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Download ebook pdf of Espécies Arbóreas Brasileiras Vol 2 1St Edition Paulo Ernani Ramalho Carvalho full chapter
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Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária
Embrapa Florestas
Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento
Normalização bibliográfica
Elizabeth Câmara Trevisan
Lidia Woronkoff
Elaboração do índice
Paulo Ernani Ramalho Carvalho
Celina Tomaz de Carvalho
ISBN 85-7383-373-4
©Embrapa 2006
Aos meus pais,
Honório Aires Carvalho e
Maria Antonieta Ramalho Carvalho
À minha esposa
Mirian Aparecida Lopes Carvalho
Às minhas filhas
Thaís Helena Lopes Carvalho
e Ana Paula Lopes Carvalho
Ao meu genro
Alexandre França Tetto
Ao meu neto
Gabriel Carvalho Tetto
“... Não foram dez os que foram limpos? Onde estão os outros
nove? Não houve quem voltasse para dar glória a Deus, senão este
estrangeiro” (Lc 17:17-18).
A gratidão constitui-se num dos mais nobres sentimentos humanos,
porque é o reflexo daquilo que brota do coração, do amor.
O autor expressa seu agradecimento às pessoas que ofereceram sua
contribuição para a realização desta obra:
Antonio Aparecido Carpanezzi
(Embrapa Florestas)
Arnaldo de Oliveira Soares
(Embrapa Florestas)
Daniel Steidler
(Fazenda Bimini – Rolândia, PR)
Dan Erik Petit Lobão
(Comissão Executiva do Plano de Lavoura Cacaueira – Ceplac)
Edmar Ramos de Siqueira
(Embrapa Tabuleiros Costeiros)
Edson Paula Nunes
(Universidade Federal do Ceará – UFCE)
Francisco C. Martins
(Embrapa Informação Tecnológica)
Gerson Luiz Lopes
Gert Hatschbach
(Museu Botânico Municipal de Curitiba, PR)
Henrique José Borges de Araújo
(Embrapa Acre)
José Carlson
(Empresário rural de Vitória da Conquista, BA)
Marcus Vinício Neves d’ Oliveira
(Embrapa Acre)
Osmar Eugênio Kretschek
(Berneck Aglomerados S. A.)
Ruth Steidler
(Fazenda Bimini – Rolândia, PR)
Wilson Maschio
(Embrapa Florestas)
Yoshiko Saito Huniyoshi
(Universidade Federal do Paraná – UFPR)
Apresentação
Introdução 19
Açoita-Cavalo (Luehea candicans) 55
Aguaí-da-Serra (Chrysophyllum gonocarpum) 63
Aipim-Brabo (Schefflera angustissimum) 71
Almecegueira (Protium heptaphyllum) 79
Bordão-de-Velho (Samanea tubulosa) 89
Bugreiro (Lithrea molleoides) 97
Cabriúva-Vermelha (Myroxylon peruiferum) 105
Cafezeiro-do-Mato (Casearia sylvestris) 115
Cajá-da-Mata (Spondias mombin) 125
Canela-do-Brejo (Ocotea pulchella) 133
Canela-Fogo (Cryptocarya aschersoniana) 141
Canela-Imbuia (Nectandra megapotamica) 149
Capororocão (Rapanea umbellata) 157
Carne-de-Vaca (Clethra scabra) 165
Cerejeira-da-Amazônia (Amburana acreana) 173
Corticeira-do-Banhado (Erythrina crista-galli) 181
Cupiúva (Tapirira guianensis) 189
Cuvatã (Cupania vernalis) 199
Embaúba (Cecropia pachystachya) 209
Embiruçu (Pseudobombax grandiflorum) 219
Espinheira-Santa (Maytenus ilicifolia) 227
Farinha-Seca (Albizia polycephala) 237
Figueira-Brava (Ficus enormis) 245
Grinalda-de-Noiva (Cassia leptophylla) 253
Guaviroveira (Campomanesia xanthocarpa) 261
Ingá-Feijão (Inga marginata) 269
Ingá-Poca (Sclerolobium densiflorum) 277
Ipê-Amarelo-Miúdo (Tabebuia chrysotricha) 283
Jaracatiá (Jacaratia spinosa) 291
Jatobá-do-Cerrado (Hymenaea stigonocarpa) 299
Jerivá (Syagrus romanzoffianum) 307
Juazeiro (Ziziphus joazeiro) 317
Louro-Freijó (Cordia alliodora) 325
Mamica-de-Porca (Zanthoxylum rhoifolia) 333
Manduirana (Senna macranthera) 343
Maria-Mole-do-Banhado (Symplocos uniflora) 351
Miguel-Pintado (Matayba elaeagnoides) 359
Mogno (Swietenia macrophylla) 367
Murta (Blepharocalyx salicifolius) 379
Mutamba (Guazuma ulmifolia) 387
Paricá (Schizolobium amazonicum) 399
Pau-Branco-do-Sertão (Auxemma oncocalyx) 409
Pau-de-Andrade (Persea pyrifolia) 417
Pau-de-Gaiola (Aegiphila sellowiana) 425
Pau-de-Tucano (Vochysia tucanorum) 433
Peroba-Vermelha (Aspidosperma olivaceum) 441
Pindaíba (Xylopia brasiliensis) 449
Pinheiro-Bravo (Podocarpus sellowii) 457
Pitangueira (Eugenia uniflora) 465
Sabiá (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia) 473
Sapopema (Sloanea monosperma) 483
Sapucaia (Lecythis pisonis) 491
Sapuva (Machaerium stipitatum) 499
Sucupira (Bowdichia virgiliodes) 507
Tapiá-Açu (Alchornea glandulosa var. iricurana) 517
Tarumã (Vitex megapotamica) 525
Timbó-Graúdo (Lonchocarpus muehlbergianus) 533
Vacum (Allophylus edulis) 541
Vassourão-Graúdo (Piptocarpha tomentosa) 549
Visgueiro (Parkia pendula) 555
Referências 563
Literatura Recomendada 612
Índice 615
18
Introdução
19
Não existem estatísticas precisas das áreas a serem reflorestadas, mas
estimativas apontam áreas enormes. No Paraná, somente a recom-
posição da Reserva Florestal Legal (RFL) em propriedades rurais aci-
ma de 50 ha, por força da Lei Agrícola (Lei 8.177, de 10 de janeiro
de1991), implica em cerca de 23 mil hectares por ano, por um perío-
do de 30 anos (Sociedade ... 1996).
No Estado de São Paulo, reconheceu-se a necessidade de se reflores-
tar 4 milhões de hectares com espécies nativas, no prazo de 25 anos
(São Paulo ..., 1993).
O objetivo desta obra é contribuir com conhecimentos silviculturais
sobre espécies arbóreas nativas, para orientar e motivar a quem se
interesse pela preservação da enorme riqueza florestal brasileira. É
oportuno salientar que muitas informações – aqui incluídas – são iné-
ditas e fruto de pesquisas recentes.
Espécies Selecionadas
A escolha das espécies apresentadas nesta coleção baseia-se na im-
portância econômica, silvicultural e ecológica da espécie e sua partici-
pação na rede experimental da Embrapa Florestas, de responsabilida-
de do autor (Mapa 1). Para compor este volume, foram selecionadas
60 espécies arbóreas, de abrangência nacional.
Para a maioria das espécies arbóreas nativas, não são efetuadas as re-
comendações de se coletar sementes de no mínimo 25 árvores, para
aumentar a variabilidade genética (SHIMIZU et al., 1982).
Seguindo-se tais recomendações, espera-se ganhos de produtividade
da ordem de 20%, tornando as espécies nativas madeireiras mais
atrativas para plantações (GURGEL FILHO et al., 1982c).
Taxonomia e Nomenclatura
Para a classificação botânica das espécies arbóreas descritas nesta
obra, utilizou-se o Sistema de Classificação de Cronquist (1981). Nes-
te volume, o autor preferiu não utilizar a classificação proposta pelo
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2003), baseada nas seqüências
de DNA e em particular no gene plastidiano rbcL.
Este tópico traz o nome científico e a família botânica da espécie, bem
como a sinonímia botânica.
Além disso, os nomes comuns mais populares no Brasil são relacionados
com a Unidade da Federação onde esse nome comum é conhecido, e é
citado um nome por país, quando a espécie ocorre fora do Brasil.
O critério usado para os nomes populares brasileiros é baseado na
ortografia de Ferreira (1975) e Michaelis (1998).
20
Mapa 1. Rede experimental instalada
pela Embrapa Florestas.
21
Descrição
Neste tópico, são descritas algumas características botânicas que per-
mitem distinguir a espécie de outras similares:
• Forma biológica: árvore ou arvoreta.
• Se perenifólia, decídua ou semidecídua.
• Tamanho da árvore: altura máxima observada.
• DAP (diâmetro à altura do peito, medido a 1,30 m do solo) máximo.
• Tronco: forma e comprimento do fuste.
• Ramificação: tipo e características da copa.
• Casca: espessura total e descrição das cascas externa e interna.
Casca é um termo não técnico que tem sido interpretado de maneiras
diferentes, geralmente designando todos os tecidos externos ao câmbio
vascular. No entanto, num sentido estrito, a casca é constituída apenas
pelos tecidos externos ao felogênio. Esses tecidos apresentam diferentes
origens e funções e sua estrutura é muito variável entre as espécies.
A casca pode ser diferenciada em casca externa – que dá a aparência
externa dos troncos – e casca interna, visível quando se faz um corte no
caule (RIZZINI, 1971). Geralmente, a casca externa constitui-se de teci-
dos mortos, externos ao felogênio, enquanto a casca interna é compos-
ta de tecidos vivos, localizados entre o câmbio vascular e o felogênio.
A observação da espessura da casca externa é feita por meio de um
pequeno corte no tronco, de profundidade proporcional à sua espes-
sura, com auxílio de um facão ou de um formão e a 1,30 m do solo,
aproximadamente.
Omitiu-se a descrição da casca da palmeira-jerivá (Syagrus romanzo-
ffianum), uma vez que as monocotiledôneas não apresentam verda-
deira diferenciação de tecidos na formação de casca.
• Frutos com classificação adaptada de vários autores (LIMA, 1985;
GUNN, 1991; SPJUT, 1994; BARROSO et al., 1999).
As características das folhas, das flores e das sementes também são
descritas. Esse tópico foi elaborado com base em descrições encon-
tradas na literatura especializada e complementada por observações e
medições recentes.
Sistema sexual
A determinação do sistema sexual foi obtida da literatura.
O sistema sexual pode ser dividido em:
• Espécie andrógina ou hermafrodita: quando apresenta flores monó-
clinas.
• Espécie monóica: quando apresenta flores unissexuais, mas distribu-
ídas no mesmo indivíduo.
• Espécie dióica: quando apresenta flores diclínicas e distribuídas em
indivíduos separados.
• Espécie polígama: quando apresenta flores monóclinas e diclínicas
num mesmo indivíduo.
22
Sistema reprodutivo
Neste tópico, o sistema reprodutivo é descrito somente quando co-
nhecido. Kearns & Inouye (1993) consideram quatro tipos básicos de
sistemas de reprodução sexuada:
• Predominantemente autógama: com 95% a 100% de autofecundação.
• Predominantemente alógama ou de fecundação cruzada: com 95%
a 100% de cruzamento. Uma espécie pode ser alógama e apresentar
até uns 20% de autofecundação. Ex: seringueira (Hevea brasiliensis).
• Sistema misto: quando a população pratica tanto a autofecundação
quanto a alogamia, em taxas intermediárias de 10% a 90%.
• Parcialmente apomítica: quando a população pratica tanto a repro-
dução sexuada quanto a assexuada. Isto é, a apomixia é praticada
numa certa taxa.
Vetor de polinização
Nos trópicos, a ecologia de polinização envolve, essencialmente, os
animais (BAWA et al., 1985). Os principais polinizadores são abelhas,
vespas, mariposas, borboletas, moscas, morcegos e pássaros.
A cada conjunto de características da flor corresponde um grupo de
polinizadores. Esse conjunto de características recebe a denominação
de síndrome floral ou de polinização.
Na Tabela 1, são relacionadas as características das flores, com as di-
versas síndromes de polinização.
23
24
Tabela 1. Caracterização das principais síndromes florais de polinização.
Cor Freq. escarlate, verde Branco creme e Vermelho, azul e Branca ou fracamente Opaca, purpúreo e Claras, mas Amarelo ou azul Escuras e
e azul (cores vivas) parda amarelo (cores vivas) colorida quadriculado opacas e pardas (cores vivas) esverdeadas
(só com odor)
Odor Fraco, fresco e Rançoso (lembrando Fraco, fresco e Forte (doce à noite) Proteína degradada Imperceptível Não forte e Forte, fruta ou
agradável fermentação) agradável refrescante aminoácido
Classe da flor Tubo, estandarte Pincel, campânula e Tubo, estandarte, Tubo, goela e pincel – Campânula e Estandarte, tubo, Taça
goela e pincel taça goela e pincel taça campânula, pincel e
goela
Forma da flor Parede dura e ovário Forte única ou infl. Ereta, com tubos Horizontais ou – Simples e regular
protegido forte de peq. flores estreitos pendentes
Efeito de profundidade Ausente ... ... Presente Grande Ausente Semifechada Geralmente
mecanicamente forte grande
Néctar
Exposto em –
grande Muito, em grande Bem escondido, com Profundamente Ausente Aberto ou de Ausente
quantidade quantidade pequena quantidade escondidos em longos fácil obtenção
tubos; em quantidade
média
Guias de nectários Escondido não muito
Ausente ou simples Ausente Simples ou mecânico Geralmente ausente Ausente Presente profundo –
para a língua
Órgãos sexuais e Presente
antese Antese diurna Antese noturna Antese diurna Antese noturna Escondidos Bem expostos Ausente
Escondidos
Planosimetria Exposto
Radial Zigomorfa (não Geralmente – Zigomorfa
– Radial
radial –
necessário)
Ocorrência Natural
A ocorrência natural é delimitada por três variáveis: latitude, variação
altitudinal e distribuição geográfica.
Na área de distribuição natural, mencionam-se os países ou as Unida-
des da Federação onde a espécie ocorre (Mapa 2). Consultas a herbá-
rios, revisão de literatura específica e levantamento de dados possibili-
taram identificar os locais de ocorrência de cada uma das 60 espécies
arbóreas incluídas neste volume.
A distribuição das espécies florestais no Mapa do Brasil foi possível por
meio da sistematização no banco de dados georreferenciados, Espécies
Arbóreas Brasileiras – Volume 2, estruturado no Sistema de Informação
Geográfica (Spring) e especialmente elaborado no Laboratório de Moni-
toramento Florestal da Embrapa Florestas, para figurar nesta publicação.
O referido banco de dados teve como base o Mapa da Malha Munici-
pal do Brasil, na escala 1:500.000 desenvolvido pelo IBGE (Fundação
IBGE, 1996). Cada espécie arbórea descrita teve sua ocorrência asso-
ciada com a Coordenada dos Municípios.
Aspectos Ecológicos
Grupo ecológico ou sucessional
Comumente o enquadramento de uma espécie num dado grupo eco-
lógico ou sucessional é feito com base nos seguintes fatores:
• Densidade demográfica.
• Tipo de dispersão das sementes.
• Velocidade de crescimento.
• Existência ou não de dormência nas sementes.
• Se a reprodução ocorre na sombra ou a pleno sol.
Contudo, a classificação de espécies nos respectivos grupos ecológicos
tem esbarrado em dois fatores primordiais (SILVA et al., 2003). O primei-
ro é que os critérios utilizados diferem entre autores, o que leva algumas
espécies a serem classificadas em grupos distintos. O segundo refere-se ao
25
Mapa 2. Mapa do Brasil, com as Unidades da Federação.
26
fato de que dependendo de suas características genéticas, uma mesma
espécie pode responder de forma diferente, diante das condições am-
bientais ocorrentes em regiões com solos e climas distintos, uma vez que
essas respostas não se dão para um único fator do meio isoladamente.
Quanto à estratégia da dinâmica florestal adotada, a classificação das
espécies é feita com adaptação, por meio dos critérios propostos por
Budowski (1965): pioneira; secundária inicial; secundária tardia e
clímax.
Essa classificação é feita, também, por Swaine & Whitemore (1988)
e adaptada por Oliveira Filho (1994), visando a definição dos grupos
ecológicos para espécies arbóreas de florestas tropicais.
Destacam-se duas categorias: espécies pioneiras e clímax. Esta última
divide-se em espécies clímax exigentes de luz e espécies clímax tole-
rante à sombra.
As espécies pioneiras e as espécies clímax exigentes de luz surgem
após perturbações que expõem o solo à luz, sendo que estas últimas
apresentam maior longevidade.
As espécies clímax tolerantes à sombra sobrevivem na sombra até
atingirem o dossel.
Importância sociológica
São mencionadas as fases sucessionais, quando a espécie ocorre na
vegetação secundária:
• Estágios iniciais da sucessão (capoeirinha e capoeira).
• Estágios avançados da sucessão (capoeirão e floresta secundária).
Bioma Amazônia
A área aproximada desse bioma é de 4.196.943 km2. Os critérios
unificadores para sua descrição foram o clima dominante quente e
úmido, a predominância da fisionomia florestal, a continuidade geo-
gráfica, a condição periequatorial e o próprio contexto da Bacia Ama-
zônica, que possui a maior rede hidrográfica do planeta.
27
Mapa 3. Biomas do Bra-
sil, segundo IBGE (2004a).
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the seat of visible lesions. There may be pallor, œdema and swelling,
but not unfrequently there are blood extravasations varying in size
from a pin’s head upward and giving a dark red aspect to the affected
tissues. Under the microscope the affected fibres are seen to have
lost their transverse striation and to have assumed a more or less
granular or hyaline appearance. Next to the gluteal muscles, these
changes are frequently found, in the muscles of the thigh (especially
the rectus femoris, and triceps extensor cruris), and in those of the
loins (psoas, ilio-spinalis, and longissimus dorsi). Exceptionally the
pectoral muscles are involved or even the abdominal muscles. A
considerable straw-colored œdema may be found in the
intermuscular connective tissue.
The red bone marrow primarily of the large bones of the limbs
(femur, tibia, humerus, radius,) and less frequently of other bones,
even of the vertebræ, is often the seat of intense vascular congestion
and even of hemorrhage. The medullary matter is of a deep red or
black color, and there is an abnormal accumulation of red globules in
various conditions of growth and destruction (red nucleated
corpuscles, fragments of corpuscles, colored granules). Dieckerhoff
considers the condition one of osteomyelitis, but it seems to be
rather a sudden, extraordinary exaggeration of the processes of blood
metamorphosis. Neumann found that when the blood regeneration
process is very active even the yellow marrow may be changed into
red, and this throughout all the bones of the extremities.
The kidneys are usually the seat of congestion, and black spots of
infarction, when the disease has lasted for twenty-four hours. In
rapidly fatal cases they may appear normal. There may be
enlargement of the kidneys with softening and granular degeneration
of the renal epithelium in cases that survive for some days.
The bladder contains dark brown or red glairy urine of a high
density and loaded with urea, hæmoglobin, etc.
The terminal portion of the spinal cord and the lumbo-sacral
plexus, or some of its branches, are sometimes blood stained, or the
seat of an exudate or surrounded by one.
Symptoms. In the regular type of hæmoglobinæmia in the horse
the history of the attack is highly significant. The subject is in good
working condition, he may be fat, or lean, but in either case the
muscles are firm and well developed, diet has been liberal,
embracing a large proportion of albuminoids, work has been
constant up to within a day or two preceding the attack, when the
animal has been left absolutely idle in the stall without any reduction
of feed. Then finally it has been suddenly subjected to active exertion
which demands vigorous muscular movement, and above all activity
of the respiratory muscles and the heart. This exertion usually
consists in riding under the saddle or going in harness, but may
attend on casting in the stall, lounging in a ring, or in a playful run
when suddenly set at liberty.
Severe Cases. The attack comes on early in the course of such
exercise. The patient may not have gone more than one hundred
yards from the stable or he may have traveled for half an hour or an
hour, but the disease rarely shows itself after a longer period of work.
The horse which left the stable full of life and spirit, suddenly flags
and hangs on the bit, the ears or head may drop, and one or more
limbs usually the hind ones, are moved stiffly and awkwardly, or
even stagger. He knuckles over at the fetlocks, drags the toes on the
ground, flexes the joints imperfectly, the muscles appearing to be
rigid and uncontrollable, or he crouches, the joints remaining
semiflexed the animal in vain attempting to extend them. The patient
trembles violently, sweats profusely, breathes deeply and rapidly and
assumes a pinched, anxious, agonized expression of countenance.
The heart beats tumultuously, the pulse (in 84 per cent. Friedberger
and Fröhner) is accelerated to a variable degree, and the temperature
is still normal (in 80 per cent. Friedberger and Fröhner), or rarely
exceeds 101.5°F. There is often tenderness on percussion and
sometimes even on manipulation over the loins, short ribs, and the
croup, and pinching of the loins may cause wincing. The affected
muscle or muscles (lumbar, gluteal, crural) are usually firm, hard
and tender, they may be the seat of spasm or of œdema and paresis.
These parts may, however, have their sensitiveness lessened and
even punctures or electric currents may have little effect on them.
Soon the increasing muscular weakness is incompatible with the
maintenance of the standing position, the bending of the limbs and
crouching become extreme, the animal makes vain efforts to control
the muscles and extend the joints, and helplessly drops to the
ground. When down he moves his legs convulsively, but is unable to
coördinate the muscular movements and all efforts to rise are
unavailing.
The spasms and paresis may attack other parts of the body such as
the pectoral region the shoulders and even the abdomen, but the
earliest and most persistent disorder is usually in the divisions of the
lumbo-sacral plexus affecting the supra or sublumbar muscles, the
gluteals, the patellar (triceps,) the adductors and the abductors. The
caudal muscles are exceptionally involved. In a series of ten cases
Bouley noticed that the left hind limb was always the first paralyzed
(evidently a simple coincidence).
Urine may be passed freely or the bladder may be paretic so that it
must be emptied with the catheter. In severe cases the urine is of a
high density and of a dirty brownish gray, red or almost black color.
It contains no blood clots, nor blood globules, but granular
hæmoglobin, tyrosin and other waste products contribute to produce
the reddish color. In some instances there is an abundant
metalbumen which renders the liquid glairy, causing it to fall in fine
threads or films. Urea is usually present in great excess. Hippuric
and even uric acid are usually present but not in excess. When the
disease has advanced to nephritis the albuminuria is complicated by
the presence of casts of the uriniferous tubes, renal epithelium, white
and even red blood globules.
During the violence of the attack there is no disposition nor leisure
to eat, but when the more violent symptoms abate appetite is usually
manifested. There may be more or less paresis of both bowels and
bladder, so that neither fæces nor urine is passed yet in other cases
both are discharged spontaneously.
The senses are preserved, excepting in the case of the affected
muscles and the integument which covers them. There may,
however, be more or less dullness and stupor in certain cases from
poisoning of the cerebral centres by the poisons circulating in the
blood.
Mild Cases. In the mildest cases there is stiffness and lameness
in one, or less frequently in both hind limbs, coming on when put to
work after a period of idleness, and not associated with any
appreciable lesion of the limb in question. There may or may not be
hardness and swelling of the gluteal or other muscles of the quarter
or loins. This has the appearance of rigidity or spasm but may be
primarily due to œdema or exudation into the substance of the
muscle. In some instances the muscles of the breast, shoulder, or
forearm are the seat of the trouble. Muscular trembling and
perspiration may be present and if the urine is examined, it is often
found to be glairy, or charged with urea, and allied nitrogenous
products. These cases are not benefited by local applications, but
they recover (temporarily) under rest and above all under active
eliminating treatment. Under gentle and progressive exercise too
they improve and get well. They recur, however, with great readiness
under a rich nitrogenous diet and a temporary rest followed by
sudden exertion.
Between the mildest and gravest cases there are infinite gradations
of severity, one-third to one-half of the worst cases usually
terminating fatally, whereas the mildest are always amenable to
treatment.
Progress. The course of the disease depends on the severity of the
attack but also, in no small degree, on the good judgment of the
driver. Cases that develop with great suddenness, and apparently
with extreme severity may subside spontaneously if the animal is
placed in a condition of absolute rest. If, however, we can secure rest
of the muscles of progression only, while the breathing remains rapid
and labored, improvement is unlikely, as the system continues to
receive large accessions of the toxic products. When the patient is
down and unable to rise, the enforced rest may be beneficial, but too
commonly, the greater effort with which breathing is carried on in
the recumbent position, and the frequent ineffectual struggles of the
limbs prevent the requisite muscular quietude.
In some cases, and especially in the mildest, recovery may seem to
have been effected in a few hours, and in others it will be seen in
twenty-four or forty-eight hours, while in still others the paresis and
helplessness may continue for a week and yet be followed by
recovery. In these cases appetite may be retained in greater or less
degree, but the intestinal peristalsis is usually weak and imperfect,
the fæces small in quantity and dry, and the bladder atonic so that
the urine may have to be drawn off with the catheter. It usually
retains the deep red color, or improvement may be heralded by a
change to a dirty grayish hue. If, however, it shows an excess of
albumen, cylindroid casts entangling renal epithelium and white or
red globules it will indicate the access of diffuse nephritis and a
prolonged or even a fatal illness.
When control of the limbs is not restored at the end of a week, the
paretic muscles usually undergo marked and rapid wasting, which
may last for months or years. This is especially common in the case
of the patellar muscles (muscle of the fascia lata, triceps extensor
cruris) in which the atrophy may become so extreme that the skin
covering the inner and outer sides of the thigh may be brought
virtually in contact in front of the femur. This entails an almost
complete inability to sustain the body on the hind limbs. When
atrophy is less extreme, there is only a weakness, stiffness, or
swaying or staggering on the hind limbs in progression.
In fatal cases death may occur early in connection with the violent
struggles, the excited breathing, pulmonary hypostasis and
congestion, a cyanotic hue of the visible mucous membranes and a
gradual increase of stupor. Though delayed for several days, there is
a continuation of the muscular struggles, and the labored breathing;
the red or glairy character of the urine persists or is exaggerated; the
nervous irritability increases, with muscular trembling; and cyanosis,
or stupor increases until death.
The mortality is always high in the severe forms of the disease, the
deaths ranging from 20 per cent. upward.
After a first attack there is a strong predisposition to a second
under similar exciting conditions.
Diagnosis. The peculiar symptoms of this disease and the
circumstances attending its onset, are usually sufficient to
distinguish it from all others. There may be danger of confounding
certain cases with thrombosis of the posterior aorta, or of the iliac
arteries or their branches, but the absence, in such cases, of the
special history of the attack and of the morbid state of the urine, and
the absence of pulsation in the arteries distal to the thrombosis will
serve to prevent confusion. Spinal myelitis will be distinguished by
the gradual nature of the onset, by the absence of the conditions
attending on the attack of hæmoglobinæmia, and usually by the
absence of hæmoglobin, urea and other nitrogenous products in
excess in the urine.
Prevention. The hard worked or systematically exercised horse,
which is at the same time heavily fed must not be left in a state of
absolute rest in his stall for twenty-four hours. A fair amount of
exercise must be given on every day in the week, and at the same
time, the food should be restricted in ratio with the restriction of
exercise. Turning for an hour or two daily into a yard may be a
sufficient precaution. When from any cause, rest is imperative, the
diet must be materially reduced and given in part in a laxative form
(bran, roots), or a slight laxative (Glauber salts) or diuretic
(saltpeter) may be added. Cleanliness and a free ventilation of the
stable, are also of value in obviating at once auto-intoxication and
the admission of poison through the lungs. In the same way a free
allowance of drinking water is beneficial as favoring a general
elimination from the various emunctories, and a dilution of the
plethoric blood.
These precautionary measures are especially important in the case
of horses which have passed through a first attack and which are in
consequence strongly predisposed to a second. Horses fed liberally
on highly nitrogenous food (oats, beans, peas, cotton seed meal), will
also require specially careful oversight when at rest for a day or two
only.
Treatment. The first and perhaps the most important
consideration is absolute rest. If the subject is stopped instantly on
the appearance of the first symptoms, the disease may be often
aborted. It is better to avoid the exercise of walking to a stable until
such time as the severity of the attack has somewhat moderated and
then to move the subject only in the slowest and quietest possible
way. If the patient is already down and unable to rise, he may be
carried to the nearest stable in an ambulance or on a stone-boat, and
there helped to his feet and supported in slings. Though he may be
unable to continue in the standing position without the sling, yet if
he can use his limbs at all for support, and is prevented from lying
down, the breathing will be rendered so much more free and quiet,
that it may greatly lessen the transfer of the poisonous elements into
the general circulation and materially contribute to recovery. If,
however, he cannot stand on his limbs at all, but must settle in the
slings, the compression of the chest will so excite the breathing that
it will induce dyspnœa, pulmonary congestion and a rapidly fatal
result. In such a case a good bed must be provided and the patient
made as comfortable as possible in the recumbent position.
In some cases in the earliest stages a full dose of sweet spirits of
nitre or even half a pint of whiskey has seemed to assist in aborting
the disease though the urine was already of a deep red color. It
probably acted by supporting the already oppressed heart, and
securing a prompt elimination by the kidneys.
Friedberger and Fröhner strongly recommend bleeding in all cases
of dyspnœa and excited heart action, and considering the plethoric
condition of the animal it would equally commend itself in other
cases as well. This is the most prompt sedative of the nervous and
vascular excitement, and the most speedy and certain means of
removing much of the poisons accumulated in the blood, and of
diluting what remains by reason of the absorption of liquids from
every available source. This will more than counterbalance any
temporary increase of poisons drawn from the portal system to fill up
the vacuum in the systemic veins caused by the emission of blood.
When the thick tarry condition of the blood seriously hinders a
speedy abstraction both jugulars may be opened at once.
In some cases of great nervous excitement bromides may be useful
in moderating circulatory and respiratory movement, but on the
whole the advantage is greater from an immediate resort to
eliminating agents.
One of the most effective agents is water. If the patient is thirsty he
should have all he will drink, and if not, it may even be given from a
bottle, or thrown into the rectum. A still more effective resort would
be to introduce water intravenously in the form of a normal saline
solution, or even to pass it into the trachea through a small cannula
or large hypodermic needle. This serves to dilute the over dense
blood, to stimulate the kidneys and other emunctories to active
secretion, and to retain in solution the hæmoglobin, urea and other
products which would otherwise cause greater irritation. This would
be especially applicable after the blood tension had been diminished
by phlebotomy.
Warm fomentations to the loins or croup are not without their
influence. They tend to soothe the irritated parts and to solicit the
action of the kidneys more particularly. The old resort of a fresh
sheep skin, with the fleshy side in, may be used as a substitute.
Perhaps the most important indication is to secure depletion from
the overloaded portal system and liver. Where nothing better offers,
a pint or quart of castor oil, or a pound of Glauber salts, or a half
drachm of podophyllin and four drachms of aloes may be given. If
available 1 to 1½ grains of eserine, or 7 grains of barium chloride
may be given hypodermically in distilled water or that which has
been raised to the boiling point. This may be supplemented by
frequent injections of hot soap suds or even of laxative saline
solutions. If the bowels can be roused to free secretion the removal of
toxic matters from the portal blood and the delay in the progress of
similar matters through the liver will go far toward securing a
favorable result. When free purgation has been secured recovery can
usually be counted on.
The action on the bowels must be followed up by diuretics to
eliminate the offensive matters from the general system. Colchicum
has been recommended because of its action in increasing the solids
of the urine, and this may be combined with saltpeter or other
diuretic, or the latter may be used alone and repeated twice a day. If,
however, the patient can, by the free use of common salt or
otherwise, be induced to drink freely of water, the elimination
through the kidneys will be sufficiently secured.
The muscular weakness and paralysis that remain after the acute
symptoms have subsided must be met by stimulating liniments and
even blisters to the loins or affected muscles, by the internal use of
strychnia (2 grs. twice daily) until the jerking of the muscles
indicates that its physiological action has been secured, and by an
electric current daily for ten minutes at a time through the affected
nerves and muscles. Animals that have been helpless for weeks have,
in our hands, recovered under such treatment, and even cases of
several months’ standing, with the most extensive atrophy of the
triceps, and in which the animal could barely stand, have made a
satisfactory recovery.
Any remaining nephritis must be treated according to its
indications.
During recovery and in the convalescent animal the diet should be
laxative and non-stimulating. Bran mashes, turnips, beets, carrots,
green fodder, ensilage and scalded hay may be allowed. Oats, corn,
beans, peas, vetches, etc., must be carefully avoided. If the food fails
to maintain the bowels in a gently relaxed condition one, two or
more ounces of sulphate of soda may be added daily.
In the mild cases a good dose of purgative medicine succeeded by a
course of diuretics will serve a good purpose.
In all cases alike work must be resumed very gradually. At first the
animal may be walked a few hundred yards, and the pace or load and
duration of exercise may be increased day by day until full work can
be safely endured. In an animal that has once suffered the same
gradual inuring to labor should be followed, after any short period of
rest on a fairly good ration.
JAUNDICE, ICTERUS, THE YELLOWS.
Symptomatic. Causes: Mechanical obstruction of bile duct, gall-stones, hydatids,
distomata, extraneous bodies, inflammation, stricture, obliteration, absence,
ulceration, spasm, tumor, enlarged lymph glands, gastric tumors, pancreatic,
kidney or omental tumor, aneurism, fæcal accumulation, pregnancy, ovarian
tumor: Without mechanical obstruction, ptomaines and toxins, animal venoms,
mineral poisons, hepatic atrophy, fear, other emotions, cerebral concussion,
imperfect oxidation, excess of bile, hepatic inflammation, constipation and
reabsorption of bile, experimental jaundice, balance of tension in gall ducts and
blood vessels, duodenitis, compression of aorta, hæmatoidin and bilirubin,
destruction of blood globules by hydroæmia, taurocholate of soda, chloroform,
ether, freezing, heat, electricity, alkalies, nitrites. Hæmoglobin: Its solubility in
horse. Bile acids and blood pigment. Summary of causes. Gravity of icterus.
Symptoms: Coloration, yellow, orange, brown, of tissues and secretions: Tests,
staining white paper, Gmelin’s test, nitric and sulphuric acids, rainbow hues:
Pettenkofer’s test for bile acids, syrup and sulphuric acid, dark violet: Stranburg’s
test syrupy paper and sulphuric acid, dark violet; clay colored fœtid stools; gravity.
The terms icterus and jaundice are applied to a yellowness of the
mucosæ, urine, skin and tissues caused by the presence in them of
the coloring matters of bile. The condition is a symptom of many
different affections rather than a disease per se, yet the phenomenon
is so characteristic that it has been hitherto accorded a special place
and article in systematic works.
Jaundice is either associated with mechanical obstruction of the
bile duct or ducts, or it is independent of such obstruction. The
following enumeration of its causes slightly modified from
Murchison, is equally applicable to the lower animals as to man:
A. Jaundice From Mechanical Obstruction of the Bile Duct.
I. Obstruction by foreign bodies within the duct: