2012 1 3 Ioav PDF

Descobrindo A
Expansão do Universo
Seminário do programa ensino de física - 10/04/2012

Ioav Waga
O Universo por volta de 1900 d.C.
Sistema Solar
30,000 anos luz
William Herschel
(1738-1822)
Questão chave há 100 anos!
Qual é a natureza das nebulosas espirais?
Objetos em nossa própria galáxia?

Objetos distantes semelhantes à Via Láctea?
Andrômeda
Grande Debate 1920
Heber D. Curtis x Harlow Shapley
H. D. Curtis H. Shapley
Hubble e a descoberta de
galáxias
1923 - Hubble observa
uma variável Cefeida
em Andrômeda.
Edwin Powel Hubble: 20/11/1889 - 28/9/1953

Andrômeda
galáxias
• Em 1912 Henrietta Swan
Leavitt, uma astrônoma do
“Harward College
Observatory”, observou uma
correlação entre a
luminosidade absoluta média
de estrelas do tipo cefeida e o
período de sua variação.
• Quanto maior o período maior

Henrietta Swan Leavitt a luminosidade.
galáxias
7
Vela Padrão
O fluxo de energia é proporcional à
luminosidade e inversamente proporcional
ao quadrado da distância.
0,5 metro
1,0 metro
galáxias
• Portanto, medindo o período de variação e
o fluxo de energia da cefeida, Hubble pode
determinar a nossa distância à
Andrômeda.
• Sabia-se à época que o raio da nossa
galáxia é bem menor que o valor obtido
por Hubble.
• Hoje sabemos que a distância à
Andrômeda é ~ 670 000 parsecs.
(1pc=3,26 anos-luz)
O raio da nossa galáxia é ~15 000 parsecs.
• A conclusão era inescapável: Andrômeda
é de fato uma galáxia espiral semelhante à
nossa e que está fora da Via Láctea.
Hubble no telescópio Schmidt no
monte Palomar, Califórnia
ANDRÔMEDA
Um esquema de nossa galáxia
12
13
14
Idade
Idade
• Universo – ~ 14 bilhões de anos
Idade
• Terra – 4,5 bilhões de anos (45 anos)
Idade
• Primeiras formas de vida (35 anos atrás)
Idade
• A vida nos oceanos florece abundantemente (6 anos
atrás)
Idade
atrás)
• Plantas e animais na terra (4 anos atrás)
Idade
atrás)
• Dinossauros atingem o máximo 1 ano atrás e
desaparecem há ~ 4 meses.
Idade
atrás)
• Os primeiros humanóides aparecem na última semana.
Idade
atrás)
• A nossa espécie (homo sapiens) só surge há 4 horas.
Idade
atrás)
• A agricultura foi inventada na última hora.
Idade
atrás)
• A agricultura foi inventada na última hora.
• O Brasil foi descoberto há 3 minutos.
A expansão do Universo e a lei
de Hubble
• 1901, Vesto M.
Slipher é contratado
para trabalhar no
Observatório
Lowell.
• durante mais de 10
anos ele analisou o
espectro da luz
vinda de estrelas e
nebulosas.
Percival Lowell
Espectro contínuo
Tela
Prisma
fenda
Lâmpada
Espectro contínuo
+
linhas de absorção
Fótons reemitidos
Tela
Prisma
fenda
Gás frio
Lâmpada
Espectro contínuo
Tela
Prisma
Lâmpada
elho
m
ver verde
leta
vio
linhas de emissão
Tela
Prisma
Hidrogênio aquecido
Espectro de emissão de alguns elementos conhecidos
Hidrogênio

Hidrogênio
Sódio

Hidrogênio
Sódio
Hélio

Hidrogênio
Sódio
Hélio
Neônio

Hidrogênio
Sódio
Hélio
Neônio
Mercúrio Espectro de emissão de alguns elementos conhecidos

de Hubble
• Em 1912 Slipher
percebeu que as linhas
espectrais de
Andrômeda estavam no
lugar errado, elas
estavam deslocadas
para o azul (maior
frequência).
V. M. Slipher
de Hubble
• Em 1912 Slipher
percebeu que as linhas
espectrais de
Andrômeda estavam no
lugar errado, elas
estavam deslocadas
para o azul (maior
frequência).
Como interpretar
o resultado de
V. M. Slipher Slipher?
de Hubble
• 1842 - Efeito Doppler
Christian Doppler
de Hubble

desvio
velocidade da fonte fref fonte − fobs
z = para o = =
velocidade da luz fobs
vermelho
C = 300 000 km/seg Válido para v muito menor que c
Christian Doppler
de Hubble

desvio
velocidade da fonte fref fonte − fobs
z = para o = =
velocidade da luz fobs
vermelho
C = 300 000 km/seg Válido para v muito menor que c
Portanto a interpretação do resultado

de Slipher é que Andrômeda está se
Christian Doppler aproximando de nós.
NGC 2276
http://www.astro.washington.edu/labs/hubble/
Hidrogênio α
Intensidade relativa
Comprimento de onda (Angström)

Hidrogênio α
Variação de λ

Hidrogênio α
Variação de λ

Hidrogênio β

de Hubble
• A velocidade de Andrômeda
estimada por Slipher foi de,
aproximadamente, 300km/seg.
• Em 1915 ele já tinha 40 medidas
de espectro de nebulosas com
15 velocidades estimadas,
número que sobe para 25 em
1917.
• Contrariamente ao que fora
observado em Andrômeda a
grande maioria apresentava
velocidades positivas. Por
exemplo, das 41 nebulosas com
desvio para o vermelho medido
em 1923, apenas 5 (incluindo
V. M. Slipher Andrômeda) aproximavam-se de
nós.
O Modelo de Einstein e a Constante
Cosmológica
1917 - primeiro modelo
cosmológico relativista -
modelo de Einstein.
Λ = 4π G ρ = RU−2
V = 2π 2 RU3
1/2
1⎛π⎞
M = 2π ρ R = ⎜ ⎟
2 3
4 ⎝ ρ⎠
U
Cosmológica
modelo de Einstein.
Λ = 4π G ρ = RU−2
V = 2π 2 RU3
1/2
1⎛π⎞
M = 2π ρ R = ⎜ ⎟
2 3
4 ⎝ ρ⎠
U
Cosmológica
modelo de Einstein.
Λ = 4π G ρ = RU−2
características principais:
V = 2π 2 RU3 homogêneo, isotrópico, curvatura
1/2
positiva (finito) e estático.
1⎛π⎞
M = 2π ρ R = ⎜ ⎟
2 3
4 ⎝ ρ⎠
U
Cosmológica
modelo de Einstein.
Λ = 4π G ρ = RU−2
1/2
1⎛π⎞
M = 2π ρ R = ⎜ ⎟
2 3
4 ⎝ ρ⎠
U
constante cosmológica (Λ)
Cosmológica
modelo de Einstein.
Λ = 4π G ρ = RU−2
1/2
1⎛π⎞
M = 2π ρ R = ⎜ ⎟
2 3
4 ⎝ ρ⎠
U
1
Rµν − gµν R = −8π GTµν
2
Cosmológica
modelo de Einstein.
Λ = 4π G ρ = RU−2
1/2
1⎛π⎞
M = 2π ρ R = ⎜ ⎟
2 3
4 ⎝ ρ⎠
U
Cosmológica
modelo de Einstein.
Λ = 4π G ρ = RU−2
1/2
1⎛π⎞
M = 2π ρ R = ⎜ ⎟
2 3
4 ⎝ ρ⎠
U
O Modelo de Einstein e a Constante Cosmológica
Einstein considerava que seu
modelo possuía as seguintes
virtudes:
Era possível construir um modelo

consistente para o universo usando a
relatividade geral.
Relaciona Λ com a densidade média

da matéria; Estava em acordo com o
princípio de Mach que relaciona a
inércia (propriedade local) com a
distribuição de matéria no cosmos.
Einstein acreditava ser esse o único

modelo admitido pela relatividade
geral que era estático e que estava em
acordo com o princípio de Mach.
Modelo de de Sitter
Em 1917 de Sitter obtêm
novas soluções da
Relatividade Geral com
constante cosmológica,
estáticas, mas vazias !
“The lines in the spectra of

very distant stars or nebulae
must therefore be
systematically displaced
towards the red, giving rise to
a spurious positive radial
velocity.”
Willem de Sitter
A Relação Velocidade x Distância
• 1922 - Carl Wilhelm Wirtz
busca uma relação entre
distância e velocidade de
nebulosas.
• diâmetro aparente de nebulosas como
indicador de distância.
• velocidade cresce com a distância.
as
Carl W. Wirtz
6)
n, the
656 km/s
nebulosas.
as
Carl W. Wirtz Estudos semelhante foram
realizados por Gustaf Stromberg
6) e Knut Lundmark
vxd
Wirtz v=!-" logDm
Lundmark v=k+lr+mr2
n, the
656 km/s Gustaf Stromberg
Stromberg nada conclusivo
Knut Lundmark
1
nebulosas.
as
Carl W. Wirtz Estudos semelhante foram
realizados por Gustaf Stromberg
6) e Knut Lundmark
vxd
Wirtz v=!-" logDm
Lundmark v=k+lr+mr2
n, the
656 km/s Gustaf Stromberg
Stromberg nada conclusivo
Knut Lundmark
Descobrindo A
Expansão do Universo
1922 - Aleksander Aleksandrovich
Friedmann obtem soluções
expansionistas, sem Λ e com
matéria das equações de Einstein.
O modelo de Friedmann é considerado

hoje o modelo padrão da cosmologia.
Características principais:
homogeneidade espacial, isotropia (em
relação a qualquer ponto) e expansão.
A. A. Friedmann
time-indep endent curvature, where the curvature radius is connected to derive from the Einstein world equations a world with constant negative
Descobrindo A Expansão do
the total mass of matter present in space; de Sitter obtains a spherical
world in which not only space, but in a certain sense also the world can
be addressed as a world of constant curvature. 4 In doing so both Einstein
and de Sitter make certain presupp ositions about the matter tensor, which
curvature of space. As in the cited work, so here too we have to distinguish
two cases, namely 1. the case of a stationary world, whose curvature
is constant in Relativity
Gener al time, and and 2. the caseVol.
Gravitation, of 31,
a non-statio nary world, whose
No. 12, 1999
Universo
curvature is spatially constant, but varies, however, in the course of time.
correspond to thealincoherence
Gener Relativity andofGravitation,
matter and its31,
Vol. relativ e rest,
No. 12, 1999 i.e. the ve-
There is an essential diŒerence between the stationary worlds of constant
locity of matter will be supp osed to be suçciently small in comparison to
negative and those of constant positive spatial curvature. The worlds of
the fundamental velocity 5 — the velocity of light.
Gener al Relativity and Gravitation, Vol. 31, No. 12, 1999 stationary negative
Gener curvature
al Relativity namely do
and Gravitation, Vol.not
31,allow for1999
No. 12, positive density of
Gener al Relativity and Gravitation, Vol. 31, No. 12, 1999
≤ O riginally published in Zeitschrift fur È
È Physik 10 , 377-386 (1922), with the title ª Uber
die Kr umm
È ung des R aumes ” . Both pap ers are printed with the kind permission of
≤ È Physik 21 , 326-332 (1924), with the title ªUber
O riginally published in Zeitschrift fur
Springer-V erlag Gmb H & Co. KG, the cu rren t co pyrigh t owner, and tran slated by G. die M oglichkeit
È einer W elt mit konstan ter negativ er K r umm
È ung des R aumes ” . See
F. R . Ellis and H . van Elst, Dep artmen t of M athemat ics and A pplied M athematics, footnote to the ®rst pap er’s title.
1
Un iversit y of Cap e Town, R ondebo sch 7701, South A frica. Some obvious typ os have ZS . f. Ph ys. 10 , 377, 1922, Heft 6.
b een corrected in this translation.
1
Einstein, Cosmological co nsiderations relating to the general theory of relativit y, On the Possibility of2001
a World with Constan t
2 On the Curv ature of Space≤
Sitzungsberichte Berl. Akad. 1917.
de Sitter, O n Einstein’s theory of gravitat ion and its astro nomical consequences. Negativ e Curv ature of Space ≤0 0 01 - 770 1/9 9 /1 200 - 20 0 1$1 6 .0 0 /0 c 1 99 9 P len um Pu blishing C orp oratio n
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M onthly Notices of the R. Astronom. Soc. 1916-1917 .

3 On the Curv ature of Space≤
By ªspace ” we understand here a space that is describ ed by a man ifold of three
On the Curv ature of Space≤
*
4
dimensions; By A. Friedman
the ªworld in Petersburg
” corresp onds to a man ifold of four dimensions. On
By A.the Possibility
Friedmann of a*World
in Petersburg with Constan t
Klein, O n the integral form of the con servation theorems and the theory of the
With one G®gure. Received
* on 29. June 1922 Negativ e Curv ature of Space ≤
spatially
By A. closed world.
Friedman otting.
È
in PetersburgNachr. 1918. Received on 7. January 1924
5
See this name by Edd ington given in his book: Espace, Temps et Gravitation , 2
WithBy A.®gure. on 29. June* 1922 2000 Friedman
P artie, S.one
10. PFriedman in Petersburg
Received
aris 1921.
*
With§1. one 1. ®gure. In Received
their well-known 1991
on 29. June works 1922 on general cosmologic al questions, By A. Friedmann in Petersburg
Einstein and 1 0 0 01de
- 770Sitter 2
arrive
1/9 9 /1 200 - 19 9 1$1 6 .0 0at
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n the Ein-
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JanuaryªOn 1924 conside
1 obtains 2the so-called cylindrical world, in which space 3
has then
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those solutionsradius
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which lead to world
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Einstein and de Sitter arrive at two possible typ es of the universe; Ein-
value to0;that
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Einstein
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1total mass of 2matter present in space; de Sitter obtains a spherical
endent andcurvature,
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two possible radius typ is
has constant,
es connected
of the universe; to
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Ein-
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discussed all such possible cases. The possibility of deriving from the wo
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stein world
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both matter tensor,curvature. which that possess a positive constant curvature as a common feature; we
the total mass of matter present in space; de Sitter obtains a spherical it may be of interest to investigate whether one can obtain from the sa
correspond to the incoherence of matter and itstensor, relativ e rest, i.e. the ve-
and de Sitter
world in make
whichcertain not only presupp space,ositions but about
in a certain the matter sense also which the world can 7. world Our knowledge
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be addressed as a world of constant
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the velocity small of in comparison to
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and de Sitter make 5certain presupp ositions about the matter tensor, which causalityinproblem and the
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the fundamental velocity — the velocity of light.
1992 Friedman for.
these questions.
it may beItof isinterest
left to to remark that the ªcosmologica
investigate ” quantit
lobtain y l the s
correspond to the incoherence of matter and its relativ e rest, i.e. the ve- In the present Notice it will bewhethershown that one canit actually from
is possible
≤
locity of matter will be supp osed to be suçciently small in comparison to
Originally published in Zeitschrift f ur
È Physik 10 , 377-386 (1922), with the remains
title ª È
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world ed
equations in aour formulae,
world of since
constant it is
negativan extra
e constant
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the the
®nitene
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The goal of
published this in Notice
Zeitschrift is, f®rstly
5ur
È Physik ” the 10derivation
, 377-386 of
(1922), the cylindrical
with the titlethe È kind permission ofderive from the Einstein world equations a world with constant nega
and
ª Uber
the fundamental velocity — the velocity of light.
die Kr umm
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F. ≤R . Ellis Unandiversit
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it willBut be these
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Originally resp ect
published to three
in coordinates
Zeitschrift furÈ that
Physik
Un iversit y of Cap e Town, R ondebo sch 7701, South A frica. Some obvious typ os haveserve
10 , as
377-386 space coordinates,
(1922), with title ª Uber in time, and 2. the case of a non-statio nary world, wh
b een corrected in this translation. serve as an illustration
derive from the for our
Einstein calculation
world s.
equations a world with constant nega
and die
dependent
b een 1Kr umm
corrected È in onung
Einstein,
des Raumes
theCosmological
this time,
translation. i.e. ”on . Both
the fourth pap ers — arethe printed
time with the kindthis
coordinate; permission of
co nsiderations relating to the general theory of relativit y, curvature is spatially constant, but varies, however, in the course of ti
1
Springer-V
Einstein, erlag
Cosmological
new typ e is,Sitzungsberichte Gmb
as concerning its co H & Co.
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relating
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general t owner,
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relativit y, by G. curvature of space. As in the cited work, so here too we have to disting
Berl. Akad. 1917. There is an essential diŒerence between the stationary worlds of const
Sitzungsberichte
F. R.2 Ellis Berl.and HAkad. . van 1917.Elst, Dep artmen t of M athemat ics and Applied M athematics, two cases, namely 1. the case of a stationary world, whose curva
2cylindrical world. de Sitter, On Einstein’s theory of gravitation and its consequences.
astro nomical consequences. negative and those of constant positive spatial curvature. The world
de Sitter, O n Einstein’s theory of gravitat ion and its
Un iversit y of Cap e Town, Rondebo sch 7701, South Africa. Some obvious typ os have astro nomical
2. The
M onthly Massumption
Noticesonthly
of theNotices
R. s Astronom.
onofwhichthe R.Soc. we base
Astronom. ourSoc.
1916-1917 .consideratio
1916-1917 ns . divide into is constant in time, and 2. the case Petrograd, of a non-statio 29. May
nary 1922.
world, w
b een
3two classes. 3 corrected in
”
this translation. stationary negative curvature namely do not allow for positive density
1
By ªspace
Einstein,
By
” To ªspace
we the
understand
Cosmological
we
®rst class understand
here belong
co
here
a spaceassumptions
nsiderations
a space
that relating
is describ that
which is describ
bycoincide
ed the
to ageneral
man ifolded by
with a
of Ein-
theory threeman ifold
of relativit y,
of three curvature is spatially constant, but varies, however, in the course of t
Curvatura espacial positiva
Curvatura espacial nula
Curvatura espacial negativa

Cosmological Constants
Papers in modern cosmology
Edited by Jeremy Bernstein and Gerald Feinberg
“denem eine physikalische Bedeutung kaum zuzuschreiben sein dürfte”
Georges Henri-Joseph-Edouard Lemaître
Lemaître (1894 - 1966) Charleroi, Bélgica.
1911 - entra para o curso de engenharia (Universidade Católica de

Louvain).

Louvain).
1914 - alista-se e torna-se oficial de artilharia do exército belga.

Louvain).
1919 - retorna à Universidade de Louvain para estudar Física e

Matemática. Gradua-se como Doutor em Ciências em 1920.
1911 - entra para o curso de Engeharia (Universidade Católica de
Louvain).
1920 inicia estudos em teologia e em 1923 é ordenado padre.
Lemaître
Louvain).
1923 - 1924 - vai para Cambridge estudar sob orientação de

Eddington.
Lemaître
Louvain).

Eddington.
1924 segue para os EUA, trabalhando e estudando no Harvard
College Observatory em Massachusetts e no MIT.
Lemaître
Louvain).

Eddington.
1925 aceita uma posição na Universidade de Louvain (part-time
lecturer).
Lemaître
Louvain).

Eddington.
lecturer).
1926 conclui a sua tese de doutorado (MIT) (The gravitational field
in a fluid sphere of uniform invariant density according to the theory of
relativity) sob a orientação de Shapley.
Lemaître
Louvain).

Eddington.
lecturer).
O trabalho de pesquisa realizado em Harvard, MIT e na
Universidade de Louvain é publicado no Annales de la Société
Scientifique de Bruxelles em 1927. Esse é um trabalho chave!
Lemaître
Louvain).

Eddington.
lecturer).
Em 1927 participa do SOLVAY CONFERENCE onde encontra com
Einstein e lhe fala sobre o seu trabalho. Einstein informa-o sobre o
Lemaître trabalho de Friedmann de 1922.
Louvain).

Eddington.
lecturer).
Em 1927 participa do SOLVAY CONFERENCE onde encontra com
Einstein e lhe fala sobre o seu trabalho. Einstein informa-o sobre o
Lemaître trabalho de Friedmann de 1922.
“Your calculation are correct, but your grasp of physics is
abominable”.
Descobrindo A Expansão do Universo
Lemaître & Einstein

Questão Central - Como modelos cosmológicos
poderiam explicar o desvio para o vermelho
observado em nebulosas?
Annales de la société scientifique
de Bruxelles, xlvii (1927), 49-56
1927ASSB...47...49L

1927ASSB...47...49L
1927ASSB...47...49L

1927ASSB...47...49L
1927ASSB...47...49L

DISCOVERY OF THE EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE
Sidney van den Bergh

arXiv:1108.0709
Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics, National Research
Council of Canada, 5071 West Saanich Road, Victoria, British Columbia, V9E 2E7, Canada,
sidney.vandenbergh@nrc.ca
The myth that the expansion of the Universe was discovered by Hubble was first propagated
by Humason (1931). The true nature of this discovery turns out to have been both more complex
and more interesting.
On the last observing night before his retirement Milton Humason was tasked with teaching me
how to use the Palomar 48-inch Schmidt telescope. By midnight Milt went to bed, apparently
believing that his pupil was doing well enough to be left alone to use "The Big S". During the
preceding three decades Humason had spent many very long nights collecting the spectra of faint
galaxies that would enable Hubble & Humason (1931), using the new radial velocity
observations by Humason (1931), to establish the linear expansion of the Universe beyond
reasonable doubt. This work strengthened and confirmed the first hints of this expansion
collected by Wirtz (1924), Lundmark (1925), Lemaître (1927), Hubble (1929) and de Sitter
(1930). In his memoirs, collected during an oral history project
[http:///www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4686.html] undertaken by the American Institute of Physics
(Shapiro 1965), Milt Humason is quoted as follows: "The velocity-distance relationship started
after one of the IAU meetings, I think it was in Holland. [The Third IAU meeting took place in
Leiden in the Netherlands, September 5 - 13 1928.] And Dr. Hubble came home rather excited
about the fact that two or three scientists over there, astronomers, had suggested that the fainter
the nebulae were the more distant they were and the larger the red shifts would be. And he talked
to me and asked me if I would try and check that out." Among the astronomers present at the
IAU meeting, who might have been interested in a possible velocity-distance relationship for
galaxies, were de Sitter, Hubble, Lemaître, Lundmark, Shapley and Smart.
The first tentative steps toward the discovery of the velocity-distance relationship were made
by Wirtz (1922, 1924) and Lundmark (1925). In his 1922 paper Wirtz concludes that either the
nearest or the most massive galaxies have the lowest redshifts. From the more extensive
observational material available in 1924 Wirtz found that the radial velocities of spiral nebulae
grow quite significantly with increasing distance. He was aware of the fact that the General
Theory of Relativity predicted that redshifts should increase with increasing distance. Wirtz
published his results in the Astronomische Nachrichten, the leading German astronomy journal.
[Hubble received an A in his high-school German course (Christianson 1995, p. 31 and he also
read German text books on corporate law Chistianson 1995, p. 79- so he would have had no
trouble reading Wirtz's papers.] In 1925 Lundmark wrote "A rather definite correlation is shown
literary product; 2) An interview must be read with the awareness that different people's
memories DISCOVERY
about an event will EXPANSION
OF THE
often differ, OF
and that
THEmany
memories can change with time for many
UNIVERSE
preceding three decades Humason had spent very long nights collecting the spectra of faint
reasons including subsequent experiences, interactions with others, and one's feelings
galaxies
about that would
an event. enable Hubble & Humason (1931), using
Sidney Disclaimer:
arXiv:1108.0709
the new radial velocity
van den Bergh This transcript was scanned from a typescript, introducing
observations
occasional by Humason
spelling
Dominion (1931),
errors. The
Astrophysical to typescript
original establish
Observatory, Herzberg the linear expansion National
is available.
Institute of Astrophysics, of the Universe
Research beyond
reasonable doubt.
Council This work
of Canada, strengthened
5071 West and
Saanich Road, confirmed
Victoria, Britishthe first hints
Columbia, of this
V9E 2E7, expansion
Canada,
collected
Access formsidney.vandenbergh@nrc.ca
by| Wirtz
Project(1924), Lundmark
support | How(1925),
to cite Lemaître
| Print this (1927),
pageHubble (1929) and de Sitter
(1930). In Thehis myth
memoirs, collected during an oral history project
that the expansion of the Universe was discovered by Hubble was first propagated
[http:///www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4686.html] undertaken
by Humason (1931). The true nature of this discovery turns out toby thebeen
have American
both moreInstitute
complex of Physics
(Shapiroand 1965), Milt Humason is quoted as follows: "The velocity-distance relationship started
more interesting.
after onewith
Interview of the
Dr. IAU
Milton meetings,
Humason I think it was in Holland. [The Third IAU meeting took place in
On the last observing night before his retirement Milton Humason was tasked with teaching me
ByLeiden in the Netherlands, September 5 - 13 1928.] And Dr. Hubble came home rather excited
Bert Shapiro
how to use the Palomar 48-inch Schmidt telescope. By midnight Milt went to bed, apparently
about
Circa thebelieving
1965 fact that
thattwo or three
his pupil scientists
was doing overtothere,
well enough be leftastronomers,
alone to use "ThehadBigsuggested
S". During thethat the fainter
the nebulae werethree
preceding the decades
more distant
Humasonthey weremany
had spent and very
the long
larger thecollecting
nights red shifts
the would be.
spectra of And he talked
faint
galaxies that would enable Hubble & Humason (1931), using the new radial
to me and asked me if I would try and check that out." Among the astronomers present at the velocity
observations by Humason (1931), to establish the linear expansion of the Universe beyond
IAU meeting, who might have been interested in a possible velocity-distance relationship for
reasonable doubt. This work strengthened and confirmed the first hints of this expansion
Transcript
galaxies,collected
were de by Sitter, Hubble,
Wirtz (1924), Lemaître,
Lundmark (1925),Lundmark, Shapley
Lemaître (1927), Hubbleand Smart.
(1929) and de Sitter
[http:///www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4686.html]
The first tentative steps toward the discovery undertaken by the American Institute
of the velocity-distance of Physics were made
relationship
Humason:
by Wirtz(Shapiro
(1922,1965),
1924) Milt Humason is quoted as follows: "The velocity-distance relationship started
and Lundmark (1925). In his 1922 paper Wirtz concludes that either the
Thenearest or the most
velocity-distance
Leiden massive galaxies
relationship
in the Netherlands, started
September have- 13the
5 after lowest
one
1928.] of
And redshifts.
the
Dr.IAU From
meetings,
Hubble came the moreexcited
I think
home rather itextensive
was held
in observational
Holland.about
Andthe material
Dr.factHubbleavailable
that two came in
or threehome1924 Wirtz
rather
scientists over found
excited
there, that the
about
astronomers,the
hadradial
fact velocities
that
suggested two or of
that the threespiral nebulae
fainter
scientists the nebulae
grow quite
over there,were
significantly the with
more distant
astronomers, hadthey
increasing were and the
distance.
suggested larger
thatHethe the
was red
aware
fainter shifts
ofwould
the the be.
factAnd
nebulae he the
that
were talked
theGeneral
more
to me and asked me if I would try and check that out." Among the astronomers present at the
Theory of
distant theyIAU
Relativity
were and who
meeting,
predicted
the might
largerhave that
thebeen redshifts
redinterested should
shifts would increase
be. And
in a possible
with increasing
he talked torelationship
velocity-distance
distance.
me and asked for
Wirtz
me if
published his
I would trygalaxies, results
and check in
were that the Astronomische
out.Hubble,
de Sitter, Well, Lemaître,
our trouble Nachrichten,
was that
Lundmark, the
ourand
Shapley leading
spectrographs
Smart. German astronomy
were extremely journal.
[Hubble
slow -- thatreceived
was backan inAabout
in his1927
high-school
or ‘28. We German course
had prisms in(Christianson
the spectrographs 1995,then
p. 31andandthey
he also
read
were German
made The first
of, a text tentative
lot ofbooks steps
them,on toward
ofcorporate the
yellow glass discovery
lawwhich of the
Chistianson velocity-distance
didn’t let1995,
the p. relationship
79- so he light
ultra-violet were
would made
have had
through andno
by Wirtz (1922, 1924) and Lundmark (1925). In his 1922 paper Wirtz concludes that either the
thetrouble reading
exposures wereWirtz's papers.]
extremely long.InI agreed
1925 Lundmark
to try onewrote "A rather
exposure, and asdefinite correlation
I remember
nearest or the most massive galaxies have the lowest redshifts. From the more extensive
is shown
it lasted
between
over a periodapparent
of about
observational dimensions
two nights.
material and inradial
I exposed
available velocity,
platein
the found
1924 Wirtz the
for
that two
the sense thatand
nights
radial theof
velocities smaller
got andthepresumably
onenebulae
spiral of
more distant spirals
grow quite have thewith
significantly higher space-velocity."
increasing distance. He wasIn interpreting
aware thistheresult
of the fact that Lundmark opines
General
Theory of Relativity predicted that redshifts should increase with increasing
that the observed Doppler shifts might be " ... effects consequent to the general theory of distance. Wirtz
published his results in the Astronomische Nachrichten, the leading German astronomy journal.
1 of 12 relativity." Lundmark's 1925 paper was published in the prestigious Monthly Notices of the
[Hubble received an A in his high-school German course (Christianson 1995, p. 31 and he also 8/25/11 4:47 PM
Royal Astronomical
read German text Society,
books onand was law
corporate cited in Hubble
Chistianson (1929).
1995, p. 79- soHowever,
he would have Hubble
had nodismisses this
important paper
trouble withWirtz's
reading the comment
papers.] Inthat
1925Lundmark's
Lundmark wrote favored
"A rathersolution "offeredislittle
definite correlation advantage."
shown
literary product; 2) An interview must be read with the awareness that different people's
memories DISCOVERY
about an event will EXPANSION
OF THE
often differ, OF
and that
THEmany
memories can change with time for many
UNIVERSE
preceding three decades Humason had spent very long nights collecting the spectra of faint
reasons including subsequent experiences, interactions with others, and one's feelings
galaxies
about that would
an event. enable Hubble & Humason (1931), using
Sidney Disclaimer:
arXiv:1108.0709
the new radial velocity
van den Bergh This transcript was scanned from a typescript, introducing
observations
occasional by Humason
spelling
Dominion (1931),
errors. The
Astrophysical to typescript
original establish
Observatory, Herzberg the linear expansion National
is available.
Institute of Astrophysics, of the Universe
Research beyond
reasonable doubt.
Council This work
of Canada, strengthened
5071 West Saanich Road, and confirmed
Victoria, Britishthe first hints
Columbia, of this
V9E 2E7, expansion
Canada,
collected
Access formsidney.vandenbergh@nrc.ca
by| Wirtz (1924),
Project supportLundmark
| How(1925),to cite Lemaître
| Print this (1927),
pageHubble (1929) and de Sitter
(1930). In The his myth
memoirs, collected during an oral history project
that the expansion of the Universe was discovered by Hubble was first propagated
[http:///www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4686.html]
by Humason (1931). The true nature of this discovery undertaken
turns out toby thebeen
have American
both moreInstitute
complex of Physics
(Shapiro 1965),
and
DISCOVERY Milt Humason
more interesting.
OF THE EXPANSIONis quoted OF THEas follows:
UNIVERSE "The velocity-distance relationship started
after onewith
Interview of the IAU
Dr.last
Milton meetings,
Humason I think it was in Holland. [The Third IAU meeting took place in
Sidney Onvan
theden observing night before his retirement Milton Humason was tasked with teaching me
Bergh
ByLeiden in
BertDominionthe Netherlands,
Shapiro
how to Astrophysical
use the Palomar
September
48-inch Schmidt
Observatory,
5 -telescope.
Herzberg
13 1928.] And Dr.Milt
By midnight
Institute
Hubble
of Astrophysics, went
cameapparently
home rather excited
to bed, Research
National
about
Circa thebelieving
1965
Council
fact that
thattwo
of Canada,
or three
his5071
pupil scientists
was doing
West Saanichwell over
enough
Road, tothere,
Victoria,be leftastronomers,
aloneColumbia,
British to use "The had suggested
Big2E7,
V9E S". During
Canada,
that the fainter
the
the nebulae werethree
preceding the decades
more distant
sidney.vandenbergh@nrc.ca Humasonthey weremany
had spent and verythe long
larger thecollecting
nights red shifts the would be.
spectra of And he talked
faint
galaxies that would enable Hubble & Humason (1931), using the new
to me and asked me if I would try and check that out." Among the astronomers present at the radial velocity
observations
The myth thatby Humason
the (1931),
expansion of thetointerested
establish was
Universe the linear expansion
discovered of the Universe
was firstbeyond
byvelocity-distance
Hubble propagated
IAU meeting, who
reasonable
might
doubt. This
have
work
been
strengthened and
in a
confirmed
possible
the first hints of this expansion
relationship for
Transcript
by Humason
galaxies,collected
were de (1931).
by Sitter,
The true
Hubble,
Wirtz (1924),
and more interesting.
nature of this
Lemaître,
Lundmark
discovery
(1925),Lundmark,
turns
Lemaître (1927),
out to have
Shapley been
Hubbleand
both
(1929)
more
Smart. complex
and de Sitter
The first [http:///www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4686.html]
tentative stepsnight toward undertaken by the American Institute of Physics
Humason: On the last observing beforethe hisdiscovery
retirement Milton of theHumasonvelocity-distance
was tasked with relationship
teaching mewere made
(Shapiro 1965), Milt Humason is quoted as follows: "The velocity-distance relationship started
by Wirtz
how to (1922,
use the1924) Palomar and Lundmark
48-inch Schmidt(1925).telescope.InByhis 1922 paper
midnight
Milt went Wirtz
to bed, concludes
apparentlythat either the
nearestbelieving
or thethatmost his relationship
pupil
massive was doing
galaxies well have
enough toone
be left alone to use "The BigtheS". During the
The velocity-distance
Leiden in the Netherlands, started
September - 13the
5 after lowest
1928.] of
And theredshifts.
Dr. IAU
Hubble From
meetings,
came home moreexcited
I think
rather itextensive
was held
preceding three decades Humason had spent many very long nights collecting the spectra of faint
in observational
Holland.about Andthe material
Dr.factHubble
that twoavailable
came in
or threehome 1924
scientists Wirtz
rather
over found
excited
there, that the
about
astronomers, the
hadradial
fact velocities
that
suggested two or of
that the three spiral nebulae
fainter
galaxies that
the nebulae would enable Hubble & Humason (1931), using the new radial velocity
growobservations
scientists quite
over there,were
significantly the with
astronomers,more distant
increasing
had they were and the
distance.
suggested thatlarger
Hethe wasthe red shifts
aware
fainter the would
of the be.
nebulae factAnd
that
werehe the
talked
theGeneral
more
to me andby Humason
asked me if I(1931),
would try to and
establish
checkthe thatlinear
out." expansion
Among theofastronomers
the Universe beyond
present at the
Theory of
distant reasonable
they IAU
Relativity
were and who
doubt.
meeting, thepredicted
larger
Thismightwork have that
thebeen
strengthened redshifts
redinterested
shifts should
would
and confirmed be.increase
in a possibletheAndfirst he with
talked
hints increasing
of thisto
velocity-distance
distance.
me and asked
expansion
relationship for
Wirtz
me if
published
collectedhis
I would trygalaxies,
and check
byresults
were that
Wirtz in the
(1924),
de Sitter, Astronomische
out.Hubble,
Well, Lemaître,
Lundmark our trouble
(1925), Nachrichten,
was that
Lemaître
Lundmark, (1927),
Shapley the
ourand leading
spectrographs
Hubble (1929)
Smart. German
and astronomy
were extremely
de Sitter journal.
[Hubble
slow (1930).
-- thatreceivedIn
was backanhis memoirs,
inAabout collected
in his1927 during
high-school
or ‘28. We an oral
German history
had prisms project
course in(Christianson
the spectrographs 1995,then p. 31 andandthey
he also
read [http:///www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4686.html]
German The first tentative steps toward the discovery undertaken
of the by the American
velocity-distance Institute
relationship of
werePhysics
made
were made of, a textlot ofbooksthem,on ofcorporate
yellow glass lawwhichChistianson
didn’t let 1995, the p. 79- so he light
ultra-violet would have had
through andno
(Shapiro
by Wirtz1965),(1922,Milt1924)
Humason is quoted (1925).
and Lundmark as follows:In his"The
1922velocity-distance
paper Wirtz concludes relationship started
that either the
thetrouble
exposuresreading
after onewere
nearest
Wirtz's
oforthe extremely
theIAU
most
papers.]
meetings, long. InI agreed
I think
massive galaxies
1925 wasLundmark
ithave toHolland.
in
the
try one[The wrote
exposure,
lowest redshifts. Third"A
From
rather
IAU and asdefinite
themeeting took correlation
I remember
more extensive place init lastedis shown
between
over a period
Leidenapparent
ofthe
in about
observational dimensions
two nights.
Netherlands,
material and
September
available inradial
I exposed velocity,
the found
5 - 13Wirtz
1924 1928.] Andin
plate forthe
Dr.
that two sense
Hubble
the nights
radial thatand
came theof
home
velocities smaller
got and
oneexcited
rather
spiral of
nebulaethepresumably
moreabout
distant
grow spirals
the quite
fact that haveor the
two
significantly three higher
with scientists
increasingspace-velocity."
over there, He
distance. wasIn
astronomers, interpreting
aware had
of thesuggested thisthat
fact that result
the Lundmark opines
the fainter
General
that the observed Doppler shifts might be " ... effects consequent to the general talked
the nebulae
Theory were
of the
Relativity more distant
predicted they
that were
redshiftsand the
should larger
increasethe red
with shifts would
increasing be. And
distance. he
Wirtz theory of
to mepublished
and asked his me
results in the Astronomische
if I would try and check that Nachrichten,
out." Among the leading German astronomy
the astronomers present atjournal.
the
1 of 12 relativity." Lundmark's 1925 paper was published in the prestigious Monthly Notices of the
also 8/25/11 4:47 PM
IAU[Hubble
meeting, received
who might an Ahave
in hisbeen
high-school
interested German course (Christianson
in a possible velocity-distance 1995,relationship
p. 31 and hefor
Royalgalaxies,
Astronomical
read German
were detext Society,
books
Sitter, onand
Hubble, was law
corporate
Lemaître, cited in Hubble
Chistianson
Lundmark, 1995,
Shapley (1929).
p.and soHowever,
79-Smart. he would have Hubble
had nodismisses this
important paper
trouble withWirtz's
reading the comment
papers.] Inthat 1925Lundmark's
Lundmark wrote favored
"A rathersolution "offeredislittle
definite correlation shown advantage."
A Lei de hubble
172 ASTRONOMY: E. HUBBLE PRoc. N. A.
corrected for solar motion. The result, 745 km./sec. for a distance
1.4 X 106 parsecs, falls between the two previous solutions and indicat
a value for K of 530 as against the proposed value, 500 km./sec.
Secondly, the scatter of the individual nebulae can be examined b
assuming the relation between distances and velocities as previous
determined. Distances can then be calculated from the velocities co
rected for solar motion, and absolute magnitudes can be derived from t
apparent magnitudes. The results are given in table 2 and may
From the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
compared with the distribution of1929
Volume 15 : March 15, absolute
: Number 3 magnitudes among the nebul
in table 1, whose distances are derived from other criteria. N. G. C. 4
0.
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
S0OKM
DISTANCE
0 IDPARSEC S 2 ,10 PARSECS
FIGURE 1
Hubble Velocity-Distance Relation among Extra-Galactic Nebulae.
Radial velocities, corrected for solar motion, are plotted against
distances estimated from involved stars and mean luminosities of
A Lei de hubble
v = cz = H d
determined. Distances can then be calculated 0from the velocities co
0.
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
S0OKM
DISTANCE
FIGURE 1
A Lei de hubble
v = cz = H d
determined. Distances can then be calculated 0from the velocities co
0.
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
S0OKM
DISTANCE
FIGURE 1
Encyclopaedias. But why? Does not Figure 1 attest otherwise, to the Lemaître constant and to the
Lemaître velocity-distance relation? assuming the relation between distances and velocities as previou
determined. Distances can then be calculated from the velocities c
rected for solar motion, and absolute magnitudes can be derived from
compared with the distribution of absolute magnitudes among the nebu
in table 1, whose distances are derived from other criteria. N. G. C.
0.
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
S0OKM
DISTANCE
FIGURE 1
Velocity-Distance Relation among Extra-Galactic Nebulae.
Figure 1 Left hand panel: The data used by Lemaître (1927) to yield the first in
nebulae empirical
a cluster.value
Theofblack
the rate
discsofand
expansion
full lineofrepresent
the the
Universe (625 km/s/Mpc), now known as the ‘Hubble’ constant. Thesolutiondiagram is reconstructed
solar by
using ofH. Duerbeck and is
individually; used
Figure 1 Left hand panel: The data used by Lemaître (1927) to yield theforfirst motion value
empirical thethe
nebulae
rate of expansion of thethe
circles
and broken
with permission. Right hand panel: The radial velocity –distance diagram publishedline represent
by Hubble,thetwo yearscombining
solution the nebulae
later, in 1929, with into
Universe (625 km/s/Mpc), now known as the ‘Hubble’ constant. The diagram
groups; the cross is reconstructed
represents the by H. Duerbeck
mean and is used to
velocity corresponding
a “best slope” of 530 km/s/Mpc.
with permission. Right hand panel: The radial velocity –distance
thediagram published
mean distance of 22bynebulae
Hubble,whose
two years later,could
distances in 1929, with
not be esti-
a “best slope” of 530 km/s/Mpc. mated individually.
can be excluded, since the observed

“A Hubble velocity
Eclipse: is so
Lemaître andsmall that the pecul
Censorship”
motion must be large in comparison the distance effect. The obj
with; arXiv/1106.3928
David L. Block
is not necessarily an exception, however, since a distance can be assig
for which the peculiar motion and the absolute magnitude are both wit
Carta de Lemaître à Eddington
(03/1930) após o encontro da
Royal Astronomical Society
em 01/1930.
Arthur Stanley Eddington

A Lei de hubble
1931ApJ....74...43H
1931ApJ....74...43H
v = c z = H0 d
Milton Humason e Hubble

[Hubble (1929)]
1931ApJ....74...43H
1931ApJ....74...43H
A lei de Hubble.
Algumas Questões
•Para onde estão as galáxias se
expandindo?
• Onde está o centro do “Big-Bang”?
• O sistema solar está em expansão?
•A velocidade com que o Universo
está se expandindo aumenta, diminui
ou permanece constante?
• Irá o Universo expandir-se para
sempre ou haverá no futuro uma
contração?
Para onde estão as galáxias se
expandindo?
Não
Sim
Onde está o centro do “Big-Bang”?
Não há um centro do Universo. Todos os

pontos são centrais.
A expansão do Universo
Separação entre galáxias
Acelerado
Desacelerado sem recolapso
Desacelerado com recolapso
tempo Kolb
Bibliografia
• Cosmology: The Science of the Universe - E. R.
Harrisson
• A Expansão do Universo - Revista Brasileira de Ensino
de Física vol 22, p.163 (2000) - I. Waga.
• Cem Anos de Descobertas em Cosmologia e Novos
Desafios para o Século XXI – Revista Brasileira de
Ensino de Física –vol 27, n.1, p.157, março de 2005 – I.
Waga.
• Edwin Hubble the discoverer of the Big Bang - A. S.
Sharov & I. D. Novikov
• Equívocos sobre o Big Bang – Scientific American Brasil
– número 35, abril de 2005 , p.32, Charles H. Lineweaver
e Tamara M. Davis.
http://www.if.ufrj.br/~ioav/nota.html

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• 1842 - Efeito Doppler

• 1842 - Efeito Doppler

C = 300 000 km/seg Válido para v muito menor que c

• 1842 - Efeito Doppler

C = 300 000 km/seg Válido para v muito menor que c

Portanto a interpretação do resultado

Comprimento de onda (Angström)

Comprimento de onda (Angström)

Comprimento de onda (Angström)

Comprimento de onda (Angström)

Era possível construir um modelo

Relaciona Λ com a densidade média

Einstein acreditava ser esse o único

“The lines in the spectra of

O modelo de Friedmann é considerado

M onthly Notices of the R. Astronom. Soc. 1916-1917 .

Curvatura espacial nula

Curvatura espacial negativa

1911 - entra para o curso de engenharia (Universidade Católica de

1911 - entra para o curso de engenharia (Universidade Católica de

1911 - entra para o curso de engenharia (Universidade Católica de

1919 - retorna à Universidade de Louvain para estudar Física e

1923 - 1924 - vai para Cambridge estudar sob orientação de

1923 - 1924 - vai para Cambridge estudar sob orientação de

1923 - 1924 - vai para Cambridge estudar sob orientação de

1923 - 1924 - vai para Cambridge estudar sob orientação de

1923 - 1924 - vai para Cambridge estudar sob orientação de

1923 - 1924 - vai para Cambridge estudar sob orientação de

1923 - 1924 - vai para Cambridge estudar sob orientação de

Lemaître & Einstein

Lemaître & Einstein

Lemaître & Einstein

Lemaître & Einstein

Sidney van den Bergh

can be excluded, since the observed

Arthur Stanley Eddington

Milton Humason e Hubble

Não há um centro do Universo. Todos os

Desacelerado sem recolapso

Desacelerado com recolapso

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