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Bens/servios uniformes
No existe um nico vendedor ou comprador com
efeito significativo sobre o preo de mercado
Marketing mix possui pouco impacto
Competio Monopolstica
Competio Oligopolstica
Objetivos de Pricing
Pricing, Competio e
Estrutura de Mercado
N e w E n tra n ts
S u p p lie r P o w e r
I n t e r n a l R iv a lr y
S u b s t it u t e s a n d C o m p le m e n t s
B u ye r P o w er
and monopoly
Perfect Competition
Conditions necessary:
Large
Homogeneous
Free
product
Perfect
information
Perfect Competition
Demand curve for any given firm is horizontal.
Pe
Monopoly
Conditions necessary
Single seller of product
No close substitutes
Significant barriers to entry
There are few examples of perfect
decision?
Pricing in a Monopoly
Profit maximization will be achieved by setting
costs.
If firm shuts down (Q = 0), then Profit = - FC
If shut down: Firm has a loss of fixed costs.
produce.
If losses are expected permanently, get out.
Case of multiple products:
C = FC + VC1 + VC2
2.
Price Discrimination
Selling the same good to different people at
different prices
Conditions necessary:
Second degree
Quantity discounts.
Volume purchases
are given lower prices. Need to
measure goods and services bought
by consumers.
Oligopoly Strategies
Common theme - Rivalrous behavior
Pricing - limit pricing - set prices low as signal
have credibility.
Trading
Oligopoly Strategies
Use the legal / regulatory systems
Oligopoly Strategies
Capacity and production
Announce
capacity expansion
Revise/modify
products - more
difficult to copy
Advertising
Raise
number of interdependent
sellers
Differentiated
Good
Easy
product
substitutes
entry and exit
Monopolistic Competition
Cartels
Illegal in most countries but encouraged in
others
Conditions helpful:
Small
number of firms
Homogeneous product
Entry barriers
Similarity of members
Cartels
Problems with cartels:
Cheating
on agreement
Price
cutting behaviour
Tend
to fall apart
(demand) regulation?
Pricing Strategies
Profit maximizing rule:
dQx
dQx
dQx
dQ y
dQ y
dQ y
Luiz Afonso dos Santos Senna - PhD
effect is positive.
If x and y are substitutes, the effect is
consumer surplus
Examples:
country clubs
health clubs
electricity providers
much is purchased
Attempt to extract consumer surplus and
transfer value to company
I n t e r n a l R iv a lr y
S u b s t it u t e s a n d C o m p le m e n t s
B u ye r P o w er
online: e-loyalty?
Consumer demand issues - which goods to
buy online, which in person?
How to price online?
Does this signal the end of the Brand?
irrelevant?
Economies of scale? Scope?
How does this affect firm incentives to
vertically integrate (or de-integrate)?
Central role of transaction costs...
The Determinants of
Demand
Demand The relationship between the
include:
Population (n)
Price of the good (pi)
Income (y)
Expectations of future prices
Tastes (T)
Substitutes and
Complements
Two
Figure 5
10
Price ($)
4
3
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Quantity
60
70
80
90
100
The Law of
Demand
factors
that
explain
this
in quantity demanded.
The quantity demanded changes because of a price
change.
A shift in the demand curve is referred to as a change in
demand.
Demand changes (the demand curve shifts) because of a
change in one of the factors affecting demand other than
price (income, price of other goods, tastes, population)
changes.
Figure1
10
Price ($)
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Quantity
60
70
80
90
100
Algebraic Representation
The preceding figure that follows is given by
QD = 100 - 10P
Linear
relationship
choosing two points.
we
can
graph
by
Easiest points:
Q = 0 0 = 100 - 10P or P = 10, Q = 0
P = 0 implying Q = 100 - 10(0) = 100 and
therefore P = 0, Q = 100
Wages
Capital
Materials
Figure 3
16
14
12
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Q
60
70
80
as a change in supply.
Comparisons
What happens to Price & Quantity when:
Incomes increase
Wages fall
Prices of other goods change
Making predictions of the impact on the market of
these types of changes is referred to as Comparative
Statics
Comparisons
These changes are all changes in demand or
changes in supply
4 possibilities:
Pricing Strategy
How does a company decide what price to
Nonprice Competition
Some firms feel price is the main competitive
Price based on
both demand
and costs
Price set in
relation to
market alone
Freight payments
One price vs.
flexible price
Psychological pricing
Leader pricing
Everyday low vs.
high-low pricing
Resale price
maintenance
Objectives
Increase sales
volume?
Prestigious image?
Increase market
share?
you make a
profit?
Can you reduce
costs without
affecting quality or
image?
Pricing Strategy
Price higher than the
competition because
your product is
superior
Price lower, then raise
it once your product is
accepted
Pricing Technology
Smart Pricing decisions are based on an
Pricing Technology
RFID Technology wireless technology that
Geographic Considerations
Geographic Considerations
FOB (free on board) plant or FOB origin:
origin
Price quotation that does not include shipping
charges. Buyer pays all freight charges to
transport the product from the manufacturer
Freight absorption:
absorption system for handling
transportation costs under which the buyer may
deduct shipping expenses from the costs of
goods
Uniform-delivered price:
price system for handling
transportation costs under which all buyers are
quoted with the same price, including transportation
expenses
Zone pricing:
pricing system for handling transportation
costs under which the market is divided into
geographic regions and a different price is set in each
region
Basing-point system:
system system for handling
transportation costs in which the buyers costs
included the factory price plus freight charges from
the basing-point city nearest the buyer. Seeks to
equalize competition between distant marketers
Product Characteristics
Types
of Products
Stages
of Products
Luiz Afonso dos Santos Senna - PhD
Pricing Strategies
Penetration Pricing
Penetration Pricing
Price set to penetrate the market
Low price to secure high volumes
Typical in mass market products chocolate bars,
Market Skimming
Market Skimming
High price, Low volumes
Skim the profit from the market
Suitable for products that have
Market Skimming
Value Pricing
Value Pricing
Price set in accordance with
products/exclusive products
Loss Leader
Loss Leader
Goods/services deliberately sold below cost to
item sold
e.g. Free mobile phone when taking on contract
package
Psychological Pricing
Psychological Pricing
Used to play on consumer perceptions
Classic example - $9.99 instead of $10.00!
Odd-even: $5.95, $.79, $699 OR $12, $50
Multiple Unit-3 for !1.00 better than $.34 each
Psychological Pricing
Odd-Even Pricing
Odd numbers convey a bargain
image -- $.79, $9.99, $699
Even
Psychological Pricing
Prestige Pricing sets a higher than
Psychological Pricing
Multiple-Unit Pricing 3 for $.99
Suggests a bargain and helps
Psychological Pricing
Everyday Low Prices (EDLP)
price too high and they lose market share, too low and the
price leader would match price and force smaller rival out of
market
Tender Pricing
Tender Pricing
Many contracts awarded on
a tender basis
Price Discrimination
Price Discrimination
Charging a different price for
impenetrable
First class
Business class
Economy class
net 30
promotion
Loss Leader Pricing offering very
Destroyer/Predatory Pricing
Deliberate price cutting or
it can be proved
collusion
Price
Price Fixing
Fixing
Issues
Issues
That
That Limit
Limit
Pricing
Pricing
Decisions
Decisions
Price
Price Discrimination
Discrimination
Predatory
Predatory Pricing
Pricing
114
Price Fixing
An agreement between two or
more firms on the
price they will charge
for a product (usually in oligopolistic
markets)
Price Discrimination
The Robinson-Patman Act of 1936 (USA):
Prohibits any firm from selling to two or
Cost
Cost
Market
Market
Conditions
Conditions
Competition
Competition
118
Predatory Pricing
The practice of charging a
very low price for a product
with the intent of driving
competitors out of business or
out of a market.
saving drug?
What are the ethical considerations?
Customers have no choice
Need to pay for the research
When cheaper options doesnt work
Competition decides
120
understanding.
item of production
MC pricing allows flexibility
Particularly relevant in transport where fixed costs may be
relatively high
Allows variable pricing structure e.g. on a flight from London to
Contribution Pricing
Contribution Pricing
Contribution = Selling Price Variable (direct costs)
Target Pricing
Target Pricing
Setting price to target a specified profit level
Estimates of the cost and potential revenue at
retailers where they can add upto 60% markup on the basic cost of the clothes. So even
with a 50% sales offer they still make a profit!
Cost-Plus Pricing
Cost-Plus Pricing
Calculation of the average cost (AC) plus a
mark up
AC = Total Cost/Output
Influence of Elasticity
Influence of Elasticity
Price Inelastic:
% change in Q < % change in P
e.g. a 5% increase in price would be met by a fall in sales of
Influence of Elasticity
Any pricing decision must be mindful of the impact of
price elasticity
The degree of price elasticity impacts on the level of
sales and hence revenue
Elasticity focuses on proportionate (percentage)
changes
PED = % Change in Quantity demanded
% Change in Price
Influence of Elasticity
Price Elastic:
% change in quantity demanded > % change in price
e.g. A 4% rise in price would lead to sales falling by something
more than 4%
more than 9%
137
Customer service
Warranties
Distribution channels (e.g., convenience)
product
Luiz Afonso dos Santos Senna - PhD
Economic Value
Marketing Effort*
*A key task of marketing is to translate
the economic value into high
customer perceived value
Customers
Perceived
Value
Pricing Decision
142
0
0
.
5
7
3
$
Luiz Afonso dos Santos Senna - PhD
0
0
0
,
0
1
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
,
$2
Conjoint Analysis
Stated Preference Methods
Trade-off Analysis
and
Behavioural models
Behavioural Models
-Logit Model-
Ui = utility function
= parameters to be estimated
Xi= attributes
Data Collection
Revealed Preference
Stated preference