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Amplificador Operacional:
Objetivo
Conhecer o funcionamento do Amplificador Operacional e desenvolver
experimentalmente circuito diferenciador e Controlador analologico PI.
1 Circuito integrador
O circuito integrador inversor implementa atraves de op-amp a funcao de
integracao conforme a seguir.
C
Se a entrada e uma constante positiva de tensao DC, a sada sera uma rampa linear
negativa. Nao ha fator exponencial num integrador op-amp. A equacao da rampa
sera Vo = VI t/RC, no qual t e o tempo em segundos.
2 Circuito diferenciador
O circuito da Fig. 4 mostra o op-amp conectado como diferenciador. Como o elemento
de entrada no circuito e um capacitor, este circuito experimentar entrada de corrente em
resposta a mudanca de tensao na entrada quanto mais rapido e grande a mudanca
na entrada, maior a corrente drenada na entrada, portanto maior a tensao de sada.
Como a tensao de sada refletira a taxa de mudanca da entrada, este circuito de
fato realiza a diferenciacao. A equacao geral para a sada e:
Vo
= sCR
VI
O circuito diferenciador op-amp da Fig. 3
nao e usado na pratica. A razao basica R
para isto e que rudos de alta frequencia
nao serao suprimidos neste circuito; pelo C
contrario, eles serao amplificados muito al
+
em daqueles valores desejados. Lembra- VI (T)
mos que e muito comum existir rudos de +
+
VO (T)
alta frequencia em circuitos eletricos.
PROCEDIMENTOS DE SEGURANCA
1. Desligue o modulo de alimentacao.
y (t)
N +V
]
]
+V
k2
mecanismo
1
k
Servo-
) y (t ) e (t). [Desabilite C2
) e(t). [Habilite C 2
+Vu
2
C
C
7
+
4
y (t
)V
V
(t
R
2 6
+
5
(t
r
3
TabeladeV
r
Tabelade
+V
e(t)
V
e(t)
0.1 V
V
0.1 V
V
+V
1R
(t)
(t)
(t)
(t)
u
r
r
y
y
8
V12
V+12
+
2
dist
dist
dist
dist
V r (t)
OM
V12
TS
TS
MO
1
0 P OT
R
Disturbio:
Disturbio:
R
+12V R C2
Controlador Proporcional-Integrativo
Circuito 3B Diagrama esquematico do
(PI)Integrativo-Proporcional
R3 C
Controle3BenciaExperi2.2
R5 1
+ k1 k2
P OT R1 6 +12V
+12V R4
2 7
8 2 8
R1
R0 Vr (t) 1 5 e(t) 1
+ +Vu Servo-mecanismo +VN
3 +Vy(t)
3 + +
4 4
12V R2 12V
Vr (t) 0.1
M Odist Vy (t)
Disturbio:
T Sdist e(t)
+Vu
Controladorusandomecanismo-Servodo
Tabela de Vr (t) Vy (t) e(t). [Use C1 = 10F ]
DIFERENCIADORCIRCUITO2
Vr (t) 0.1
M Odist Vy (t)
Disturbio:
T Sdist e(t)
+Vu
UTFPR-CP
2.2 Experiencia 3B Controle do Servo-mecanismo usando Controlador
Proporcional-Integrativo (PI) 2 CIRCUITO DIFERENCIADOR
Relatorio:
Apresente as tabelas das experiencias e gere os graficos correspondentes.
Questao 5 [6 pontos]: Por que a entrada em Vr(t) nao pode ser nula? (Justifique).
Dica: Problema pratico quando aplica-se entrada nula no Circuito Integrativo. No
circuito Integrativo, considerando o op-amp ideal, obtemos:
vo =
1 v
I
CRs
No domnio do tempo obtemos a expressao
1 t
VI R
+
+ VO
Input offset voltage VOS, input bias current IB, and input offset current IOS
V
DD
R
_
v
+ O
+
v
I VSS
Figure 2.1 shows an analog integrator circuit. Assuming an ideal op-amp, the closed-loop
small-signal transfer function this circuit is:
(A ) (s) = 1 . (1)
CL ideal sCR
The magnitude response of the ideal integrator is:
20log ( ) ( j) = 20log 1 = 20log(CR) [dB], (2)
A
CL ideal CR
the Bode plot of which is a straight line with a slope of 20 dB/decade. Note that the
integrator gain tends to infinity as the signal frequency approaches zero (DC). As an
exercise, derive an expression for the closed-loop transfer function ACL(s) of the circuit in
Fig. 2.1 assuming the op-amp has a finite open-loop gain Ao.
The circuit analysis leading to (1) is based on the assumption that the op-amp
operates with very large open-loop gain, i.e., at a DC operating point away from the
output saturation limits. In a practical analog integrator, however, the DC operating point
in the circuit of Fig. 2.1 would (most likely) be at one of the saturation limits. To explain
this, we need to introduce and examine another set of op-amp imperfections: the input
offset voltage VOS, the input bias current IB, and input offset current IOS.
In the circuit of Fig.2.2, with v(+) = v() = 0, the output voltage is ideally zero, vO = 0.
Due to unavoidable mismatches in the characteristics of the devices in the input
differential stage of the op-amp (to be studied in more detail later when we discuss
Available at http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen4827/lectures/op-amp-imperfections2.pdf
internal transistor -level op-amp realizations), the output voltage is not zero. Instead, a
small DC voltage would have to be applied between the op-amp input terminals to set the
output voltage to zero. The input offset voltage VOS is defined as the voltage that results
in zero output vO = 0 when applied between the (+) and () input terminals. The input
offset voltage, which is ideally zero, is considered a random quantity that can take
positive or negative values in a certain worst-case range around zero. Figure 2.2. shows a
model of an op-amp with the input offset voltage VOS.
+ +
V
OS
zero-offset
Figure 2.2: Model of an op-amp with the input offset voltage VOS.
The model simply consists of an ideal, zero-offset op-amp model, and a dc voltage source
VOS in series with one of the input terminals. Since the sign of VOS is not known in
advance, the reference polarity of the offset voltage source in series with one of the inputs
is arbitrary.
As an example, let us consider the effects of the input offset voltage on the
operation of the analog integrator of Fig. 2.1. Using the model of Fig. 2.2, the circuit
model of the integrator is shown in Fig. 2.3.
+
V
+
v
OS O
R zero-offset
+
v
I
_
v C+
Figure 2.3: Model of the circuit in Fig. 2.1 using an op-amp with input offset voltage VOS.
Suppose that vI = 0, and that the circuit is powered up at time t = 0. Let the initial value of
the capacitor voltage vC be zero, vC(0) = 0. Assuming the op-amp has very large open-
loop voltage gain, v() = VOS, and the current VOS/R charges the capacitor up (or down,
Available at http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen4827/lectures/op-amp-imperfections2.pdf
depending on the sign of VOS), until the output voltage reaches one of the saturation
limits, VOmax if VOS > 0, or VOmin if VOS < 0. Therefore, the DC operating point of the
analog integrator is at one of the saturation limits. Additional circuitry may be necessary
to ensure operation of the integrator with the small-signal closed-loop transfer function
(1), which assumes that the output voltage is away from the saturation limits.
In general, the input offset voltage is the op -amp imperfection that sets a lower
limit on dc or low-frequency signal amplitudes. For CMOS op-amps, offset voltages are
typically in the range up to 10 mV. Op-amps with bipolar junction transistors typically
have order of magnitude lower offset voltages.
Temperature variation or temperature drift of the input offset voltage is specified
as VOS/T, in V/oC. The temperature drift is usually considered a random quantity.
Input bias current IB
The input bias current IB is the dc bias current flowing into (or out of) the op-amp input
terminals. The input bias current is required for proper operation of the op-amp input
transistor stage. The sign and the nominal value of IB are known, and are usually given in
op-amp data sheets. For op-amps with bipolar junction transistors, the input bias current
is typically in the order of A. For CMOS op-amps the input bias current, which is much
smaller (in the order of pA), can usually be neglected. Figure 2.4 shows an op-amp model
with non-zero input bias currents.
+ +
IB
zero-input-bias
IB
Figure 2.4: Model of an op-amp with the input bias currents IB.
As an example, applying the model of Fig. 2.4 in the analog integrator of Fig. 2.1, we
get the circuit model in Fig. 2.5.
Available at http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen4827/lectures/op-amp-imperfections2.pdf
+ +
IB
vO
zero-input-bias
I C
B
+
v
I
_
vC +
Figure 2.5: Model of the circuit in Fig. 2.1 using an op-amp with input bias currents IB.
Suppose that vI = 0, and that the circuit is powered up at time t = 0. Let the initial value of
the capacitor voltage vC be zero, vC(0) = 0. Assuming the op-amp has very large open-
loop voltage gain, v() = 0, and the current IB charges the capacitor up (or down,
depending on the sign of IB), until the output voltage reaches one of the saturation limits,
VOmax if I B > 0, or VOmin if IB < 0. Therefore, because of the input bias currents, the DC
operating point of the analog integrator is again at one of the saturation limits, even if the
input offset voltage were equal to zero.
Since the sign and the nominal value of IB are known, it is possible to cancel out
the effect of IB by proper circuit design. For example, in the circuit of Fig. 2.5, this can be
accomplished by placing a resistor R from the (+) input to ground, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
R
+ +
IB
vO
zero-input-bias
IB
C
_
vC +
Figure 2.6: Cancellation of the input bias current effects in the analog integrator.
Assuming that vI = 0, and that the op-amp has zero input offset voltage and a very large
open- loop gain, we have v(+) = v() = R IB, and vO = 0. In general, the effect of the
input bias current can be cancelled by constructing the circuit so that the dc resistances
seen at the (+) and () terminals of the op-amp are the same.
Available at http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen4827/lectures/op-amp-imperfections2.pdf
So far, we have assumed that the input bias currents for the (+) and () terminals are the
+
same, IB = I B = IB. In practice, because of mismatches in the op-amp input transistor
stage, this is not the case, and we define the input offset current IOS and the input bias
current as
+ (3)
IOS = I B I B ,
+
I B = IB +IB . (4)
2
The input offset current IOS is typically at least an order of magnitude smaller than IB.
The offset current, just like the offset voltage, is considered a random quantity specified
in a worst-case range around zero.
Figure 2.7 shows a complete op-amp model including VOS, IB and IOS.
+
+
IB V zero-offset,
OS
IOS / 2 zero-input-bias
IB
Figure 2.7: Model of an op-amp with the input offset voltage VOS, the bias
currents IB, and the input offset current IOS.
Comments:
The input offset voltage VOS, the input bias current IB, and the input offset current
IOS are the op-amp imperfections that set a lower limit on the amplitudes of DC
or low-frequency signals that can be processed successfully in op-amp
application circuits. The op-amp model of Figure 2.7 can be used to quantify the
effects of the imperfections in an application.
Since the polarity and the nominal value of IB are known, the effects of the input
bias current can be canceled by proper circuit design: the dc resistances seen at
the (+) and () terminals of the op-amp should be the same.
The input offset voltage and the input bias current are treated as random
quantities in a range of values around zero.