, ,

c op
p er, m a n g a n e se .

G n e is s a n d s c h is t s of th e H igh l an d s , An g le
P RE C A
-
MB R I AN sey , M lv a er n , D on e gal . G r i ts , s l a t e s , e t c .
,

of t h e L o n g m yn d , e tc .

38 8
 I N D EX
B w C l
ro n oa 1 20 Ch r y so r as e , 1 8 2p l
Cr yst a Sy st ems , t h e , 6 1
B w H m t it
ro n e
,

C h r y so t il e, 2 1 9 b
Cu i c S yst em, 6 5
B w Sp 5 p
a e, 3 24
ro n ar, 1 2 b
C inn a ar , 3 6 3 Cu r it e , 3 4 7
B it 6 4 6 5
ruc e, 1 C in n amon S t on e , 2 5 0 Cy an It e, 2 2 9
l fi
1
B yt w it 9 6
o n e, 1
,

C ass i c a t io n o f Cr y st a s , 60 l Cyan o sit e, 3 5 4

l fi
C ass i ca t ion o f in er a s , M l
d
Ca miu m, 3 0 3 5 D amou r it e 2 1 2
D er bysh ir e S p ar 1 5 7
1 1
g Cl ifi l
,

C airn orm, 1 8 0 cat ion of Si i ca t es,

D etr it al D eposit s 1 8 1
ass
l
,

Ca amin e, 30 0 85
lv D i al l a g e 2 0 2
1
l l it
,
Ca a erit e, 2 94 , 3 7 6 C au s t h a
l
e, 1
l I D ialogit e 2 8 1
33 ,

Ca ca r eo u s Tuf a, 1 4 7 C ay r on st on e, 3 2 9
l
Ca cite, 1 44 , 1 4 5 l vg
C ea a e, 4 1 , 1 0 6 D iamon d 1 1 6
,

l p
Ca cit e Ty e , 7 4 Clevel an d it e, 1 9 4 D ias por e 1 7 1
,

l
Ca c iu m, 1 4 4 Clev it e , 2 7 1 D iatomaceou s Ear th 1 8 4
,

l p
C a c S ar , 1 4 5 l
C in o c h or e, 2 1 5 l D ich r o ism 1 0 2
,

l
Ca c Tu f a , 1 4 7 l
C in oc ase, 3 6 0 l D ich r oit e 2 3 2
,

l
C a ich e, 1 3 9 l
Co a s , 1 1 9 D ich r oscope 1 0 2
,

lk
Ca , 1 6 0 b
Co a t , 3 34 ll B l D if fu sion Co lumn 4 6
,

Ca lmm l e3 64 Co a t b oo m, 3 3 6 D imor ph ism 3 8

,

p li 6
o
b l Id D iop side 20 2
, ,

C a y t e, 3 1 Co a t n ica t o rs , 33 5
Can a d i A b an s es to s , 2 1 9 b l
Co a t it e , 3 3 6 D iop t ase 3 5 8
,

C i i
a n cr n
C m l C l
te , 2 4 1 Co cco ite, 2 0 2 l D iorite 3 8 2
,

k bB
,

ar e Co c sco m aryt es , 1 60 D isth en e 2 29

p
oa
C p il l
1 21
P k bP
, ,

a ar y yr i t es , Co c s co m yr i t es, 3 2 7 Dog-To ot h S ar , 1 4 6
l D o l er i t e 3 8 2
34 1
C b
ar on , 1 1 Co eman it e, 1 2 5 , 1 2 8 , 1 4 5
b d 5
lp D olomit e 1 4 4 1 5 0
,

C ar o n a o , 1 1
7 Co o h o n it e , 2 5 2 1 64
b l M l D oré S il ver 3 6 4
, , ,

Ca r on at e o f Lime, 1 4 5 Co ou r o f in er a s , 3 1
b l b D oub le R ef r act ion
,

Ca r on a t es, 1 1 6 Co u m it e, 2 6 7 96
d l b D u ct il it y 4 0
,

b
C ar on ic Ac i , 1 1 6 Co u m iu m, 2 6 7
l l D yk e 3 8 2
,

C arn a lit e , 1 3 7 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 , Common S a t , 1 3 6

1 64 p l
Com os it e Cry st a s , 6 1
,

l
C arne ian , 1 8 1 p P
Co m o sit ion lan e, 6 2 Eart h y Co a t 2 8 0 , 3 3 7 bl
Ca rn o t it e, 2 7 2 gl
Con omerat e, 3 8 2 d
E en it e, 20 7
,

Ca ss it er it e, 30 6 Con t act et amor h ism,M p l

E ast icit y , 4 0
I
Ca s t r on , 3 1 8 38 2 l
E a t er it e , 1 24
C a t s Ey e, 1 8 0 , 2 0 9
’
v
Co n en t ion s in Not a t ion , 5 9 l
E e ct r ic Ca amin e 3 0 2 l
l
Ce es t in e, 1 6 2 pl
Co a it e, 1 2 5 ll
E ec t r icit y , 4 7
,

p
l
Ce s ian , 1 5 8 , 1 8 7 Copp er . 34 3 E ect r oma n et ic Se ara g
Cent r e o f S ymmet r y , 5 2 C pp ti 47
on ,
El p
er a s . 3 30
pp Gl
o
g
Cer ar yr it e . 3 7 0 Co er 34 9 an ce, ect r os t at ic S e ar at ion , 4 8
Cer esin e, 1 24 Copp M at t e, 344 El m en t s , 7
El m v
er e
Ceruse , 3 1 3 C pp Ni k l c e , 34 0 e en t s , i is ion o f , 1 0 D
El m bl
er
C pp
o
Ceru ssi t e , 3 1 3 P i
er yr t es , 34 8 e en t s, Ta e of , 9
v C pp El l i
o
Cer an t it e, 2 9 1 U i
er r an t e, 2 7 3 eo t e , 2 4 1
C pp Vi i l
o
b
Ch a azit e, 2 4 8 tr o , 354 l
E mor e r o cess , 4 2 P
ld
er
C p l
o
l
Ch a c an t h it e, 3 5 4 o r o it e, 1 6
5 Emer a , 2 4 6
l d
C h a c e on y , 1 8 1 C d i
o r ier t e, 2 3 2 Emer a Co e r , 3 5 8 ld pp
Ch al co it e, 3 49 C dm
orun u , 1 68 Emer a Nic e , 3 4 2 ld k l
l p
C h a co yrit e, 3 4 8 Co ssyr it e , 2 0 9 Emer y 1 7 0
l
Ch a co t r ich it e, 34 7 Cou n t ry R oc , 3 8 2 k g
En ar i t e, 3 5 3
,

lk v ll d l
.

Ch a , 1 4 8
lb
Ch a y it e, 3 2 9
g
Ch an e o f Co our , 3 2
Ch ert , 1 8 3
l
Ch ess y it e, 3 5 6
l
C h i a st o i t e 2 2 8
l
Ch in a C ay , 2 2 1
l
Ch o an t h it e, 3 40
l p
Ch or a at it e, 1 55
l
Ch or it es , t h e, 2 1 4
Ch rome r on Or e, 2 7 5 I ll g p
Ch r omic r on , 2 7 5
Ch romit e, 2 7 4 , 2 7 5
Ch r o miu m, 2 7 4
b
C h r ys o er y , 1 7 2
Ch r yso co a , 3 5 7
Co e in e, 3 5 0 En el ion it e , 3 5 3
dl
Cr oci o it e, 20 9 En r ich men t , Secon ary , d
l Cr ocoise, 3 1 6 3 82
Cr ocoisit e, 3 1 6 En st a t it e, 1 9 9
Cr o coit e, 3 1 6 pd
E i o t e, 2 2 6
Cr omf or it e , 3 1 8 d pd
E i ot es , t h e, 2 2 5
Cr oss e Nico s, 1 0 8 d l p
E so mit e, 1 6 4 , 1 6 6
Cr oss S t on e, 2 39 p
E som S a t s , 1 66 l
l
Cry o it e, 1 3 6 , 1 7 4 b
Eru es cit e, 3 5 0
Cr ys t a Grou s , 6 5 l p Er yt h in e , 3 3 6
Cr yst a o r a h ic Ax es, 5 5 Essen t ia lM
in er a s , 3 8 1 l
I ll g p
Cr yst a o r a h ic an d Geo Ex t in ct ion , 1 0 8
metr ica S ymmet ry , 5 4l
l p
Cr y st al o gr a h ic No t a t i o n , F hl
a erz , 35 1
l 57 F m ti
F y l it
n it e , 2 88
ll ll g p
a a
Cr yst a o r a h y, 4 a e, 2 25
l
a

Ch r y so it e , 2 2 4l Cr y st a s , 5 0 Lea t h er Or e , 290
F l p t h 86 d
Gr een Le a Ore, 3 1 4 , 3 1 5 It f
I t m d i t R k 38 5
e s a rs , e, 1 n e r er e n ce , 1 0 2
F b it 65 G re en oc it e, 30 4 k
v
er er e, 2 n er e a e oc s,
F gi Q t 8 Gr een o it e , 2 3 5 I li 3 te,
u ar z , 1
l I id
err u n ou s 0 2 2
Fib li t 9
o
Gr een Vi t rio , 3 3 0
I id i m 3 7 9
escen ce , 2
V i 38 3
ro e, 22 r 3
Fi Gr ey An t imon y , 2 8 9
s sure-
Fl m K i d f 6
e ns ,
Gr e y Co er , 3 5 1pp I id mi 3 7 9
r u ,

l
ne,
Fl m T t
a es , n s o 1 r os
a e es 22
,

Gr o ss u ar , 2 5 0 I 38 r on , 1
Fl ib ih t y 4
,

G u an o , 1 5 6 I O 39
pl
ex 0 r on r es , 1

Fli t 8
,

Gu m Co a , 1 2 5 I P y it 3 3 6
M l
r on
Fl t S t
n r es , 1 1 2
I g l Ag g t 6
, 1 2 ,

84 G un et a , 3 4 4
oa
Fl f i 5
on e , 1
p
G y su m, 1 4 4 , 1 5 2
rr e u ar
I i 33
r e g a es , 1
os - err
Fl t t i P
,
1 0
p
G y sum , S ymme t r y o f , 5 3
s er n e ,
I m t i Sy t m 65 4
r ocesses ,
p p I m ph i m 4
2
Fl w f S lph 3
o a on
4 so e r c s e ,

u ur , 1 G y su m Ty e Cr ys t al s , 8 2
ers o
p p M I t pi M i l 9 7 4 8
0
Fl p t it 5 5
o so or s , 1
u or a e, 1 G y su m Ty e in er al s , 8 4 n er a s ,
I t pi Sili
a so ro c 2
Fl
,

uorescen ce , 48 ca t es , 2
Fl S p 4 5 5 7
35
I pi Z lit 5 6
so r o c
u or H air P yri t es 3 4 1 so t r o
I t pi m 8
1
Fl
ar , 1 , , c eo es , 2
H alit e 1 36
H ar dn ess o f Mi n er a l s
u x es , 1
9 , so r o s 10
F m f M i l 36 n er a s , 38
,

or
F ml 8 J d
o ,

H ar mot ome 2 3 9
J d
or u a
e, , a e , 20 9
F t it 5 H a t ch ett in e 1 2 4 ei t e , 20 4
F wl it 8 3
ors er e, 2 2
J
, a
er e, 2 H au smann ite 2 80 m eso n it e , 2 90
J g
o a
F t f M l 4
,

ra c ur e o H au yn e 2 5 5
H ea vy L iqu ids 4 5
in er a s ,
F k li it 9 8
0 ar o on , 2 44
r an
F hP
n e, 2
H e a vy S p ar 1 5 9
,

, JJ as p 83
er , 1
r oc ess , 1 e ff er s on it e ,
F h Ch lk 8
r asc 3 0 , 20 2
r en c a 21 Hed en b ur gi t e , 2 0 2 J et
J ll pi g B l
, , 1 21
F i l b it
r es e en 369 e, H eh o t ro p e , 1 8 2 ’
S
F l l E th 3
o y s r n a an ce , 44
u er s
’
ar 22 He m a t I t e , 3 2 0
F ibilit y 4 6
,

us H eni ih ed r al orms , 6 1 F K i it 4 4 3 64
H emimor ph it e 1 7 7 30 2 K al i it 7 4
, a n e, 1 1 , 1 , 1

H ep a t ic Cinn a b a r 36 3
n e, 1
bb
, ,

Ga r o, 38 3 , K lin ao 22 1
H erc yn it e 1 7 2 K lini t
,

Gah n it e , 1 7 2 ao e, 2 2 1
l
,

G a en a , 3 1 0 H es s it e 2 9 4 K gy it
l
G a en a Ty e , 6 5 p H eu l an d i t e 2 3 8
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K m it 9
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Th er mon a t r i t e , 1 3 6 , 1 4 1 Ul t m Z w ld
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Th o r ian it e , 2 6 2 Un i ax ia e o i t es , 2 4 7 ir co ni t e , 2 4 4
Th or it e , 2 6 2 U r ac o n i t e , 2 7 2 Z Tp
ir con y e, 7 2
Th o r iu m , 2 6 1 U r a n ic O ch r e , 2 7 2 Z oi si t e , 2 2 6
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 U n if or m in p r i ce wi th RU TL EY S
’
M I NER AL OGY (n ew e d iti on ) .

CR . 8 vo , N ET ;

M in e r a ls an d the M ic r o sc o p e
An In tr o d u c t ion t o th e St u d y of Pe tr o l o gy

By H . G . S M ITH , B Sc . .
, F G S . .

De mon s t ra t or i n G eo l gy I mp i l C l l g
o , er a o e e of S c i e nc e a nd Tech n o l gy
o ,
S . W .

Wit h F r on t is p ie c e in c ol ou r s : N e wt on Sc al e ; 12 p a ge s of Rep r od u c t io n s
’
s

of 6 7 M in e ral Se c t io n s u nder t he M ic r o sc o p e , a n d 3 1 D i agra m s .

“
M r S mi t h h a s gi v e n u s t h e h a n d i és t a n d b est i ll us tra t e d ii nt ro d u c t i on t h a t we
p .

p
os s e ss t o a n i m o r t a n t a s e c t o f r o c mi n e r a k l
s , and has e v en nc u l d d e a co o u r e l d
pl a t e o f Ne wt o n s S c a e
’
—1 a tur e l . .

CR . 8vo . NET .

G e o lo gic a l Ex c u r s io n s R o u n d
Lo n d o n
By G EO R G E M A C D O NA LD D A V IES, B se. .
, F G S . . .

b k
A o o o f t h i s s ort h a s on ee n wa n te l gb
I t i s a t o e t h er a n ex e c l l e n t d l g
k k v l bl
.

b oo q ui te unl i e a n y o t h e r a n d we l wor t h t h e mo n e y l
N ot t h e e a s t a u a e l
b k d p d b g l
.
,

p o rt i o n of t h e o o i s t h e i n t r o u c t or y c h a t e r e sc r i i n t e rs e y t h e n a t ur e a n d
d k d
mo e of f orma t i on of a l l t h e r oc s u n e r L on o n a n d e t t e r s t i l , e x a i n i n mos t d b l pl g
l dl d g
, ,

uc i y t h e l a t e s t t h eori e s con c e r n i u t h e c o n it i on s a n d ex te n t o f t h eir o r i i n al

dpe os i t i o n ll g
Th er e a r e t wen t y t e i n s e t c h ma s a n d ia r a ms , ei h t c a i t a h ot o p d g g p lp
p l l v l bl l dg l g l bg g
.

g ra h s , a n d a a rt i c u a r y a ua e co o u r e e o o i ca ma p a t t h e e in n in of t h e
b oo tp d b k
W e c o mme n t h i s oo mos t s t r on y t o me m e rs o f t h e Na t u r e S t u y a n d gl b d
l
S c h oo J ou r n e y As s o ci a t i on s , a n d o t h e rs wh o , i e t h e m a r e i n t er e s t e i n fi e l d w orlk d k
db d
-

”—
d g
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Ele m e n t a r y C r y s ta llogr a p h y ,

By J A M ES B . J O R DA N ,

Of t h e Mi n in gR ec or d Offi ce , l a t e of the M u s eu m o f P r a ct i c a l G l gyeo o .

P R EP A R ATI ON IN .

A N IN TR O D U C TIO N TO PA L/EO N TO LOG Y .

By A . M OR L EY D A V I ES D Sc , . .

THO M AS M U R BY Co .
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LO ND O N , EC .

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s e l e c te d s p e c im e n s .

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L O WPIPE A PPA R ATU S A N D M A TE IA L S f or t h e E am R x

in at io n o f M in e r a S u b s t a n c e s l
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Tin C as e . P r ic e £ 1 1 0s , ca rr ia g e f o r wa r d .

M in in gm e n sa y t h i s s e t is s p e ci a ll y g oo d l va u e .

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1 S a n s to n ed 4 C rys t a i n e ll 7 C h ia s t ol t e S a t e l 10 H or n b l dSen e

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P r ice 1 8/ f or t h e 1 2 S i ld es , P os t Fre e .

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S ER ES I F . Ty pi ca l R oc k S ect ions f or El emen ta ry C l a sses .

4 A u it e g 7 S a n s t on e d 1 0 C r ys t a l l zn e
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EC TI ONS OF R OCK S AND M INER AL S F OR TH E

M I CR OS C OP E P r i ce . e ach . A li st o f u p war d s o f 8 50 s e n t
o n ap p li cat i on .

M U R RY S ’
PETR O L O G IC A L M I C R O S C O PE .

Th i s M i cr os co p e h as b e en d e s i g n e d at th e r e q u es t of th e p u b
M i n e r a l o gy ”
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as to s e cu r e at t he l owes t p os s i bl e p r ice an i n st r u m e n t wh i ch
i l ud e
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s c e n c e , a n d at

th e me t i me t o s e cur e a g ood f o u n d at i on f or
sa a dd n g i p ar t s
r e q u i r e d f r om t i m e t o t i m e Pr i c e £ 10 103 . .

THO M AS M U RRY CO .
, 6, B O U VER IE S T , . LO NDO N, EC .
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TO —
TURN
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EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY
2 3 0 Mc C o n e Ha l l 64 2 2 -

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