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Diodes

Caracterstica corrente-tenso do diodo ideal

Figure 3.1 The ideal diode: (a) diode circuit symbol; (b) iv characteristic; (c) equivalent circuit in the reverse direction; (d) equivalent circuit in the forward direction.
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Polarizao direta e reversa dos diodos

Figure 3.2 The two modes of operation of ideal diodes and the use of an external circuit to limit the forward current (a) and the reverse voltage (b).
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O retificador de meia onda

Figure 3.3 (a) Rectifier circuit. (b) Input waveform. (c) Equivalent circuit when vI 0. (d) Equivalent circuit when vI 0. (e) Output waveform.
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O retificador de meia onda

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Exerccio 3.1 Esboe a caracteristica de transferncia do retificador de meia onda

Figure E3.1
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Exerccio 3.2 Esboce a forma de onda da tenso no diodo.

Figure E3.2
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Carregador de Baterias No circuito abaixo, de um carregador de baterias de 12 V, a tenso vS uma senoide de 24 V de amplitude.
1. 2. 3. Determine a frao de um ciclo durante a qual o diodo conduz. Determine o valor de pico da corrente no diodo. Determine a tenso de pico inverso no diodo.

Figure 3.4 Circuit and waveforms for Example 3.1.


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Lcica com diodos Determine a tabela verdade para cada um dos circuitos abaixo. 0 V corresponde a nvel lgico zero e 5 V corresponde a nvel lgico 1.

Figure 3.5 Diode logic gates: (a) OR gate; (b) AND gate (in a positive-logic system).
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Exemplo 3.2.
Supondo os diodos ideais, determine os valores de I e V.

Figure 3.6 Circuits for Example 3.2.


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Exerccio 3.4 Determine os valores de I e V.

Figure E3.4
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Exerccio 3.4 Determine os valores de I e V.

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Exerccio 3.5
A figura mostra o circuito de um voltmetro C.A. Ele utiliza um medidor de bobina mvel cujo fundo de escala corresponde a uma corrente igual a 1 mA. O medidor tem uma resistncia igual a 50 . Determine o valor de R de modo que o medidor indique o fundo de escala para uma senoide de entrada com 20 V pico a pico.

Figure E3.5
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Caracterstica corrente tenso de um diodo real

Figure 3.7 The iv characteristic of a silicon junction diode.


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Caracterstica corrente tenso de um diodo real

IS corrente de saturao

i = I S (e

v nVT

1)

Figure 3.8 The diode iv relationship with some scales expanded and others compressed in order to reveal details.
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Equao do diodo
v nVT

i = I S (e

1)

IS corrente de saturao ou corrente de escala


da ordem de 10-15 A para pequenos diodos de sinais. diretamente proporcional rea da seo transversal do diodo, ou seja, diretamente proporcional capacidade de corrente do diodo. Dobra de valor a cada aumento de 5 oC na temperatura.

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Equao do diodo
v nVT

i = I S (e

1)

VT =

kT q

Tenso trmica 25 mV a 20 oC

K constante de Boltzmann = 1,38 x 10-23 joules/kelvin. T = temperatura absoluta em graus kelvins = T(oC) + 273. Q = carga do eltron = 1,60 x 10-19 C n - constante do processo de fabricao. n = 1 diodos em circuitos integrados. n = 2 diodos discretos.
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Sejam (I1 ,V1) e (I2 ,V2) dois pontos da caracterstica do diodo, na regio de polarizao direta, ento:
V1 nVT V2 nVT

I1 = I S e

I2 = IS e

I I V2 V1 = nVT ln 2 = 2,3VT log 2 I1 I1

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Variao da caracterstica corrente tenso do diodo com a temperatura

Figure 3.9 Illustrating the temperature dependence of the diode forward characteristic. At a constant current, the voltage drop decreases by approximately 2 mV for every 1C increase in temperature.
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Regio de polarizao reversa do diodo


v nVT

i = I S (e

1)

Em polarizao reversa, v negativo, e:

i I S
A corrente reversa de diodos na verdade muito maior que IS, devido a correntes parasitas que circulam externamente ao diodo. A corrente reversa total dobra de valor para cada 10 oC de aumento da temperatura.

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Exerccio 3.9 Se V igual a 1V a 20 oC, determine o valor de V a 40 oC e a 0 oC.

Figure E3.9
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Modelos para o diodo


Modelo exponencial

ID = ISe

VD nVT

V DD V D ID = R

Figure 3.10 A simple circuit used to illustrate the analysis of circuits in which the diode is forward conducting.
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Modelo exponencial

Figure 3.11 Graphical analysis of the circuit in Fig. 3.10 using the exponential diode model.
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Anlise Interativa Exemplo 3.4


Determine a corrente ID e a tenso no diodo VD para o circuito da figura com VDD = 5V e R = 1K. Assuma que o diodo tem uma corrente de 1 mA com uma tenso de 0,7 V e que sua tenso cai de 0,1 V para cada dcada de variao de corrente.

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Modelo linear por partes

VD0 = 0,65 V rD = 20

Figure 3.12 Approximating the diode forward characteristic with two straight lines: the piecewise-linear model.
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Modelo linear por partes

Figure 3.13 Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation.
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Exemplo 3.5
Determine a corrente ID e a tenso no diodo VD para o circuito da figura com VDD = 5V e R = 1K.

VD0 = 0,65 V rD = 20

Figure 3.14 The circuit of Fig. 3.10 with the diode replaced with its piecewise-linear model of Fig. 3.13.
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Modelo tenso constante

Figure 3.15 Development of the constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics. A vertical straight line (B) is used to approximate the fast-rising exponential. Observe that this simple model predicts VD to within 0.1 V over the current range of 0.1 mA to 10 mA.
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Modelo tenso constante

Figure 3.16 The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics and its equivalent-circuit representation.
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Execcio 3.12
Projete o circuito para fornecer uma tenso de sada igual a 2,4 V. Assuma que o diodo tem uma corrente de 1 mA com uma tenso de 0,7 V e que sua tenso cai de 0,1 V para cada dcada de variao de corrente.

Figure E3.12
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Modelo de pequenos sinais

ID = ISe

VD nVT

Figure 3.17 Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2. Copyright 2004 by Oxford University Press, Inc. 31

Modelo de pequenos sinais


ID = ISe
VD nVT

- corrente de polarizao do diodo i D (t ) = I S e i D (t ) = I S e


(V D + v d ) nVT VD nVT vd nVT vd nVT

v D (t ) = V D + v d (t )

i D (t ) = I D e

e x 1 + x para x 0
nVT ID

i D (t ) I D (1 +

vd ) nVT

Para:

vd << 1 nVT

rd =

resistncia incremental do diodo

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Exemplo 3.6
A fonte V+ tem um valor mdio igual a 10 V e um sinal sinal senoidal superposto de 1V de amplitude e frequncia igual a 60Hz. Calcule a tenso contnua nos terminais do diodo e a amplitude da senoide que aparece em seus terminais. O diodo apresenta uma queda de tenso de 0,7V em 1 mA e n = 2. R = 10 K.

Figure 3.18 (a) Circuit for Example 3.6. (b) Circuit for calculating the dc operating point. (c) Small-signal equivalent circuit.
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Exemplo 3.7
Trs diodos so utilizados para fornecer uma tenso constante de 2,1 V. Calcule a variao da tenso de sada causada por: 1. 2. Um variao de 10% na tenso da fonte de alimentao. Conexo de uma carga de 1K.

Assuma n = 2.

Figure 3.19 Circuit for Example 3.7.


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O Diodo Zener

Figure 3.20 Circuit symbol for a zener diode.


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Caracterstica i v do diodo

VZ = VZ 0 + rz I Z

Figure 3.21 The diode iv characteristic with the breakdown region shown in some detail.
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Modelo do diodo Zener

VZ = VZ 0 + rz I Z

Figure 3.22 Model for the zener diode.


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Exemplo 3.8 O diodo Zener da figura tem VZ = 6,8 V em IZ = 5 mA, rz = 20 e IZK = 0,2 mA. A fonte V+ igual a 10 V e pode variar de 1 V.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Determine VO sem carga e V+ nominal. Determine a variao de VO devido a uma variao de V+ de 1 V. Determine a variao de VO resultante da colocao de uma carga que solicita 1 mA. Determine o valor de VO quando RL = 2 K. Determine o valor de VO quando RL = 0,5 K.

Figure 3.23 (a) Circuit for Example 3.8. (b) The circuit with the zener diode replaced with its equivalent circuit model.
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Soluo

VZ = 6,8 V em IZ = 5 mA. rz = 20 IZK = 0,2 mA V+ =10 V 1 V.

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Circuitos Retificadores

Figure 3.24 Block diagram of a dc power supply.


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Retificador de meia onda

Figure 3.25 (a) Half-wave rectifier. (b) Equivalent circuit of the half-wave rectifier with the diode replaced with its battery-plus-resistance model. (c) Transfer characteristic of the rectifier circuit. (d) Input and output waveforms, assuming that rD <<R.
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Retificador de onda completa

Figure 3.26 Full-wave rectifier utilizing a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding: (a) circuit; (b) transfer characteristic assuming a constant-voltage-drop model for the diodes; (c) input and output waveforms.
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Retificador em Ponte

Figure 3.27 The bridge rectifier: (a) circuit; (b) input and output waveforms.
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Retificador com filtro a capacitor

Figure 3.28 (a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the effect of a filter capacitor. (b) Input and output waveforms assuming an ideal diode. Note that the circuit provides a dc voltage equal to the peak of the input sine wave. The circuit is therefore known as a peak rectifier or a peak detector.
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Retificador de meia onda com filtro a capacitor

IL =

Vp R

t vo (t ) = V p e RC T V p Vr = V p e RC

IL Vr = fC

Figure 3.29 Voltage and current waveforms in the peak rectifier circuit with CR @ T. The diode is assumed ideal.
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Retificador de meia onda com filtro a capacitor

V p cos( wt ) = V p Vr
2Vr Vp

1 cos( wt ) 1 ( wt ) 2 2
Intervalo de conduo do diodo

wt =

Qcar = iCav t = Qdesc = CVr

iCav = i Dav I L

i Dav = I L (1 +

2V p Vr

Corrente mdia no diodo

i Dmx = I L (1 + 2

2V p Vr

) Corrente mxima no diodo

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Retificador de onda completa com filtro a capacitor

Vr =

Vp 2 fCR

i Dav = I L (1 +

Vp 2Vr

i Dmx = I L (1 + 2

Vp 2Vr

Figure 3.30 Waveforms in the full-wave peak rectifier.


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Retificador de meia onda de preciso O super diodo

Figure 3.31 The superdiode precision half-wave rectifier and its almost-ideal transfer characteristic. Note that when vI > 0 and the diode conducts, the op amp supplies the load current, and the source is conveniently buffered, an added advantage. Not shown are the op-amp power supplies.
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Circuitos limitadores

Figure 3.32 General transfer characteristic for a limiter circuit.


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Passando um sinal senoidal por um circuito limitador

Figure 3.33 Applying a sine wave to a limiter can result in clipping off its two peaks.
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Circuitos limitadores suaves

Figure 3.34 Soft limiting.


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Circuitos limitadores bsicos

Figure 3.35 A variety of basic limiting circuits.

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Exerccio 3.27 Supondo os diodos ideais, descreva a caracterstica de transferncia do circuito.

Figure E3.27
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Circuito restaurador de nvel C.C.

Figure 3.36 The clamped capacitor or dc restorer with a square-wave input and no load.
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Circuito restaurador de nvel C.C. com carga resistiva

Figure 3.37 The clamped capacitor with a load resistance R.


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O dobrador de tenso

Figure 3.38 Voltage doubler: (a) circuit; (b) waveform of the voltage across D1.
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Princpio de operao dos diodos

Figure 3.39 Simplified physical structure of the junction diode. (Actual geometries are given in Appendix A.)
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Ligaes covalentes

Figure 3.40 Two-dimensional representation of the silicon crystal. The circles represent the inner core of silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the charge of the four valence electrons. Observe how the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the valence electrons. At 0 K, all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction.
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Ionizao trmica

n concentrao de eltrons p concentrao de buracos ni concentrao intrnsica

n = p = ni

Figure 3.41 At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal ionization. Each broken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction. Copyright 2004 by Oxford University Press, Inc.

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Concentrao intrnseca

B = 5,4 x 1031 para o silcio

ni2

E G BT 3e kT

EG = 1,12 eV para o silcio k = 8,62 x 10-5 eV/K

Na temperatura ambiente, ni = 1,5 x 1010 portadores/cm3

Um cristal de silcio tem 5 x 1022 tomos por cm3

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Corrente de Difuso

Dp = 12 cm2/s constante de difuso de buracos Dn = 34 cm2/s constante de difuso de eltrons

J p = qD p

dp dx

Jp densidade de corrente de buracos - A/cm2 Jn densidade de corrente de eltrons - A/cm2

dn J n = qDn dx

Figure 3.42 A bar of intrinsic silicon (a) in which the hole concentration profile shown in (b) has been created along the x-axis by some unspecified mechanism.
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Corrente de Drift + + + + + + L E -

v drift = p E J p drift = qp p E J n drift = qn n E J drift = q( n n + p p ) E

V i = q ( n n + p p ) A L

1 q ( p p + n n )

p = 480 cm2/V.s mobilidade dos buracos


n = 1350 cm2/V.s mobilidade dos eltrons
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Relao de Einstein

Dn

Dp

= VT
62

Semicondutores Dopados Material tipo n: dopado com substncias doadoras. Ex: fsforo

nn0 N D
nn0 p n0 = ni2

ni2 p n0 = ND

Figure 3.43 A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent element. Each dopant atom donates a free electron and is thus called a donor. The doped semiconductor becomes n type.
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Semicondutores Dopados Material tipo p: dopado com substncias aceitadoras. Ex: boro

p p0 N A

nn0 p n0 = ni2 ni2 nn0 = NA

Figure 3.44 A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity. Each dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and the semiconductor becomes p type.
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A juno pn em circuito aberto

ID = IS qx p AN A = qx n AN D

xn N = A xp ND
V0 = VT ln(

N AND ni2

Wdep = x n + x p =

2 S q

1 1 + N A ND

V0

Figure 3.45 (a) The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals). (b) The potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the junction.
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A juno pn polarizada reversamente

Figure 3.46 The pn junction excited by a constant-current source I in the reverse direction. To avoid breakdown, I is kept smaller than IS. Note that the depletion layer widens and the barrier voltage increases by VR volts, which appears between the terminals as a reverse voltage.
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Capacitncia de transio

Cj =

dq j dV R
V R =VQ

Figure 3.47 The charge stored on either side of the depletion layer as a function of the reverse voltage VR.
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A juno pn polarizada diretamente

Figure 3.49 The pn junction excited by a constant-current source supplying a current I in the forward direction. The depletion layer narrows and the barrier voltage decreases by V volts, which appears as an external voltage in the forward direction.
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Distribuio de portadores minoritrios

Figure 3.50 Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It is assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region; NA @ ND.
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Problema 3.2 Supondo o diodo ideal, calcule os valores de I e V.

Figure P3.2
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Problema 3.3 Supondo o diodo ideal, calcule os valores de I e V.

Figure P3.3
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Problema 3.4
Em cada circuito, vI uma senoide de 10 V de amplitude e frequncia de 1 kHz. Esboce a forma de onda de vo supondo os diodos ideais.

Figure P3.4 (Continued)


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Problema 3.4
Em cada circuito, vI uma senoide de 10 V de amplitude e frequncia de 1 kHz. Esboce a forma de onda de vo supondo os diodos ideais.

Figure P3.4 (Continued)


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Problema 3.5

Figure P3.5
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Problema 3.6

Figure P3.6
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Problema 3.9
Supondo os diodos ideais, determine as correntes e tenses indicadas.

Figure P3.9
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Problema 3.10
Assumindo os diodos ideais, utilize o teorema de Thevenin para simplificar os circuitos e ento determine os valores das tenses e correntes indicadas.

Figure P3.10
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Problema 3.16

Figure P3.16
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Problema 3.23

Figure P3.23
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Problema 3.25
Na figura, ambos diodos tem n=1, mas D1 tem 10 vezes a rea de juno de D2. Qual o valor de V ? Qual deve ser o valor de I2 para obter V = 50 mV.

Figure P3.25
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Problema 3.26
Os diodos so idnticos conduzindo 10 mA com 0,7 V e 100 mA em 0,8 V. Determine o valor de R para V = 80 mV.

Figure P3.26
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Problema 3.28

Figure P3.28
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Problema 3.54

Figure P3.54
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Problema 3.56

Figure P3.56 Copyright 2004 by Oxford University Press, Inc. 84

Problema 3.57

Figure P3.57
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Problema 3.58

Figure P3.58
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Problema 3.59

Figure P3.59
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Problema 3.63

Figure P3.63
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Problema 3.82

Figure P3.82
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Problema 3.91

Figure P3.91
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Problema 3.92

Figure P3.92
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Problema 3.93

Figure P3.93
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Problema 3.97

Figure P3.97
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Problema 3.98

Figure P3.98
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Problema 3.102

Figure P3.102
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Problema 3.103

Figure P3.103
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Problema 3.105

Figure P3.105
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Problema 3.108

Figure P3.108
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