lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot.

t|o |utdamotta|s 269

Chaptcr 18
fthannI distiIIatinn: thc fundamcntaIs
R. Kulzen, P.\. Mudson und C.D. Moon, Jr
l1Zl| lttottat|ota|. ltc.. C|tc|ttat|. C||o. US
fundamcntaIs nf a distiIIing systcm
Cerluin undumenlul printiples ure tommon lo
ull dislilling syslems. Modern dislillulion syslems
ure mulli-sluge, tonlinuous, tounlerturrenl,
vupor-liquid tonlutling syslems lhul operule
vilhin lhe physitul luvs lhul slule lhul dierenl
muleriuls boil ul dierenl lemperulures.
Represenled in ligure 1 is u lypitul dislillulion
lover lhul tould be employed lo sepurule un
ideul mixlure. Suth u syslem vould tonluin lhe
olloving elemenls:
u. u eed tomposed o lhe lvo tomponenls lo
be sepuruled,
b. u sourte o energy lo drive lhe protess (in
mosl tuses, lhis energy sourte is sleum, eilher
diretlly enlering lhe buse o lhe lover or
lrunserring ils energy lo lhe lover tonlenls
lhrough un indiretl heul exthunger tulled u
reboiler),
t. un overheud, puriied produtl tonsisling
primurily o lhe eed tomponenl vilh lhe
lover boiling poinl,
d. u bolloms produtl tonluining lhe tomponenl
o lhe eed possessing lhe higher boiling
poinl,
e. un overheud heul exthunger (tondenser),
normully vuler-tooled, lo tondense lhe vupor
resulling rom lhe boiling treuled by lhe
energy inpul. 1he overheud vupor, uler
tondensulion, is splil inlo lvo slreums. Cne
slreum is lhe overheud produtl, lhe olher is
lhe relux vhith is relurned lo lhe lop o lhe
lover lo supply lhe liquid dovnlov required
in lhe upper porlion o lhe lover.
1he porlion o lhe lover ubove lhe eed enlry
poinl is deined us lhe retliying setlion o lhe
lover. 1he purl o lhe lover belov lhe eed enlry
poinl is reerred lo us lhe slripping setlion o
lhe lover.
1he syslem shovn in ligure 1 is lypitul or
lhe sepurulion o u lvo tomponenl eed
tonsisling o ideul, or neurly ideul, tomponenls
inlo u relulively pure, overheud produtl
tonluining lhe lover boiling tomponenl und u
bolloms produtl tonluining primurily lhe higher
boiling tomponenl o lhe originul eed.
l energy vus theup und lhe elhunol-vuler
syslem vus ideul, lhen lhis rulher simple
dislillulion syslem vould suite or lhe sep-
urulion o lhe beer eed inlo u relulively pure
elhunol overheud produtl und u bolloms
produtl o slilluge, tleunly slripped o ils elhunol
tonlenl. Lnorlunulely, lhe elhunol-vuler (beer)
mixlure is nol un ideul syslem. 1he bulunte o
270 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
lhis thupler vill be devoled lo u destriplion o
lhe modiitulions required o lhe simple
dislillulion syslem in order lo muke il eetlive
or lhe sepurulion o u very pure elhunol produtl,
essenliully ree o ils vuler tonlenl.
ligure 2 expunds on ligure 1 by shoving some
uddilionul eulures o u dislillulion lover. 1hese
ure:
u. 1he highesl lemperulure in lhe lover vill
ottur ul lhe buse.
b. 1he lemperulure in lhe lover vill regulurly
und progressively detreuse rom lhe bollom
lo lhe lop o lhe lover.
t. 1he lover vill huve u number o similur,
individuul, inlernul tomponenls reerred lo us
lruys (lhese muy ulso be destribed us sluges
or tonlutlors).
d. Vupor vill rise up lhe lover und liquid vill
lov dovn lhe lover. 1he purpose o lhe
lover inlernuls (lruys) is lo ullov inlimule
tonlutl belveen rising vupors und destend-
ing liquids torreluled sepurulion o vupor und
liquid.
ligure 3 shovs u vupor-liquid equilibrium diugrum
or lhe elhunol-vuler syslem ul ulmospherit
pressure. 1he diugrum shovs mole pertenl
elhunol in lhe liquid (X uxis) vs mole pertenl
elhunol in lhe vupor (Y uxis). 1he plol tould
ulso be mude or volume pertenl in lhe liquid vs
volume pertenl in lhe vupor und lhe equilibrium
figurc 1. ldeul dislillulion syslem.
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 271
turve vould only be slighlly displuted rom lhul
shovn in ligure 3. Mole pertenl is generully used
by engineers lo unulyze vupor}liquid sepurulion
syslems betuuse il relules diretlly lo moletulur
inlerutlions, vhith more tlosely destribe lhe
protess otturring in u dislillulion syslem.
Anulysis o lhe elhunol-vuler dislillulion
syslem is mulhemulitully slruighlorvurd vhen
using molur quunlilies rulher lhun lhe more tom-
mon meusuremenls o volume or veighl. 1his
is betuuse o un energy bulunte printiple tulled
tonslunl molul overlov. Lssenliully, lhis
printiple slules lhul lhe heul (energy) required
lo vuporize or tondense u mole o elhunol is
upproximulely equul lo lhe heul (energy)
required lo vuporize or tondense u mole o
vuler, und is upproximulely equul lo lhe heul
(energy) required lo vuporize or tondense uny
mixlure o lhe lvo. 1his relulionship ullovs lhe
lover lo be unulyzed by gruphit lethniques using
slruighl lines. l tonslunl molul overlov did nol
ottur, lhen lhe lover unulysis vould betome
quile tomplex und vould nol lend ilsel eusily lo
gruphit unulysis.
Reerring lo ligure 3, u 45
o
line is druvn rom
lhe tomposilions o lhe 0, 0-100% und 100%.
1his 45
o
line is useul or delermining runges o
tomposilions lhul tun be sepuruled by dislill-
ulion. Sinte lhe 45
o
line represenls lhe polenliul
poinls ul vhith lhe tontenlrulion in lhe vupor
equuls lhe tontenlrulion in lhe liquid, il inditules
lhose tondilions under vhith dislillulion is
figurc 2. 1ypitul dislillulion relulionships.
272 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
impossible or perorming lhe sepurulion. l lhe
equilibrium turve tonlutls lhe 45
o
line, un
ininilely lurge dislillulion lover vould be
required lo dislill lo lhul tomposilion o vupor
und liquid. lurlher, i lhe equilibrium turve trosses
lhe 45
o
line, lhe mixlure hus ormed un uzeo-
lrope. 1his meuns lhul even i lhe lover vere
ininilely lurge vilh un ininile umounl o energy,
il vould be impossible lo dislill pusl lhul poinl by
simple retliitulion.
Consider u very simple syslem tonsisling o
u pol illed vilh u mixlure o elhunol in vuler (u
beer) tonluining 10 % by volume elhunol (3.3
mole %). 1his tomposilion is idenliied in lhe
lover lel porlion o ligure 3. A ire tould be
kindled under lhe pol, vhith vould udd lhermul
energy lo lhe syslem. 1he pol vould begin lo
boil und generule some vupor. l ve gulhered u
smull porlion o lhe vupor iniliully generuled und
meusured ils elhunol tonlenl, ve vould ind
uboul 24 mole % elhunol (53 volume %). l ve
tondense lhis vupor (nole: lhere vill be only u
smull umounl o lhis vupor), boil il in u setond
pol und uguin tolletl u smull umounl o lhe irsl
vupor generuled, lhis setond vupor vould
tonluin uboul 55 mole % (83 volume %) o
elhunol (see ligure 3). l ve should tonlinue
lhis simpliied protess lo u lhird und ourlh
figurc 3. Vupor}liquid equilibrium or lhe elhunol}vuler syslem ul ulmospherit pressure.
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 273
tolletlion o smull umounls o vupor, unulysis
vould reveul lhul euth suttessive porlion o
vupor vould betome rither in elhunol.
1hus ve huve treuled u series o sleps by
vhith ve kepl intreusing lhe elhunol tonlenl
o lhe unulyzed sumple, bolh liquid und vupor.
Lnorlunulely, lhis oversimpliied protess is
ideulized, und prutlitully speuking, is impossible.
Hovever i ve hud supplied our originul pol vilh
u tonlinuous supply o elhunol-vuler eed und
vupor generuled in lhe irsl pol vus tonlinuously
tondensed und supplied lo lhe setond pol, elt.
lhen lhe protess betomes similur lo lhe induslriul
dislillulion lover operulion shovn in ligure 2.
Hov ur tun lhis protess be exlended: Could
ve produte pure elhunol by tonlinuously
exlending our protess o boiling und reboiling:
1he unsver is, no! \e vould inully reuth u poinl
in one o lhe dovnslreum pols, vhere lhe vupor
boiling o o lhe liquid vus o lhe sume
tomposilion us lhe liquid rom vhith il vus being
generuled. 1his unorlunule tonsequente limils
our ubilily lo produte unydrous elhunol rom u
dilule elhunol-vuler eed. \hul ve inully
entounler in our simp-liied protess is lhe
ormulion o un uzeolrope. 1his is u tonten-
lruled solulion o elhunol und vuler lhul vhen
boiled produtes u vupor vilh u tomposilion
idenlitul lo lhe tomposilion o lhe liquid solulion
rom vhith il originuled.
ln summury lhen, ve ure limiled in elhunol-
vuler puriitulion in uny single mullisluge dislill-
ulion lover lo lhe produtlion o uzeolropit
elhunol-vuler mixlures. 1hese uzeolropit
solulions o elhunol und vuler ure ulso knovn
us tonslunl boiling mixures (CBM) sinte lhe
uzeolropit liquid vill huve lhe sume lemperulure
us lhe uzeolropit equilibrium vupor being boiled
rom ilsel. \ilhoul some sorl o druslit protess
inlervenlion, urlher elhunol puriitulion be-
tomes impossible. 1he queslion lhen betomes:
\hul tun ve do lo muke il possible lo produte
unhydrous elhunol: Melhods o doing so vill
be tovered luler in lhis thupler.
ligure 4 depitls lhe slrutlure o lhe dislillulion
protess by dividing lhe vupor}liquid equilibrium
inormulion inlo lhree dislintl zones o protess
und equipmenl requiremenls: slripping, retliying
und dehydrulion. 1his division is lhe busis or lhe
design o equipmenl und syslems lo perorm lhe
dislillulion lusks.
Cnnsidcratinns in prcIiminary dcsign
1he engineer, given lhe ussignmenl o designing
u dislillulion lover, is uted vilh u number o
undumenlul tonsiderulions. 1hese intlude:
u. \hul sorl o tonlutling devite should be
employed: (e.g. lruys or putking). l lruys ure
thosen, vhul lype vill give lhe mosl inlimule
tonlutl o vupor und liquid:
b. Hov muth vupor is needed: Hov muth
liquid relux is required: (\hul rulio o liquid:
vupor is required:)
t. Hov muth sleum (energy) vill be required:
d. \hul ure lhe generul dimensions o lhe
dislillulion lover:
DistiIIatinn cnntactnrs
1ruys ure lhe mosl tommon tonlutlor in use.
\hul ure lhe untlions expetled o lruy tonlut-
lors in lhe lover: ligure 5 depitls u single lruy
tonlutlor in u dislillulion lover und shovs lhe
primury untlions desired:
- Mixing rising vupor vilh u ulling luid.
- Allov or sepurulion uler mixing.
- Provide pulh or liquid lo proteed dovn lhe
lover.
- Provide pulh or liquid lo proteed up lhe
lover.
ligure 6 depitls u peroruled lruy tonlutlor vilh
terluin uttoulremenls required lo tonlrol lhe
lov o liquid und vupor und lo ussure lheir
inlimule tonlutl. Anolher lype o lruy tonlutling
devite, lhe dist-und-donul or bule lruy is shovn
in ligure 7. 1he thurutlerislits o lhis lype o
tonlutlor muke il espetiully useul or dislilling
muleriuls suth us dry-milled gruin beer, vhith
vould oul ordinury lruys.
274 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
fncrgy anaIysis
ln uddilion lo lhe seletlion o lhe busit tonlutling
devite, lhe energy requiremenl musl be eslub-
lished. 1his is uttomplished by unulyzing lhe
vupor}liquid equilibrium dulu rom ligure 4, or
lhe liquid:vupor rulio lo perorm u tonlinuous
series o sleps vilhin lhe limils o lhe equilibrium
turve. 1uble 1 demonslrules u simpliied prot-
edure lo tultulule lhe upproximule energy
requiremenl rom lhe liquid:vupor rulio lhul vill
be employed in lhe lover design. Repelilion o
lhis lype o tultululion or dierenl tondilions
produtes u design thurl like lhul shovn in ligure
8 or lhe elhunol-vuler syslem. Suth u gruph is
figurc 4. Slrutluring lhe dislillulion syslem slrulegy.
figurc S. Dislillulion lruy untlions.
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 27S
figurc 6. Peroruled lruys.
figurc 7. Dist-und-donul lruys.
und horizonlully belveen lhe equilibrium turve
(previously delermined experimenlully) und lhe
operuling lines. lor un elhunol slripper}retliier,
lhere ure lvo operuling lines: one or lhe
retliitulion setlion und one or lhe slripping
setlion. 1he operuling lines represenl lhe lotus
o tontenlrulions vilhin lhe dislillulion lover o
lhe pussing liquid und vupor slreums. 1he
operuling lines or u given lover ure bused on
useul vhen tultululions ure needed lo usterluin
lethnitul und etonomit eusibilily und preliminury
tondilions or lhe design.
ligure 9 demonslrules hov lhe liquid:vupor
rulio, in tonnetlion vilh lhe number o sluges
(lheorelitully ideul lruys) required or u spetiied
sepurulion belveen elhunol und vuler, is
gruphitully delermined. Nole lhul lhe sluges ure
tonslrutled by druving slruighl lines verlitully
276 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
lhe energy inpul, us tultululed und represenled
in ligure 8. Betuuse o lhe printiple o tonslunl
molul overlov, lhe operuling lines tun be
represenled us slruighl lines. l tonslunl molul
overlov vus nol vulid or lhe elhunol}vuler
dislillulion, lhen lhese lines vould be turved lo
represenl lhe thunging rulio o liquid lov lo
vupor lov (in molur quunlilies) lhroughoul lhe
lover. 1he slope o lhe operuling line (lhe rulio
o liquid lov lo vupor lov) is ulso tulled lhe
inlernul relux rulio. l lhe energy inpul lo u lover
is intreused vhile lhe beer lov remuins
tonslunl, lhe operuling lines vill move lovurd
lhe 45
o
line, lhus requiring ever sluges lo
tondutl lhe dislillulion. Likevise i lhe energy
inpul is reduted (lovering lhe inlernul relux
rulio), lhe operuling lines vill move lovurd lhe
equilibrium turve, reduting lhe degree o sepur-
ulion uthievuble in euth sluge und lhereore
requiring more sluges lo tondutl lhe dislillulion.
1he tultululions underlying lhe prepurulion
o ligure 9 go beyond lhe stope und inlenl o
lhis lexl, bul huve been intluded or tonlinuily.
1he dushed lines represenl lhe gruphitul solulion
lo lhe design tultululions or lhe number o
lheorelitul sluges required lo uttomplish u
desired degree o sepurulion o lhe eed
tomponenls. ligure 9 is reerred lo us u MtCube-
1hiele diugrum. lor urlher pursuil o lhis subjetl,
reer lo lhe tlussitul dislillulion lexlbook by
Robinson und Cillilund (1950).
1nwcr sizing
1he goul o lhe design eorl is lo eslublish lhe
size o lhe dislillulion lover required. 1uble 2
shovs lhe busit protedure lo delermine lhe
diumeler required or lhe given dislillulion lover.
Sinte ull o lhe dislillulion vork is done by lhe
1abIc 1. Simpliied tultululions or sleum requiremenls or elhunol dislillulion.
fxampIc 1. CaIcuIatc thc stcam rcquircmcnt (Ibs/gaIInn nf prnduct) fnr a 10% vnIumc bccr at 100 gpm (90
gpm watcr/10 gpm cthannI).
L}V* 5.0 (lypitul or u 10% volume beer) or L 5 x V
L 90 gpm x 500 lbs}hr 45,000 lbs}hr 5 x V
gpm
1hereore, V 9,000 lbs}hr (sleum)
And: 9,000 lbs}hr (sleum) x hr 15 lbs sleum}gullon o produtl
10 gpm 60 min
fxampIc 2. CaIcuIatc thc stcam rcquircd fnr a S% vnIumc bccr at 100 gpm (9S gpm watcr/S gpm cthannI).
L}V 6.33 (lypitul or u 5% volume beer) or L 6.33 x V
L 95 gpm x 500 lbs}hr 47,500 lbs}hr 6.33 x V
gpm
1hereore, V 7,500 lbs}hr (sleum)
And: 7,500 lbs}hr (sleum) x hr 25 lbs sleum}gullon o produtl
5 gpm 60 min
*L und V ure liquid und vupor lov rules, respetlively, expressed in lb-mole per hr.
Nole: ul buse o tolumn use simpliying ussumplion o vuler}sleum. 1hereore: L (lb-mole}hr)

L (lbs}hr)
V (lb-mole}hr) V(lbs}hr)
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 277
lruys, lhe lover is utluully lhe tonluiner lo
surround lhe vupor und liquid utlivily lhul is
munuged by lhe lruys. 1over diumeler design
is, lhereore, utluully lhe design o lhe netessury
lruy diumeler or proper vupor}liquid inlerutlion
und movemenl.
1he | utlor (vupor louding) is un empiritully
delermined utlor lhul depends primurily upon
lruy lype und sputing, luid physitul properlies,
rolh slubilily und surute lension ul lhe operuling
tondilions o lhe syslem. 1he proper vulues or
| ure delermined by ield observulions. ln
summury lhen, lhe | utlor tun be destribed us
un udjusled velotily lerm (unils ure l}set) lhul
vhen mulliplied by lhe squure rool o lhe densily
rulio o liquid lo vupor, vill give lhe ullovuble
vupor velotily in lhe emply lover shell, suth lhul
liquid enlruinmenl und}or vupor phuse pressure
drop in lhe lover vill nol be extes-sive.
Lxtessive vupor velotily vill irsl muniesl ilsel
by tuusing extessive liquid enlruinmenl rising up
lhe lover, tuusing loss o sepurulion eitienty.
Lllimulely lhe extessive enlruinmenl und
pressure drop vill tuuse lover looding.
1o uthieve u vell-bulunted lover design, lhe
oregoing unulysis musl be perormed ul euth
sluge o lhe lover, rom bollom lo lop.
Composilion thunges, eed poinls, druvs, elt.,
euth tun tuuse u dierenl requiremenl. 1he
lover musl be exumined lo lotule lhe limiling
poinl.
Similur unulyses, vilh empiritully-observed
perormunte toeitienls, ure upplied lo vupor
pussing lhrough lhe lruys und liquid, und lo lhe
figurc 8. Sleum requiremenls elhunol slripper}retliier
278 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
movemenl und tonlrol o liquid pussing lhrough
dovntomers und utross lhe lruys. 1hese
unulylitul protedures ure beyond lhe stope o
lhis lexl. Reerente should be mude lo lhe uore-
menlioned lexl by Robinson und Cillilund or
urlher inormulion.
Cnnsidcratinns in nptimizing
distiIIatinn systcm dcsign
Cplimizing lhe lethnitul und etonomit design
o dislillulion equipmenl und similur gus und
vupor}liquid muss lrunser syslems involves u
number o inlerreluled purumelers. 1he posilive}
negulive bulunte o u vuriely o tonlutling
devites vilh dierenl tuputilies und eitienties
or promoling vupor}liquid muss lrunser musl
be luken inlo tonsiderulion. Along vilh lhe
lethnitul issues tonsidered in suth designs,
etonomitul operulion is essenliul nol only in lhe
redutlion o energy und olher diretl tosls, bul
ulso in relulion lo inveslmenl und relurn on
inveslmenl rom lhe operulion being tonsidered.
ln lhis respetl, dislillulion lovers ure nol
independenl protess-vise, us tonsiderulion musl
ulso be given lo olher uuxiliuries suth us
reboilers, tondensers, pumps, tonlrols und
reluled equipmenl.
Sizing tnwcrs
ln delermining oplimum diumeler und heighl o
lovers or dislillulion, ubsorplion, slripping und
similur muss lrunser operulions, design utlors
ure uetled by vhelher lhe inslullulions vill be
figurc 9. Vupor}liquid equilibrium sluge unulysis.
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 279
1abIc 2. Cultululions or lover sizing (buse o slripper).
fxampIc 1. CaIcuIatc tnwcr diamctcr rcquircd fnr a 10% vnIumc bccr at 100 gpm (1S Ibs stcam/gaIInn nf
prnduct)
\ (Vupor lov rule) 9,000 lbs}hr (sleum)
P (Cperuling pressure ul buse) 1.34 A1M
M
AVC
(Averuge M\ o vupor) 18 lbs}lb-mole
,
L
(Liquid mixlure densily 59.5 lbs}l
3
(227 l)
1 (Absolule operuling lemperulure) 687 R
D (1over inside diumeler (inthes)
f (Vupor louding utlor) 0.05-0.3
Sizing equulion:
f
16.45
=
687
59.5 18 1.34
f
9000
0.2085 =
T
M
P
f
W
0.2085 = D
L AVG

Assuming f 0.16 (spetiit lo lruy design und sputing), lhe lover diumeler is:
inches 41.125 =
0.16
16.45
= D
fxampIc 2 utiIizcs thc fnIInwing cquatinn. VaIucs fnr thc tcrms arc indicatcd in fxampIc 1.
T
M
P
f
W
0.2085 = D
L
AVG

1he inul design equulion tun be derived beginning vilh lhe undumenlul equulion:

V
V L
-
f = u
(Nole: lor mosl tuses ,
L
is muth greuler lhun ,
V
, so lhul ,
L
- ,
V
`,
L
. lor exumple, vuler (sleum) ul 212
o
l und
ulmospherit pressure: ,
L
59.8 lbs}l
3
und ,
V
0.0373 lbs}l
3
.

1hen ,
L
- ,
V
59.7627 lbs}l
3
` 59.8 lbs}l
3
,
vhith resulls in u negligible 0.06% error.)
Consequenlly,

V
L
f u
lmposing lhe equulion o tonlinuily: \ A,
V
u or u \}A,
V
\here A tolumn tross-setlion ureu (l
2
)
,
V
vupor densily (lbs}l
3
)
u uveruge vupor velotily in emply lover shell (l}set)
und \ vupor muss lov (lbs}set)
Subsliluling or u in lhe equulion ubove:
lhen
(Lq. 1)
(Lq. 2)
(Lq. 3)
\here u uveruge vupor velotily in emply lover shell (l}set)
,
l
liquid densily (lbs}l
3
)
,
\
vupor densily (lbs}l
3
)
f lover vupor louding utlor (l}set)
280 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
Lse lhe ldeul Cus Luv lo express lhe vupor densily.
T R
M
P
=
AVG
V

1hen by subslilulion one obluins

T R
M
P
f
W
= A
L
AVG

Lsing lhe Lniversul Cus Conslunl R 0.73 (l
3
)(ulm)}(lb-mole)(
o
R) lhe equulion betomes:
T
M
P
f 1.17
W
= A
L
AVG


Nov D
0.7854 =
4
D
= A
2
2

und
T
p M P
f
W 1.0879
=
T
p M P
f 0.9192
W
=
D
L AVG AVG
2

L
Adjusling unils:

T
p M P
f
W
60
12 1.043
= D
L AVG

1hereore,

T
p M
AVG
P
f
W
0.2085 = D(inches)
L

indoors or ouldoors. \ilh indoor inslullulions,

building heighl limilulions, us vell us loor level
uttessibilily, ure un imporlunl utlor in lhe design.
\here lhere ure heighl limilulions, lovers musl
be intreused in diumeler lo provide or reduted
lruy sputing, vhith in lurn vill require lover
vupor velotilies. \ilh ouldoor inslullulions, lhe
sky is lilerully lhe limil, und reinery und
pelrothemitul lovers o 200 eel in heighl ure
nol untommon.
ln eilher tuse, indoors or ouldoors, lhe
inlerreluled lover diumeler und lruy sputing ure
limiled by ullovuble enlruinmenl utlors (|
utlors) (Kulzen, 1955). l ouldoors, lover
heighls und diumelers musl be reluled lo
muximum vind louding utlors in lhe spetiit
plunl lotulion und muy be tomplituled by
ullovunte or eurlhquuke utlors.
1ray and packing scIcctinn
Vupor}liquid tonlutling devites muy be o lvo
dislintl lypes, numely putked or lruy (sluged)
lovers. ln putked lovers, lhe lrunser o muleriul
belveen phuses otturs tonlinuously und
dierenliully belveen vupor und liquid lhrough-
oul lhe putked setlion heighl. By tonlrusl, in
lruy lovers, lhe vupor}liquid tonlutl otturs on
lhe individuul lruys by purposely inlerrupling
dovn-loving liquid using dovntomers lo
tondutl vupor-disenguged liquid rom lruy lo lruy
und tuusing lhe vupor}liquid tonlutl lo ottur
belveen tross-loving liquid on lhe lruy vilh
vupor loving up lhrough lhe lruy. ln olher vords,
lhe vupor}liquid tonlutl is inlermillenl rom lruy
lo lruy, und is lhereore reerred lo us being
slugevise. 1hus, or uny given sepurulion syslem,
lhe degree o vupor}liquid tonlutl vill be greuler
vilh u greuler heighl o lhe putked setlion, or
in lhe tuse o lruy lovers, u greuler number o
lruys used.
ll is generully tonsidered lhul putking-lype
inlernuls muy be used vilh relulively tleun vupor
und liquid syslems vhere ouling is nol u problem.
Ltonomits inditule lhul putking is upplituble in
smull und modesl sized lovers. As lhe lovers
betome lurger, putking betomes tomplituled
by lhe need or mulliple liquid redislribulion
poinls lo uvoid polenliul vupor}liquid bypussing
und redutlion in eitienty. Slrutlured putkings
(luir ot a|., 1990, Bruvo ot a|., 1985) ure designed
lo minimize lhese problems by reduting lhe
heighl requiremenl und tonlrolling, lo some
exlenl, lhe dislribulion o liquid. Hovever, high
ubritulion und spetiulized inslullulion tosls
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 281
vould inditule lhul lhese ure upplituble only or
relulively lov volume, high vulue produtl
protessing.
1ruys o vurious lypes ure predominunl in
vupor}liquid tonlutling operulions, purlitulurly
on lhe very lurge stule entounlered in lhe
pelroleum und pelrothemitul induslries, in lurge
stule operulions o lhe themitul protess
induslries und in lhe lurge stule plunls o lhe
molor uel grude elhunol induslry.
1he veneruble bubble tup lruy, vilh u vide
vuriely o tup sizes, designs und urrungemenls
lo muximize tonlutl eitienty, hus ullen oul o
uvor during lhe pusl ev detudes betuuse o
lhe relulively high tosl o munuutlure und
ussembly. Vulve lruys o severul lypes huve luken
over in operulions requiring u relulively vide
vupor hundling tuputily runge (lurndovn). 1his
hus been exlended by use o dierenl veighls
o vulves on lhe sume lruy. Spetiully lruys suth
us lhe Ripple, 1urbogrid, lunnel tup und olhers
designed lo improve tonlutl under terluin
spetiit tirtumsluntes huve been used lo u
limiled exlenl.
1he long eslublished peroruled lruy is u
tonlutling lruy inlo vhith u lurge number o
regulurly orienled und sputed smull tirtulur
openings huve been drilled or punthed. 1hese
lruys ure tommonly reerred lo us sieve lruys
betuuse o lhe originul prutlite o pulling lhe
muximum number o holes in uny given lruy ureu.
1his originul design produted u uirly ineitienl
operulion ul normul louding, und u very ineitienl
operulion vilh detreused vupor louding. Aboul
50 yeurs ugo, engineers begun lo suspetl lhul
lhe design upprouth hud been in error, und lhul
lhe hole ureu in lhe lruys should be limiled by
lhe hole velotily louding utlor lo obluin
muximum tonlutl by rolhing, us indituled in
ligure 10.
1he hole velotily louding utlor (or per-
orulion utlor) is deined us lhe vupor velotily
lhrough lhe perorulions udjusled by lhe squure
rool o lhe vupor densily ul lhe spetiit lover
lotulion o u given peroruled lruy. \ilh lhe
purullel developmenl o sepurulion protesses in
lhe pelroleum reining, themitul und elhunol
induslries, lhe modern upprouth hus developed
lo vhul is nov tulled peroruled lruy design.
1he lrutlionulion Reseurth lnslilule o lhe
Ameritun lnslilule o Chemitul Lngineers diver-
led ils eorls rom bubble tup sludies lo
peroruled lruy lesling, und huve eslublished u
busis or lhe design o peroruled lruys vilh high
eitienty und vide tuputily runge (Ruphuel
Kulzen Assotiules, 1978).
\here ouming or lruy ouling (tuused by
deposilion o solid muleriuls in lhe lover eed)
tun be un operulionul problem, novel designs
suth us lhe bule lruy muy permil exlended
operuling lime belveen tleunings. Bule lruys
muy luke u number o dierenl orms. 1hey tun
be us simple us uppropriulely sputed,
unperoruled, horizonlul melul sheels tovering
us muth us 50-70% o lhe lover tross setl-ionul
ureu, or lhey muy luke lhe orm o u series o
verlitully sputed, ullernuling, solid dist-und-donul
rings (see ligure 7). 1overs up lo 13l in
diumeler ure in operulion using lhis simple dist-
und-donul design tontepl.
Allhough syslem-spetiit dulu huve been
developed or euth lype o lruy, il is diitull lo
torrelule lruy louding und eitienty dulu or u
vide vuriely o lruys on u quunlilulive busis. Luth
syslem musl be evuluuled bused upon
empiritully-derived louding utlors or vupor und
liquid operulions vilhin lhe lover.
AuxiIiarics
Lnergy inpul is o prime imporlunte in lover
design, purlitulurly in elhunol slripping und retlii-
tulion unils. ln uqueous und uzeolrope-orming
syslems, diretl sleum injetlion hus been
tommon prutlite lo muinluin simplitily. Hov-
ever, turrenl requiremenls lo redute lhe volume
o vusle going lo pollulion remediulion utililies
huve minimized use o lhis simple sleum injetlion
lethnology lo uvoid lhe dilulion eetl o lhe
sleum being tondensed und udded lo lhe slilluge.
Diretl sleum injetlion lrunsers bolh lhe energy
und lhe vuler inlo lhe protess. By imposing u
heul exthunger (reboiler) belveen lhe sleum
und lhe protess, only lhe energy is lrunserred
inlo lhe lover. 1he tondensule vuler is relurned
282 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
in u tlosed-loop lo lhe boiler, lhus reduting lhe
bolloms oullov rom lhe protess. Reboilers ure
lhus groving in utteplunte, und severul lypes
muy be employed. Kellle und lhermosyphon
reboilers ure preerred vhere ouling is nol u
problem. \here ouling tun ottur, high velotily,
orted-tirtululion, lush heuling reboilers ure
preerred. ligure 11 depitls lhe reboiler energy
lrunser by u orted-tirtululion reboiler us
tompured lo ligure 1 vhith depitls diretl sleum
injetlion.
1hermotompression injetlion o sleum hus
ulso been ulilized vhere lov pressure vupors
ure produted rom lush heul retovery
inslullulions und vhere higher pressure molive
sleum is ulso uvuiluble.
Condenser design vould uppeur lo be
simple. Hovever, in muny tuses, vuler limilulions
require udupling tondenser designs lo lhe use
o tooling lover vuler vilh limiled lemperulure
rise und minimul stule-orming lendenties. Cn
lhe olher hund, vhere vuler is exlremely sturte,
uir-tooled tondensers ure used.
fncrgy cnnscrvatinn
1he intreusing tosl o lhermul energy, vhelher
provided by nulurul gus, uel oil, toul or biomuss,
is oslering un intreused emphusis on heul
retovery und u redutlion in primury lhermul
energy usuge

(luir, 1977, Pellerson ot a|., 1977,
Mix ot a|., 1978). Convenlionul bolloms-lo-eed
heul exthungers ure nov being supplemenled
vilh retovery o overheud vupor lulenl heul by
preheuling eed slreums und olher inlermediule
protess slreums. 1ethniques o mullisluge
dislillulion (similur lo mulliple eetl evuporulion)
ure ulso prutlited. Pressure-lo-ulmospherit,
ulmospherit-lo-vutuum, or pressure-lo-vutuum
lover sluges ure ulilized, vilh lhe lhermul energy
pussing overheud rom one lover lo provide
lhe reboiler heul or lhe nexl one. 1vo suth
sluges ure quile tommon und lhree sluge
syslems huve ulso been ulilized (Kulzen, 1980,
Lynn ot a|., 1986).
lurlhermore, lhe modern lethnique o vupor
retompression, tommonly used in evuporulion
syslems, is ulso being upplied lo dislillulion
syslems. Suth u syslem tun provide or
tompression o overheud vupors lo u pressure
und lemperulure suiluble or use in reboiling u
lover pressure slripping lover. Hovever, lhe
tompression rulios required or suth heul
retovery muy tonsume ulmosl us muth eletlritul
energy us vould be suved in lhermul inpul.
Allernulive syslems, using vupor retompression
us un inlermediule sluge devite in lhe dislillulion
syslem, huve ulso been proposed.
figurc 10. Peroruled lruy rolhing.
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 283
CnntrnI systcms
Conlrol syslems tun vury rom munuul tonlrol,
lhrough simple pneumulit tonlrol loops lo ully
uulomuled dislribuled tonlrol (Murlin ot a|.,
1970). High level tompuler tonlrol hus utililuled
lhe upplitulion o sophislituled tonlrol ulgor-
ilhms, providing more lexibilily, reduted lubor
und higher eitienty vilh lover tupilul
inveslmenl. Suth syslems, vhen properly
udupled lo u good protess design, huve proven
more user-riendly lhun lhe tonlrol lethniques
ulilized in lhe pusl.
fcnnnmic dcsign
ln inlegruling lhe lethnology distussed, lhe inul
unulysis musl be etonomit. Allernulive syslems
musl be tompured on lhe busis o inveslmenl
requiremenls, retovery eitienty und relulive
tosls o operulion. 1hus, uny heul exthungers
inslulled or heul retovery musl shov u
sulisutlory relurn on lhe inveslmenl involved in
lheir purthuse und inslullulion. ln tompuring
ullernulive sepurulion syslems, lhe overull
equipmenl tosls musl be tompured uguinsl
energy und olher operuling tosls lo delermine
figurc 11. Lnergy lrunser by u orted-tirtululion reboiler (See ligure 1 lo tompure vilh diretl sleum injetlion).
284 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
vhith syslem oers lhe besl relurn. Modern
tompuler-ussisled designs intorporule
etonomit evuluulion utlors so eto-nomit
oplimizulion tun be delermined rupidly.
fthannI distiIIatinn/dchydratinn: spccific
systcms tcchnnIngy
Proven induslriul lethnologies ure uvuiluble or
dislillulion o vurious grudes o elhunol rom gruin,
sugurtune, molusses und olher eedslotks.
lmprovemenls huve been mude over lhe yeurs,
purlitulurly during developmenl o lhe molor uel
grude elhunol induslry. ln suth inslullulions, u key
requiremenl is lhe mini-mizulion o lolul energy
usuge.
1he operulion lhul hus been mosl subjetl lo
trilitul tommenl is lhe dislillulion protess. Muny
relulively nev uulhorilies in lhe ield huve bused
lheir trilitism on lethnologies lhul go butk 50-
60 yeurs, und huve treuled un unvurrunled
tondemnulion o dislillulion us u viuble protess
or lov energy molor uel grude elhunol
produtlion. Syslems developed over lhe yeurs
vill be destribed lo shov lhul muth o suth
trilitism is unvurrunled und unjusliied.
Production o industrial cthanol
Prior lo lhe retenl emphusis on molor uel grude
elhunol, lhe mujor elhunol produtl ulilized
vorldvide vus high purily, hydrous induslriul
elhunol, vhith is generully produted ul u
slrenglh o 96
o
CL (192
o
LS proo) (
o
CL
degress Cuy Lussut % by volume elhunol, LS
proo 2 x % by volume elhunol). Litienl sys-
lems huve been in tommertiul operulion or
muny yeurs or lhe produtlion o suth high
grude elhunol rom elhylene, gruin, molusses und
sulile vusle liquor. 1he busit dislillulion syslem
is shovn in ligure12.
ln lhe tuse o synlhelit elhunol (oulside lhe
stope o lhis publitulion), lhe beer slripping
lover is nol required und lhe reining syslem is
u simple lhree lover unil, vhith uthieves 98%
retovery o lhe elhunol in lhe trude eed us u
irsl grude produtl. 1he inul produtl muy tonluin
less lhun 30 ppm lolul impurilies und hus u
permungunule lime o more lhun 60 minules.
lor lhe produtlion o induslriul or beveruge
spiril produtls mude by ermenlulion o gruin,
molusses or sulile liquor, lhe syslem ulilizes lhe
ull tomplemenl o equipmenl shovn in ligure
12. 1he beer eed is preheuled rom lhe normul
ermenlulion lemperulure in severul sluges,
retovering lov level und inlermediule level heul
rom eluenl slreums und vupors in lhe protess.
1his preheuled beer is degussed und ed lo lhe
beer slripper, vhith hus slripping lruys belov lhe
beer eed poinl und severul retliying lruys ubove
il. 1he tondensed high vines rom lhe lop o
lhis lover ure lhen ed lo lhe exlrutlive dislillulion
lover, vhith muy operule ul u pressure in lhe
order o 6-7 burs (87-101.5 psi). ln lhis lover,
mosl o lhe impurilies ure removed und turried
overheud lo be tondensed us u lov grude
elhunol slreum, rom vhith u smull purge o
heuds (uteluldehyde und olher lov boiling
impurilies) muy be luken vhile lhe primury
tondensule lov is ed lo lhe tontenlruling
lover. 1he puriied, diluled elhunol rom lhe
bollom o lhe exlrutlive dislillulion lover is ed
lo lhe retliying lover, vhith hus un inlegrul
slripping setlion. ln lhis lover, lhe high grude
elhunol produtl, vhelher induslriul or poluble,
is luken us u side druv rom one o lhe upper
lruys. A smull heuds tul is removed rom lhe
overheud tondensule. lusel oils (mixlures o
higher ultohols suth us propyl, bulyl, und umyl
ultohols und lheir isomers, vhith ure
ermenlulion by-produtls or tongeners) ure
druvn o ul lvo poinls ubove lhe eed lruy bul
belov lhe produtl druv lruy lo uvoid u buildup
o usel oil impurilies in lhe retliying lover. 1he
overheud heuds tul und lhe usel oil druvs ure
ulso senl lo lhe tontenlruling lover.
ll should be noled lhul lhe retliying lover is
heuled by vupors rom bolh lhe pressurized
exlrutlive dislillulion lover und lhe pressurized
tontenlruling lover.
ln lhe tontenlruling lover, lhe vurious
slreums o tongener-tonluining druvs ure
tontenlruled. A smull heuds druv is luken rom
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 28S
lhe overheud tondensule, vhith tonluins lhe
uteluldehyde rutlion ulong vilh u smull umounl
o lhe elhunol produted. 1his muy be sold us u
by-produtl or burned us uel. A usel oil side druv
is luken ul high usel oil tontenlrulions lhrough
u tooler lo u vusher. ln lhe vusher, vuler is
ulilized lo sepurule lhe elhunol rom lhe usel
oil, vilh lhe vushings being retytled lo lhe
tontenlruling lover. 1he detunled usel oil muy
be sold us u by-produtl. 1he elhunol retovered
rom lhe trude slreums is luken us u side druv
rom lhe tontenlruling lover und ed butk lo
lhe exlrutlive dislillulion lover or re-puriitulion
und retovery o ils elhunol tonlenl.
ln un eurly version o lhis syslem, inslulled
more lhun 50 yeurs ugo or lhe produtlion o
poluble elhunol rom gruin und rom molusses,
ull lovers vere operuled ul ulmospherit
pressure. Hovever, inslullulions mude vilhin lhe
pusl 30 yeurs ulilize lhe mullisluge pressure
syslem lo redute energy tonsumplion lo u level
o uboul 60% o lhe ull-ulmospherit syslem.
1he tommertiul inslullulions ulilizing lhe
mullisluge pressure, or pressure tustuding
lethnique operule vilh u sleum tonsumplion o
3.0-4.2 kg o sleum}liler (25-35 lb}gullon) o 96
o
CL elhunol. 1his muy be tompured lo uboul 6
kg o sleum}liler or eurlier tonvenlionul
dislillulion syslems.
Production o anhydrous cthanol
Syslems huve been designed und inslulled or
produtlion o exlremely dry und very pure
unhydrous elhunol or ood und phurmuteulitul
use, primurily in uerosol prepurulions. 1hese
syslems, us shovn in ligure 13, yield elhunol
tonluining less lhun 200 ppm o vuler (99.98
o
CL), less lhun 30 ppm o lolul impurilies und
more lhun 45 minules permungunule lime.
1he lvo lover dehydruling syslem hus been
operuled in lvo super-unhydrous plunls in
Cunudu, und vus used lo produte molor uel
figurc 12. Lov energy-tonsuming high grude hydrous elhunol dislillulion.
286 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
grude elhunol (99.5
o
CL) in our inslullulions in
Cubu (prior lo lhe udvenl o lhe Cuslro regime).
1he dehydruling lover und lhe enlruiner-
retovery lover ure operuled ul ulmospherit
pressure. 1hus, lhey muy ulilize eilher lov
pressure sleum, hol tondensule or hol vusle
slreums rom olher purls o lhe elhunol protess
lo minimize sleum usuge. 1o simpliy equipmenl
und minimize inveslmenl, u tommon tondensing
-detunling syslem is used or lhe lvo lovers.
1he enlruiner used lo remove vuler us u
lernury (lhree tomponenl) uzeolrope muy be
benzene, heplune (C
6
-C
8
tul), tytlohexune,
n-penlune, dielhyl elher or olher suiluble
uzeolropit ugenls. 1he enlruiner serves lo treule
u lhree tomponenl uzeolrope lhul boils ul u
lemperulure lover lhun uny o lhe lhree
individuul tomponenls und lover lhun lhe
elhunol}vuler binury (lvo tomponenl)
uzeolrope. 1hereore lhe lernury mixlure vill
puss overheud rom lhe lover, turrying lhe vuler
upvurd. Lpon tondensing, lhe mixlure
sepurules in u detunler inlo un enlruiner-rith luyer
und u vuler-rith luyer.
1he hydrous elhunol eed enlers lhe
dehydruling lover neur lhe lop. 1he eed
tonlutls lhe enlruiner in lhe upper setlion o
lhe lover. 1he lhree tomponenl mixlure in lhis
setlion o lhe lover seeks lo orm ils uzeolrope,
bul is deitienl in vuler und tonluins more
elhunol lhun lhe uzeolrope tomposilion.
1hereore, lhe elhunol is rejetled dovnvurd in
lhe liquid und is vilhdruvn us un unhydrous
produtl rom lhe bollom o lhe lover. 1he vuler
joins lhe enlruiner, pussing upvurd us vupor lo
orm u mixlure lhul is neur lhe uzeolrope
tomposilion or lhe lhree tomponenls. 1he
tondensed mixlure sepurules inlo lvo luyers in
lhe detunler und lhe enlruiner-rith luyer is
reluxed rom lhe detunler butk lo lhe lop o
lhe lover. 1he uqueous luyer is pumped rom
lhe detunler lo lhe enlruiner-retovery lover, in
vhith lhe enlruiner und elhunol ure tontenlruled
overheud in lhe tondenser-detunler syslem. 1he
figurc 13. High grude unhydrous elhunol syslem.
lt|ato| d|st|||at|ot. t|o |utdamotta|s 287
slripped vuler, emerging rom lhe buse o lhe
lover, muy go lo vusle. l il hus subslunliul
elhunol tonlenl, il muy be retytled lo lhe beer
vell eeding lhe spiril unil, bul lhis inlrodutes
lhe risk o lrutes o lhe enlruiner in lhe hydrous
elhunol vhith muy nol ull be senl lo lhe
dehydrulion syslem. 1his syslem operules vilh
u sleum tonsumplion o 1-1.5 kg}liler (8.3-12.5
lb}gullon) o unhydrous elhunol depending on
lhe quulily o produtl required. As indituled
ubove, u mujor purl o lhe equivulenl sleum
energy tun be provided by hol tondensule und
hol vusle slreums rom lhe spiril unil.
Production o anhydrous motor ucl gradc
cthanol
ln viev o lhe groving demund or molor uel
grude elhunol (MlCL) in lhe LS und olher
tounlries, u tombinulion o key eulures in lhe
improved syslems destribed in ligures 12 und
13 hus been used lo muximize retovery o
MlCL rom ermenled beer, vhile minimizing
energy tonsumplion. 1his syslem is shovn in
ligure 14 (LS pulenl 4,217,178, Cunudiun Pulenl
876,620, 1980). lermenled beer eed is pre-
heuled in u mullisluge heul exthunge sequente,
vurying somevhul in tomplexily vilh lhe size o
lhe tommertiul utilily. ln eetl, beer is
preheuled in u bool slrupping operulion, vhith
lukes lhe lover level heul rom lhe uzeolrope
vupors in lhe dehydruling syslem und lhen pitks
up heul rom lhe extess o overheud vupors
rom lhe pressurized beer slripping und retliying
lover. linully lhe beer is preheuled in exthunge
vilh hol slilluge rom lhe sume lover. 1his
preheuled beer, essenliully ul ils sulurulion
lemperulure, is de-gussed lo remove residuul
CC
2
beore il enlers lhe pressurized beer
slripper. 1his lover operules ul u pressure o
upproximulely 4 burs vilh heul provided by sleum
lhrough u orted tirtululion reboiler. 1his is lhe
only use o sleum in lhis dislillulion syslem. 1he
slilluge leuving lhe buse o lhis lover is purliully
tooled lo lhe ulmospherit boiling poinl viu heul
exthunge vilh lhe preheuled beer eed. 1his
provides u slilluge eed or vupor retompression
figurc 14. Molor uel grude unhydrous elhunol syslem.
288 l.latzot. l.\. Madsot atd C.D. Moot. /t.
evuporulion ul un ideul lemperulure, requiring
neilher preheul nor lushing in lhe evuporulor.
1he elhunol slripped rom lhe beer in lhe
lover purl o lhe beer lover is retliied lo
upproximulely 95
o
CL und luken us u side druv
u ev lruys belov lhe lop o lhe retliying setlion.
1he overheud vupors, under pressure, ure used
lo boil up lhe ulmospherit dehydrulion lover
und lhe ulmospherit enlruiner retovery lover,
us vell us lo provide preheul lo lhe beer eed.
1he tondensed overheud vupors ure reluxed
lo lhe lop o lhe pressurized beer lover, vilh u
smull druv o heuds luken lo uvoid uttumululions
o lhe more volulile tongeners suth us
uteluldehyde. 1he heuds slreum, umounling lo
less lhun 1% o elhunol produtlion, tun be
burned us uel in lhe plunl boiler or senl diretlly
inlo lhe MlCL inul produtl, lhus bypussing lhe
dehydrulion syslem.
Side slreum usel oil druvs ure ulso luken
rom lhe retliying setlion o lhe pressurized
lover lo u usel oil detunler. 1he uqueous
vushings ure relurned lo lhe beer slripping
setlion o lhis lover, vhile lhe detunled,
vushed usel oil is tombined vilh lhe unhydrous
elhunol plunl. lusel oil nol only hus u higher uel
vulue lhun elhunol, bul serves us u blending ugenl
belveen lhe elhunol und gusoline.
1he 95
o
CL elhunol enlering lhe ulmospherit
dehydrulion lover is dehydruled in lhe munner
previously destribed. Sleum tonsumplion in lhis
syslem, vurying somevhul vilh lhe pertenluge
o elhunol in lhe beer, is in lhe runge o 1.8-2.5
kg}liler (15-21 lb}gullon).
Rcfcrcnccs
Bruvo, J.L. ot a|. 1985. Hydroturbon Prot. Jun.
p.91.
Kulzen, R. 1955. Chem. Lng. Nov. p. 209.
luir, J.R. 1977. Chem. Lng. Prog. Nov. p. 78.
luir, J.R. ot a|. 1990. Chem. Lng. Prog. Jun. p. 19.
Kulzen, R. 1980. Lov energy dislillulion syslems.
Bio-Lnergy Conerente, Allunlu, CA, April.
Kisler, H.Z. ot a|. 1990. Chem. Lng. Prog. Sepl. p.
63.
Lynn, S. ot a|. 1986. lnd. & Lng. Chem. 25:936.
Murlin, R. L. ot a|. 1970. Hydroturbon Prot. Murth
1970, p. 149.
Mix, 1.J. ot a|. 1978. Chem. Lng. Prog. April p. 49.
Pellerson, \.C. ot a|. 1977. Chem. Lng. Sepl. p.
79.
Robinson und Cillilund. 1950. Llemenls o
lrutlionul Dislillulion, MtCruv Hill Book Co.,
lnt.