1917 SteamEngines Llewelly

A T H OR O U GH AND PR A C T I C AL P R E SE N T A T I O N OF M O DE R N
ST EA M E N GI N E P R AC T I CE
LLE W E LL Y N V I iU DY M E . . .
P R E
OF SSO R E ER I M ENTA EN I NEER I N
OF XP L G R E N I ER I T G, PU DU U V S Y
A M ER I AN I ET
C SOC ME
Y AN I A EN I NEER
OF CH C L G S
I LL US T RA T E D
A M E R IC A N T E C H N IC A L S O CI E T Y
C H IC AG O
19 17
CO P Y RI T
GH , 1912 , 19 17, BY
A M E R IC A N T E C H N IC A L S O CI E T Y
CO P Y R I TE I N REAT R I TA N
GH D G B I
A LLR I T RE ER E
GH S S V D
" GI A
.4 8 1 8 9 6
I NT R O DU CT IO N
d e rn s t e m n gi n w h th r it b th m j tic C rli s
H E mo a e e, e e e e a es o s ,
w hich so s il n tly p r t th m iv l ctric g n r t or in e o e a es e ass e e e e e a s
o n ofe u m u nicip l p o w r pl an t s
o r th g i n t l c m tiv e w hich a e ,
or e a o o o
p u ll t h L i mit d t ixty m il n h u r c m m nd u u n ti n t d
s e e a s es a o ,
o a s o r s e
a d mir tio n An d yet v ry m v m n t is so fr an d p rf ct in

a . e e o e e ee e e
its a cti n e v ry f u n cti n is p rf r m d w ith u ch pr ci i n

o ,
e nd o e o e s e s o a
regu l rity th t w l
a i g ht f th w n d rfu l th r tic l n d
,
a e ose s o e o e eo e a a
m ch n ic l d v l o p m en t w hich w
e a a n c ry to bri ng th e
e e as e es s a es
m chi n t th ir pr nt t t o f p rf cti n ‘
a es o e e se s a e e e o .
ill T he g e n i
th r f the st m en g i n e w as so
us of Watt , the fa e o ea ,
g r e t th t hi b ic c on c pti n f t hi
a a hi g r eat e t i n v en ti o n an d
s as e o o s, s s ,
o f m ny f his m i n r di c v e ri e in c nn cti n w ith it r e m i n

a o o s o s o e o ,
a
a l m st s h g v e th em t th w o rld v r c n t u ry go Y t h
o a e a o e o e a e a . e e
wa f
s so in dv n c f th m ch n ic l d e v e l p m n t f hi ti m
ar a a e o e e a a o e o s e
th t hi w rk m n c u ld n t b u ild ngi n cyli n d r n r r t ru

a s o e o o e e e s ea e e
th n th r i ghth f n i n ch M d e rn b u ild e r d em an d n
a ee - e s o a . o s a
a cc u r cy f t l t tw th ou san dth f an i n ch al m t tw o-
—
a o a ea s s o os o
h u ndred ti m e gr t r s ea e .
(11 B u t ch n ic al kill i n t the n ly p artic u l ar in w hich pr g

me a s s o o o
r h d b n m d M n y m i n r b u t i m p rt n t i m pr v em e n t
e ss a ee a e . a o o a o s
h v b e n broug ht b u t by c r fu l s t u dy f th th eo ry f h t
a e e a o a a e o e o ea
e n g i n es T h r d u cti o n f n r m u h e t l
. e t he u s
e f s up r o e o o s a oss e s , e o e
h t d t eam the id e of c om p oun d xp n i n th d v l p m n t

ea e s , a e a s o , e e e o e
o f th St ph n n Wal c h e t an d th e r v a lv e g rs
e e e so l l h ve
,
s a r ,
o ea
—
a a
c ntrib u t d t ow rd m k i n g th t m engin w e ll n i gh me ch an
o e a s a e s ea e -
i l l y p e rf e ct n d s e ffici e n t s i i nh er n tly p oss ibl e

ca a a a s e .
(11 T t ry has b een d ev l p d f rom hist ric l s t ndp i nt an d

he s o e o e a o a a o
alon g u n d th eo r e tic a l
so n d pr ctic l li n I t w ill b f un d a a a es . e o
a b s rbi ngly i n t re ti ng an d i n tru ctiv to th t ti on ry n g i n r

o e s s e e s a a e ee
as w e ll s to ll w ho w i h t f ll w m o d rn t m n g i n e ri ng
a a s o o o e s ea e e
d v l p m en t T he m at e ri l i p rtic u l rly d pt d t h o m
e e o . a s a a a a e o e
stu dy I f th erefor e the b ook h u ld pr v f r l v al ue in

.
, , s o o e o ea
sti m ul ti n g th i n t eres t f the tr i n d m n th l y m n in th

a e o a e a or e a a e
t ch n ic l d e v l op m n t s of th d y the p u bli h r w ill f l th t

e a e e e a , s e s ee a
its m i i o n has b n a cc m pli h d

ss ee o s e .
CO NT ENT S
Dev el op m e n t .
E rly hi t ry
a s o
P rt o f t e m
a s s a e ng ne i
T yp e s an d c o n s ru c t o n t i
C l ific ti o n
as s a .
Si m pl e n g i n e es .
C mp u n d n g i n
o o e es
S t ati n ry e n g i n
o a es
F rma tr cti n or a o eng ne i

L c m tiv
o o ng i no e e es
W at r p u m p s
e .
Sp e ci l n g i n
a e es
M ar in e
T yp es of en g nes i
En g in d t il e e a s .
Pr p u l i n
o s o .
P r p ll r
o e e s
M n g m n t of m ri n n g in
a a e e a e e es
M e chanical an d th e m al e ffi c i n cy r e
L o w th r m l ffi ci e n cy i n h r n t
e a e e e
L oss s in pr ctic l n g i n
e a a e e .
R di ti n
a a o .
C o li n g by xp n ion
o e a s
St eam c o n d n ti n n d e e v p o r ti e sa o a r -
a a on .
Exh u t w t a s as e
Cl r n cea a e
F ricti o n .
ion e conomi e s
O p e r at
M ultipl xp n i n e e a s o
J c k ti n g
a e
C nd n r
o e se s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
An al ys i s of e ng in e m e c h an i s m s
Cran k eff rt o
F ly w h ee l .
G o v ern r o .
C ONT E NT S
Er e cti on of s t am e ng ine s e
O p er ti on of s t e am n g i n s
a e e .
En g in s p c i fic ti n s
e e a o
S l cti n g n
e e a
Dr w in g u p
a
C n tr ct
o a
Engin e
Re l tiv c t f p r ti
a e os o o e a on
A n n u l p r ti n xp n
a o e a o e e se s
Eng in e t e s t s
I m p rt n c o a e of t t
es s
A S . . M E . . c d o e
ST EA M EN GINES
PA R T I
DEV ELO P M ENT
Earl y H is to ry . I n the study

this subject it is thought adv is
of ,
able to review the historical development of the steam engine in

order that a broad conception o f it may be obtained It is not .
intended however to give the history o f the steam engine in detail

, ,
although it is an exceedingly interesting one w hich w ould be bene ,
fic ial for any o n e to revie w but rather a short r é sum é in order

—
,
that the student may b e prepared for a detailed study o f the mod
ern engine .
The first steam engines o f w hich we have any kno w ledge w ere
described by H ero of Alexandria in a book w ritten tw o centuries
,
before Christ Some o f them w ere very ingenious but the best
.
,
w ere little more than toys From the time o f H ero until the sev
.
e ntee nth century little progress w a s made At this time ho w ever .

, ,
there w as a great need o f steam pumps to remove w ater from the

coal mines In 1 6 1 5 Salomon de Caus de v ised an arrangement
.
, ,
consisting o f a vessel having a pipe leading from the bo t tom w hich

w as filled w ith w ater and then closed When heat w as applied to .
the vessel steam w as f ormed w hich f orced the w ater through the
, ,
discharge pipe .
Later an engine w as constructed in the f orm o f a steam tur

bine but w as unsuccessful and the attention o f the in ventors w as
, ,
again t urned to pumps .
S avery Finally Thomas Savery completed in 1 693 the first

.
, ,
commercially successful steam engine I t w as very w asteful of .
steam as compared w ith engines of today but as being the first ,
engine to accomplish its task it w as successful Savery s engine

, .
’
,
,
Fig 1 consisted o f tw o oval v essels A I and A 2 placed side by side

.
, ,
and in communication w ith a boiler B 1 The lo w er part s Were con .

2 ST E A M E N GIN ES
n e c te db y tub es fitted w ith suitable valves I n operation steam .

,
from the boiler w as admitted say to the vessel A 2 and the air driven
, ,
o ut . The steam w as then condensed and a vacuum formed by let

ting w ater play over the surface of the vessel When valve 1 w as .
opened this vacuum drew w ater from below until the vessel w as
,
full The valve w a s then closed and steam again ad mitted by

.
val v e 2 so that on Opening valve 3 the w ater w as forced out through

,
the delivery pipe 0 The tw o vessels w orked alternately When

. .
o n e w a s filling w ith w ater the other w as open to the boiler and ‘

,
w a s being emptied Of the t w o boilers B 1 and B 2 o n e supplied

.
,
steam to the oval vessels and the other w a s used fo r feeding w ater
F ig . 1 . E ar ly F rm
o of S t e am P m pi
u ng E i
n g ne
to the first boiler In operation the second b oiler was filled while
.
cold and after a fire had been lighted under it acted like the vess el
, ,
used by Salomon de Caus and forced a supply o f feed water into

the main boiler .
A modification of Savery s engine the pulsometer shown in ’

—
Fig 2 is still found in use in places w here an ordinary pump could

.
—
not be used and w here extreme simplicity is o f especial advantage .
Its val v es w ork automatically and it requires very little attention .
A serious di fficulty w ith Savery s engine resulted from the fact ’
that the height to w hich water could be raised was limited by the
p ressure w hich the vessels could sustain Where the mine was .
ST EA M E NG IN ES 3
very deep it w as necessary to use several engines each one raising ,
the w ater a part of the w hole distance The consumption of coal .
in proportion to the w ork done w a s about twenty times as great as

that of a good modern steam engine This w as largely though not .
,
entirely due to the immense amount o f steam w hich w as w asted by

,
condensation when it came in contact w ith the w ater in the oval

vessels .
N ewcomen The next great step in the development o f the

.
steam engine w as taken by N e w comen w ho in 1 705 succeeded in ,
developing a scheme w hich prevented contact bet w een the stea m

and the w ater to be pumped thus ,
diminishing the amount of steam

uselessly condensed H e intro
duc e d the first successful engine
w hich used a piston w orking in a
cylinder .
I n New c omen s engine Fig 3’

,
.
,
there w as a horizontal lever A ,
pivoted at the center carrying at ,
one end a long heavy rod B w hich

connected w ith a pump in the mine
belo w A piston C w a s hung from
.
the other end o f the lever and

w orked up and do w n in a vertical
cylinder D w hich w as open at the
,
top Steam acting on the lo w er

P l mtr
.
F ig 2 u so e e
side o f the piston at atmospheric

. .
pressure w as admitted from the boiler to the cylinder and as the

, ,
pressure w as the same both above and belo w the piston the weight ,
o f the hea v y pump rod raised the piston A jet o f w ater in the c ylin
.
der condensed the steam and formed a vacuum This le ft the piston .
w ith atmospheric pressure above and very little pressure belo w
(a partial vacuum ) so it w a s forced do w n and the pump rod

‘
raised again Steam could again be admitted to the cylinder ; the

.
pump rod w ould fall ; and the process could be continued indefinitely .
In the days o f N e w comen it w as very difficult to obtain good

w orkmanship Fo r this reason it was often necessary to make
.
the cylinders o f w ood I n order to prevent steam from blo w ing

.
4 ST E A M E NG IN E S
around the piston o r air from leaking in where steam w as b eing

,
condensed it w as customary to keep a jet of w ater playing on the

,
top of the piston .
On e great trouble w ith all o f these engines w as that some one

was required to open and close the cocks and boys were generally ,
employed to do this w ork One boy in order to get time to play

.
, ,
rigged a cat ch at the end of a cord w hich w as attached to the beam
F ig . 3 . N e wcom en
’
s S t
ea m P m pi
u ng E i
ng ne
overhead and this did the w ork fo r him By making the valves in
, .
this way automatic made it possible to dispense w ith the services

,
o f the boy and at the same time greatly increase the speed o f the
engine.
The N e w comen engine was improved slightly from time to

time by different inventors and w as very extensively used until the
time o f Watt a very few o f them still being in existence today
,
.
While this engine w as a success and a great improvement over its

ST EA M E NG IN ES 5
predecessors it w as still very large w asteful and heavy in c o m

, , ,
parison w ith the w ork done and the cylinders w hen made o f iron
, , ,
w ere simply cast and not bored thus lea v ing a rough inner w all, , .
Wa tt I n the year 1 763 a small model of a Ne w comen engine

.
,
w a s taken to the shop of an instrument maker in Glasgo w Scot ,
land to be repaired This instrument maker w hose name w as

,
.
,
J ames Watt had been studying steam engines f or some time and
,
he became very interested in this model H e w as a man o f great .
genius and be f ore he died his inventions had made the stea mengine
,
so perfect a machine that there has been but one really great improve
ment in it since his time namely compounding , ,
.
H e found that to obtain the best results it w a s necessary firs t

‘
, ,
that the temperature o f the cylinder should al w ays be the same as

that of the steam w hich entered it ; and s econd that w hen steam was ,
condensed it should be cooled to as low a temperature as possible .
All improvements in steam engine e fficiency have been in the dir e c

-
tion o f a more complete realization o f these tw o conditi ons

’
In order to keep the cylinder nearly as hot as the entering

steam Watt no longer injected w ater into the cylinder to condense
,
the steam but used a separate vessel or condenser H e made his

, .
piston tight by using greater care in construction so that it w as ,
unnecessary to have a w ater seal at the top H e then covered the .
to p o f the cyl inder to prevent air f rom cooling the piston When ’
this w as done he could use steam above the piston as w ell as below ;
this made the engine double acting .
Al so in the e ff ort to keep the cylinder as hot as the entering

,
steam he enclosed the cylinder in a larger one and filled the space
,
betw een with steam This w as not o ften done ho w ever and only
.
, ,
o f late years has the steam jacket been o f much advantage Also .
,
the steam w as used expansively that is the admission o f steam w a s

, ,
stopped w hen the piston had made a part of its stroke ; the rest
o f the stroke w a s completed by the expansion o f the steam already
admitted This plan is n o w used in all engines that are built f or

.
economy .
Other inventions made by Watt on his steam engines were : a

p a ra l l e l mo tion that is
, an arrangement
,
o f links connecting the end
o f the piston ro d w ith the beam o f the engine in such a w a y as to
g u ide the rod almost exactly in a straight line ; a thr ottl e va l ve for
6 ST EA M E N GIN ES
regulating the rate o f admission o f steam ; and a cen trifuga l govern or ,
w hich controlled the speed o f the engine shaft by acting on the

’
throttle val ve Watt s engine as finally developed is show n in
.
Fig 4
. .
Watt saw that by using high pressur e steam he could get more -
work f rom it ; but as it w as no t possible to make a very reliable
F ig . 4 . Fi na l F rm
o of Wa tt ’
s .
S te a m P m pi
u ng E gin ne
b oiler he never used a pressure o f more than seven pounds per square
inch above the atmosphere About the year 1 800 comparatively
.
,
high pressures came more into use and the non condensing en gine -
was introduced In Watt s engine and all those preceding hi s a

.
’
, ,
vacuum w as produced in front o f the piston by condensing the steam ,
and either the atmosphere or steam at atmospheric pressure pushed

S T E A M E NG IN ES 7
it through the stroke In the non condensing engine using high

.
-
,
pressure steam the space in front of the piston could be opened to

,
the atmosphere at exhaust and although the atmospheric pre s ,
sure resisted its motion the pressure of the steam behind the piston
,
w as still greater than that of the air These engines w ere much .
more simple than the condensing engines as they required no con ,
denser .
Comp ou nd Pu mp ing Engin e About this time w hat w o uld .
n o w be called a compound engine w a s introduced by H ornblo w er
and later by Woolf It had two cylinders of different size steam

.
,
being admitted into the smaller one and then passing o v er into the
larger Only a little expansion occurred in the small cylinder and
.
much more in the larger o n e .
About the year 1 8 14 Wool f introduced a compound pumping

,
engine in the mines of Cornw all but a simpler engine w a s later intro ,
du ce d and Woolf s engine fell into disuse This later engine became
’
.
kno w n as the Corn is h p u mp ing engine and w as famous for many

years because of its economy It w as the first engine ever built .
that could compare at all w ith modern engines in the matter o f

steam consumption It consisted of a single cylinder placed under
.
o ne end o f a beam f rom the other end of w hich hung a heavy rod
w hich ope rated a pump at the f oot o f the shaft Steam w a s admitted .
to the upper side of the piston for a short portion of the stro k e and
allow ed to expand for the remainder of the stro k e This forced .
the piston dow n lifted the heavy pump r o d and filled the pumps
, ,
with w ater T hen communication w as established betw een the

.
upper and under side of the piston exhaust occurred and the heavy , ,
pump rod fell li fting the piston and forcing the w ater out o f the
,
pumps S team w as cut o ff at about three tenths stroke and the

.
-
,
pump made about seven o r eight complete strokes per minute w ith a
short pause at the end o f each stroke to allo w the valves to close
easily and the pumps to fill w ith w ater These engines needed great .
care and w ere in charge o f competent men to whom prizes w ere fr e ,
quently given f or the best e fficiency w hich doubtless accounts for ,
their wond e rful per f ormance .
Parts of S te am Eng ine Leaving the historical side o f the steam

.
engine let us n o w turn to the modern simple steam engine and study
briefly its construction Figs 5 6 and 7 w ill serve to illustrate a
. .
, , ,
8 ST E A M E NGIN ES
horizontal center crank engine all the more important parts being
, ,
numbered The function o f the various parts w ill be considered in

.
detail later in the w or k .
R eferring to the numbers in Figs 5 6 and 7 the names of the .

, ,
.
,
parts are sho w n in the follo w ing list

LI ST or P AR T S
Sub - b ase 1 F ly w h l s 3 4 ee
F r m 2
a e V lv pi t n 3 5
a e s o s
M in b ri n g c p s 3
a ea a V lv ri n g 3 6
a e s
M i n b ri n g li n r s 4
a ea e V lv e c g 3 7
a a es
Cylin d e r 5 V lv e r o d 3 8
a
Cyli n d e r h d 6 ea en d ) 3 9 V lv e o d n u t s (v alv e
a r
F l a seh dc v r7 ea o e n d ) 40 V alve d n u t s ( m
ro ra e
V lv e ch t h d (h e d n d ) 8
a es ea a e V lv
a d g l n d 41
e ro a
V lv ch t h d (cr n k n d ) 9 R m b 42
a e es ea a e a ox
Pi t n 1 0
s o R m b o c p 43 a x a s
P i t n ri n g s 1 1
s o R m 44 a
Pi t n d 1 2
s o ro R m p in n d n u t 45 a a
Pi t n
s o d n u t (pi t n n d ) 1 3
ro R m p in s o p 46 e a ca
P i t n o d n u t (cr o h d
s o r d ) 1 4 E cc n tric ss d c nn cti o n 47
ea en e ro o e
P i t n o d t u ffin g b
s o r 15s E cc n tric o d 48ox e r
Pi t on od gl n d 1 6
s r a E cc n tric d n u t ( m n d ) 49 e ro ra e
Cr o h e a d 1 7
ss E cc n tric o d n ut ( cc n tric n d ) e r e e e 50
Cr h d h 1 8
o ss ea s oesE cc n tric 5 1 e
Cr o h d a dj u ti n g cr w 1 9
ss ea E cc n tric tr p 5 2
s s e s e s a
Cr s h e a d p in 2 0
o s D h pl t 5 3 as a e
Cro h e a d p in n u t 2 1
ss D h pl t g l an d 5 4 as a e
Cr p in w a h r 22
o ss s D rs 5 5
e oo
C onn e cti n g d 2 3 ro D o r h n dl e 5 6 o a
C nn cti n g d b lt 2 4
o e ro D r cl m p 5 7
o s oo a s
C nn cti n g od str p 2 5
o e r O il h o o d 5 8
a
Cr o h d p in b 26
ss ea O il h d h n dl e 5 9
ox
‘
oo a s
Cr h e ad p in b o w d ge 27
o ss E cc e n tric o il b
x e t 60 oa
A dj u ti n g cr w 28
s s e V lv s d il b o t 6 1 a e ro o a
Cr an k p in b 29 ox O il v e n t 6 2
Cr n k p in b w d g e 3 0
a ox S h e e t s t e l l agg i n g 6 3
e e
A dj u ti n g cr w 3 1
s s e D r i n c ck 6 4
s a o s
Cr n k di k 3 2
a s s S h ft g v rn r 6 5 a o e o
Cr n k sh f t 3 3
a a
Su b - B as e . The sub base

is made o f a good grade o f -
1 , Fig 6 , .
cast iron and is usually heavily ribbed and made high enough to
permit the wheels to clear the floor The sub base is often omitted .
-
with engines o f large size the engine being set upon a concrete base ,
.
F rame The f rame 2 is the element or link by w hich all of the

.
parts o f the engine are held in place so that their relative position s ,
small sizes the cylinder is frequently cast integral w ith the frame .
Provision is al w ays made for adj ustment s necessitated by any w ea r

o f the frame or parts attached thereto It is to be noted in Fig 6 . .
,
that the frame cran k case 2 is connected w ith the crosshead guide .
I t frequently has an opening into the sub base thus permitting the -
,
o il from the crosshead guides and crank to drain into a suitable

, ,
receptacle in the sub base from w hich it is taken by means of a drain

-
,
cock conveniently located in the side or end The crank is enclos e d .
F ig . 7 . E nd E l v tie a on and P rt S ti
a ec o n of Mo dr
e n i pl E gi
S m e n ne
by a neat pressed Sheet steel cover w hich prevents the oil f rom
, , ,
being thro w n outw ard on the floor w hile the engine is running
"
.
uite frequently the crank cover is made of cast iron .
Cylinders The cylinder 5 Fig 5 is one of the most impor

.
, .
,
tant parts o f the steam engine for it is in the cylinder that the ,
energy o f the steam is converted into useful work The cylinder is .
circular in section and is attached to the bed by means o f a number

o f bolts
. It is made o f close grain gray cast iron The casting , .
o f the cylinder should be done with great care so as to insure a ,
casting free o f blo w holes or other defects

-
.
Fig 8 illustrates the cylinder in cross s ection as w ell as show

.
ing its contained parts The cylinder barrel 1 is accurately bored

.
ST E A M E NG IN ES 11
and fitted I nside o f this b arrel the piston 2 is driven back and
.
forth by the steam w hich is admitted alternately o n o ne side and

,
then on the other through the ports 1 3 The piston is connected .
to the crosshead through the piston rod 3 The continuous mo v e .
ment back and forth of the piston causes the surface of the cylinder
to w ear a w ay and in order to avoid a shoulder being formed by this
,
action the cylinder is counterbored at each end by an amount

,
depending o n the size o f the cylinder The diameter o f the counter .
F ig . 8 . Cy li d r
n e and V al ve M ec h i
an s m S h ow n in S e c t . on
bore 22 is usually about one quarter of an inch larger than that o f

-
the cylinder proper depending how ever some w hat on the size of
, , ,
the cylinder The stroke of the piston is such that the piston moves
.
beyond the w earing surf ace at each stroke thus preventing any ,
shoulder being developed in the cylinder w all .
The cylinder is attached to the bed of the engine by a number

o f bolts w hich are placed through the flanges 23 o f the cylinder and
cylinder head Each end o f the cylinder is closed by means o f the

.
cylinder heads 6 and 9 The cylinder head 6 is called the back c ylin
.
der head (head end ) and 9 is kno w n as the front cylinder head
,
(crank end ) I n the illustration the front head 9 is a portion of the

.
frame but in many constructions it is entirely independent of the

,
frame In order to have a steam tight cylinder it is necessary to

.
-
,
make a tight j oint bet w een the cylinder heads and the cylinder bar
rel This is accomplished by turning both sur f aces true then grind
.
,
ing the j oints w ith emery and oil After the joints are well ground .
the heads are tightly dra w n up against the cylinder by means o f

bolts suitably arranged A Sheet iron jacket 1 9 is put around the
.
cylinder leaving an air space 21 bet ween the cylinder w alls and the
,
jacket This air space retards the cooling o ff of the cylinder w alls
.
,
hence initial condensation o f the steam in the cylinder is reduced .
In some types o f engine s such as locomotives this air space is fill ed ,
W i th some non conductin g materi al such as as b esto s

-
Thi s is also .
Fig . 9 . Pi ts on , S h wio ng Pi t
s on R i ng s fo r M a k i ng S t
e a m -T ig ht J i t o n s
sometimes done b y b uilde rs o f stationary engines I t should be .
noted also that the back cylinder head has an air space for the same
,
reason as that given for the space surrounding the cylinder Since .
condensation does take place in the cylinder some mean s must b e ,
provided f or removing the w ater hence the drain cocks 6 4 Fig 6 , , .

,
are placed in the bottom o f the cylinder at each end The pipe .
connection for these cocks enters the cylinder in the counterbore

near the w earing surface Any w ater that may be in the cylinder
.
w ill be f orced out through these cocks i f they are open Care must .
be taken that the cylinder is f reed o f w ater for if it is n o t on account , ,
o f the incompressibility o f water the cylinder head may be forced ,
o ff or other damage result therefrom Some cylinde rs are provided .

S T EA M E NG IN ES 13
w ith relie f valves which automatically open w hen the pressure from
,
any cause reaches a certain amount thus preventing the bursting ,
o f a cylinder head .
Pis ton Rings B etw een the piston 2 Fig 8 and the w alls o f
.
, .
,
the cylinder there must be a steam tight joint so that the live steam
-
,
can not pass around the piston and be exhausted be fore expanded ,
otherwise a great waste o f pow er w ill be incurred The require .
ment is ful filled by having the piston grooved as show n in Fig 9 ,

.
,
and fitted with packing rings These packing rings commonly .

,
called s nap rings are turned up slightly larger in diameter than the
,
cylinder and being cut as sho w n in Fig 9 they Spring out into the
, .
,
cylinder al w ays pressing against

,
the w alls and f orming an almost

perfect steam joint The piston .
o f every engine is made w ith t w o
o r more of these packing rings .
The cuts in the rings must not

be placed directly in line w ith
each other otherw ise the steam
,
w ould have a better chance to

blow through I n order to pre
.
vent this the joints are al w ays

placed on Opposite sides o f the
piston Packing rings are al w ays
.
made o f cast iron and are usu F ig 1 0 P rt S t i P l d E l v ti

i l Pi t
a ec on an an e a on
f C
.
,
.
o on ca s on
ally turned up to a un i form sec

tion The outside portion and the tw o sides are carefully machined
. .
Pis tons The piston 2 Fig 8 is usually made of cast iron

.
, .
, ,
but sometimes is made o f cast steel I t may be a solid disk grooved

.
,
as in Fig 9 or the central portion may be cored o ut as in Fig 8

.
, ,
. .
Another type of piston that is largely used in marine and some

times locomotive service is illustrated in Fig 1 0 This is a com . .
p ara t iv e l y light cast steel piston but at the same time

,
a very strong
one due to its conical construction It w ill be noted also that only
, .
the one packing ring 1 is used This packing ring is much w ider
.
than the ordinary snap ring and is pressed out against the cylinder
w all by a number of single lea f springs being placed between the
b od y o f the piston and packing ring as shown in Fig 1 0at 2 The , . .
piston is made w ith an L shaped edge 3 a band 4 being bolted on the

-
,
open Side of the L thus forming a groove or opening for the recep
,
tion o f the small springs and the packing ring The connection o f .
the piston rod to the piston is also clearly sho w n The rod 5 has .
a tapered end which is forced by hydraulic pressure into a tapered

hole in the piston ; the nut 7 is then tightened up and locked by
placing the plate in position around the nut and fastening it w ith
cap scre w s This arrangement insures a lasting connection betw een
.
the piston and the piston rod .
It is essential that the piston be as light as possible in order to

reduce the a mount o f w ork absorbed in pulling it to and fro and ,
also to reduce the w ear on the lo w er portion o f the cylinder .
The piston rod 3 Fig 9 is fitted into a tapered hole in the pis
,
.
,
ton and secured by means of a lock nut and cotter pin placed o n the
back end Oftentimes the tapered fit is made very tight and the
.
piston forced o n by hydraulic pressure An older form o f attaching .
the piston rod to the piston i s Sho w n in Fig 8 In this instance the . .
rod has a tapered end which is driven into a tapered hole in the pis
,
ton w here it is secured by a nut no cotter pin being used The , .
other end o f the piston rod is threaded scre w ed into the crosshead , ,
as sho w n in Fig 6 and secured by means of a lock nut In some

.
, .
constructions the crosshead end o f the piston rod is tapered and

secured by a key M any schemes have been employed by different
.
manufacturers for fastening the piston rod to the crosshead all ,
o f which have their advantages and disad v antages The piston rod . ,
although usually made o f a g ood quality o f open hearth steel is ,
frequently made of nic k el steel w hich possesses great strength , .
S tufiing B o x a n d P ac king As the piston rod passes through the

.
front cylinder head some provision must be made for ma k ing a

,
steam tight j oint bet w een the piston r o d and the cylinder head This
- .
is accomplished by means of the stu ffing box 4 and the gland 5 , ,
shown in Fig 8 Some form o f packing is placed around the piston

. .
rod w ithin the stu ffing box 4 and the gland is forced i n by means of
bolts or a secured cap as sho w n thus holding the packing in the box
,
and at the same time cro w ding the pac k ing tightly against the
piston rod .
The piston packing may be made o f w oven strands o f hemp or

cotton ; or asbestos may be used To insure lubrication of the r od
.
ST EA M E NG IN E S 15
this fibrous packing is soaked in oil before b e ing placed in position .
In addition to this form o f packing there are different compositions

Of rubber graphite cotton etc also v arious kinds of metallic pac k
, , ,
.
,
ing in use A metallic packing is made of material such as babbitt

.
metal which is a soft alloy o f copper tin and antimony This and
, , , .
other compositio n s are used for metallic pac k ing and the metal , ,
being comparatively soft w ears a w ay much more rapidly than ,
t hat of the piston rod Fig 1 1 illustrates o ne form o f packing

. .
,
know n as the U S M etallic packing The principle o f operation is

. . .
as follo w s : The babbitt metal rings 2 consisting o f three rings cut ,
in hal f provide the packing and are the only parts which come in
,
contact with the rod These .
rings are forced into the v ib r at

ing cup 6 against the rod and ,
are fed do w n as w ear takes

place by the pressure of the
steam itself The spring b e
.
hind the follo w er 3 is merely

intended to hold the rings
and other parts in place w hen
steam is shut off A ground .
joint is made bet w een the flat

faces of the vibrating cup 6 and
the ball j oint 4 There is also
.
a grou n d joint bet w een the ball Fig 1 1 St ffi g k k d w i t h M t lli

g mg
° u n o ac e e a c
ac
joint 4 and the gland r The .
combination o f the sliding face o f the vibrating cup and the ball j oint
permits the packing to follow the rod freely w ithout any increase in
friction should it r un out of line for any cause This is an important .
feature since the w ear of the crosshead guides piston head and cyl
, , , ,
inder produces an irregular alignment of the piston rod w hich w ould ,
injure the pack ing to a marked degree if it w as not flexible The , .
parts o f the packing are held in place by the gland 7 w hich is bolted ,
to the cylinder head A steam tight j oint is made betw een the gland
.
-
and the cylinder head by means o f a copper gasket The purpose .
of the s w ab cup 5 is to hold in place a s w ab w hich is usually made ,
o f w aste candle w icking o r a braided material

, soaked in o il and
, ,
oiled from time to time as a means of keeping the piston rod w el l

16 ST E A M E N GI N ES
lubricated I n addition to this service the s w ab catches and retain s

.
,
a considerable amount o f dust and grit w hich w ould other w ise find
its way into the cylinder w here it might do harm It is to be said
, .
in favor o f the various so called rubber -
packings that they give very good ser

,
vice The four different styles of rubber

.
packing illustrated in Fig 1 2 are not .

,
composed entirely of rubber but contain ,
other material such as graphite cotton , ,
etc These different styles of packing

.
are used both o n piston and valve rods .
It is to be borne in mind that all which

has been said w ith reference to the piston
rod is equally applicable to valve stem
packing The general construction o f the
.
valve stem glands vibrating cups etc , ,

.
,
is identical w ith those o f the piston rod .
The same materials are used for the

packing medium and the same w atchful
care is required in order to obtain satis
factory results Pac k ing is an important .
subject and o n e w hich Should be care

fully looked after It can not be said .
that any o n e particular kind or style o f

packing is the proper one to use in every
case for a pac k ing which may give very
,
satisfactory results under o n e set of con

ditio n s may utterly fail under another .
Fo r instance a packing suitable for low ,
steam pressures is not e ffi cient w here

high steam pressures are used and a ,
packing that may give satisfaction w ith

F ig 1 2
. T yp
. f R bb r P k i g
es o u e
high pressures
ac n
may n ot in any measure
meet the requirements imposed upon it by

the use of superheated steam Each particular installation is there
.
,
fore a different problem and must be solved in a di ff erent manner

,
.
V a l ves In Fig 8 the valve 1 1 is sho w n in position It w ill be

. .
, .
noted that the valve rests upon the valve seat 1 4 and w orks betw een
surrounds it on all sides hence there is no excessive pressure on any

,
part of the valve It is comparatively light and therefore easily

.
driven and lubricated The general form of construction of piston

.
valves is illustrated in plan in Figs 2 1 and 22 . .
Eccen tric . The valve is driven by its connection to the shaft

by means of the valve stem eccentric rod and the eccentric The
, , .
relation o f these parts is w ell illustrated in Fig 1 3 The valve sho wn . .
is an ordinary piston valve w ith flexible snap packing rings 4 similar

to those pre v iously described f or the piston packing rings I n fact .
,
the piston valve as the name implies behaves very much like the
, ,
steam engine piston The tw o piston ends 1 and 2 are held together
.
by the valve rod 3 The valve rod has nuts so placed that the pis
.
tons are held the proper distance apart The val v e rods or stems .
,
as they are often called extend beyond the valve box some distance
,
and connect w ith the eccentric rod 5 The manner o f making the .
connection betw een the valve rod and the eccentric ro d varies widely ,
this connection being governed largely by the type o f engine and

the exigencies o f the case Fig 1 3 sho w s tw o methods of making
. .
this connection one being accomplished b y making use of a rocker

,
arm and the other by using a ram The way in which the rocker .
arm 1 0 is used is obvious from the fig ure The ram 1 0 is a square

, .
block w orking in a bearing and so constructed that the valve and

,
eccentric rod can be attached to it When the ram is used the .

,
moti on I S trans mitted to the valve in a straight line hence there is ,
less strain upon the connecting parts than if a rocker arm was
employed .
The eccentric r o d 5 in both cases is attached at one end to the

, ,
eccentric strap 6 and at the other end to the ram or rocker arm .
Nuts s uitably arranged make the rod secure and at the same time
provide a means for lengthening or shorte mng the rod as needs
demand The valve and eccentric rod are usually made o f mild
.
steel turned true and polished .
The eccentric strap 6 is made o f gray cast iron lined w ith good ,
babbitt metal f or a w earing surf ace upon the eccentric The strap .
is held on the eccentric by means of the bolts 7 By removing liners .
or shims from betw een the t w o sections of the strap adjustments ,
for w ear can be made There are several patented straps on the
.
market th at p os sess particular features but the essential elements ,

S T E A M EN G IN ES 19
of all eccentric straps are about the same Provision is made fo r .
lubrication by ha v ing an o il cup 1 1 e a st w ith the strap .
T he eccentric 8 is mounted o n the main shaft 9 and is held

secure in the position desired by means of the set scre w 1 2 Ec ce n .
tries for large engines are held by means o f one o r more set scre w s
and a key Fo r a discussion o f the function o f the eccentric the ,
"
.
“
student is referred to the instruction boo k on Valve Gears .
St ea m C hes t The box

.
1 5 Fig 8 containing the valve and
,
its .
,
parts is k no w n as the steam chest The steam chest cover 1 6 is

,
.
held in place by studs w hich pass through the flanges 1 7 into the
box The steam chest is connected to the steam supply by suitable
.
pipe c o n n e c t i o n s ,
steam being turned o n

o r off as desired by
means of the throttle

v a l v e W h e n the
.
t h r o t t l e v a l v e is
opened steam passes
,
into the chest through

the v alve into the,
cylinder w here it is
,
F ig . 14 . Ty pi ca l Cr h d
oss ea and r
P in f o r L a g e S i E
z e i
ng ne
expanded and then ejected through the exhaust Opening The .
energy o f the steam is transmitted through the piston and piston

rod to the crosshead 1 7 Fig 6 thence to the connecting rod 23
, .
, ,
crank pin 3 3 to the main shaft In order that these parts may
, .
properly perform the function o f transmitting this energy a correct ,
design is highly essential ; therefore a discussion of their construe ,
tion is deemed necessary .
Cross head an d Con n ec ting Rod The crosshead is usually made .
o f steel w hich f orms a connecting link bet w een the pi ston rod and
20 ST EA M E NGIN ES
the connecting ro d It is made in various shapes and patterns

.
.
On e type is illustrated in Fig 6 In engines of larger size the pre . .

,
vailing form of the crosshead used is similar to that illustrated in

Fig 1 4
. This crosshead consists of a steel casting 1 and tw o w edges
.
,
o r shoes 2 w hich fit over a projection on the outside surface o f 1

, , .
These w edges are either cast or forged and serve as a retainer for
a layer of babbitt metal o n the outside I t w ill be noted that there .
are o il grooves cut o n the surface of 2 in order to facilitate the oil

ing of the crosshead guides These w edges are provided w ith a .
n u t and bolt 4 whereby adjustment fo r wear can be made as n e ces

,
s ary Usually there I S a slight amount of clearance betw een the

.
crosshead and the guides but it should not be in any case excessive
, .
The piston rod is fitted into the end 3 as already described The , .
connecting rod is attache d to the crosshead pin 6 w hich fits into ,
the hole 5 and is held in place by a nut The crosshead pin 6 is .
made of a good grade o f steel and has a portion B w hich fits into the
Fig . 15 . S o li d F rg o e d Ste e l C o nn e c t i n g R o d
b ack side of the crosshead as viewed the other portion C fitting

, ,
into the outside part When the pin is in place the collar D is
.
,
adjusted and the nut E tightly dra w n The straight portion A .
goes between the sides of the crosshead and upon it the connecting ,
r o d brasses bear .
There are t w o general types of connecting rods in use usually ,
classified as marine and locomotive Connecting rods of the marine .
type are as a rule u sed on engines o f comparatively short stro k e ,
w hile those o f the locomoti ve type are employed on engines hav

ing a long stroke .
These rods are f orged from open hearth steel With solid forged -
,
ends f or the crosshead end and a square end for the cra n k end in
,
c ase o f the marine type ; and a solid forged or f orked end for the
crank end in case of the locomotive type .
The connecting rod Fig 1 5 is a solid forged steel r o d having

,
.
,
the ends machined o u t to receive the brasses The crank end 1 is .

ST EA M EN GI N ES 21
fitted w ith a bras s bronze box lined w ith a good quality o f babbitt
or
metal The crosshead end 2 is usually but not al w ays fitted in a

.
, ,
similar manner to that o f the crank end Adjustment for w ear is .
made by means o f wedges at each end as sho w n at 3 These rods ,

.
are usually of rectangular cross section although round shapes some ,
times a re used especially on small engine

'
The marine type o f connecting rod is illustrated in Fig 1 6 . .
The body of the rod is forged similar to the locomotive type as is ,
also the small or crosshead end but the distinguishing di fference

, , ,
is in the w ay in w hich the large or crank end is formed The end , ,

.
o f the rod is enlarged and finished square and the box containing ,
the crank bearing w hich is lined w ith a good w earing material is ,
f astened to the rod proper by means o f the bolts Adjustment for .
wear is made b y tightening up the nuts on the bolts .
It w ill be seen in Fig 6 that the connecting ro d is the connecting

.
link betw een the crosshead and the crank 3 3 T he length of the .
F ig . 16 . Ma ri ne Ty p e of C o n ne c ti ng R od
connecting r o d bears a defi nite relation to the length o f the crank

radius The ratio o f the length o f the connecting rod to that of the
.
crank radius varies in practice from four to eight Occasionally .
conditions demand a greater ratio than e i ght but it is seldom less ,
than four .
Fig 1 7 illustrates the connection o f the piston crosshead con

.
, ,
n e c tin g rod and crank sha f t

, The function and construction o f the
.
piston crosshead and connecting rod have been previously dis

, ,
cussed H ow ever the figure is valuable in that it sho w s quite

.
,
clearly the relation o f the various parts to each other The crank .
sha ft used o n center crank engines is frequently a solid steel forg

-
ing which includes the crank pin 2

, .
Mis cell an eou s Pa rts I n order to compensate for the w eight of

.
the connecting r od and brasses it is necessary to put counter w eights

o n the shaft as sho w n at 4 Fig 17 These counter weights are
,
. .
usually heavy castings machined to slip o v er projections o n the

,
crank shaft and securely fastened thereto by bolts o r set scre w s

, .
The portion o f the shaft mar k ed 1 Fig 1 7 fits into the bearings ,
.
,
provided for the main shaft or cran k shaft the length of this bear ,
ing portion being the distance betw een the counter w eights and the
collars 5 It w ill be noted that o n one end of the shaft is located a
.
disk 3 Sometimes this dis k is forged as a part of the shaft and at

.
other times it is made separate and forced on by hydraulic pressure .
The purpose o f disk is usually intended to provide a read y
Fig . 17 . C i
o nn e c t o n o f Pi t
s on , Cr h d C
oss ea , o nne c ti ng R od , an d Cr an k S h ft
a
means of attaching the Shaft o f an electric generator w hen a direct

connected plant is f easible o r desired It may be said here that a .
direct connected plant offers many advantages over a belt driven —
system It simplifies the plant reduces friction gives greater

.
, ,
reliability and makes possible more pow er in a given space

,
.
The pro j ection 6 o n the other end o f the shaft is the axis upon
w hich the fly w heel is forced and held secure by means o f a key .
The crank pin 2 should be of such ample proportions as to be sa f e

against breakage and the heating o f the pin or brasses placed upon it .
ST EA M EN GIN ES 23
Al l
engines are not of the center crank type but many have a -
,
side cran k the crank being a disk or a crank arm fastened o n the
,
end of the main shaft very much in the same manner as the disk 3 ,
Fig 1 7
. .In this kind of construction the crank pin is usually a piece
separate from the crank arm o r crank disk and is connected to it by ,
being f orced o n and then riveted over o r by nuts put o n and cot ,
te r ed . I n either the side crank or center crank construction the ,
distance from the center o f the axle to the center o f the crank pin
is equal to one hal f the stroke o f the engine as for instance an
-
, ,
1 8 X 24 engine has a crank arm of 12 inches in length w hich is just ,
one half of the length o f the stroke I n speaking o f the size o f the
-
.
engine it is customary to mention the diameter o f the cylinder first ,
that is in speaking o f an
,
18 x 24 engine is meant a
cylinder 1 8 inches in diam
’
eter and a stroke 24 inches .
The main bearing 4 Fig , .
7 Should be designed w ith

,
great care having liberal

,
proportions and lined w ith

anti fri ction metal ham
-
,
mered in place and accu

r ate l y bored and scraped Fig 1 8 S ti f B bb i tt L i d "rt r
M i B ri g
ec on o a ne ua e
to fit the Sha ft OI"small B x d

, .
,
o e a n ea n
.
engines the lower hal f o f the mai n bearings are usually made
of a part of the frame the upper half being a removable cap
,
.
Betw een the upper and the lo w er portion of the bearing metal ,
liners are placed which a ff ord ready means f or making any ne c e s

,
sary adjustments .
Large engines have a babbitt lined quarter boxed main bear ,

-
ing of ample size Fig 1 8 To provide f or both vertical and lateral

, . .
a djustments it consists o f four parts carefully machined on all sides
and scraped to fit accurately This bearing is so constructed

.
that the bottom piece can be removed by slightly raising the shaft .
The other three parts are removed a fter taking off the cap By .
use o f the adjusting scre w s 3 the side 2 and the top 1 may ,
be properly adjusted by the sense o f feeling when the engine is in

motion .
24 ST E A M E N G IN ES
There are many other types of main bearings besides thos e

mentioned but they di ffer only from those already described in
,
some of the minor details The value of these details varies through .
w ide limits each builder contending for his o w n particular design

, .
A side crank engine needs but o ne heavy bearing such as that

-
,
show n in Fig 1 8 as the flyw heel end o f the shaft being subjected to
.
, ,
forces acting in but one direction only requires a much smaller ,
bearing This outer bearing Fig 1 9 is called an o u t board bear

.
, .
,
-
ing and is smaller and simpler in construction than the main bear
ing I t is support ed by a special casting w hich has a hollo w recess
.
,
into w hich lubricating oil is poured The shaft carries one or more .
small chains o r rings w hich fit loosely on the shaft and dip into the
F ig . 19 . O u t- B rd B
oa e ar ng i of Si mp l e rC o ns tr ti
uc on th an Ma i B ri
n ea ng
o il Thus it is seen th at oil is constantly brought in con tact w ith

.
the bear i ng o f the shaft This same scheme o f lubrication is also .
used for the main bearing As the di ffere n t types o f engines are .
considered the several types of bearings w ill be noted and discussed

,
.
The belt w heels 3 4 Fig 5 serve a tw o fold p urp o se on e as a

, .
,
- h
go verning device the value of w hich w ill be discussed later and the
, ,
other as a means of storing up energy w hile the piston is in mid

stroke w here the crank e ffort is greater than the resistance to be
,
overcome The belt w heels act as a fly wheel and give up this

.
energy at the ends of the stroke thus enabling the engine to run ,
over the dead centers The design of the belt o r flyw heel is an
.
important item in the proper proportioning of a steam engine Its .
w eight and dimensions must be very a c ur ate l y d etermined The .
belt w heel o r fly w he e l whichever is employed is made o f cast iron

, . ,
26 ST E A M E NG I N ES
The same authority further classifies engines according to their

structure as f ollo w s :
,
I E xp an i ons
i pl e
S m
.
C m p ou n d
o
D ir e ct a cting
B e am
V e rtic a l
II P o s iti o n of c yli n d e r
.
In v rt d e e
H o riz o n t al
I n cli n ed
III S t e am l C o n d en si n g
on c o n densin g
l N
'
V . P i t on
s
VI . S t am t u r bi n e
e s
VI I . R o t ar y
c o nn e c md
VI I I . Co nn e c tio
IX . Con d e ns a ti
They are f requently designated by the name of the inv entor designer , ,
or constructor as the Watt the Corliss o r the Porter en g ine

, , , .
From the last tw o groupings it is e v ident there is no sharp line o f

demarcation for in many instances engines o f one c lass have essen
,
tial parts similar to those o f another type In this work the classi .
fic atio n outlined in the last group will be taken as a basis f or study .
S impl e Eng ine s The simplest type of engine is the single

.
expansion I t has o ne cylinder and admits steam f or a part of the

.
stroke expands it during the remainder and exhausts either into

, ,
the atmosphere o r into a condenser Simple engines Figs 5 and 6 .

, .
,
a r e now used only f or comparatively small po w ers say 20 0 hp or ,
less and although more extravagant in the use o f f uel than the others
, ,
may still be the most economical financially i f l ow first cost is an ,
important item ; i f they are n o t run continuously ; or i f the load

fluctuates widely .
Co mp o und Eng ines Compound engines have two cylinders

.
know n as the high pressure and l ow pressure Figs 20and 2 1 I t will , . .
be noted that tw o different types o f compounds are represented the ,
o ne in Fig 20being known as a cross compound the t w o cylinders

.
-
,
ST EA M E N G I N ES 27
being parallel and the one in Fig 2 1 a tandem compound engine

, .
,
-
,
the cylinders being in line w ith each other .
Steam enters the smaller o r high pressure cylinder and the n ,
expands until release w hen it is exhausted into the larger cylinder

, ,
w here it expands further The cylinders should be so proportioned

.
that approximately the same amount o f work can be done in each ,
w hich may be accomplished by making the high pressure cylinder

enough smaller than the low so that when the steam leaves the hig h
at a low er pressure than w hen it entered it the increased volume o f ,
the steam may be taken care o f and at the same time the increased
area of the low pressure piston may compensate f or the drop in stea m
pressure .
F ig . 20 . Ty pi ca l Cr o s s- C o m pou nd E gi
n ne
B esides being economical the cross compound has a distinct

,
-
mechanical ad v antage The tw o cranks may be set at right angles

.
so that w hen o n e is on dead center the other is at a position o f nearly

,
its greatest effort This makes a dead center impossible and gives
.
,
a more uniform turning moment Then the individual parts may be .
made lighter and are thus more easily handled .
When the cranks of the cross compound engine are at 90degrees -
w ith each other the low pressure piston is not ready to receive the
steam w hen the high pressure exhausts ; there f ore there must be a ,
receiver to hold the steam until admission occurs in the l ow Such .
engines are called cross compound because steam crosses over from
-
,
28 ST EAM EN GI NES
one side to the other Sometimes instead o f having the cranks at

.
90 degrees they are placed together or opposite

, Then the strokes .
begin and end together and the high can exhaust directly into the,
l ow w ithout a receiver .
A tandem compound engine Fig 2 1 has both pistons on one

-
, .
,
r o d the high pressur e piston rod forming the low pressure tail rod
, .
Such engines are less expensive because there is but o n e set of recip
ro c atin g p arts instead of t w o but like simple engines they have the ,
d isadvantage o f dead points .
T rip le E xp ans ion Engines Triple expansion engines expand .
the steam in three stages in stead o f tw o There are usually three .
Fig . 21 . Se c ti on of C y li d r n e an d V lva es of a T an d e m -
C om po u n d E i
ng ne
cylinders V iz the high the intermediate and the l o w arranged

, , , , ,
with cranks 120 degrees apart Thi s gives a more uniform turning .
moment than a compound Sometimes there are four cylinders o n .
the triple expansion engine v iz o ne high o n e intermediate and , , , ,
tw o low This arrangement gives better balance and is often used

.
in marine work .
Fo r triple engines there must be a rece iver betw een e ach t w o

c ylinders Fig 22 show s the esse ntial f eatur es of a triple expansion
. .
" "
e ngine .
u adru p l e Engines uadruple engines expand their steam in

.
f our stages instead of three M ultiple e xpansion engines are nearly .
al w ays condensin g .
ST E A M EN G IN ES 29
Cylinder Ra tios There are several considerations to be remem

.
bered w hen p r op orti om ng the cylinders of the multiple expansion

engines The ratio of the cylinders should be such that each de v el
.
ops nearly the same po w er and the drop in pressure betw een the
,
cylinders and receivers should be as small as possible .
There are many formulas in use some simple others more com , ,
plex in v olving mathematical calculation A common rule fo r com .
pound engines is to make the ratio of the cylinders equal to the square
root o f the total ratio o f expansion Thus i f the steam has an e xp an .
,
F ig . 22 . Se c ti on of E ss e n ti l F t
a e a ur e s of T ripl E x p
e i
a ns o n E n gine
sion ratio of 9 the ratio of the cylinder volumes will be

,
or 3 ; that
is the l ow pressure cylinder w ill have a volume three times as great
,
as the high pressur e cylinder If the cylinder ratio is 3 and the .
length o f the stroke is the same f or both the diameter of the l o w ,
pressure cylinder w ill be times that o f the high pressure cylinder .
Another rule is to make the cylinder ratio equal to the to tal

ratio o f expansion multiplied by the fractional part o f the stroke com
p l e t e d w hen cut off occ urs-
in the high pressure cylinder .
Suppose the ratio o f expansion is 9 as above and that cut off , ,

-
occurs at o n e third o f the stroke in the high pressure cylinder the

-
,
ratio o f cylinder volumes w ill be or 3 I f cut off occurs at .

-
o n e half of the stroke the ratio w ill be

-
,
or
30 S T EA M E N GIN ES
Fo r triple expansion engines the l o w pressure cylinder is made

large enough to de v elop the full po w er if steam at boiler pres sure is
used .
The intermediate cylinder is made appro ximately a mean

betw een the high and l o w The area of the intermediate piston is
.
found by dividing the area of the l o w by one and one tenth times the -
s quare root of the ratio of the l o w to the high .
The above may be w ritten thus °
Area ofhigh pressure Area of l ow pressure cylinder

cylinder Cut —o ff of high pressure X ratio of exp .
Area of l ow p re ssu r e c v l in d e r
Area of i nter cyl. .
In general for triple expansion the ratios of the volume o f the

,
three cylinders are about as follo w s

VI : V2 : V3 : : 1 : to 5 to 8
For quadruple expansion engines the ratios are as f ollows ,
V I : V2 : V3 : V4 : : to to 5 : 7 to 12
I t is self evident that the compound engines illustrated are

-
of
the multiple cylinder class They also have fixed cylinders and are
.
double and direct acting That is steam acts on both sides o f the
.
,
piston and the po w er is delivered directly from the piston to the

,
shaft o r fly w heel without the intervention o f a w al k ing beam or

some other transmitting medium The engines illustrated in Figs . .
20and 2 1 are horizo n tal w hereas the o n e sho w n in Fig 22 is vertical

, , . .
A horizontal engine is theref ore an engine w hose cylinder is parallel

, ,
to the ground and a vertical eng ine is one which has its cylinder or
,
cylinders perpendicular to the ground These engines may also be .
operated either condensing or non condensing -

.
From the foregoing it must be obvious that it is not possible to

classify an engine w ithin narro w limits so it appears to be more ,
logical to classify them according to the service for w hich they are
to be used as in the second grouping .
S e l ec ti o n of Typ e In the selection and design of an engine

.
there are a great many f actors t o be considered The engine must .
b e as light as possible and yet must be strong enough to do the w ork

,
ST EA M E N G IN ES 31
likely to be imposed upon it The bearings should be large and .
ample in number Lubrication must be given especial attention if

.
high speeds are to be used Light n ess o f design tends to w ards small
.
first cost w hich is important but durability and e fficiency should

, ,
not be entirely sacrificed for l o w first cost I n the course o f time the .
more expensive engine may prove to be the cheaper as maintenance

and repairs may amount to considerable o n a poorly designed and
built engine Fo r some classes o f service ho w ever the cheap engine
.
, ,
is the o ne best adapted Fo r instance in saw mills cotton mills

.
, , ,
and for similar class of service a l o w first cost simple engine is the ,
o ne best suited fo r the w ork because the labor employed to operate

,
it is often i n experienced and ignorant In such cases the protection .
and care that can be given the engine is poor hence the lo w er the ,
value of the property exposed the less w ill be the loss resulting from
,
the depreciation On the other hand if one is selecting an engine

.
,
for a lighting plant in a city he would more than likely select o ne of

,
the most improved types o f high speed condensing machines In , .
the latter case the first cost w ould be considerably more than the
one selected for the saw mill but the in creased e fficiency of Operation
, ,
the slight depreciation and the reduction in maintenance w ould more

,
than compensate for this .
From the foregoing it is evident that there are many f actors to

be taken into consideration when selecting a steam engine fo r any
given service In the f urther study o f the several different types
.
the class of service for w hich each is best suited w ill be indicated in
so far as it is possible to do so There are ho wever some general .
, ,
features every engine should possess independent o f its class It .
should be simple in construction having compactness combined w ith ,
great strength and durability It should be w ell balanced and f ree .
from severe vibration Accessibility o f parts is also an important

.
consideration .
S T A T I O NA RY E NG I N ES
S impl e S id e = Cra nk T yp e engines for ordinary mill . Stationary

service such as machine shops small po w er plants and various
, , ,
manufacturing concerns are generally simple engines operating at

,
moderate speed having either plain slide valves o r piston valves

, .
There are ho wever some cases where compound engines o f moder

, ,
32 ST E A M E N GIN E S
ate size have been installed in similar plants in more recent years .
The demand for electric generators has also largely a ffected the
design o f steam engines for small electric po w er plants In spea k .
ing of small plants in this connection it may be taken as meaning

, ,
from 25 to 5 00 horsepo w er .
A simple slide valve engine o f the side crank type w hich has -
,
been largely used in plants w here a cheap e fficient engine w as the ,
requirement is illustrated in Fig 23 This engine has one slide

,
. .
valve an automatic or Shaft go v ernor and a heavy fly w heel w hich

, ,
is used as a belt pulley It is b uilt in sizes varying from 9 inches X

.
1 4 inches to 22 inches X 28 inches and de v elops a horsepo w er o f ,
Fig . 23 . i pl
S m e S lid V l v E g i
e a e n ne o f S id Cr
e- an k Ty p e
about 4 5 to 3 00 accord i ng to Si ze of cyl i nders steam pressur e used

o
, ,
and the speed at w hich the engine is operated .
Lubrication of the cylinders is secured by the use o f a sight f eed

lubrication attached to the steam pipe The main and crosshead .
bearings are lubricated by oil cups .
This type of engine has been extensively used in cotton gins

an d s aw mills and in small machine shops throughout the country .
There are ho w ever several grades o n the mar k et and it may be

, , ,
purchased for a comparatively l o w figure where the w ork to be done

does not demand a machine o f high grade This engine has a con .
c rete f oundation is w ell proportioned and makes a neat appearance

, , .
A dva n tages f o V ertica l over While H oriz o nta l T yp e

the discus .
sion gi v en above has had to do w ith a v ertical engine of rather small

dimensions and po w er yet it must be borne in mind that vertical
,
engines in very large units are built and successfully operated This .
leads to a discussion o f the relative merits of horizontal and vertical

engines At the present time the most common type of engine is the
.
horizontal direct acting that is an engine w hose cylinder is horizon

-
, ,
tal and w hose piston acts on the crank through a piston rod and a
connecting rod In small engines the w hole is often o n o ne bed plate
. .
Such engines are said to be sel f contained The cylinder is either

-
.
bolted to the back o f the bed plate or rests directly on it .
In marine w ork vertical engines are used in almost every case o n ,
account o f the s aving of floor sp ace w hich is so important in a vessel, .
This saving o f space is also a very important factor in many other cases ,
such as in crow ded engine rooms in cities w here land is expensive .
A second advantage of the vertical over the horizontal engine is

the redu ction of the cylin der friction and u nequ a l wear in the cylinder
o f the latter . I n the horizontal engine the piston is generally sup
ported by resting o n the cylinder w hich is gradually w orn until it is
,
no longer round causing lea k age o f steam from one side to the other
, .
This is entirely avoided in the vertical engine .
Still another advantage o f the vertical engine is the gr ea ter eas e

of b a l an cin g the movin g p ar ts so that there shall be no jarring o r shak
ing It is impossible to perfectly balance a steam engine o f o ne or

.
tw o cylinders I f it is balanced so there is no tendency to shake side

.
w ise it w ill shake end wise ; and if it is balanced end w ise it w ill Shake
sidew ise The jarring is due to the back and forth motion of the
.
reciprocating parts and the centrifugal force of the crank and the
connecting rod T he crank can be readily balanced by ma king it
.
ext e nd as far on o n e side o f the shaft as it does on the other but the ,
piston and the connecting rod are more di ffi cul t to balance The .
effect of jarring can be greatly reduce d if the crank be balanced and ,
the endwise thro w made to come in line with the foundation w hich ,
should be heavy enough to absorb the vibration transmitted In a .
horizontal engine this end w ise throw not being in line w ith the
foundation w ill cause vibration in the engine itself .
In machines that can be anchored down to a massive f oundation ,
a s tate of defective balance onl y results in straining the parts a n d

causing needless w ear and friction at the crank shaft bearings and -
else where and in communicating some tremor to the ground The

,
.
problem of balancing is much more of consequence in locomotive and

marine engines .
To sum up the general advantages of the vertical engines : they
Fig . 25 . B uc k e y e V e rti c a l Cr
o s s- C o m p o un d E gi
n ne
have less cylinder w ear they ta k e up less floor space and they can
, ,
be better balanced In addition to these there are certain advantages

.
which vertical engines have fo r certain kinds of w ork .
Dis adva n tages of V ertica l T yp e The p ress u re on the c ran k p in

.
is greater during the do w n stroke than during the up stroke because ,

36 ST E A M E N GIN ES .
during the do w n stroke the w eight of the reciprocating parts is added

to the steam pressure and during the up stro k e this w eight is sub
,
tracted .
Another difficulty is that in large engines the various parts are

o n such di fferent levels that they require considerable climbing .
This requires more attenda n ts and is so me times the cause for neglect '
o f the engine .The fou nda tions for vertical engines need to be deeper
than those for horizontal engines yet they do n o t need to be as broad
, .
Buc k e ye V e rtic al Cro s s Co mpo und Typ e The development of

= .
electrical machinery and the increased demand fo r pow er in c o n
F ig . 26 . S m i p l C li E g i
e or ss n ne , S h wi
o ng V a lv e i
M e c ha n s m
gested city locations w here land is very expensive and buildings costly
,
because o f their great height has been the primary ca u se of the de v el

,
o p m e n t o f large vertical steam engi n es of various types The engine .

,
Fig 25 represents a vertical cross compound engine as built by the

.
,
-
B uckeye Engine Company w hich is especially w ell adapted to elec

,
tric rail w ay and po w er and lighting plants w hen floor space is limited ,
.
The engine may be obtained either as a side o r a center crank design .
This engine and simple horizontal engines of the same ma k e are typical
representatives o f economical high speed engines They are high , .
riced but th e onom f o er ti n and main tenan ce make th em

p , e c y o p a o
S T E A M E N G IN ES 37
very desirable The vertical engine illustrated may be obtained in

.
sizes de v eloping from 75 to horsepo w er A discussion of the .
valve gear used on B uckeye engines is to be found in the instruction

“ "
paper on V al v e Gears It is a double v alve giving automatic
.
,
cut off as distinguished from throttling cut off regulation

- -
.
Co r l is s T yp e A general utility engine o f the highest type both

.
from the standpoint o f design and economy o f operation and main

te n an ce is the Corliss engine It is to be found in electric rail w ay
.
pow er stations ; in large and small pumping stations ; in blast furnaces

and rolling mills ; in textile and flour mills ; in machine shops and o ffice
buildings ; in technical schools and colleges ; and in nearly all k inds of
industrial plants in this country and abroad The Corliss engine is .
built in various types styles and patterns o f any designed capacity

, ,
u p to horsepow er .
Fig 26 sho w s the val v e connection and manner o f operation of

.
a simple Corliss engine It w ill be noted that the engine is governe d

.
by a fly ball governor w hich is dri v en by a belt connection to the main

-
sha ft This governor is connected to the steam valves by reach rods

. .
The speed is automatically governed by variation o f the point o f cut

o ff
. This engine as w ell as most engines o f this type has large w ell
, ,
proportioned frames cylinders etc ,

Good w or k manship and mate
, .
rial enter into its construction he n c e it is kno w n as a high ,
priced engine ; but on the other hand it is perhaps the most e c o n o m

, ,
ical in the use of steam .
V a l ve M ec han is m The distinguishing feature o f the Corliss

.
engine is its valve mechanism a good vie w o f w hich may be seen in

,
Fig 27 . The gear has four valves the tw o top ones being the admis
.
,
sion or steam valves and the tw o lo w er ones the exhaust valves .
There is a connecting rod 7 Fig 27 w hich is connected to the e c c e n

,
.
,
tric through a roc k er arm and another rod as may be seen in Fig 26
, ,
. .
As the shaft revolves the r o d 7 due to its connection to the eccentric

, , ,
moves back and forth and by reason of its connection through the
, ,
clamp 8 to the w rist plate 6 the latter is made to oscillate The

,
.
w rist plate 6 is attached to the frame by a pivot projection The rods .
9 have a right and left scre w adjustment on each end and transmit
motion from the pins 1 4 on the w rist plate 6 to the steam and exhaust
valve bell cranks 1 0 and 1 5 respectively These valves receive ,
.
"
motion in such a manner as to open and close the ports rap idl .
T he steam valve b ell crank 1 0 is free to rotate on projections o f the

bonnet and carries at the end o f the lever sho w n nearly horizontal
the brass hook 3 w hich engages w ith the catch block This catch .
block is rigidl y attached to the valve lever 13 w hich is keyed to the ,
end o f the valve stem the latter transmitting motion to the valve
, .
Attached to the valve lever 1 3 is the dashpot piston ro d 4 The hook .
is so made that it may be automatically tripped w hen the back part

o f the hook comes in contact w ith a cam w hich is operated by the
F ig . 27 . C rli V l v
o ss a e Mec h i
an s m in D e t a il
arm 2 connected to the governor by the reach r o d 1 The operation .
o f the mechanism is such that the hook may be disengaged at any
point of its travel by means o f the cam coming in Contact with the
tripping leg o f the hook 3 and causing it to rotate o n the pin and
move the steel catch out of engagement with the catch block .
The slo w ing dow n o f the engine in consequence o f reduced stea m

,
pressure o r an increased load causes the catch to hold its contac t

,
longer and the steam to be admitted longer In the event that the .
ST E A M E N G IN ES 39
speed be increased in consequence o f increased steam pressure or

diminished load the hook w ould be tripped by the cam and the adm is
,
sion valve w ould be quickly closed by the vacuum dashpot 5 It .
must be evident f rom the f oregoing that the regulation obtained by this
device must be very sensitive to any cha n ge o f speed or load The .
dashpot 5 closes the steam valve w hen the hook is tripped by the cam .
The cylinders have f our cylindrical holes accurately bored at

the f our corners as is sho w n at 1 1 and 1 2 in Fig 27 I nto these open
, . .
ings the valves are placed w ith their stems and proper pac k ing devices .
The seats o f the valves are circular The portion o f the valve mar k ed
.
2 and 1 F ig 28 is circular w hereas the remaining portion may ha v e

,
.
, ,
any shape depending upon the requirements o f the design The

,
.
valve stem 5 6 is also irreg -
ular in shape The portion 4 .
fits into the slot 3 o f the valve

and round portions 5 and 6
serve as bearings and as means
fo r attaching the driving
mechanism .
Advan tages and Dis adva n

tages f
o Co r l is s T yp e Pe r .
F ig 2 8 C rl i s V l v d V l v S t m o s
. . a e an a e e
haps o ne o f the chie f disad

vantages oi the Corliss engine is the large amount o f floor space
required a f actor w hich o f ten precludes its use
,
It possesses .
many advantages ho w ever chie f among w hich may be men

, ,
tio ne d the rapid and wide opening o f the steam and exhaust ports ;
shortness and directness o f ports w hich results in small clearance ;
,
the adaptation o f the steam valve to the f unctions of cut off valves ; -
and the location of the exhaust ports at the bottom side o f the c yl in
der thus draining the cylinders perf ectly Each o f these various
, .
factors contribute to good engine perf ormance and their combina ,
tion has resulted in making the Corliss engine one o f the most eco
n o mic al engines manufactured It w ill operate upon from sixteen to
.
eighteen pounds of steam per indicated horsepo w er per hour .
Angl e Co mpo und Type

= As an outgro w th o f the demand for
.
an engine o f high speed and one that will occupy a small space but ,
which at the same time w ill be economical in the use o f steam there
, , ,
has been developed the angle compound engine sho w n in Fig 2 9

-
. .
40 ST EA M E NGIN E S
B a l a ncing . In an ordinary high speed steam engi n e the inertia ,
o f the reciprocating parts n amely the crosshead piston and

—
, , ,
pisto n rod and the crosshead end of the connecting rod is c o n

—
,
s ide r ab l e
. If a steam engi n e is to be installed in o ffice buildings ,
apartment houses o r i n other houses w here freedom from vibratio n

,
is a prime requisite it becomes ,
almost a necessity fo r the e n gine to

be perf ectly balanced On an ordi .
nary reciprocating engine it is

almost impossible to obtain perf ect
balancing f or two reasons “
Firs t because o f the angularity

,
o f the connecting rod w hich causes

,
the rate o f acceleration o f the recip

r o c atin g parts to b e much f aster
at o n e end than the other therefore , ,
counterw eight w hich exactly
F ig . 29 . Se c ti on of A l C mp
n g e- o oun d E gi
n ne
balances the f orces at o ne end w ould be either too light or too

heavy at the other end .
S econd the counterw eight at all positions in the revolution o f

,
the shaft exerts a radial f orce and w hen the counter w eight is above
or belo w the center of the shaft there are no reciprocating parts ,
developing a counteracting f orce hence the centri fugal force of the ,

42 ST EA M EN GIN ES
fac tu re din this country is the Un iflow engine Mr L J T odd in . . . .

,
1 8 86 took o ut patents in England covering the principle of the

,
Un ifl o w engine but Professor Stumpf of Charlottenburg G ermany

, , ,
deserves credit f or developing the engine and f or making it a prae

tical success I n Europe the high cost o f f uel makes even small
.
econom i es i n the use o f steam o f considerable value T he Un ifl ow .
engine was designed to secure b etter economy in the use of steam

than is possible w ith other steam engines o f equal po w er As used .
in Europe the poppet type o f valve is almost universally employed

, ,
because o f the better results it gives w ith superheated steam ,
which is used practically to the exclusion o f saturated steam T he .
Fig 3 0
. Se c t i ona l Vi w
e of Unifl o w E i
n g ne
Cou r tes y of N or d b er g M a n uf ac tu r ing Comp a n y M il wa u k ee

, , Wis cons in
Un ifl o wengine i s now manu f actured in the United States by a few

concerns the Nordberg Company b eing o n e o f the first to develop
,
and build a successful engine of this type in this country .
Method of A ction of Nordb erg Engine A cross section V iew of .

-
the Un ifl ow engine as manu factured by the N ordberg M anu facturing

C ompany is show n in Fig 3 0 Steam comes to the engine through
. .
the inlet S and is led through the passages sho w n to either admission
valve A T hese valves are o f the Corliss type n o t only to con f orm
.
,
w ith American p r ac tic e b ut because with saturated steam they give

,
.
, ,
as good results as the poppet type and are less expensive to construct .
The steam is exhausted through a ring o f ports cast in the middle o f

the cylinder and is conducted aw ay by the exhaust pipe sho w n below .
ST EA M EN GIN E S 43
Thus it is seen that the piston per forms the duty an exhaust val v e of
by uncovering and covering these exhaust ports D is a relief v al v e .
of large size communicating w ith chamber B w hich is separated by a

, ,
bridge w all in the cylinder

head from the live steam
space above This relief valve
.
serves tw o purposes : firs t it ,
relieves the cylinder o f any

w ater that m ay get into it ;
and s econd it opens auto F ig 3 1 I di t r rd f U ifl w E g i
O p r ti g c d mg
, . . n ca o ca or n o n ne
e a n on e ns
maticall y in case the vacuum
is lost and prevents the engine
from compressing above line
pressure Also i f it is desired
.
,
to run the engine non condens -
ing instead o f condensing the ,
relief valve D m ay be backed U ifl w E g i

ti g 1G c d i g
F ig 3 2 I di t d f n ca or ar or n o n ne
Op
. .
era n on on e ns n
off o f i ts seat thus g i v i ng the
,
chambers B B as the additional clearance volume w hich is required fo r

non condensing operation The drums CC on each side of S relieve
-
.
the cylinder and cylinder heads f rom the strains caused by the
expansion o f the inlet pipe .
Pe r c e n /o ge of I/mf Lead P e r c e n ta g e of "

Um L 00d
Fig 3 3 E C rv f
co n o m y U n ifl o w E i Fig 3 4 E co no m y C rv f o r U n ifl o w E gi
O p r ti g C d O p r ti
u e or ng ne u e n ne
i C d i
. . . .
e a n on e ns n g e a ng No n -
on e ns n g
Cards Typical indicator cards f or a Un ifl o w

T yp ica l I ndicator .
engine with condensing and non condensing operation are sho w n in -
Figs 3 1 and 3 2 respectively Figs 3 3 and 3 4 sho w economy curves

.
, . .
when operating condensing and n o n condensing The cards Sho w

,
-
.
the e ff ect o f the large exhaust area by the rapid falling o ff o f the pres
sure as soon as the piston has uncovered the exhaust ports and also
the gradual and high compression which is obtained The economy .
curves Show that an overload of 1 00per cent requires only 1 0 per cent
more steam than fo r full load operation when the engine runs con
-
de n sin g and but 1 2 per cent more w hen Operating non condensing
,
-
.
Chief F ac tor in H igh Econ omy The chie f factor in the high .
economy o f the Un ifl o w engine is the great r eduction o f initial con

densation In the ordinary steam engine the piston head and the
.
cylinder head in particular are exposed to the l o w temperature of

the exhaust steam w hich cools them considerably and leaves them
,
cooler than the incoming steam This causes the great loss kno w n.
as initia l condens a tion In the Un ifl ow engine the exhaust steam does

.
no t pass o ut near the head o f the cylinder and so does not leave the ,
F ig ’
Pl ac e T hr
oug hC rlP
e nt a o rts
c ylin der a n d piston heads cool ; and in addition the compression is ,

a
carried to line pressure so that when a f resh supply o f steam enters

,
the cylinder it meets surf aces o f practically the same temperature as

its o w n Furthermore the walls of the cylinder in the Un ifl ow
.
,
engine are exposed at each successive point in the stroke to tem

p e r a t u r e s w hich are more nearly the same than they are in the usual
counter fl o w engine ; this also helps the engine economy
-
.
Cylinder a nd V a lve A rra ngemen t in Sk in ner E ngin e T he f orm of .
cylinder and valve arrangement used in the U nafl ow engine built ,
by the Skinner Engine Company Erie Pennsylvania is illustrated , , ,
in Figs 35 and 3 6
. I t will be noticed that the steam valves
.
ST EA M E N GIN ES 45
are o f the poppet type and are located on the to p o f the cylinder .
Exhaust ta k es place through central ports in the usual way and also
through the auxiliary exhaust valves sho w n o n the bottom side .
Fig 3 5 sho w s the piston o n head end dead center w ith the steam
.
-
valve at admission and exhaust taking place through the central

ports Fig 3 6 sho w s the central ex haust ports closed the steam
. .
,
valve o n the head end closed and exhaust taking place through the
,
auxiliary exhaust valve o n the crank end .
When the engine is Operating non condensing the auxiliary -

,
e xhaust valve f or the end in question is Opened by the valve gear -
mechanism at the point w hen the central ex haust ports are j ust
F ig 3 6 Se c ti on of U n afl o w E i
ng ne S h wi g C tr l E xh
o n en a au s t P rt
o s
Cl d E x h t T ki P l T hr g h A x li
. .
o se and au s a ng a ce ou u i ary
E xh t V lv
au s a e on Cr k E d
an n
closing and compression commences at about 3 5 per cent o f the

,
stroke When operating condensing the valve gear mechanism

.
,
-
controlling the auxiliary ex haust is automatically disengaged w hen

the vacuum reaches a predetermined amount Under these c o n .
ditio n s the auxiliary exhaust valves remain clos ed and compression

begins at about 90 per cent o f the stroke T he construction is such .
that i f w hen Operating condensing the vacuum should f ail the aux ,
iliary exhaust valves are automatically thro w n into Operation .
A me r ic an Lo c o mo b il e T he locomobile is already highly

.
de v eloped in Europe particularly in Germany but in this country

, ,
develo p ment s have just recentl y be gun On a c count of its hi gh .

46 ST EA M E N G I N E S
e flic ie n c y , a description of its construction and operation seems

desirable .
This apparatus is really a complete pow er plant all contained

in a single unit It consists o f a steam boiler with furnace super
.
,
heater and reheater ; a compound steam engine with condenser and

,
vacuum pump ; a f eed w ater heater ; and a boiler f eed pump It is

-
.
n o w being constructed by different American manufacturers but that ,
built by the B uckeye Engine Company w ill be taken as typical since ,
they w ere the first builders o f locomobiles in the United States .
Details of P ower P l a nt R eferring to Fig 3 7 the path o f the

. .
,
gases and steam can be traced through the plant and some o f the ,
mechanical f eatures can be seen Consider first the boiler f urnace .

, ,
superheater and reheater The f ormer is an internally fired fire

,
.
,
tube boiler the combustion chamber being at A and the fire tubes
,
at B B eyond these tubes is the circular pipe coil C which is the

.
,
superheater and still f urther o n is the reheater D consisting o f loops

, ,
o f pipe expanded into tw o headers as sho w n The f urnace gases from , .
A pass directly through B C and D and then o ut to the stack , , ,
through the connection sho w n in the floor The boiler is supported .
o n cradle blocks X and t he superheater and reheater piping i s hung

,
f rom horizontal beams as show n , .
T he steam is led f rom the d ome E to the rear end of the super
heater and leaves it at the f ront end going straight up to the high ,
pressure cylinder o f the engine Leaving the high pressure cylinder .

-
,
the steam is carried to the f ront end o f the reheater and leaving at ,
the Opposite end is conducted to the l ow pressure cylinder o f the

,
-
e ngine From the l ow pressure cylinder the steam i s conducted to a

.
-
feed w ater heater and then to the condenser neither o f w hich are
-
,
show n in the figure I n both superheater and reheater the steam is

.
,
made to flow against the direction o f fl o w o f the furnace gases so

that the steam will enter the engine cylinder at a higher temperature .
The engine as can be seen is mounted directly on the boiler

, , .
T he saddle F bolted to the boiler shell supports the engine bed w hich
, , ,
1 s securely f astened to it The engine f rame is permitted to slide o n

.
the saddle C so as to allo w fo r unequal expansion betw een the boiler
shell and the engine frame At the head end o f the l o w pressure
.
-
cyl inder the yoke Y Y supports the cylinder casting .
Fig 3 8 shows the relative temperatures of the steam and the

.
ST EA M EN GIN ES 47
50 ST EA M E N GIN E S
work w ill permit has been covered by the discussions given concern
,
i n g the plain slide valve engine the vertical engine o f Small units
, ,
the vertical engines f or large installations the compound and tan ,
dem engines which are being used more and more and finall y b y a ,
consideration o f the most economical engine o f all the Corliss whether , ,
operated simple o r compound In addition to the types mentioned

.
there are a large number o f other makes w hich have distinguishing ,
features and which give good service but yet the principles e nu mer
,
ated in the types already discussed fulfill all the requirement s likely
to be made upon stationary plants H ence a discussion of other .
makes is not thought necessary .
FA RM OR T R ACT I O N ENG I NE
The advancement of scientific and progressive farming has made

the f arm engine o f more interest and importance than ever before ;
in fact the demands of the active farmers inrecent years hav e taxed
,
the builders o f such equipment t o the limit o f their output The .
steam engine is used f or a large variety o f purpos es upon the mod

ern large f arm and appears most commonly in the f orm o f the so called
,
-
traction engine It is used for plo w ing digging ditches building o f

.
, ,
roadw ay s logging purposes running threshers and numerous other

, , ,
purposes Various types o f stationary engines o f small po w er are

.
also to be found in use on the farm the small gas engines now hav ,
ing been per f ected to such a degree that they are rapidl y replacing
the steam engine .
G e ne r al De scription The traction engine is really more than

.
simply an engine ; in fact it is a self contained po w er plant I t con

-
, .
sists o f a simple or compound engine a boiler f or supplying the steam

,
required by the engine and the tr an smi ssmn mechanism together

, ,
with all the auxiliaries necessary f or a complete power plant A good .
type of a general utility traction engine is show n in Fig 40 I t c o n . .
sists o f a boiler o f the locomotive type carried by f our wheels the , ,
tw o f ront ones serving as a means f or guiding and the tw o rear ,
being the ones which receive the po w er and known as the driving
w heels. I n order to prevent the slipp i ng o f the rear W heels when
doing heavy hauling they are made with heavy projecting lugs o r
,
cleats which are forced into the ground by the w eight o f the machine .
The engine which is mounted on the side o f the b oil e r as may be

, ,
ST EA M EN G IN ES 51
seen in the illu stration is a plain slide valve engine o f the side crank
,
-
type The speed is regulated by an ordinary fl y ball centrifugal

.
-
,
governor The construction of the various parts o f the engine are

.
similar to those previously described in this w ork The same .
w atch f ul care should be given to the lubrication operation and

’
, ,
maintenance of this engine as to any other w hen economy d urability , , ,
and reliability are desired I t shoul d be noted that both cross com .
-
pound and tandem compound engines are used as w ell as S imple

-
engines in this class o f service and that various types o f valves find ,
application .
I n order to make clear the construction and operation o f the ‘
traction engine a view sho w ing the rear w heels platform and side
, , ,
tanks removed is show n in Fig 4 1 The means provided for guid . .
ing r eversing and driving this engine is clearly illustrated It is

, ,
,
.
evident that the type of boiler used is similar to that of the l oco mo
tive b oiler having a narro w fire box It has an extended front end 1
,
.
and stac k 2 for carrying aw ay the gases o f combustion The boiler .
is mounted upon the front w heels through the pivoted pedestal con
ne c tio n 3 I t i s supported on the rear w heels by having the r ear
.
, j
axle extend beneath the fire box or b y having the supporting ele ,
ments riveted to the side sheets as in Fig 4 1 . .
O p e ratio n of Pl ant Revers ing M ec hanis m The operation of

. .
the plant is about as follow s : If the engineer desires to go for w ard

the mechanism is placed in forw ard gear by means o f the reversing
lever 29 the re v ersing being accomplished by means o f a swinging
,
eccentric w hich can be thro w n across the sha ft at the discretion of

,
the operator (On some types o f traction engines a reversing link

.
,
mechanism is used ) .
T ra ns miss ion H aving adjusted the reversing gear in accord

.
w ith the desired direction the thr ottle valve o f the engine is opened b y
,
moving the lever 3 0 The opening o f the throttle valve starts the
.
the engine shaft 1 2 which carries the flywheel 1 1 On the engine

, .
shaft behind the flyw heel is keyed a small spur gear w hich is in mesh
w ith the larger gear 1 3 w hich in turn meshes w ith the gear 1 4
,
As .
the engine shaft revolves the small gear in the shaft revolves which , ,
transmits its motion to 1 3 and o n to the small gear 15 w hich is ,
keyed to the sha ft driven by the w heel 1 4 The gear w heel 1 5 Figs .
,
.
40 and 4 1 is in mesh w ith an annular gear on the dri v e w heel 1 Fig

, . .
54 ST E A M E NGI N ES
40; hence b y reason o f this connection the large wheel is made to

, ,
revolve The shaft carrying gear w heel 15 extends beneath the

.
boiler to the opposite side and drives a set of gear w heels which causes
the other driving wheel to revolve w ith the one just considered .
Ru nni g n G ear The axle 1 6 o.

f the w heel has a sliding head 1 7
attached to it This head is free to move up and do w n in guides
.
securely f astened to the fire box This S liding head works again st .
a spring w hich is contained in the b o x 18 This spring reduces the

,
.
shocks to which the machine is subjected when on the road hence , ,
the engine is much easier to

ride than it otherw ise would
be In addition to the easy .
riding qualities it also re ,
l ie v e s the parts o f the ma

chine of stresses and stra i ns
due to sudden jolts w hich ,
would be detri mental to the

durability o f the machine as
a whole .
S teering Gea r T he engine .
is guided by the hand w heel

1 0 I t will be noted t hat a .
chain is connected to the

front axle o n either side of
the pivotal point This .
F ig 4 2 Fri t i G r D v i f St ri g
c on ea
chain
e ce
w raps
or
around
ee
a cam
n
T r ti E gi
. .
ac on n ne
arrangement on the shaft

which carries the small gear w heel 8 The w heel 8 is in mesh with .
the w orm 9 w hich may be turned by the hand wheel 1 0 I f the

, .
driver when moving forw ard should w ish to turn to the right for ,
instance he would turn the hand wheel so the wheel 8 w ould be

,
driven counter clockwise and in so doing the chain 6 would be

-
,
shortened the chain 7 lengthened the w heel 5 would b e cut in and

, , ,
the machine would turn to the right If it was desired to go in the .
opposite direction the reverse operation would be carried out that is

, , ,
gear 8 w ould be revolved clock wise .
I t is sometimes di fficult to operate the steering gear by hand ,
e sp ecially in large traction engines and in places w here a heavy load

S T E A M E N GIN ES 55
is being drive n over rough ground ; hence some engines are provided ,
w ith a friction gear device This attachment Fig 42 is exceedingly

.
,
.
,
simple and when it is used the engine furnishes po w er to guide itself

,
.
It consists of a sha f t 2 extending f rom the w orm gear 1 to a bracket

o n the side o f the boiler in f ront o f the main shaft O n top o f this .
vertical sha f t is a hori z ontal miter gear 3 arranged to engage alter

mately with two vertical gears o ne at the right 5 and the other at the ,
lef t 4 T hese vertical gears are on a sha f t run by a chain o f small

.
gearing 6 f rom the engine sha f t T he y are thrown in or o ut at the .

,
pleasure o f the operator by means o f a shifting yoke which is w orked

,
by a straight rod extending back to the right hand side o f the engi -
neer A lever at the end o f this rod is within easy reach all the time
. .
By moving it f orward or backw ard the engine is guided to the right ,
o r le f t as desired
, I f the lever remains at the center the engine guides
.
,
straight An extension rod is placed on the rear end connecting w ith

.
a hand lever at the le ft side o f the plat form so that the engine may
’
be guided equally well f rom either side T o operate this steering .
lever requires no appreciable exertion on the part o f the engineer .
Friction Cl u tc h A f riction clutch is provided in the fly w heel

.
,
which permits the engine to b e operated without driving the machine

f orward on the road With the engine running at full speed the
.
,
clutch can b e graduall y thro w n into action and the machine w ill ,
start forward on the road without any sudden shocks The clutch .
is operated by the lever 3 1 Fig 4 1 By disconnecting the engine , . .
f rom the flywheel a high speed can b e obtained so that by thro w

, ,
ing the c lutch in gear quickly the engine is o f ten able to pull the
machine o ut o f di fficult places Oftentimes it is desired to oper .
ate the engine independently o f the traction wheels f or the purpose

o f running the thresher saw mill electric generator or f or other pur
, , ,
poses hence some form of clutch is necessary

, .
B rake A f riction brake is operated by a system o f levers and

.
rods as 1 9 20 and 2 1 Fig 4 1 The operator can apply the brake

, , . .
by pushing down w ard upon the f oot piece on the lever 1 9 T he .
amount o f air admitted to the fire box is controlled by the tw o dam

pers 22 and 26 which may be manipulated b y the levers 24 and 2 7
,
Wa ter T anks I n Fig 40 large tanks 2 3 and 4 are Sho w n

. .
, , , ,
.
These tanks are w ater reservoirs f rom which the supply pumps take
water and deliver it to the boiler O pposite the tank 2 is a bin for .
holding the fuel w hich may be w ood coal or straw depending upon
, , , ,
the location and character o f w ork to be done If the traction engine .
is used f or threshing purposes it w ould have a fire box arranged for ,
burning stra w ; w hereas if it w as being used in a logging camp or a

s aw mill the available fuel w ould be w ood hence the fire box w ould
, ,
be construct ed accordingly .
B oil er Since it is necessary to have a high grade durable a n d

.
-
, ,
economical boiler in order to have an e fficient and reliable machine ,
it is thought advisable to call especial attention to the type of boil

ers used in this connection and point out some o f their good and bad
features It w as mentioned in the description of the traction engine
.
,
Fig 4 0 that a locomotive type o f boiler w ith some modifications w a s

'
.
,
used Fig 4 3 illustrates such a boiler I t is o f the fire tube horizon

. . .
Fig 4 3
. . T r ti
ac on B il r
o e of t he L o c o m o t iv e Ty p e
tal type The fire box 1 is of a horizontal rectangular constructio n

.
with open grate bars 2 and ash pit 3 belo w The fuel either w ood ,
.
,
or coal is f ed through the fire door 5 and the ash is removed through
, ,
the door 4 The products of combustion such as smoke hot gases

.
, , ,
etc pass through the tubes 1 0 into the f ront end 1 2 from w hence
.
, ,
they are exhausted thr ough the opening 1 3 and the smoke stack into
the atmosphere I f straw is to be used as fuel a brick arch is placed
.
,
in the fire box w hich deflects the gases to w ard the fire door so that ,
after passing over the arch the y are draw n o ut through the tubes,
in the usual manner It is also necessary to put in different grate

.
bars w here stra w is used as the bars must be closer together so the
,
fuel will no t drop through into the ash pan .

58 ST E A M E NG IN ES
which take the hot gases from the rear end 8 o f the boiler to the smoke
stack The path of these gases is indicated by the arro w s To
. .
protect the rear sheet from the heat o f the gases a protection plate
,
9 is riveted or bolted to the plate As steam is generated it rises

.
,
enters the stea m dome 12 passes into the steam pipe 1 3 and on to
, ,
the engine .
It should be noted that this boiler con tains no stayed portions

and that all the sur faces are cir c ular in form and securely riveted .
There being no stayed sur

faces the circ ul ation o f the
w ater is not inter f ered with
w hich is an important con
—
sideration and the Op p o r

—
tu nity for scale and sediment

to collect is greatly reduced ,
hence there is less likelihood

o f portions o f the b o il e r b e
‘
coming heated to the point

o f injuring the boiler or im
pairing its safety Still an

.
other feature o f interest in

the boiler is that the gases
are made to traverse the e n
tire length o f the boiler tw ice
be fore being ejected at the
stack This being the case
.
an Opportunity is given for a

greater portion o f the heat
contained in the gases to be
142mgfiz
Fig 44
: “
° f d ifi d S t h
e °° °
absorbed by the w ater thus
o ,
securing a higher thermal

e fficiency than obtained from boilers o f the locomotive type H aving .
no stayed surfaces and a small number o f fl ue s results in a small

maintenance cost o f this type o f boiler .
Traction engines run in sizes from about 74 inche s X 1 0 inches

to 1 2 inches X 12 inches for single engines and for compound,
engines the common sizes are 5 % inches 8 é inches x 1 0 inches to

—
9% inches X 1 3 inches x 1 1 inches The corresponding horsepo w er

.
ST E A M E N GIN ES 59
developed w ill run betw een 1 5 and 1 00 The speed attained on the .
road in miles per hour is about 25 to 5 .
Road Ro l l er T ype The traction engine j ust c onsidered as an

.
agricultural engine may also be considered as a portable engine or a

road locomotive A portable engine is there f ore one that can be
.
, ,
easily moved about from place to place or as in the case o f the trac ,
tion engine it may be mounted upon wheels and sel f propelled -

.
F ig . 46 . Se m i P t bl E gi
- or a e n ne and B il r
o e
Another illustration o f a similar type is the ordinary road roller or ,
road locomotive as it is sometimes called The principle o f its con .
struction and operation is similar to the traction engine the chief ,
di fference betw een the road roller or road locomotiv e and the ordi
, ,
nary traction engine being that the tw o front w hee ls o f the traction
engine are replaced by a large smooth roller or cylindrical w eight , ,
which revolves as the engine moves The drive wheels o f the road
.
roller are also made large heavy and contain no cleats or lugs These
, , .
roller s are u sed in the makin g o f macadamized or other f orms o f road s .

ST E A M E NGIN E S 61
S e mi p or ta b l e
= Typ e The semi portable engine is usually
.
-
connected w ith a small boiler and the t wo together may be moved

f rom place to place as required I t is n o t mounted upon wheels but .
rather o n large w ood skids and is moved by being placed either ,
in a w agon or on rollers It is largely used for hoisting purposes in

.
connection w ith the construction o f large buildings bridges etc , , .
Since the portable and semi portable engines have no transmis -
sion mechanism they are lighter and considerably cheaper to con

,
struct than traction engines .
A very neat compact and serviceable type o f semi portable

, ,
-
engine is illustrated in Fig 46 It is mounted upon skids so that it

. .
may be easily moved about The engine is mounted o n top of a .
Scotch marine boiler similar to the boiler last described and is o f

, ,
the plain slide valve center crank type w ith a centrifugal governor
,
-
, .
The boiler is equipped w ith a pressure gauge w ater glass and such , ,
other appliances as are usually found in a boiler room of moderate

size The boiler used is sometimes o f the locomotive t ype and
.
,
oftentimes both eng i ne and boiler are o f the vertical type The
, .
smaller units are usually of the vertical type the larger ones o f the ,
horizontal type The semi portable plant is built in sizes ranging

.
-
from about 20 to 70 horsepo w er I f the semi portable plant Fig .

-
, .
4 6 be mounted on w heels and dra w n by horses or some other means

, ,
then it is usually classed as a portable engine as distingui shed f rom

a semi portable or traction engine
-
.
L OCO M O T I VE E NG I NE S
It is not w ithin the province of this work to f ully discuss the

modern rail w ay locomotive but sufli ce it to say tha t no other po w er
,
developing unit has been so rapidly de v eloped w ith such economical

results Considering the exacting demands made upon a locomotive
.
,
its per f ormance is remarkable The locomotive consists o f two pri .
mary elements namely the boiler w hich generates the steam and the
, ,
engines w hich con v ert the energy o f this steam into useful w ork by
givi ng motion to the transmission mecha nism .
Bo il e r Fig 4 7 illustrates a modern locomotive boiler

. . It con .
sists o f a cylindrical barrel and an enlarged rear end w hich contains

the fire box The fire box is securely fastened in the boiler shell b y
.
s tay bolts and ra di al sta y s A fe w ro w s of sling stays are sometimes

.
n
( ST EA M E N G IN ES
S T E A M E NG IN ES 63
used at the front end o f the fire box to allo w for expansion and con
traction o f the sheets T he boiler is divided into three distinct
.
departments as the fire b ox A the water space B and the smoke

, , ,
box C The sheets 4 and 5 w hich separate these departments are

.
, ,
known as the back and front flue sheets respectively The flue , .
sheets are drilled with holes to receive the fl ue s .
F lu es In the particular boiler illustrated about 400 2 inch

.
-
fl ue s are used These fl ue s extend from flue sheet to flue sheet and
.
form a passage for the gases to travel from the fire box to the smoke
box Surrounding the fl ue s in the space B and surrounding the fire
.
box is w ater w hich is vaporized into steam due to the combustion

,
o f fuel in the fire box The total amount of heating sur face will
.
vary from to over square feet according to the type and ,
size of the locomotive Of this total amount of heating sur face onl y
.
a very small per cent is furnished by the fire box there being usually ,
only about 200 square feet of heating surface contained in the fire
b ox. It is evident there fore that the fl ue s are a very important part
, ,
o f the locomotive boiler .
Grate A rea T he amount o f grate area varies f rom a b out 40

.
to 60 square f eet It must be obvious that in order f or so small a

.
grate area to supply su fficient heat to such a large amount of heating

surf ace there must be a very high rate o f coal consumption per squ are
f oot of grate area A series of tests made at St Louis during the
. .
Exposition in 1 904 demonstrated that the amount o f dr y coal fired

per square f oot o f grate area per hour varied f rom 20to as high as
1 3 0 pounds These results w ere obtained f rom several di fferent
.
types of loco motives Operated under w idely different speeds and

loads hence the above figures may be taken as approximating the
,
maximum and minimum consumption under ordinary running con

d itio n s Under these very w idely different operating conditions it
.
w a s found that the equivalent evaporation per pound o f dry coal

varied from 6 % to 1 2 pounds which compares very favorably with ,
stationary boiler perf ormance which gives an average evaporation

o f about 8 pounds of water per pound o f coal .
M ec hanic al Effic ie ncy The mechanical e fficiency o f a l o c o mo

.
tive is also very good Through a long series o f tests conducted on

.
a w ell equipped locomoti v e testing plant a mechanical e fficiency o f

-
,
65 to 8 5 per cent was o b tained T he same degree of e fficienc y has .

64 S T E A M E N GIN ES
b een obtained in various other tests and under more adverse condi
tions The locomotive is also very e ffic ient in the use of steam
.
.
The St Louis tests sho w ed that simple freight locomotives gave an

.
aver age min imum w ater consumption per indicated horsepow er per
hour of pound s The w ater consumption per indicated horse
.
po w er per hour under maximum load w a s pounds w hereas the ,
maximum rate w a s pounds Fo r compound freight l o c o m o

.
t iv e s the average steam consumption w a s : minimum load

pounds maximum load
,
pounds and maximum consumptio n ,
pounds The average steam consumpti on for simple passen

.
ger locomotives w as : minimum load pounds maximum load ,
pounds and maximum consumption

, pounds When .
these figures are compared w ith those of the best stationary engines ,
some idea of the economy o f the locomotive can be obtained The .
steam consumption o f an automatic tandem compound condensing ,

-
,
stat ionary engine w ith piston val v es under full load is about 1 8
pounds per indicated horsepow er per hour w hereas the c ompound ,
non condensing locomotive is about 2 1 pounds A Corl iss engine or

-
.
a medium speed four valve simple engine w ill give a minimu m steam
,
-
consumption o f about 22 pounds per indicated horsepow er per hour

under full load A simple freight engine under full load w ill use about
.
pounds o f steam per indicated horsepo w er per hour The fore .
going figures spea k w ell in favor of the economy of a steam locomotive ,
which is operated under conditions un f avorable to the securing o f

good economy .
Eng ine Charac te r is tic s The engines used o n locomotives may

.
be simple o r compound ; in f act both are used extensi v ely although

, ,
the simple type predominates It is to be noted that the steam

.
locomotive is equ ipped w ith tw o separate and distinct engines one —
being attache d to each side of the bo iler and both attached to the
‘
driving w heels through the med ium o f the frames etc , .
The mechan ical con struction o i these engines is quite similar

to that of the type already described in this w ork Certain features .
are made necessar yin order to properly tie together the engine boiler , ,
and transmission mechanism Perhaps the most noticeable change

.
in detail is in the construction of the cylinders and valve seats other ,
) ise there is little variation from the w ell estab lished pri n ciples of -
engine design The valves rods crossheads guides etc are

.
, , , ,
.
,
ST EA M E N GIN E S 67
capacity This engine is a compound type w ith piston valves is

.
,
w ell designed is neatly proportioned and admirably fulfills every

, ,
requirement .
Comp ou nd Typ e I n connection w ith the subj ect o f compound

.
in g just mentioned it may be said that in recent years the compound

locomotive has been f ound in increased numbers on American rail
roads A type of compound that has given especial good service an d
.
which is being adopted by man y roads f or heavy hill climbing duty

is the M allett Articulated Compound T he adoption o f the com .
pound locomotive has been due to a general opinion among railroad

o fficials that the findings of a committee o f the American M aster
M echanics Association w ere true as demonstrated by practice This ,
.
Committee says of compounding

(a ) I t ha s chi e v d a vi n g in the fu l b u rn d v e r g i n g 1 8 p e c e n t at
e a sa e e ,
a a r
r n bl
e as o b il r pr u r
a e o e es s es .
(b ) It h l n d t h m u n t f w t r t b h n dl d
as e ss e e e a o o a e o e a e .
(c ) T h t nd r e n th r f r
e e b r d u c d in iz
ca ,
n d w i g ht
e e o e, e e e s e a e .
(d ) It h i n cr as d th p ibiliti f s p d b e y n d ixty m il es p e h o ur
e ase e oss es o ee o s r ,
w ith u t u n d u ly tr i n i g t h
o ngin s a n e e e .
(e ) It h i n cr as d th h u l g p w r t fu ll p d
e a se e a a e o e a s ee .
(f ) In m cl so f n g in
e it h i n cr
ass e s o d t h t rti n g p w r
e es as e as e e s a o e .
(g ) It h l s e n e d th v lv fricti n p h r e p w r d v l p d
as e s e a e o er o s o e e e o e .
A
number o f other reasons are given in their report N o tw ith .
standing these facts ho w ever the compound locomotive has not , ,
come into very general use on ra ilroads .
W AT ER P UM PS
The subject of pumping engines is a very broad one and one ,
which has recei ve d the thought and study of the most eminent engi
for many decades From the earliest history o f man there i s
ne e r s .
gleaned the fact that human ingenuity and s k ill had been de v oted in
those early times to the perfection o f some kind o f po w er pump .
I t would be a difficult matter to mention an industry of any char

acter or description but w hat a pump w a s needed Some w here in the
enterprise I t w as first used in a large w ay in the mining industries
.
for pumping w ater out o f the mines Today it is found in all po w er .
houses mines and factories of various k inds B oth the large and
, , .
small cities depend upon it for their w ater supply The heating .
and ventilating systems of modern apartment houses and office

68 ST E A M E NG IN ES
buildings use the pump and mention might be made o f many othe r
,
instances w here the w ater pump is indispensable .
There are tw o general classes o f pumps namely crank or fly , ,
w heel type and direct acting pumps .
Crank or Fl yw he e l Typ e The crank or flywheel type was the

.
first f orm to be developed These pumps vary greatly both in their

.
design and in the details o f their construction They are of vary .
ing sizes including some o f the largest and most expensive in the
,
w orld .As a general thing they are used in heavy hydraulic enter
prises for furnishing w ater supply for cities and in various other
, ,
enterprises w here a large and constant supply of w ater is demanded .
In this class o f pumps or engines the application o f the po w er in the

steam cylinders in driving the pump plunger o r piston varies greatly
both in design and detail of construction Long or short beams or .
bell cranks may be used and sometimes gearing may be employed ,
but in all cases the limit o f the stroke o f the steam piston and of the
pump plunger is governed by the crank o f a revolving sha ft In .
pumping engines it is not absolutely necessary to have a revolving

shaft the only requirement being that the piston in the pump c yl in
,
der shall be driven back and forth w ith a plain reciprocating motion
w hich may be exactly like that of the steam piston Fo r this reason .
,
in early pumping engines and also in modern engines the r e cip r o c at ,
ing motion o f the steam piston is applied directly or through a beam , ,
to produce the reciprocating motion o f the pump piston or plunger

w ithout the use o f any revolving part Frequently ho w ever it i s .
, ,
desirable to use a fly w heel so that the steam may be used expansively ,
and in these cases of course a revolving shaft must be used

, , .
Ca meron B el t Driven Pu mp The po w er pump used as an illus

-
.
tr atio n Fig 4 9 is a belt driven o n e

,
.
,
The belt is placed on the pulley
-
.
1 and can be shifted to a loose pulley by the shifter 2 w hen desired ,

.
The shaft 4 which is driven by the belt pulley extends across the
, ,
frame and has attached to it a flywheel 5 and a small gear wheel ,
w hich meshes w ith the large gear w heel 3 The gear w heel 3 is keyed .
to the cran k shaft 6 hence w hen it is driven the crank shaft is made
, , ,
to re v olve which in turn gives a back and f orth movement to the

,
piston as in the ordinary steam engine The flyw heel 5 attached .

,
to the revolving shaft may be o f greater or less diameter and w eight

, ,
dep endin g on the con dition under whi ch the p ump is to be op erate d .
S T EA M E N GIN ES 69
I n addition to assisting the crank to pass the dead center at each end
of the stroke o f the piston it can be employed as a reservoir in which
,
any excess energy may be stored at the beginning o f each stroke and
dra w n o ut during the latter part o f the stroke w here the force o f ,
the water column is greater than that of the steam By this means .
it is possible to use shorter cut offs in the cylinder than could other
-
wise be permitted ; hence a resulting saving in steam M any means

, .
may be used to drive the po w er pump While the illustration sho w s

.
B l t Driv
e - en P wrP
o e um p
o ne belt driven yet they are frequently electrically driven and

, ,
sometimes the revolving shaft is attached to the shaft of a gas o r

steam engine .
Deep Wel l o r M ine Pu mp

-
For deep w ell or mine pumping the
.
-
,
cylinders are often set in a vertical position dire c tly over the pump
cylinder The piston rod extends from the stea mcylinder directly
.
below to the pump plunger Sometimes it is possible to use steam

.
expansively in these pumps by reason of the w eight o f the r e c ip ro

cating parts When the weight is sufficient the steam can be cut
.
,
o ff before the end of the stroke and the momentum of the parts w ill
70 ST E A M E N G IN ES
be enough to just finish the stroke consequently these pumps are ,
sometimes compounded They are used only in pumping from very

.
deep w ells .
Dir e c t Ac ting Typ e

= A direct acting steam pump is o ne in
.
-
w hich there are no revolving parts such as sha fts cranks and fly , , ,
wheels the po w er o f the steam in the steam cylinder being transferred

,
to the piston or plunger in the pump in a direct line thr ough the use
o f a continuous rod or connection In pumps of this construction .
there are no w eights in the moving parts other than those required ,
to produce su fficient strength in such parts for the work they are
required to perform and as there is consequently no Opportunity
,
to store up po w er in On e part o f the stroke to be given out at another ,
it is impossi b le to cut o ff the steam in the steam cylinder during any
Fig 5 0
. . D ir t A ti
ec - c ng Du pl x P
e um p w ith R o c ke r and B l l Cr
e -
an k Le ve r
part of its stroke The uniform and steady action of the direct act
.
-
ing steam pump is dependent alone o n the use o f a steady u niform

pressure of steam through the entire stroke of the piston against a ,
steady uniform resistance o f w ater pressure in the pump ; the di ffer

,
ence bet w een the pow er exerted in the steam cylinders and the resist
ance in the pump governs the rate o f speed at which the p iston or
plunger o f the pump w ill move The length of the stroke o f the steam
.
piston w ithin the steam cylinders o f this class o f pumps is limited ,
and is controlled alone by the admission compression and release , ,
of the steam used in the cylinders .
Dup l e x Pu mp with Ro ck er and B ell Cran k Lever The direct -

.
acting steam pump Fig 5 0 is kno w n as a duplex pump and con

, .
,
sists simply o f two direct acting steam pumps placed side by side
-
.
The steam pistons are at one end and the w ater pistons at the other .
ST EA M EN G I N ES 71
The steam pressure acts directly o n the pistons ; no fly w heel is used ;

and since the reciprocating parts are comparatively light and there
is no revolving mass to carry by the dead points it is evident that ,
in the ordinary f orm there can be no expansion of steam The .
pump is inexpensive and g ives a positive action I t uses a relatively .
large quantity o f steam but for small work the ab solute amount is
,
not very great .
On the piston r od of each pump is a b ell crank lever which -
operates the valve of the other pump There must be a rocker on .
o n e side and a bell crank lever o n the other because o f the relative ,
motion o f the valves and pistons The first piston as it goes for .
,
w ard must use a rocker because it d ra w s the second valve back

, , .
The second piston as i t goes back must use a bell crank lever because
, ,
-
it must push the first val ve back i n the same direction as its o w n
motion The two pistons are made to w ork a half stroke apart
.
-
,
t hus one begins its stroke when the other i s i n the middle I n this .
way a steady flow of w ater i s obtained as both pumps discharge ,
into the same delivery pi pe I n large pumps o f this kind and even
.
,
in some small ones the moti on described above merely admits steam
,
to a small auxil iary piston on each steam cylinder which then moves ,
the main steam valve by steam pressure .
Dup l ex Pu mp with T ap p et Some pumps operate the steam .
valve by means o f a tappet instead o f a rocker and a bell crank -
lever Fig 5 1 I ts construction and Operation is as f ollo ws

, . .
A is the steam cylinder ; C the piston ; L the steam chest ; F

, , ,
the chest plunger the right hand end of which is sho w n in section ;
,
-
G the slide valve ; H a lever by means o f w hich the steam chest

, , ,
-
plunger F may be reversed b y hand w hen expedient ; I I are reversing

valves ; K K are the reversing valve chamber bonnets ; and E E are
exhaust ports leading f rom the ends o f the steam chest direct to the
main exhaust and closed by the reversing valves I I
The piston C is driven by steam admitted under the slide valve
G w hich as it is shi f ted backward and f or w ard alternately connects
, , ,
opposite ends o f the cylinder A w ith the live steam pipe and e xhaust .
This slide valve G is shi f ted b y the auxiliary plunger F the latter
’
,
having hollow ends which are filled w ith steam and this issuing , ,
thro u gh a hole in each end fills the spaces betw een it and the heads
,
o f the steam chest in which it works Pressure being equal at each .

end this plunger F under ordinary conditions is balanced and

, , ,
motionless ; but when the main piston C has traveled f ar enough to

strike and open the reverse valve I the steam exhausts through the ,
port E from behind that end of the plunger F w hich immediately ,
shi f ts accordingly and carries w ith it the Slide valve G thus revers ,
ing the pump N o matter how f ast the piston may be traveling it
.
,
F ig 5 1
. . S e c t io n of Pum p C y l i d r Sh w i
n e o ng V lv Op r
a e e at e d w it h T a pp e t
must instantly reverse on touching the valve I I n its movement .
the plunger F acts as a slide valve to close the port E and is cushioned
o n the confined steam bet w een the ports and steam chest cover
-
.
The reverse valves I I are closed as soon as the piston C leaves them
by a constant pressure of steam behind them conveyed direct from
the steam chest through the ports sho w n by dotted lines .
The motion of the piston C Fig 5 2 is transmitted through the

,
.
,
r od M to the w ater piston in the cylinder B As the piston moves .

of the gine s already discussed as w ell as an untold number o f

en ,
o ther s o f more o r less merit ma y be properly classed ,

.
The special engines referred t o above were not mentioned for

the purpose o f studying them but rather to indicate that outside ,
an d di stinct from the steam engines classified and considered there ,
a re a large number o f special types that should not b e entirely ignore d .
MARI NE ENGI NES

The subj ect M arine Steam Engines is a broad and important
of
o n e and t o treat it properly would require o n e o r t w o volumes the

,
si z e o f this on e H o w ever it seem s desirable to discus s the subject

.
,
in a very general way in connection w ith the still broader subject of

T he Steam Engine and thus give the student a general idea o f
,
marine engine parts .
De finitio n o f T e r ms B e f ore taking up the subject it is thought

.
,
a dvisable to present a brief statement o f nautical terms used in
Fig 5 3
. . Pl an o f V e sse l S ho wi ng D ifl e r e n t
'
P rta s
descri b ing a vessel Fig 53 show s a plan o f a vessel The f ront part
. . .
A is c alled the b ow ; the extremity B is called the s ter n An object .
p l ac e d n
‘
e a r the b o w is said to be f or w ar d ; i f near the center C it is ,
a mids hip ; and i f n ear the stern it is af t An article i f placed so that

,
.
,
its maj or d imension i s parallel to the line A B i s said to be placed ,
for e a n d a f t T
. hus the cranksha f t o f a triple expansion engine o f a
vessel is located along the line A B and i s sometimes spoken o f as a
f ore and aft engine An article located crossw ise of the vessel that
- -
.
,
is at r igh t angles to A B is s aid to be placed a thwarts hip T o o n e

, , .
standing o n the deck f acing the b ow the s tar board side is o n his right ,
an d the l a r b oa rd o r p or t side o n his left

, , .
T he width o f a v essel F E is its b eam and the perpendicular ,

distance from its lo w est part to the sur face of the w ater is called the
draft The length o f a vessel is the horizontal distance betw een
.
perpendiculars dra w n at its extrem e ends The displacement o f a .
vessel is equal to the weight o f w ater it displaces and is usually

expressed in long tons .
The sp eed o f a vessel is usually expressed in k nots per hour but ,
is sometimes given in miles per hour A knot is equal to about .
1 % miles .
M e tho d s o f Pro p ul s io n Speaking in a general w ay the pro

.
,
p ulsion o f a steam vessel is accomplished by causing a mass o f w ater

adjacent to the ship to move in a direction opposite to that o f the
ship M otion is imparted to the w ater in one of the f ollo w ing three
.
w ays : (1 ) by paddle w heels ; (2) by scre w propellers ; and (3 ) by j ets

o f water o r hydraulic propulsion .
The oldest o f these three forms o f propulsion the paddle w heel , ,
is still much used in lake and river steamers and f erry boats ; b ut for
ocean going vessels and in many boats o n inland w aterw ays the
-
,
screw propeller has supplanted it J e t o r hydraulic propulsion has

.
not proved to be practical and f or this reason has never been used in
commercial work .
T Y P ES O F ENG I NES
Be a m T yp e The first steam vessels w ere fitted w ith paddl e

.
Wheels and as beam engines were the most common this f orm o f
, ,
engine was used I ts construction ho w ever w a s some w hat mo di

.
, ,
fie d fo r this service This arrangement of beam engine and paddle

.
w heel was used fo r many years and was applied to ocean vessels as
well as to small river boats I t is still used especially in this coun
.
,
try on river steamers and some coast steamers The beam is sup
, .
ported by a large A frame on the deck and the engines are a b out o n
-
,
a level with the sha f t .
Engines of this type take up rather more room than those now
in common use partly
,
because o f great size and also because o f the ,
shaft and paddle wheels Another disadvantage is that in heav y

.
w eather when o n e paddle wheel is thrown o ut o f the wate r the other

is deeply immersed and takes all the strain so that there is a tendency ,
to rack the boat T hen again if the boat is loaded heavily the pad
. ,
dle blades are ver y deeply imm ersed ; while i f light they barel y ,
touch the water I t is di fficult to handle the engines sat is f actoril y

.
under either condition .
I nc l ine d T yp e T he introduction of the screw propeller over

.
came these difficulties very largel y and at the same time required a
high speed engine At first the increased speed was supplied by the
.
,
use o f spur wheel gearing but gradually higher speed engines w ere
-
,
built and connected directly to the propeller shaft I t w as o f course .

, ,
difficult with small width at each Side o f the sha f t to use horizontal
engines therefore various arrangements o f inclined engines w ere
,
used be fore the vertical engine was finally chosen by al l as the stand
ard f orm for marine work I t is only in recent years that the verti
.
cal engine has become general in naval w ork and in merchant steamers .
V e rtic al T yp e I n merchant ocean steamers the common f orm

.
has three cylinders set in line f ore and a f t above the sha f t the cranks, , ,
being set 1 20 degr ees apart in order to give a more even turning
moment The three cylinders are worked triple expansion the
.
,
valves b eing usually o f the piston type on the high and intermediate
and double ported slide type o n the l ow Sometimes pisto n valve s
-
.
are used on all the cylinders Plain slide valves are n o t suitable .
f or high pressure w ork o f any kind While steam turbines are used
-
.
to some extent in o cean going vessels the majority o f ships in this

-
,
service are equipped w ith high speed vertical multicylinder engines

—
, ,
direct connected to the propeller shaft .
Cyl ind e r A rrange me nt The different arrangement o f marine

.
engine cylinders commonly found in Service is sho w n in Figs 5 4 to 5 7 . .
T a ndem a n d Cross Comp ou nd T yp es I n Fig 5 4 A is the

-
. .
,
tandem compound a r rangement w ith its singl e cran k ; B i s the cross

-
compound w ith cranks set 90 apart ; and C is the three cylinder °

-
compound w ith cranks set 1 20 apart I n arrangement C the high °

.
,
pressure cylinder is sometimes placed betw een the tw o l o w pressure -
cylinder s .
T rip l e Exp a ns ion T yp e

-
The cylinder arrangement Fig 5 5 .
, .
,
is f ound only o n the larger vessels and is spoken o f as the triple ,
expansion type I n this type there are three cylinders to each engine
.
,
and they are called the high intermediate and low pressure -
cylinders each succeeding one being o f larger volume than the one
,
preceding Fig 5 5 illustrates tw o arrangements o f the cylinders o f

. .
triple expansion engines I n arrangement A the cylinders f o l lo w

-
.
H B C
‘
F ig 5 4
. . Di gr
a am s of T an d em an d C r o ss - C o m p o un d C y li d r Arr
n e ange me n t s
Fig 5 5. . D i gr
a a m s S ho w i ng T ri p l E xp
e- an s o n i C y l i d r Arr
n e t
an g e m e n s
Fig 5 6
. . D iag r a ms Sh o wi n
g O t h r T ri
e
p l E xp e- ans oni C yl i d r Arr
n e an e m e nt s
g
each other in natural sequence ; this requires the least length o f

piping Arrangement B is frequently used but requires more piping
.
,
than arrangement A Another common arrangement is to put the

.
high pressure cylinder in the center o f the group I n any o f these

- .
systems the cranks w ould be set at giving a more nearly uniform

turning movement to the sha ft since each cylinder will develop ,
approximately o n e third the total horsepo w er o f the engine

-
.
Still other arrangements o f the cylinders o f triple expansion -
engines are f ound in Fig 56 Arrangement A gives the effect o f a . .
tandem compound betw een the high and the intermediate pressure
- -
cylinder and a cross compound betw een these tw o and the low
-
pressure cylinder ah arrangement which results in cranks being

—
Fig 5 7
. D i gra a m S h wi
o ng "d pl E xp
ua ru e- i
an s o n C y l i d Arr
n er an g e m e nt
set at 90 w ith the consequent uneven turning effect but it is some

°
,
times resorted to because o f lack o f space fo r all three cylinders in

line Arrangement B is a triple expansion engine having six c ylin
.
-
,
ders H ere the volume o f o n e intermediate pressure cylinder

.
-
is divided among tw o cylinders and the volume o f o n e l o w pressure ,

-
cylinder among three cylinders This f orm is very expensive and is .
not o ften used The arrangement requires less floor area than w ould
.
"
be required for the same po w er in a three cylinder engine -
.
u a dru p l e Exp a ns ion T yp e

-
T he last cylinder arrangement to be .
considered is f ound on the quadruple expansion engine In this type -

.
the steam goes f rom the high pressure cylinder to the first inter -
mediate then to the second intermediate and finally to the l o w

, ,
pr essure cylinder The volume o f each cylinder i s larger than that o f

.
the preceding cylinder There are many di ff erent arrangement s o f

.
cylinders possible w ith quadruple expansion engines Fig 5 7 sho w s

-
. .
the arrangement o f cylinders in their natural sequence w ith the f our

cranks set 90 apart which gives a slightl y more even turning e ff ort
°
,
Fig 5 8
. . Se c ti on o f Ty pi ca l V erti c a l ri E g i
Ma ne n ne
than is obtained w ith cranks at as in the triple expansion -
engine.
The idea in the design o f a quadruple expansion engine i s to -
produce an engine more economical in the use o f steam than is

obtained in any other type With high pressure steam say 200 .
-
,
pounds and over it gives a better economy in the use of steam than
,
does the triple e x pansion engine H o w e v er the sa v ing e ff ected i n

-
.
,
the use o f less steam is to a very large extent offset by an increase, ,
in first cost operating cost and general upkeep

, ,
.
Co mp ar is o n of M ar ine w ith S tat io nary Typ e s Fig 22 page 2 9 . .

, ,
and Fig 58 Sho w cross sectional vie w s o f marine engines In marine

.
-
.
w ork many different designs o f engines are used These tw o V iew s .
are intended t o present merely the general f eatures and charac

te r ist ic s o f the marine engine I n comparison w ith stationary .
engines attention is called to the different f orm o f f rame used lighter ,
frames di fferent details o f the connecti n g r o d and in the latter figure

, ,
the separate cran k shaft f or each cylinder and the singl e crosshead
guide Also the cylinders are o f complicated form and have double
.
w alls and the pistons are o f a cup shape

,
These points w ill be .
brought out more in detail in w hat f ollo w s .
EN G I N E DET A I LS
Cyl in d e r .general type o f steam cylinder for a marine engine

T he
consists of three distinct parts namely the shell the liner and the , , , ,
cover .
S hel l In Fig 5 9 the shell is the outer casting forming the out
. .
,
side cylinder w all the lo w er cylinder head and the steam ports
, ,
.
As its complicated f orm makes the casting o f the shel l a difficult

matter an iron is used that runs freely in the mould Sometimes the
,
.
low er cylinder head is not cast integral w ith the shell but is fitted to ,
it separately li k e the co v er .
Lin er The liner is the plain cylindrical casting o r bushing which

.
,
forms the inner cylinder w all Its use is made necessary b ecause .
the metal in the shell is o f such composition that it w ill not w ear well
if the piston is permitted to w ork directly o n it The material o f the .
liner is usually hard close grained cast iron I n some cases f orged
,
-
.
steel is used I t is secured to the shell by bolts through a flanged end

.
,
o r by stud bolts B u t o n e end is f astened to the shell the other end

.
,
being left fr e e to expand under the influence o f the higher tempera

tures to w hich the liner is exposed .
Cover The cover forms the upper end o f the cylinder Usually
. .
it is made o f steel to co mb ine li ghtness and stren gth Someti mes the .
more each cylinder of an engine has a separate cranksha ft These

, .
separate shafts are bolted together by flanges as show n in Fig 6 1 , . .
The dotted lines in this figure Show ho w in large sh a fts the center , ,
is sometimes made hollo w This is done to ma k e a sa v ing in w eight

.
and to remove inp e rfe c t portions usually found in the center The .
Fig 6 1
. . P ti
or on of M ar i E
ne n g ne i C r an k S h wio ng M e t ho d of B l ti
o ng Se c t i ons T o g et hr
e
center o f the shaft is the least effective o f any part o f it in resisting

tw ist ing forces and the outside is the most effective By using a
,
.
l ittle larger sha f t therefore and removing considerable metal from

, ,
around its center a shaft o f the same strength a s a solid o n e is

,
obtained w ith a material saving in weight The crankshafts are

,
.
F ig 6 2
. . Ty pi l M ri
ca a ne T h r us t B i
e ar n g
usually all made o f the same size so as to be interchangeable and thus , ,
require f ew er parts to be kept in stoc k .
Be ar ing s The bearing Fig 6 2 w hile n o t part o f the e n gine

.
,
.
, ,
w ill nevertheless be discussed at this point T his is called the thrust .
bearing and is u sed to relieve the engine o f the thrust caused by the
,
r evolving propeller in screw

p p
r o elled vessels T he propeller shaft
-
.
is turned w ith the collars C as a part it The cast iron box R of .

-
is secured to the frame of the vessel j ust aft o f the main engines and ,
the cap 0 is bolted to it as sho w n The collars C pre s s against ring s

,
.
B o f gun m etal o r brass and transmit the propeller thrust to them and ,
thence to the vessel R ings B are S plit and are prevented from turn
.
ing by the tongue piece F H oles P are f or lubrication and holes A

.
F ig . 63 . Ty p e of T hr u s t B riea ng in W hi c h Pr vi i
o s on Is Ma d e fo r T a king Up W ea r
are pro v ided for w ater cooli ng w hen needed Water may also be .
circulated through the base .
Fig 6 2 sho w s the p r inciple o f the thrust bearing but it is not

. ,
much used because no pro v ision is made fo r ta k ing up unequal w ear

betw een the brasses Fig 6 3 sho w s a type o f bearing in w hich pro
. .
vision is made fo r this f eature the wear being ta k en up by m eans o f ,
the nuts fitted to the long screw s at either side o f the thrust bearing .
The number o f collars required

T hrus t B ea ring Ca l cu l a tions .
in any given thrust bearing depends primarily o n the total thrust

that w ill come on t hem There may be a large number o f collars o f
.
small diameter or a small number of large diamete r The experience .
of the designer is usually the determining factor as to the number

used .
K no w ing the number of collars required their diameter may be ,
computed from the follo w ing formulas in w hich n i s numb er o f ,
collars ; D is diameter of collars ; d is diameter o f shaft ; P is total

thrust ; and p is safe allo w able pressure per square inch o f area w hich ,
is usually ta k en as 6 0 pounds per square inch .
First ta k ing the formula expressing the total thrust w e have ,
and substituting for p the value of 6 0pounds per sq . in .

, there results
the formula
(D d)
— 2 — 2
n
—
4 7 (D 2 —
d
2
) n
Transposing in the la s t formula and sol v ing for thevalue of D there ,
re sults the equation
w hich gi v es the diameter of collars required for the conditions

as sumed .
A UX I L I A R Y A P PA R AT U S
The auxiliary apparatus aboard a ship is far more numerous
than w ould be suspected by o n e not acquainted w ith it or even by
o n e familiar w ith the apparatus in stationary po w er plants The .
general features o f some of the more important pieces of apparatus ,
only w ill be described

,
.
R e ve r s ing M e c ha nis m The rever s ing m e chanism of large

.
marine engines is so large and heavy and at times has to be moved , ,
so quic k ly that it cannot be done by hand Consequently in some .

,
instances a small steam po w er cylinder is attached to the reversing

gears to m o v e them This apparatus is called the steam starting
.
-
gear and is under the control o f the engineer .

ST EA M E NGIN E S 85
The action o f
this gear Fig 64 is as follo w s : When the revers
,
.
,
ing lever o r handle is moved f rom the mid position A to B the rod
, ,
-
,
CE is moved to the left This m o v ement raise s the ro d H w hich is

.
,
c o nnected to the lever fulcrumed at T As the rod H raises the rod .

,
Fig 6 4
. . De t il
a s or S t eam S t rti G r
a ng ea
0 moves do w n w ard thus causing the arm M to move do w n w ard and

,
the arm N to move to the right T his movement of the arm N and
.
pin I causes a corresponding movement to the right of the reach rod

and link to w hich it is connected Thus it is readily seen that the
, .
movement o f the reversing lever A moves the link slightl y and at the
same time causes steam to be admitted to the po w er cylinder w hich ,
acts on the piston and aids in the movement of the links .
Co nd e ns e r s S u rfac e T yp e
. I n marine wor k the surface con
.
d enser is used almost exclusively because w ith this type the coolin g ,
water (sea w ater ) does n o t come in contact w ith the steam and the ,
latter can then be used over and over in the boilers J et condensers .
o n ocean vessels w ould pre v ent the continued use o f the condensed
steam because of the deposit the salt o f the w ater w ould lea v e on the
boiler tubes and Shell .
K eel T yp e I n small boats such as steam launches the surface

.
, ,
condenser would occupy much valuable room and add considerable

w eight so a substitute called the keel condenser is frequently used
, , , .
T his consists o f several ro w s o f copper tubes placed outside the hull

along the keel of the boat T he engine exhaust enters at o n e end o f
.
these tubes is condensed by the sea w ater in contact w ith the outside
,
o f the tubes and is then dra w n out o f the condenser by the air pump
,
and pumped back to the boiler This form o f surface condenser .
re q uires no circulating pump .
Pu mp s Cen trifu ga l T yp e T he pump most often used o n

. .
shipboard to circulate condenser cooling w ater is o f the centrifugal

type driven by an independent engine o r motor The absence o f
, .
valves in this kind o f pump is o f advantage as is also the f act that it ,
can be run through a greater range o f speed and consequently give , ,
greater volumes o f w ater when occasion demands O ftentimes the .
piping is so arranged that these pumps can dra w f rom the engine
room bilge and di s charge w ithout pas s ing the sludge through the
condenser .
A ir a n d V a cu u m T yp es Of the many k inds of air or vacuum

.
pumps used the one sho w n in Fig 6 5 has been chosen for description
,
.
as being a good example and o n e easy to understand The operation .
o f the pump is as follo w s : T he inlet E is piped to the outlet of the

condenser O n the u p stro k e o f the piston P a partia l vacuum is
.
-
,
f ormed bel ow it enabling the condensed steam and air in E to rush

,
through the f oot valves F and into the pump cylinder B belo w the
piston After reaching the U pper limit o f its stro k e P descends
.
, ,
producing a slight pressure o n the air and water entrained in the

cylinder w hich closes the f oot valves against the escape o f the c y l in
,
der contents As the piston continues the bucket valve s H in the

.
,
ST EA M ENGIN ES 87
piston are forced open permitting the escape o f air and w ater t o the
,
space ab o v e O n the next u p stro k e this a ir and w ater a re forced

.
-
o u t of the a n pump through the delivery valves A and the outlet N .
A small chec k val v e o r pet cock (not sho w n i n the figure ) is

,
-
,
usually located in the cylinder w all B j ust belo w the deli v ery val v es .
When in sufli c ie n t air comes through w ith the conden sed steam to
properly cushion the piston o n the u p stroke this val v e i s Opened to —
,
pro v ide the required air

for cushioning This air
.
does not affect the degree

o f vacuum because it is
,
on the discharge side o f

the pump w here pressure
,
on the piston is imma

t e r ial as regards vacuum
in the condenser .
Vacuum is measured
by gages similar to those
used f or measuring high
pressures but calibrated
,
to read in inches o f mer

cury instead o f pounds
per square inch A col .
um n o f mercury under
atmospheric pressure w ill

stand a bout 3 0 inches
high C o n s e q u e n t l y
.
,
since 3 0 inches o f mer F ig 6 5 S ti f Ai V m P mp

. . ec on o r or acuu u
cury is equal to about 1 5

pounds per square inch o n e inch o f mercury w ill be equal to 1 5
,
di v ided by 3 0 o r nearly o n e half pound per square inch the ex a ct

,
-
,
value being pounds per square inch Suppose the vacuum g age .
o f a condenser reads 26 This means there has been a reduction o f

.
pressure correspondi n g to 26 inches o f mercury or or .
pounds per square inch If the atmospheric pressure is

. pounds
per square inch then there remains in the condenser
, or
pounds per square inch absolute pressure .
B esi d es the auxiliary apparatus already mentioned there are ,

m any more large and small vessels w hich cannot be discussed

on
here such as machines used for ventilation forced draft steering

, , , ,
w eighing anchor operating hoists and capstans compressed air and

, ,
refrigeration machines and electric lighting

, .
P R O PU LS I O N
Pr oc e s s of When the engines are started and the
S tarting .
scre w s or paddle w heels o f a ship begin turning there I S no a p p r e c ia ,
ble m otion o f the ship fo r a short time During this short time the .
w ork done by the propellers is all used in overcoming the inertia o f

the vessel As the inertia is overcome the ship gradually begins to
.
,
move and increase its speed AS the speed increases the resistance
.
,
offered to the motion o f the ship through the w ater also increases .
When all the pow er o f the scre w s o r paddle w heels is used in over
coming the resistance o f the w ater to the passage of the ship through
-
it then the ship w ill be moving along at an approximately constant

,
speed .
R e s istanc e Fac to rs for S hip in M o tio n I n smooth quiet w ater .

,
’
the resistance o ffered to the ship s motion may be divided into three
elements namely : (1 ) frictional resistance o f th e hull ; (2 ) eddy
,
ma k ing resistance ; (3 ) w ave ma k ing resistance-

.
The most important o f these is the frictional resistanc e o r s k in ,
friction The amount o f this resistance depends o n the area and the
.
length o f the immersed surface o f the hull the roughness o f this ,
surface (w hether covered w ith barnacles sea w eed and the

,
-
,
speed o f the ship .
Eddy making resistance w hich is usually Small is caused by

-
, ,
eddy currents f ollo w ing j ust astern o f the ship and by the churn o f
the propellers .
Wave making resistance is caused by the w aves made at the

-
ship b o w .
Winds and w aves also o ffer resistance t o a ship but the amount ,
o f resistance due to these causes is di fficult to estimate .
V a riations of R es is ta n ce with S p eed of V ess el It has been sho w n .
by experiment that f or a given ship the resistances vary almost ,
directly as the square o f the speed and that the pow er required to
,
overcome these resistances varies almost as the cube o f the speed .
That is i f at a speed o f 1 0knots an hour a ship encounters a cer tai n

,
90 ST E A M EN GIN E S
economical speed the amount o f coal used at different Speeds is

,
determined by trial These amounts are then plotted as sho w n in

.
,
Fig 6 7 A S it stands this curve sho w s merely the coal consumed at

. .
,
different speeds but by dra w ing a line fr om 0 tangent to the curve

, ,
the most economical speed is found at the point o f tangency o r in ,
this case at N o r about 8 knots per hour If the coal used by the
,
.
auxiliary machinery is to be considered then C X the amount of , ,
this coal is laid off as show n and the tangent draw n from the n e w
, ,
5 /0 /Z"
w f ifl afs p ef H OUI
’ ‘ ‘
F ig 6 7
. . C rv P l tt d t
u e o e o S h ow M os tE c o no m i ca l S p d
ee of a S hip
origin at X This n e w line tangent at L gi v es a higher speed f or the

.
, ,
most economical o n e than that given f or the main engines only .
P R O PEL LER S
Although propellers are n o t strictly speaking a part o f marine , ,
engines yet the tw o are so closely related that a brief discussion

,
at this point seems desirable Screw propellers only w ill be considered

.
,
because they are used more extensively than any other device f or
propelling vessels o f various kinds .
De ta il s of S c r e w Pro p e l l e r A scre w propeller is a set of blades

.
,
usually constructed o f iron or bronze w hich are made to revolve in ,
the w ater at the stern o f the ship by being connected to an extension ,
o f the ma i n engine sha ft .

ST E A M E N GIN ES 91
Small propellers are usually cast w ith the hub and blades in
o n e piece but large ones have a central boss to w hich the blades are
,
bolted Propellers are made o f a variety o f metals including iron

.
, ,
steel bronze and gun metal

, , .
B l ades The general appearance o f a blade may b e seen from

.
Fig 6 8 Propellers may have tw o three o r four bl ades In merchant

. .
, ,
.
vessels the latter is most common .
Pitc h The pitch o f a scre w propeller

.
is the distance in the direction o f the axis o f

the scre w that w ould be traveled by a point
o n the blade during one revolution if there
w ere n o slip It is similar to the pitch o f an

.
ordinary lathe feed scre w but o f course is ,
much larger .
Dia meter The diameter o f a scre w

.
propeller is simply the diameter o f a circle

described by the extreme ends o f the blades .
The ratio o f the diameter t o the pitch of

a propeller is ordinarily from 1 to and
up to 1 to Thus f or a 14 foot diameter -
propeller the pitch w ould li k ely be from

feet to f eet .
Pro p e ll ing Ac tio n o f S c r e w Pro p e ll e r .
When a scre w propeller is revolving in a

given direction (for go ahead motion for -
instance ) the blades press o n the w ater as

,
the threads o f an ordinary scre w do upon

the threads in the nut The pressing of the .
blades o n the w ater causes the w ater to be

dri v en bac k w ard There is ho w ever a .
, ,
reaction caused by projecting this mass o f Fig 6 8 T y pi l S h p f ca a e o

P p ll r B l d
. .
w ater stern w ard w hich results in the ahead ro e e a e
motion o f the boat The useful w ork done by the propeller is the
.
w ork w hich f orces the w ater directly stern w ard o f course the
; ,
movement o f w ater in any other direction than stern w ard results

in a w aste pow er .
I f the screw w orked in an unyielding medium it w ould adva nce ,
a distance equal to its pitch at each revolution H ence the speed o f .

,
92 ST EA M E N GIN E S
the scre w per minute is the product of the pitch and the number o f
revolutions per minute .
E XAM P LE . Su pp ose a s cr w i f 1 8 f t pitch nd m k

e s o -
oo a a es 72 r v lu ti n
e o o s
m i nu t e Wh at is t he p d f th cr w i f t p m i n u t n d kn t
h ur "
p er s ee o e s e n ee er e a o s
.
p r e
SO LU T I ON .
1 8 X 72 t p m inu t
fe e er e
X 60 f t p
ee h ur er o
kn t p h u r
o s er o
Water is a yielding medium and fo r this reason the pressure

S lip .
o f the blades causes t he w ater acted o n to be driven back instead o f
remaining firm Then the actual speed o f the ship (w hen referred to
.
the undisturbed w ater at a slight distance from the ship ) is less than
the speed o f the scre w This diff erence is called slip S lip is the
. .
f s p eed o the a nd the s p eed

difier en c e b etw een the f s hip s c r ew o the ,
r el a tive to s til l w a ter It is expressed in f eet per minute and as a per

.
ce n t of the speed of the scre w .
EX AM P L E A hip i m vi n g
. s s o at t he r t f 1 6 kn t
a e o o s p er h uro . T he
crew h pitch f 1 9 f t n d m ak e s 9 7 r v lu ti on s m in u t W h at
lip "
s as a o ee a e p o er e .
is t he s
SO LU I ON
T .
1 9 X 97 = fee tp er m in u te = s p ee d of s cr we
1 6 X 6 ,08 0
fee tp er min u t e = s p e e d of s hip
60
Slip = = 222 f e e tp er m inu t e
2 22
. 1 204 p er c t
en
This may be expressed algebraically as follow s : Let S equal speed of

scre w ; s equal speed o f ship ; and L equal slip in feet per minute .
Then
L = S —
s
X 1 00 slip expressed in per cent
The slip thus f ound is not the actual slip but the apparent slip , .
It is not the actual or real slip because the screw does not act in still ,
94 S T EA M E N GIN ES
ou tb o ard d liv e ry v lv from ll p u m p h u ld r c iv e p ci l tt en tio n T he

e a es a s s o e e es e a a .
v lv e t j ac k t d the b ul kh d n d r g l tin g v lv h u ld b p en e d nd
a s o e s an ea a e u a a es s o e o a
in p ct d T h v lv in th m i n t m pip h u ld n ot b e cl d ti g htly th y
s e e . e a es e a s ea e s o o se or e
w ill b et f t w h n t m nt r
e s as e s ea e e s .
T he o il c u p n d l u bric t r h u ld b e x m ine d n d p u t in g d w rk ing

s a a o s S o e a a oo o
o rd r e n d tha n c ry w r t d dj ust d
e e ess a o s e s a e .
T h v ri u j i n t
e ah u ld b i n p ct d n d th g l n d p c k d
o s o s S o e s e e a e a s a e .
Pr ur a n d v c uu m g g
ess e h ou ld b e c onn e ct e d an d th hu t ff c o c ks
a a es S e S -
o
bri ght p art o f the m chi nery th t

T he li k ly to b e c m pl sh e d with
s a a ar e e o e s a
w at e r h o u ld b
s il d e o e .
A u xili ry n g i n ah o u ld b tri e d by t m i f p o sibl e ; i f n ot by h n d

e es S e s ea s , a .
Su ch au xili ri es the t ee ri n g e n g i n e circ u l ti n g

a as n g in es a n d the l ctric ,
a e s, e e
lighti ng n g in h u ld r c iv c ar fu l tt n ti n I n l l c
e es S o e th r e v r i n g
e e e a e o . a ases , e e s
e n g in h u ld b e trie d b ef o re u in g the m n en g n e nd b efo re en t rin g p rt it

e S o s ai i s a e o
s h u ld
o g i n b tri d t o m k
a a u r th t it w r k pr p rly
e e a e s e a o s o e .
T he m i n e n g i n h u ld b il d t l l th ru bbin g nd ro t ting p rt
a e s o e o e a a e a a a s .
A n i m p rt n t it m i the x m i n ti n f t he cr n k pit
o a e nds l l th w o r k i n ge a a o o a s a a e
p rt I f th s p rt
a s . n t x m in d
e e a m b tru cti n m y pre v en t th n g in
s ar e o e a e , so e o s o a e e e
f r m t rti n g
o s a T h m in n g in e. h u ld b e t ur n d throu g h t l t n
e a e ol u s S o e a eas o e r ev
tio n b th h e d an d t rn by h n d
, o a a as e , a .
In c f rc d dr f t i u d w ith cl
ase o e d t k h ld th draf t g g h u ld
a s se ose s o e o s, e a es s o
b e cl n e d n d fill d w ith w t r n d the i ti g ht d o r

ea a e h ou ld b x m in d n d
a e a a r- o s s e e a e a
rigge d T h f ns Sh ou ld b e c refu lly il d an d dj u t e d

. e a a o e a s .
T o S tar t Eng ine . I n starting an engine the engineer in charge

must use the kno w ledge gained from experience as no set rules w ill ,
apply t o all engines Fo r instance a small single cylinder engine is .

,
-
not started in the same manner as a large triple expansion engine -

.
In the follow ing w e w ill consider the types o f machinery most used
the triple expansion engine and surface condenser
-
.
I n general to start an engine it is first necessary to w arm the

,
cylinders and f orm a vacuum in the condenser ; the engine can then
be started b y admitting steam to the cylinders .
T 0 F orm V acuu m I t is usual to fit an independent circulating .
pump s o the K ingston o r sea val v e should be opened and the dis
,
-
charge val v e tested to see if it lifts readily The circulating pump is .
then started so that the condenser w ill not become heated by the
drains and exhaust steam The auxiliary air pumps should then be .
-
started to keep the main and auxiliary condensers free f rom w ater and
to form a partial vacuum If the air pump for the main condenser .
-
is independent it may be started so as to form a vacuum

,
.
T o Warm the E ngin es To w arm the engines all cylinder .

, ,
receiver and steam chest drains are put in communication w ith the
,
ST EA M E N G IN ES 95
condenser I n order to ascert ain w hether or n o t the drains are w ork

.
ing properly a b y pass arrangement is often fitted This arrangement

,
-
.
connects the drains to the bilges The j ac k ets are usually trapped to .
the ho t w ell or feed tan k s but can be drained directly to the bilges
,
.
If all the drains are in order open slightly the throttle val v e and al l
,
valves in the main steam pipe This w ill admit a little steam to the .
high pressure steam chest Steam is also admitted to the jackets to

-
.
assist in w armi n g the cylinders .
No w Open the by p ass valves a little to admit steam to the

recei v ers The steam in the recei v ers finds its w ay into the cylinders
.
and helps in the w arming u p To w arm both ends of the cylinders .
move the valve gear back and forth slo w ly from full gear ahead to
f ull gear astern The throttle m ay n o w be opened a little w ider
.
,
enough to set the eng i ne i n motion B y means of the reversing gear .

,
the cranks can be made to move bac k and forth w ithout making a
complete re v olution .
Op ening the T hrottl e We w ill assume that the engine is thor

.
oughly w arm and (as the drains are open ) f ree f rom w ater Steam is .
in the jac k ets and the starting engine and starting valves ready The .
centrifugal pump i s at w ork circulati n g w ater through the condenser

and either the auxiliary air pump o r an independent air pump is at- -
work .
To start the engines run the links into full gear ahead o r astern
,
and open the throttle valve In case the engines do not start use the
.
,
b y pass or auxiliary starting val v es The engines should be started

-
.
slo w ly and the speed gradually increased by admitting more steam .
After the engines ha v e made 200re v olutions o r more the drain cocks ,
may be closed .
Cau s es of F ail u re to S tart M arine engines may f ail to start f rom

.
many causes but if proper precautions are observed before trying to

,
start there should be no d ifli c u l ty Amo n g the causes w hich are not .
apparent f rom the exterior are

The throttle valve spindle may be bro k en .
The high pressure val v e (if a slide v a l v e ) may be o ff its seat and
-
admit steam t o both ends .
The engine m ay be gagged ; that is the throttle w ill supply ,
steam to o n e side o f the high pressure cylinder and the b y pass val v es
- -
admit steam to the opposite side o f the intermediate or l o w I n this .

case the engine w ill not move as the pressures are equalized I n
,
.
using the b y pass valves the valve o r valves should be used w hich
-
,
w ill produce a turning moment o n the shaft Let us suppose that

.
both the high and l o w pressure valves cover the ports and the inter
-
,
mediate slide valve is in such a position that steam can enter that
cylinder If no w the throttle is Opened the engine w ill not start
.
, ,
because both ports are closed If the b y pass valves to both receivers
.
-
are opened steam will be admitted to the proper side o f the inter
,
mediate piston Also the steam in the l ow pressure receiver w ill find
.
-
its w ay through the exhaust cavity o f the l ow pressure slide valve to -
the other side o f the intermediate cylinder The result w ill be that.
the engine will not start because the high and l o ware not available
for starting and the pressures o n the intermediate piston w ill balance .
I n this case steam should be admitted to the intermediate recei v er

o nly If steam is admitted t o the l o w pressure recei v er only it tends
.
-
,
to f orce the intermediate valve off its seat .
The opening of the w rong starting valves w ill frequently produce

a similar situation .
If the engine has become gagged it should be f reed from steam

,
.
This may be done by closing the throttle and moving the link
to the opposite extreme pos 1tion The engine can then be started
.
in this direction and then be quic k ly reversed ; o r it may be

started in the proper direction if the mistake is not repeated .
In case the engine w ill not start o n e of the follow ing conditions
,
may be the cause :

(a ) The valve stem may have become bro k en inside the chest or the
valve may have become loose on the stem .
(b ) On e of the eccentrics may be broken o r slipped on the shaft .
()c B earings set up too tightly o r too much compression on the

pac k ing in st ufli ng boxes often prevent starting .
The propeller may be fouled by a rope o r other obstruction .
(e ) The turni n g gear may not be disconnected ; that is the w orm ,
may still be in gear w ith the w orm wheel .
Adjustme nts Afte r S tarting After the engine has been running
.
for a short time the f ollo w ing adjustments Should be made

,
'
The speed of the feed pumps to maintain the proper w ater level
in the boilers .
The suppl y o f circulating w ater to the condensing equipment .

98 ST E A M E NGIN E S
the link in or out and adjusting the expansion gear It may e v en be .
necessary to reduce the speed for a time but this is not done unless ,
n ecessary as it causes delay

,
.
If the bearing is discovered to be hot the w ater service shoul d ,
not be applied as the sudden cooling may cause fracture I n this

, .
case the engine should be S lo w ed do w n o r stopped and the bearing

cooled w ith o il sulphur o r a mixture of soft soap w ater and o il
, , , ,
.
B earings that are lined w ith w hite metal should receive special
attention as the w hite metal soon becomes plastic and melts at
,
about 4 00 F °
.
The w ater douche should be used only in extreme cases and w ith
caution because it may cause f racture and is likely to corrode and
,
destroy the bearings I f w ater must be used the parts should be

.
,
cleaned and oiled as soon as the eng ines stop .
H o t Ro d s Piston rods and val v e rods are often k ept lubricated

.
by means o f a large brush called a sw ab Frequent ly in starting a , .

,
man w ith a sw ab is stationed to keep the rods cool If these rods .
become w arm because o f tight glands they may be cooled by slac k ing ,
back the gland and applying w ater and o il by means o f a s w ab o r

syringe If the rod is hot and w ater is applied o n e side may be
.
,
cooled and shortened ; the result w ill be a bent rod I nstead o f using .
w ater the engines should be eased

,
I f the rod cannot be felt a fe w .
,
drops of oil or w ater syringed on the rod w ill Show w hether o r not it
is hot . If hot the w ater w ill hiss or the oil w ill burn and cause
,
smo k e .
As w ith bearings piston rods that are pac k ed w ith metal pac k ing
,
should receive careful attention as the pac k ing may run and cut the ,
rods The principal causes for hot rods are glands t oo tight or not
.
properly pac k ed piston rod not in line and insufficient lubrication

, ,
.
K no c k s B earings should be adj usted w hile the engines are

.
running I f a bearing is loose it w ill knock at both ends o f the

.
,
stro k e Usually knocks can be located by the sound o r by the f eeling

. .
K noc k ing in the cylinder may be due to a loose or bro k en piston ring ,
piston loose o n the r o d o r a nut o r bolt loose If k nocking occurs

,
.
,
open the cylinder and jacket drains to be sure it is not due to an

accumulation o f w ater I f the noise continues at various speeds it
. ,
is probably due to looseness o f the piston rings If this is the case .

,
the rin g mus t b e re scra p ed an d fitted -

.
J ac k e ts . pressures i n the jackets should be maintained at

T he
the desired amount T he jac k et drains are led either to the conden ser
.
o r to the f eed tank If led to the feed tan k the temperature o f the
.
,
feed w ater is then raised The j ac k ets should be w ell drained as

.
,
w ater causes a crac k ling noise at each stro k e The re m edy is to open .
the drains w ide and w hen clear of w ater regulate the drain val v es
, ,
by increasing the opening .
Bil g e s T he bilge pumps should be at w or k constantly w hile the

.
vessel is steaming so that w ater w ill n o t accumulate in the bilges or

,
crank pits The cran k pits should not be in communication w ith

.
the bilges o r the o il from the crank pits w ill be spread over the
,
bilges If the stokehold bilges empty into the engine room bilges
.
,
the bilge w ater should be strained o n account o f the fine coal in the
sto k eholds Strainers should be carefully attended to as fine coal
.
, ,
w aste and articles carelessly left in the bilges are li k ely to cho k e them
,
.
I t is considered good practice to pump from w ells formed in the bilges

and covered w ith strainers .
Lin k ing Up When starting the links are placed in full gear
.
, .
When running at the required speed the engine is lin k ed up so that ,
the expansive w or k ing o f the steam may be utilized The best .
position o f the lin k s fo r a given speed is determined by expe rience .
Trial w ill Sho w at w hat position the engine w ill run smoothly ,
economically and w ithout too much noise The throttle valve should
,
.
be w ide open so that steam will enter the high pressure chest at
,
-
nearly boiler pressure I f the engine is running at reduced speed it

.
,
is a good plan to lin k up the high pressure engine by the use o f the -
block in the slot o f the arm o n the w eight shaft T his w ill increase .
the total ratio o f expansion but w ill n o t reduce the port opening o f the
,
intermediate and l o w pressure cylinders I f there is any probability

-
.
o f a change i n speed the engineer in charge should see that the start
,
ing engine is w armed and drained from time to time and be sure that
it is ready f or use Grunting o f the slide val v es is sometimes stopped
.
by running the links into full gear for a short time then adjusting ,
them in a slightly d ifl e r e n t po s ition .
M ark ing O ff Nuts I n order to have a record of adj ustments

.
and to aid in adj usting bearings the follow ing mar k s are made At , .
each corner o f the hexagonal nut near the f ace that bears o n the
washer a number is stamped as sho w n in Fig 6 9
, T he washer is , . .
1 00 ST E A M E N GIN ES
prevented from moving by some device A part o f the circumference .
o f the w as her is mar k ed o ff in say 1 0 divisions about o n e half inch

, ,
-
apart These di v isions are then sub di v ided and numbered It is

.
-
.
then easy to record the position of the nut by noting w hat number on
the w asher coincided w ith the corner
o f the nut Thus 1 o n 1 5 o r 2 o n 8 5 .
—
Re fitting Be ar ing s To find o ut .
w hether o r not a bearing needs r efit

ting and to ascertain the amount o f
play a lead is ta k en T he cap is first ,
.
removed and a piece of lea d w ire is .
laid along the j ournal parallel to the

axis Some engineers place tw o pieces .
around the j ournals near the ends and

Fig 6 9 M k i g N t
. . ar nd W h ru s
others
an
place
as
them
e s
diagonally The .
cap is then replaced and scre w ed do w n

hard o n the liners The cap is again removed and the leads taken
.
o ut and examined They should be flattened uniformly The

. .
thic k ness show s the clearance If the mar k s o n the nuts at w hich
.
the leads w ere ta k en are noted they may be compared w ith the ,
marks and leads taken sometime after w ard and the location and
extent o f w ear k no w n .
I f the leads Sho w that the bearing needs refitting the caps are ,
first remo ved and the j ournal caps and oil w ays cleaned The , ,
.
j ournal is then carefully calipered and if found o v al cut or rough , , , ,
should be filed all over until smooth and true This process requires .
considerable care an d skill f or the n e w surface must be concentric

w ith the axis The filed surfaces are smoothed by an o il stone or
.
emery If emery is used care must be taken to clean all surfaces

.
,
.
After the j ournals are in proper condition the brasses if used , , ,
are fitted by filing and scraping A little red lead smeared o n the .
j ournal w ill assist in the fitting The brasses should be eased a w ay

.
at the sides as the metal at those points is of no assistance; but

,
increases the friction .
If the bearin gs are lined w ith w hite metal they must be relined ,
w hen the w hite metal is w orn through To do this a mandrel of the .
same size as the j ournal is placed in po sition in the bearing and the
molten metal poure d in or the strips o f white metal are hammered
1 02 ST E A M EN GIN ES
engines stop ; in this case put o n a f eed pump to keep the condenser -
free f rom w ater The circulating engines may be stopped soon after
.
the engines stop .
As in case o f entering harbor w atch receiver and jacket pressures , ,
and stop the supply o f w ater to bearings etc If there is any chance , .
o f starting again soon keep the rever s ing engine w arm and w ell
,
drained .
P recau tions f or Long S tay in Por t If the stay in port is to be .
long the main condensers and air pumps should be w ell drained and
,
-
several o f the boilers may be cleaned and repaired i f necessary T he .
fires s hould be allo w ed to burn themsel v es o ut g radually If the stop .
is f or a short time the fires should be banked

,
.
Eme rg e nc ie s What to d o in emergencies depends upon the

.
arrangement o f the machinery T he kind and number o f engines .
and their arrangement and capacities o f the condensers and aux iliary
machinery often determine w hat course to pursue in case any part
brea k s o r gets o ut o f position .
Cylinder H ead B rok en If a cylinder head breaks it should be

'
.
,
repaired i f proper means are at hand I f it cannot be repaired the .

,
steam port w hich admits steam to that end may be bloc k ed up by

driving in plugs o f soft pine and the engine ru n single acting This is -
.
comparati v ely simple i f the val v e is a plain slide but with a piston ,
valve the m any ports ma k e it more difficult I f a cylinder head o f a .
triple expansion engine brea k s and o n e engine must run single acting
—
,
-
,
the e x pansion gear should be arranged so that the w ork w ill be

properly d ivided .
F ractu r e in the Cr a nks haft What to do in this case depends upon

.
many conditions I f the engine is o f the multicylinder type and the

.
,
cran k shaft i s made in interchangeable lengths fit the spare length ,
in place o f the disabled o n e I n case no spare length i s carried and

.
the crankshaft o f the l o w pressure engine i s damaged slightly change

-
,
the l o w pressure length to the high pressure engine and place the
- -
high pressure length in place o f the l o w T he l o w pressure length

-
.
-
transmits the m ost pow er If the damage is considerable such as

.
,
the brea k ing o f the cran k pin the length cannot be used and the ,
high pressure engine must be disconnected I f the pumps are w orked

-
.
from the high pressure crosshead repair the bro k en shaft place it
-
, ,
in the high pressure engine and block up the steam ports to the
-
,
ST EA M ENGIN ES 1 03
high pressure cylinder The po w er is then deve l oped in the in ter

-
.
mediate and l ow pressure cylinders ; the amount o f pow er trans

-
mitte d to the high pressure cranksha f t being j ust su fficient to w or k

-
the pumps Probably it w ill be necessary to run the engines slo w ly

.
be cau s e o f the w ea k s haft .
P is to n B rok en If the piston piston rod o r v al v e stem become

.
, ,
broken and cannot be repaired the damaged engine must be d is ,
connected and the po w er f urnished by the others .
Air P u mp B rok en I n case the air pump brea k s and cannot be

-
.
-
repaired the exhaust may be carried to the deck and the engines
,
run n o n condensing This is a great disadvantage i f the amount o f

-
.
fresh w ater carried is slight and the ship is f ar f rom port I n case no .
separate exhaust i s possible the auxiliary air pumps may be con,

-
n ec t e d and the ship proceed I n most cases ho w ever the auxiliary

.
, ,
air pumps are not o f su fficient capacity to remove all o f the c o n

-
d e n se d exhaust steam and the air ; therefore n o vacuum w ill be ,
carried but the condensation may be returned to the boilers

, .
B e nt Pis ton Rod I n the case o f a small rod and a long slight
-
.
,
bend the rod may b e straightened by placing it in a lathe and

,
applying a po w erful lever A large r o d o r o n e w ith a quick bend

.
, ,
should be heated to a dull red in a w ood fire The rod is then placed .
in a large lathe and straightened by an hydraulic j ack In doing this .
w ork care must be ta k en that the r o d is not heated too ho t does not ,
scale and tha t the points o f contact are protected by copper plates
, .
E ccen tr ic B r ok en If the go ahead eccentric o r eccentric rod

.
-
brea k s and cannot be repaired the g o astern eccentric can be shi fted
,
—
in its place T he engine w ill n ow run ahead but cannot be reversed

.
,
.
The g o astern end o f the links must be kept f rom dropping by some
-
flexible support such as a rope o r chain

, .
Another method is to disconnect the connecting rod f rom the

crankpin and crosshead o f the disabled engine and block up the ,
steam ports so that the steam w ill fl o w to the other cylinders by the
shortest passage T he piston should be secured o n the bottom o f the
.
cylinder . T he valve should b e removed After removing the .
broken valve gear the engine is ready to start This method may be
, .
used if the pumps ar e worked f rom the l o w pressure crosshead and -
the l o w pressure engine is intact I f ho w ever the high pressure

-
.
, ,
-
eccentric is broken and the pumps are worked f rom that crosshead ,
1 04 ST E A M E N GIN E S
the same method may be pursued as described for a fractured crank

sh aft That is the valve gear should be removed the ports block ed
.
, , ,
and the piston the piston rod crosshead and connecting r od left in
, , ,
place The moving parts of the high pressure engine w ill then work
.
-
the pumps by means of the pow er transmitted to the high pressure

-
crank T he engine must be run slow ly but can be reversed

.
, .
ST EA M EN GIN ES
PAR T II
M ECH A NI CA L AN D T H ER MA L EFFI CI ENCY
The brief historical revie w and the study o f the various types
o f engines have served t o unfold the degree o f perfection that
has been attained in the design and details o f construction o f the

modern steam engine From a mechanical standpoint the mod
.
,
ern engine i s highly e fficient A mechanical e fficiency that is

.
, ,
B ra k e horsepo w er
o f f rom 85 to 95 per cent i s n o t infrequently
I ndicated horsepo w er
obtained An actual test o f a 1 2 in ch X 1 9 % in c h X 1 5 inch tandem
.
- - —
compound Corliss engine operating non c o n de n sm g gave a mechan

-
ical efficiency o f 94 per cent That i s to say if the engine w a s

.
,
developing 1 20 horsepo w er in the cylinders that , horsepo w er

w ould be delivered by the engine to the fly w heel I n other w ords
.
,
the horsepo w er used in overcoming the f riction o f the various moving

parts w a s only o r 6 per cent o f the total horsepo w er developed .
Lo w T he r mal Effic ie ncy I nhe r e nt From the stand p oint o f

.
thermal efficiency ho w ever the modern engine i s very inefficient

, , ,
but it i s much more e fficient than the older types Even the maxi .
mum thermal e fficiency obtained i s only about 1 5 per cent and , ,
under f avorable conditions thi s v e r y low figure may be so reduced

'
that the engine i s operated at a great economic loss I t i s n o w .
proposed to briefly point o u t some o f the causes fo r the very low

thermal efficiency obtained and to indicate some o f the means that
have been employed to increase the thermal output o f the steam
engine I n order to make this study it becomes necessary to again
.
refer to steam and its properties I t i s w ell kno w n that steam

.
contains a great deal o f heat and that this heat can be converted
,
into useful w ork by allo w ing the steam to pass from the high tem
e r a t u e o f the heat generator to the lo w er temperature o f the
p r
refrigerator during this change giving u p heat T here are several

,
.
1 06 ST EA M E N GIN ES
forms heat engines all o f w hich convert the heat contained in

of ,
some substance into w or k The theoretically perfect engine shall .
be considered first and after that the modi fications that go to make
,
up the steam engin e o f today .
I dea l En gin e The theoretical engine Fig 70 is supposed

.
, .
,
to receive heat from the generator at constant temperature T 1 until

communication is interrupted at B The w orking substance expands .
to C without losing o r gaining any heat from external sources until

the temperature o f the refrig
crator i s reached T he engine .
now rej ects heat at the constant

temperature T 2 o f the refrigera
tor and then compresses the
w orking substance w ithout loss
o r gain in the q uantity o f heat
until the temperature o f the

heat generator i s reached These .
are ideal conditions and if ful

Fig 7 0 T h r t i l I di t Di g m
,
. . eo e ca n ca or a ra
filled the e fficiency o f the per ,
feet engine will depend only o n the di fference betw een the tempera
ture at which heat i s received and rej ected o r in other w ords it , ,
depends only upon the difference in temperature betw een the gen
crator and the refrigerator .
If T 1 equals the absolute temperature o f the heat received

and T 2 equals the absolute temperature o f the heat rej ected then ,
the thermal e fficiency E o f the engine w ill be represented by the

form u la
Or , in other w ords the e fficiency equals the absolute temperature

,
o f the heat rejected subtracted from the absolute temperature o f

,
the heat received and the remainder divided by the absolute tem
,
p e r a t u r e o f the heat received .
EX A M P LE G iv en an n g in u i ng st am t 1 20p ou n d ab solu t e pr ssu re

xh u ting at atm osph ric pr su r W h t i th th rm l effici n cy "
. e e s e a a s e ,
and e a s e es e . a s e e a e
S OLU T IO N T he ab ol u t
. t m p r atu r c orr p on ding t 1 20 p u n d
s e e e e es o o s
pr essu r e is n d the b solu t t emp er atu r e of the

or a a e
ex h au s t is 2 1 2 + or T h en
full length of the cylinder and the clearance space must be filled with
,
steam w hich does very little w ork The theoretical and actual
,
.
cards are sho w n in Fig 7 1 . .
M ec han ica l L oss es It has been sho w n that the efficiency of

.
the theoretical engine is purely a thermal consideration ; the e fficiency

o f the actual engine ho w ever is largely a mechanical matter
,
The ,
.
unit o f work i s the horsepo w er w hich corresponds to the develop ,
ment o f foot pounds per minute As 778 foot pounds are .
equivalent to o n e B ritish Thermal U nit foot pounds per ,
minute o r o n e horsepo w er is equivalent to

, or ,
B ritish Thermal Units N o w if a certain engine uses

. B ritish
F ig . 71 . Su p p
er o se d Id ea l an d At
c ua l I di t r D i g r
n ca o a a ms
T hermal Units per horsepo w er per minute it is evident that its ,
e fficiency will only be o n e half o r 5 0 per cent because -

is one , ,
half o f H ence it may be said that the e fficiency of the actual

,
B ritish Thermal Units per horsepo w er per minute

This e fficiency is al w ays much less than that of the perfect engine .
A NA LY S I S O F LO SS ES
The effect o f so me o f the losses in the steam engine and the

'
methods fo r decreasing them w ill now be considered .
R ad iatio n In the first place the metal w alls o f the cylinder

.
, ,
being good conductors o f heat become heated by the steam within ,
and transmit this heat by conduction and radiation to the air o r

external bodies With the cylinder w ell lagged much less heat is
.
,
lost by radiation If the la ggin g w ere p erfect and the temperature

.
ST E A M E N GIN E S 1 09
of the cylinder remained the same as the temperature o f the steam

throughout the stroke there w ould be n o loss b v radiation but heat
, ,
w ould still be lost by conduction to the different parts o f the engine .
Coo l ing b y Exp a ns io n D uring expansion the temperature and

.
,
pressure o f the steam decrease as the volume increases and the tem ,
p e ra t u r e at exhaust i s much less than the temperature at admission .
In the perfect engine the w orking substance after exhaust i s c o m

,
pressed to the temperature at admission but in the actual engine ,
much o f this steam i s lost and the compression o f a part o f it is

incomplete so that its temperature i s less than the temperature at
,
admission .
S te a m Co nd e ns at io n a nd Re Evap o ratio n =
Consider an engine
.
operating w ith admission at 1 00 pounds absolute and exhaust at

1 8 pounds absolute From steam tables the temperature at admis
.
sion is found to be and at exhaust T he metal w alls

o f the cylinder being good conductors and radiators o f heat are
, ,
cooled by the l o w temperature o f exhaust so that the entering steam,
in passing through ports and into a cylinder i s subjected to a tem

p e ra t u r e o f more than 1 00 cooler than the
°
steam T his means that .
heat must flow from the steam to the metal until both are o f the
same temperature Thi s causes the steam to give up part o f its
.
latent heat and a s saturated steam can not lose any o f its heat
,
w ithout condensation the cylinder w alls become covered w ith a film

,
o f moisture usually spoken o f as initial condensation

,
This co mden .
sation in simple unjacketed engines w or k ing under f air conditions

, ,
may easily be 20per cent o r more o f the entering steam T he mois .
ture in the cylinder has of course the same temperature as the

, ,
steam ; it has simply lost its heat o f vaporization .
Although metal i s a good conductor o f heat it can not give up ,
or absorb heat instantly ; consequently during expansion the tem ,
p e r a t u r e o f the steam falls mor e rapidly than that o f the cylinder .
This allo w s heat to flow from the cylinder w alls to the moisture o n
them As fast as the steam expands so that the pressure in the c ylin
.
der becomes less this condensation w ill begin to evaporate As the

, .
pressure falls it requires less and less heat to f orm steam and there ,
fore more and more o f this moisture w ill be evaporated At release

, .
the pressure drops suddenly more heat at once flo w s from the cylinder
,
walls , and r e eva p oration continues throughout the e xhaust

-
Pro b .
1 10 S T EA M E NGIN ES
ably all o f the w ater remaining in the cylinder at release is n o w

r e evaporated
-
blo w s o u t into the air o f the condenser and is lost
, ,
as far a s useful w ork i s concerned .
The steam that i s first condensed in the cylinder does no w or k ;

its heat i s used to w arm up the cylinder and later w hen it is r e e v ap , ,
-
orated it w orks only during a part o f the expansion and at a reduced

,
e fficiency because it is r e evaporated at a pressure and consequently

,
-
, ,
at a temperature very much lo w er than that o f admission If the .
cut o ff i s short perhaps 20per cent o f the steam condensed may be

-
,
r e e v aporated during expansion ; i f the cut off is long

-
1 0 per cent -
,
may be r e evaporated the rest remaining i n the cylinder at release

-
, ,
still in the form o f moisture T hus some o f the entering steam passes
.
through the cylinder a s moisture until a f ter cut off and still more -
,
passes entirely through w ithout doing any w or k .
S uppose an engine i s using 3 0 pounds o f steam per ho r se p o w e

per hour and admission i s at 1 00pounds absolute The latent heat .
o f vaporization at this pressure i s 884 B ritish Thermal Units per
pound I f the condensation amounts to 33 % per cent then 1 0pounds

.
,
are condensed and there i s lost 1 0times 884 o r B ritish Thermal ,
Units per hour o r per minute ; and since

, B ritish T hermal
Units represent 1 horse p ower there i s lost by condensation ,
divided by o r 3 5 horsepower (nearly ) If the cut o ff i s short

—
.
-
ened the condensation increases and may amount to 5 0 per cent

,
.
Of course ver y much less ste am i s used at a short cut o ff than w ith
,
-
a long cut off and doubtless in many cases 5 0per cent o f the steam
-
,
at short cut off is not as great an absolute quantity as 3 0per cent at

-
a lo n g cut off -
.
Ex haus t W a ste In addition to the actual loss from condensa

.
tion in the cylinder there is still another loss due to r e evaporation

,
-
.
Suppose a s before that 1 0 pounds o f s team a r e condensed in the

, ,
cylinder and that 20per cent o f this i s r e—evaporated during e x p an

,
sion Thi s w ill leave 8 pounds to be r e evaporated during e x haust

.
.
- .
Suppose the exhaust i s at 3 pounds above atmospheric pressure o r

1 8 pounds absolute (about) T hen the heat o f vaporization i s
.
B ritish Thermal Units per pound o f steam and it w ill requir e 8 times ,
or B ritish T hermal Units to evaporate the 8 pounds ,

.
All o f this heat is taken f rom the cylinder leaving the engine much ,
c ool er th an it wo uld b e wer e it not f or this r e evaporation This -

.
The application o f the idea o f multiple expansion o r compound ,
ing has materially reduced the losses both by lessening the amount
,
o f condensation and also by utilizing the r e evaporated steam and -
the steam that leaks by the piston w hich in some cases mav be c o n
,
s ide r a b l e and this important improvement w ill be discussed first

, .
In addition other means have been employed f or the purpose o f

,
increasing the economic performance o f the steam engine as for ,
instance jack etin g s u p er heatin g and the u s e of con dens ers

, , , .
MU LT I PLE EX PA NS I O N
T wo engines may be used together o n the same shaft partly ,
expanding the steam l n o n e o f the cylinders and then passing it over

to the other to finish the expansion On e advantage from this .
arrangement is that the parts can be made lighter The high pres .
-
sure cylinder can be o f much less diameter than would be possible

if the entire expansion w ere to take place in o n e cylinder This o f .
,
course makes the pressure exerted o n the piston rod much less and
, ,
the piston r o d and connecting rod can thus be made much lighter .
The l o w pressure cylinder must be larger than it other w ise w ould

-
be but its parts need not be much heavier because the pressure per
, ,
square inch i s al w ays l o w .
This arrangement gives not only the advantage o f lighter parts ,
but a decided increase o f economy over the single cylinder type -

.
If attention is given to the matter a loss o f economy would be ,
expected because the steam i s exposed to a much larger surface

,
through w hich to lose heat but the gain comes from another source
,
and is su fficient to entirely counterbalance the effect o f a larger cyl

inder surface .
Le s s Co nd e ns atio n When very high pressure steam and a large

.
ratio o f expansion i s used the difference bet w een the temperature

,
o f the entering a n d o f the e x haust steam is great Fo r instance .

,
suppose steam at 1 60 pounds (gauge ) pressure enters the cylinders

’
a n d the exhaust pressure i s 2 pounds (gauge ) t he d iffe r e n c e in tem ,
p e ra t u r e as ta k en f rom steam tables is o r
This difference becomes nearly 2 3 0degrees i f the steam i s condensed

to about three pounds absolute pressure T he cylinder and ports o f .
the engine are cooled to the low temperature o f the e x haust steam
and as we have seen a considerable quantity o f the entering steam
, ,
ST EA M E NGIN E S 1 13
is condensed to give up heat enough to raise the temperature o f the

cylinder to that o f the entering steam As the ratio o f expansion .
increases the difference in temperature increases and consequently

, ,
the amount o f steam thus condensed also increases To keep this .
initial condensation as small as possible the range o f temperature ,
must be limited that i s it must not have as great a difference betw een
, ,
admission and e x haust To do this the expansion o f the steam

.
must be divided bet w een tw o o r more cylinders .
I t w ill be remembered that the great trouble Watt found with

Ne w c o m e n s engine w a s its great amount o f condensation and he
’
,
stated as the l aw which all engines should try to approach that the ,
cyl in der s hou ld b e k ep t as hot a s the s tea m w hic h en ters it T his i s to .
avoid c ondensation when steam first enters If instead o f expand .

,
ing the steam in one cyli nder it be expanded partly in o n e and then
,
finished in another it w ill have passed o ut o f the fir st cylinder before

,
its temperature has dropped a great deal and consequently the ,
cylinder walls w ill be hotter than they would have been i f the e x p an
sion had taken place entirely in o n e cylinder T his would then .
reduce the amount o f steam condensed T he importance o f this .
may not be evident at first b ut it makes a great difference in the

,
economy o f the e n gine If there i s less condensation there will be

.
,
l ess moisture to r e evaporate and consequently less exhaust w aste

-
, ,
hence there will be a saving in two w ays .
M e tho d s o f Co mp o und ing I n a compound engine the steam

.
i s first admitted to the smaller o r high pressure cylinder and then

,
-
,
exhausted into the larger o r l o w pressure cylinder

,
-
, .
Suppose steam at 1 6 0 pounds (ga u ge ) pressure i s admitted to a

cylinder and the ratio o f expansion is such that the steam is exhausted
,
at about 6 0pounds (gauge ) pressure ; then the difference of te m pera

ture i s or
If now the steam when exhausted from the first cylinder enters
a second and is allo w ed to complete its expansion so that the exhau s t ,
pressure i s about tw o pounds (gauge ) pressure the difference o f ,
tem p erature in the cylinder w ill be or
Then fo r the simple engine if the exhaust pressure is tw o pounds

,
(gauge ) the difference o f temperature i s

, degrees while in the ,
compound engine this difference i s di v ided into tw o parts ,
degrees and degrees T he c y li nd er condensation fo r b oth

.
1 14 S T EA M ENGI N ES
cylinders o f the compound engine will be much less than i f the to tal
expansion took place in a single cylinder The cylinders should be .
so proportioned that the same quantity o f work may be done in each .
I f there are tw o stages o f expansion the engine is called simply ,
comp oun d ; three stages trip l e ; and f our qu adr up l e

, , .
Ex haus t W as te Utiliz e d B esides reducing the excessive co nden

.
sation there is still another gain in using multiple expansion I t has

, .
been shown how much heat i s lost by the exhaust waste which in
.
,
the simple engin e blows into the air o r into the c ondense r and is
entirely lost I n the multiple expansion engin e the exhaust and
.
-
r e evaporation from o n e cylinder passes into the next and does w ork
-
there ; furthermore any leakage f rom the high pressur e cylinder is

,
-
also allo w ed to do w ork in the low pressure cylinder -

.
J A C K ET I N G
The most primitive method o f e ffecting steam economy is b y

jacketing w hich principle Watt early recognized and adopted T his
, .
method reduces the loss due to cylinder condensation by supplying

heat to the s team while it i s in the cylinder that is by surrounding , ,
the cylinder with an iron casting and allo w ing live steam to circulate
in the annular spac e thus f ormed T he cylinder cover s are also .
made hollow to permit a circulation o f live steam A cylinder having .
the annular space A Fig 72 filled with steam is said to be j acketed

, .
, .
A lining L i s o f ten used in jacketed cylinders .
Func tio n of J ac k e t The f unction o f the j acket i s to supply

.
heat to the cylinder walls to make up f or that abstracted during

expansion and exhaust so that at admission the cylinder will be as
,
hot as possible T he result i s that the di fferenc e in temperature

.
,
betw een the cylinder walls and the entering steam i s considerably
less than in engines where n o j acket is used Condensation is there .
f ore reduced and sinc e heat flo w s f rom the jacket to the cylinder
,
during expansion a much larger amount o f this condensation is

,
r e evaporated before release and it thus has an opportunity to do

-
some work in the cylinder T his leaves a comparatively small

.
amount o f exhaust waste and the hea t thus a b stracted is made up

from the steam in the j acket Since a large amount o f heat is given
.
up by the jacket steam a good deal o f it must be condensed Thus

,
.
“
the q u estio n is ask ed : Wh at is the advantage o f thi s me th od over
1 16 ST EA M E N GI N ES
S av ing Due to J ac k e t ingIt is evident that a large part o f the

.
heat o f the steam jacket flo w s to the cylinder during exhaust and is
thus entirely lost in the simple engine In the triple engine ho w .
,
e v er thi s heat passes into the intermediate and l o w pressure c yl in

,
-
ders ; consequently w e might expect a greater gain from using a

jac k et o n a triple engine th an o n a large simple engine The main , .
advantage o f the j ac k et has been pre v iously pointed o u t and as ,
in all cases the gain i s small there i s to be found a considerable ,
diversity o f opinion as to its real ad v antages On some engines .
there is undoubtedly little if any gain the largest gain being in the ,
smaller engines o f say 200 horsepo w er and under On very small

, ,
.
engines such as a 5 in c h X 1 0 inch engine w hen developing only o n e

,
— -
and o n e half horsepo w er under light load the gain is as much as

-
,
3 0 per cent On a 1 0 horsepo w er engine the gain might be as

.
-
much as 2 5 per cent w hile o n engines o f about 200 horsepo w er the

,
gain would probably be 5 to 1 0 per cent for simple condensing

a n d compound condensing and from 1 0 to 1 5 per cent f or triple
,
expansion The sa v ing o n l arge engines o f say

. horsepo w er , ,
is very small the reason being that large engines offer less cylinder
,
surface per unit o f volume than small ones and hence ha v e propor ,
tio n at e l y less cylinder condensation The very small engines in .

,
w hich the gain w ould be the greatest are seldom j ac k eted because , ,
they are built for inexpensi v e machines and the first cost i s o f more
consequence than the economy o f operation Ow ing to the cost o f .
construction and the care necessary to keep jac k ets operati v e the ,
use o f the j acket has gradually diminished Furthermore the intro .

,
duction o f the high speed and compound engines as w ell as the use
-
,
o f superheated steam has reduced the advantage o f jacketing to

,
relative in sign ific an c e .
S U PER H EAT I NG
The use o f superheated steam is rather a

G e ne ral Pr ac t ic e .
modern practice although for many years previous to its adoption

,
engineers had appreciated its value in producing steam engine econ

o my T he reason for its delayed adoption in a practical w ay w a s
.
du e to the mechanical di fficulties met with in superheating the

steam and also to the increased cost o f maintenance produced by
its use In recent years both of the objectionable features above
.
mentioned have been in a large measure overcome so that toda y

, , ,
ST E A M E NG IN E S 1 17
superheat is being used in a large number o f po w er plants and also ,
in steam locomotives .
Before describing a superheater it may perhaps be w ell to ,
clearly de fine w hat is meant by superheated steam Water w hen .

,
confined in a vessel and heated sufficiently turns into steam w hich , , ,
if some water still remains i s spo k en o f as saturated steam Satur , .
ated steam when further heated becomes superheated steam if it ,
i s separated f rom the w ater T o bring about this separation a .

,
sup erheat er is necessary Superheaters vary considerably in details.
o f construction according to the ser v ice fo r w hich they are designed ,
F ig . 73 . Se c ti on of Wa t e r -T u b B i l r Sh
e o e o wi n g A ppli t i
ca on o f F o ste r S p rh t r
u e ea e
there being fo r instance quite a difference bet w een the superheater

, ,
designed fo r a stationary plant and o n e designed f or a locomotive .
Fo s te r S up e r he ate r A Foster superheater a s applied to a w ater

.
tube boiler i s illustrated in Fig 73 The superheating element . .
is sho w n at B w hich i s connected to the steam space o f the boiler by

,
the pipe A T he saturated steam f rom the b oiler passes through

.
the pipe A through the superheater and then i s conveyed to the

, ,
engine thr o u gh the valve 0 I n this installation the superheater is .
placed in the passage provided fo r the transmission gases to the

chimney hence it is heated b y what w ould other w i s e be lost heat
,
.
T he manner o f installing superheaters varies a grea t deal Some are .

1 18 ST EA M EN GIN E S
entirely separated fro m the boiler being self contained and supplied ,
-
w ith a grate f or separate firing .
T he Foster superheater Figs 73 and 74 i s made up of a num

, .
,
ber o f elements placed parallel to each other each o f w hich consists ,
o f two straight s teel tubes o n e inside o f the other

, T he elements .
are j oined at o n e end to manifolds o r connecting headers and at the ,
other end to return headers f or which return bends are often sub sti
t u te d . O n the outside o f the tubes B Fig 74 are fitted a series o f , .
,
cast iron annular flanges D p l aced close to each other and carefully
-
,
fitted to the tube so as to b e practically integral with it at the same ,
time exposing an external surface o f cas t iron which metal i s best ,
adapted to resist the action o f the heated gases T he rings are care .
f ull y b ored to gauge and shrunk o n the tubes O nce being l n p o s1

, .
tion the rings and tubes act vir ,
t u al l y a s a unit As the c oe ffi .
cient o f expansion o f steel is a trifle

greater than that o f cast iron the ,
rings grip the tubes even tighter

when in s ervice T his f orm o f .
construction i s flexible an d dur

able I t provides a section o f .
great strength and entire f reedom

f rom internal strains T he mass .
o f metal in the tubes and covering
acts as a reservoir f or heat which ,
i s imparted to the s team evenly

f F t S p rh t T b
,
Fig 7 4 S ti ec on o os er u e ea er u es
tending to secure a constant tem
. .
p e r at u r e o f steam even though

, the temperature o f the hot gases does
fluctuate T he seamless dra w n tube s ecures great initial s trength
.
,
which is r ein f orced by the rings shrunk o n the outside I nside o f

'
the elements there are placed other tubes 0 o f w rought iron which ,
are centrally supported b y means o f knobs o r b uttons regularly

spaced throughout their length T hese inner tubes a r e closed at the
.
ends A thin annular passage E f rom the steam i s thus f ormed

.
between the inner and the outer tubes T he steam clinging closely .
to the heating surface i s quickly heated in the most e fficient manner .
T he superheater must b e as f ree a s possible f rom the liability

of b urnin g o u t in cas e o f a chanc e o f overheatin g o f the exp osed
similar to the Stirling w ater tube boiler The saturated steam from
-
.
the main boiler plant enters the rear superheater drum 1 passe ,
s
through the rear bank o f tubes 7 into the lo w er drum 2 thence to the ,
upper drum 8 f rom which it passes into the pipe line through the
,
opening 4 T he f urnace i s similar to that used in the standar d

.
design o f Stirling boiler To protect the superheater tubes f ro m

.
high temperatures o f the f urnace a sufficient amount o f boiler heat ,
ing surface as drums 5 and 6 and bank o f tubes 9 i s located in front

,
’
‘
,
o f the superheater proper in order to reduce the temperature o f the
gases to about degrees by the time they reach the superheater .
T he builders state that w hen the gas temperature reache s

degrees in the standard boiler 1 9 per cent o f the boiler heatin g sur
,
f ace has been s w ept over by the gases 5 0per cent o f the steam pro ,
d u c e d by the boiler has been generated and the boiler heating surface ,
per horsepo w er i s square feet Co n se q u e n tl y in the independently

'
fired superheater sho w n in Fig 75 5 0per cent o f the heat absorbed

.
,
i s used to generate the steam w hich i s added to steam f urnished b y

,
the main boiler plant and hence increases the capacity o f the plant in
proportion T he remaining 5 0 per cent o f the heat a portion o f
.
,
w hich passes o u t the stack is absorbed by the superheater and super

,
heats both the steam f rom the main boiler plant and that f rom the
f ront bank o f w ater tubes The superheater because o f the f ront
.
,
generator set w ill produce about 1 2 per cent o f the amount o f

,
steam furnished by the main boiler plant As a further precaution .
against any possible o v erheating o f the superheater tubes near the

furnace a flap valve 1 2 i s placed in the pipe con v eying saturated
,
steam to the superheater as sho w n in Fig 7 5 T he spindle o f thi s

, . .
valve i s connected by lin k s to the superheater damper 1 3 so that ,
the damper to the opening i s regulated according to the quantity

o f steam flo w ing into the superheater I f the steam fl o w stops the .
,
valve 1 2 drop s to its seat and the damper 1 3 i s closed I n dep e n d .
ently fired superheaters are f urnished in any desired capacity suit ,
able f or any degree o f superheat u p to about 3 00 F The upper °

.
water drum 5 and the lo w er superheater drum 2 are connected by

piping hence i f desired the superheater sections may be flooded
, , , ,
converting the w hole into a saturated steam boiler .
Purp o s e s of S up e r he ate rs T hese t w o types o f superheat

.
illustrated and described will su ffice and we may n o w direct o u r ,

attention to a study o f the purposes o f the super heater and to

some consideration of the economy secured by its use The pur .
poses o i superheating steam as practiced in the past and as recog

,
n iz e d at present are according to Thurston the follo w in g

, , ,
(1 ) R aising the temperature w hich constitutes the upper limit

in the operation o f the heat engine i n such a manner as to increase
-
the thermodynamic e fficiency o f the w orking flu id .
( )
2 To so surcharge the steam w ith heat that it may surrender
as much a s may be required to pre v ent initial condensation at
entrance i n to cylinder and still perform the w or k o f e x pansion w ith
o u t condensation o r serious cooling of the surrounding w alls o f the
cylinder .
( )
3 T o ma k e the w eight o f the steam entering the condenser
and its final heat charge a minimum w ith a vie w to the reduction
,
o f the v olume o f the condensing w ater and o f the magnitude and cost
o f t he air pump and condenser system to a m i n i mum .
(4 ) To reduce the back pressure and thus to increase the po w er

developed from a given charge o f steam a n d e fficiency o f the engine .
( )
5 To increase the e fficiency o f the boilers both by the r e d u c
tion o f the qua n tity o f the steam demanded from the original heat
ing surface and by in c r e a sm g the area o f the heating surface emplo y ed
t o absorb the heat o f the f urnace and flue gases and als oby evading ,
the w aste consequent upon the production o f w e t steam .
If the steam entering a cylinder i s only superheated eno u gh to

T1 T2
give d ry saturated steam at cut -
o ff , the range of temperature
T1
o f the Carnot cycle is interchanged and there is therefore no increase , ,
o f economy from item 1 The other four sources o f economy depend

.
upon o n e f undamental f act the poor conductivity o f dry steam

—
.
To the propert y o f non conducti v ity o f heat o f superheated steam

-
is due its great advantage O n entering a cool cylinder it slo w ly

.
gi v es u p its heat and i f the degree o f superheat i s su fficient there w ill

,
be little o r no initial condensation The degree to w hich steam

.
should be superheated i s still a d e bated point some engineers con ,
tending that on l y a very moderate de gr e o f superheat o f about 1 00

e
d egrees i s su fficient w hereas others maintain that no real economy i s

,
obtained w ith l e s s than 200 degrees o r o v er When a high degree .
o f superheat w as first used difficulties w ere encountered su ch as

,
the disintegration o f the valves valve seats packing rings and othe r
, , ,
parts subjected to the action o f the superheated steam Lubrication .
w a s also interfered with since many o f the oils used were n o t suited
,
fo r such high temperatures All o f these di fficulties no doubt account

.
for t he o n e time w idespread objection to high degrees o f superheat ,
but inrecent years they have in a large measure been overcome .
The author is familiar with the performance o f a simple slide valve

locomotive which has been in operation fo r several years under degrees
o f superheat ranging f rom 8 0 degrees to 2 1 4 degrees during which ,
time n o trouble has b een experienced with the valve s o r with the
lubrication M any European locomotive s have been satis f actorily
.
operated with high degrees o f superheat which insures the passage

,
o f steam through the cylinder w ith but little o r no condensation .
Ec o no mic A d vantag e s T he economy obtained by the use o f

.
superheat has been clearly demonstrated by a large number o f p r ac

tical tests both upon stationary engines and upon locomotives I t i s .
t o be noted also that about the same per cent o f econom y has been
,
obtained o n the various types o f engines tested the stationary tests

,
corro b orating the results obtained u pon the locomotive and vice
vers a . T he various tests indicate a saving o f f rom 1 2 to 1 5 per cent
o f the amount o f steam used by the engine per indicated horsepo w er
per hour and a saving o f coal f rom 20to 25 per cent Another very
, .
significant thing that has been deter m ined i s that the output o f
po w er has been increased f rom 20 to 3 0 per cent depending upon ,
the conditions These thre e items o f saving hav e hastened the

.
installment o f a large number o f superheaters so that at the present

,
time thousands o f locomoti v es in E urope are equipped with super

heaters and in the United States and Canada over
, l ocomo
tiv e s are so equipped I t seems that the railroads have been
.
quicker to take up the idea o f installing superheaters than have other

industries so that not nearly so many superheaters are found in
,
s tationary service .
I t i s to b e noted that the greatest gains from the use o f super

heaters are to be expected in the more uneconomica l plants T hat is .
,
the per cent o f saving by the use o f superheated steam in a simple

engine would be greater than fo r a compound engine and f or a c o m ,
pound engine as compared w ith a triple expansion engine Several

-
.
p rominent en gineers hav e advised the reduction o f steam p ressu re s

1 24 ST EA M E NGIN ES
the exhaust steam could b e condensed instantly the back pressure ,
w ould be reduced almost to zero and the engine w ould exhaust into
a vacuum .
Unfortunately the mere condensation o f the steam w ill not give

a perfect vacuum because of the air al w ays present i n the water ,
w hich comes over from the boiler M oreover the condensed w ater
.
,
is hot and the vapor rising from it in the condensing chamber

, ,
together w ith the air and some lea k age w ould spoil the vacuum w ere
Fig . 76 . Sect i on of S te am C d on e n se r of the S u r fa c e T yp e
it not for the air pump w hich remo v es the air and condensed steam
,
.
Even w ith the best air pump it w ould be impossible to maintain a

perfect vacuum but a vacuum of 2 6 inches w hich corresponds t o
, ,
about 2 pounds absolute pressure can readily be maintained in ,
good practice .
I t is w ell kno w n that a certain amount o f heat is requi red to

change o n e pound o f w ater at a gi v en temperature into steam at
the same temperature ; this i s called the latent heat o f vaporization .
I f the steam condenses it must give upthis latent heat The easiest
,
.
wa y s o f doing this are either to let the steam come in contact with
ST EA M E N GIN E S 1 25
pipes through w hich cold w ater is circulated as in a surface condenser , ,
or mingle w ith a spray o f w ater as in a j et condenser The s e t w o ,

.
types w ill n o w be discussed .
T yp e s o f Co nd e ns e r s C ondensers may be divided into two

.
general classes as follo w s :

( )
1 S urface condensers in w hich the cooling w ater is separated
from the steam usually by metallic surfaces in the form o f tubes
, ,
the cooling w ater circulating o n o n e side o f this surface and the steam
coming in contact w ith the metal o n the other side .
( )
2 J e t condensers including barometric condensers
,
siphon ,
F ig 77 D i m S ho w i Re l ti on of Su rC d fa c e rt t he P mp N e c e s sa ry fo r
p O p ti
. . ag ra ng a on e nse o u s
Pro er e ra on
condensers ejector condensers etc in w hich the cooling w ater

, , .
,
mingles w ith the steam to be condensed .
S u rface T yp e The condenser sho w n in section in Fig 76 is o n e

. .
form o f the surface type in w hich the air pump and the circulating
,
pump are both direct acting and both operated by the same steam
cyli nder The cool condensing w ater is dra w n from the supply into
.
the circulating o r w ater pump and is forced u p through the v al v es

and w ater inlet to the condenser It flo w s as indicated by the .
,
arro w s through the inner tubes o f the lo w er se ction then back

, ,
through the space bet w een the inner and the outer tubes The .
w ater then passes up w ard and through the upper section as it did ,
in the lo w er then it passes o u t o f the conden ser through the w ater

,
outlet taking w ith it the heat it has received from the steam
, .
The exhaust steam from the engine enters at the ex ha ust inlet i
and comes in contact w ith the perforated plate w hich causes it to ,
spread The steam expanding in the condenser comes in contact

.
w ith the tubes through w hich cool water is circulating and c o n

, ,
denses The air pump dra w s the air and condensed steam o ut o f
.
the condenser and thus maintains a partial vacuum This causes .
the ex haust steam in the engine cylinder to be dra w n into the con
denser at the bottom o f w hich it collects as it condenses and i s
, ,
dra w n into the air pump cylinder and discharged w hile heated to
the ho t well of the boiler T he use o f this hot w ater as feed w ater
.
effects a considerable saving but the great ad v antage of the con

,
denser i s the reduction o f the back pressure .
H o t water can not be used by an ordinary pump as easily as

cold w ater because o f the pressure o f the vapor w hi ch arl se s fro m
the hot w ater I n the condenser sho w n the w ater and air pumps
.
,
are run by the piston in the steam cylinder Sometimes these pumps .
are connected to the main engine and receive motion from the shaft
o r crosshead .
The general arrangement o f the surface condenser w ith the

necessary pumps 1 s sho w n in Fig 77 The cooling w ater enters
. .
through the pipe K and flo w s to the circulating pump R which ,
forces the water into the condenser through the pipe L I n case .
the w ater enters the condenser under pressure from city mains no ,
circulating pump is necessary Afte r flo w ing through the tubes it

.
leaves the condenser by means o f the exit M and flo w s a w ay Ex haust .
steam enters at S and i s condensed by coming in contact with the

cold tubes ; the w ater (condensed steam ) then f alls to the bottom o f
the condenser an d flo w s to the air pump B by the pipe E T he air .
pump removes the air vapor and condensed steam f rom the con
, ,
denser and f orces it through the pipe N into the hot w ell from w hich ,
it goes to the boilers o r to the feed tank .
Circu l a tin g Pu mp The circulating pump w hen separate from

.
,
the condenser i s usually o f the centrifugal type T his pump c o n

,
.
sists o f a f an o r w heel w hich is made up of a central web (or hub ) and

arms (or vanes ) The vanes are curved and as the water i s dra wn
.
in at the central part the vanes thro w it o ff at the circumference

, .
A suitable casing directs the flow T his typ e o f pump i s a dv an ta

.
e o u s b e c au se there are no valves to ge t o ut of o rd e r and as the li ft

g ,
WAT ER Dns r RrBua
‘
\
TR YA AI R PUMP S UCT IO N
EXH A US T I N L ET
T O P VI EW O F
WAT ER DIST RI BUT K NG

T RAY
F ig . 80 . Alb e r g e r B r
a o me tri c Jet C d
on e n se r
Cou r tes y of A l b er ger P u m p a nd Co n d e n s er Co mp a n y , N e w Y or k Ci ty

the arro w s indicating the direction of the fl o w Cold w ater enters .
the condenser through the pipe sho w n Part o f the mixture o f .
exhaust steam and condensed water goes to the feed water heater -
,
w hich is kept nearly full ; the rest passes to the se w er T he heater .
is placed a little above the feed pump in order that the w ater may ,
enter the pump under a slight head This is necessary because the .
pump can n o t raise w ater w hich has been w armed by exhaust steam
as readily as cold w ater .
B a r ometric Con dens er A type o f condenser much used with

.
reciprocating engines and to a limited extent with steam turbines

, ,
is the barometric condenser sho w n in Fig 8 0 This condenser is , . .
one o f the jet type Steam enters at the point marked exhaust
.
"
inlet in the left hand figure and completely fills the exhaust steam
-
chamber w hile the condensing w ater enters through the injection

,
pipe The w ater rises into a distributing tray w here it is broken

.
up into many finely di v ided streams as seen in the left hand -
figure . This spray condenses the steam in the exhaust chamber

and passes do w n the tail pipe carrying the condensed steam w ith ,
it to the hot w ell Air entering w ith the exhaust steam is coole d
.
and collected in the air collector inside o f the condensing cham

ber A vacuum is maintained in the upper part o f the condenser
.
so that any air w hich has been collected during the process o f con
“
d e n sin g the steam is carried a w ay through the pipe marked air
"
pump suction A small amount o f the cooler inj ection water is
.
allo w ed to mix w ith this air so as to cool it before it passes o n to

the air pumps .
Wes tin ghous e Leb l an c Con dens er With the ordinary type o f .
reciprocating engine a vacuum of 2 6 to 2 7 inches i s usually all

,
that i s desired With modern steam turbines ho w ever a vacuum

.
, ,
o f 28 to 2 9 inches is common practice and in many plants even ,
these figures are exceeded T hese figures ho w ever cannot be .

, ,
attained unless a very e fficient air pump i s used The Leblanc .
condenser i s considered o n e o f the most e fficient types of the many

f orms o f j et condensers .
Fig 8 1 sho w s a cross section o f the L eblanc j et condenser as

.
,
manufactured by the Westinghouse M achine Company This type .
i s especially used in the larger steam turbine installations In this .
c o n den ser s t eam ent ers throu gh the lar ge o p enin g E a t the t o
p ,
I is the separate w ater supply for this air pump sho w n more in ,
detail by Fig 8 2 w hich i s a cross section on A A

.
, .
I n Fig 8 2 the w ater entering through the center of the pump

.
,
is discharged through the orifice J into a tapering pipe the w ater ,
being emitted in a succession o f layers as indicated at G These , .
layers o f w ater are sometimes spo k en o f a s being w ater pistons .
The air coming through pipe L i s caught bet w een these layers of
w ater and carried to the atmosphere through the long diffuser
pipe K .
F ig . 82 . Se c t i on of Le b l an c C d
on e n se r T a ke n t h ro ug h A A , Fig 8 1 .
Cou r te s y of We s ti n g ho u s e M a c hin e Co m p a n y , E a s t P itts b u r g h , P e n n s y l va n ia
Since the cooling w ater enters by virtue o f the vacuum an ,
accidental stopping o f the pumps might cause serious trouble due ,
to the w ater rising above the top o f the condenser T o take care .
o f such emergencies a very simple f orm o f vacuum breaker i s pro

,
v ide d. I n case the w ater rises i n the condenser to an undesirable
"
height the float 0 Fig 8 1 opens the valve N and admits air to
, ,
.
,
enter through passage directly int o the condensing zone This .
immediatel y stops the inflow o f w ater by brea k ing the vacuum ,
and prevents damage to the turbine .
R e l ative M e r its o f J e t a nd S urf ac e Co nd e ns e r s In the j et con .
denser the steam a s soon as condensed becomes mixed w ith the

, ,
cooling water and i f the latter should be unsuitable fo r boiler feed

,
-
because o f scale forming impurities acids salts etc the pure dis
-
, , ,
.
,
tilled water represented b y the condensed steam i s w asted and i f it ,
w ere necessary to purchase other w ater f or boiler feeding this might -

,
represent a considerable waste o f mone y On the other hand i f the .

,
cooling w ater is suitable for boiler feeding o r if a fresh supply o f good

-
w ater is easily obtainable the jet condenser because o f its simplicity

, ,
and l o w cost is unexcelled Surface condensers are recommended

,
.
w here the cooling w ater is u nfitte d for boiler feed and w here no -
suitable and cheap supply o f pure boiler feed w ater is ava ilable -
.
Condensed steam from a surface condenser makes the best boiler

feed w ater being in fact pure distilled w ater entirely free from scale
,
forming matter and containing a considerable amount o f heat as ,
compared w ith cold feed w ater If the exhaust from reciprocating

.
engines is to be condensed and used as boiler feed w ater a suitable -

,
o il separator should be interposed in the exhaust pipe bet w een the
engine and the condenser Another advantage o f the surface c o n

.
denser as compared w ith the jet condenser is that there is no dan

ger in case o f failure o f vacuum pumps of the circulating w ater
, ,
bac king up into the engine cylinder and w recking the engine .
Eff ec t of Co nd e ns e r o n Effic ie nc y It has already been stated

.
that there is a gain in thermal efficiency by running an engine con

de n sin g but it w ill be more clearly seen by considering a fe w figures
,
.
The thermal e fficien cy may be expressed by the previousl y men

tio n e d formula
This e fficien cy may b e increased if T I can be made larger

w hich w ould happen if the boiler pressure w ere increased o r i f —
T 2 can be made smaller w hich w ould result from reducing the back
,
pressure by condensing I f the boiler pressure is rai sed both the

.
,
numerator and denominator o f the fraction w ill increase and the value ,
o f the fraction w ill be but slightly greater If ho w ever the back

.
, ,
pressure is reduced the numerator T 1 T 2 w ill be larger while

, ,
the denominator T I w ill remain the same It is apparent that this

.
w ill cause a much greater increase in e fficiency than raising the

boiler pressure a like amount .
Suppose an engine is supplied w ith steam at pounds (gauge )

pressure and it exhausts at pounds (gauge ) pressure The ab so .
lute temperature corresponding to or 100 pounds pres

sure is, or degrees and the absolute temperature
,
corresponding to o r 1 8 pounds pressure is or ,

T AB LE 1
I n c r e a s e in Ef f ic ie n c y b y U s e of Co n d e n s e r f o r V a r io u s E ng in e s
F d W t p I di
ee a er er n c a te d H p w
o r se o er
N C d i g
o n- on ens n C d i g
on en s n
P C ent
a
r
Ty p e of E i
ng ne
A ssu me d ai n e d
for
p i
Com
ar so n
C d on e nse r
P oun d s
i pl
S m e i h p d
H g S ee 3 5 to 2 6
S i m ple Low Sp d ee 3 2 t o 24
C mp
o ou n d H i g h Sp ee d 3 0 to 2 2
C mp
o ou nd L w S p o ee d
T ripl e E p H i g h Sp
x . ee d 27 t o 2 1
T ripl e E p L w Sp
x . o ee d
degrees Then the thermal e fficiency determined from the

.
formula becomes
T1 T2
T1
1 34, or per cent
If the boiler pressure w ere raised to 14 0 pounds absolute the ,
e fficiency w ould be
16 1, or per cent
If instead of increasing the boiler pressure a condenser is used

and the exhaust pressure reduced to 4 pound s (ab s olute ) the , c ffi
c ie n c y becomes
22 2 , or per cent
Thus it is seen that if the exhaust pressure is lo w ered 14 pounds

absolute there w ill be a greater increase in e fficiency than if the
boiler pressure is raised 40 pounds .
The per cent of efficiency that is obtained by the use of a con

denser is sho w n in Table I .
Co st of Co o l ing W ate r De te r mine s Co nd e ns e r Ec o no my While .
the above figures are very encouraging yet cond itions may arise ,
where the per cent of gain may be materially lessened o r entirely lost ,
13 6 ST E A M E N G IN E S
w ithin the to w er or a large number o f mats of steel w ire cloth gal

,
v an iz e d after w eaving The to w er may be supported upon a proper

.
f oundation or upon legs instead of being situated on the top of a

,
building as the one show n in the illustration

,
.
To ass ist in the cooling o f the w ater the air is often made to ,
circulate rapidly by means o f a fan w hich forces the air into the ,
F ig 8 3 D i gr
a a m of S ta t i ona r E gi
y n ne w t ihC i
o nne ct o ns to W a te r C li
oo ng T o wr
e on
f B ildi
. .
R oof o u ng
lo w er part of the to w er and up w ard through the mats This fan .
m ay be driven by an electric motor by a line of shafting or by a , ,
small independent engine .
In case the fan is not used the mats are arranged so that they ,
a r e exposed to the atmosphere This o f course necessitates the .
removal o f the steel casing Usually the fanl e ss to w er must b e .

ST EA M E NGIN E S 13 7
placed at the top o f a high building o r in some position w here the

currents of air can readily circulate through the mats .
With an efficient type o f cooling to w er the w ater may be reduced ,
from 3 0 to 5 0 degrees thus allo wing a vacuum o f from 22 to 26 ,
inches This w ill of course gre atly increase the economy of the
.
, ,
plant and allo w the heated feed w ater to be returned to the boiler .
The w ater table is usually made o f w ooden slats placed in the

ground near the plant After tric k ling over the slats and becoming
.
cooled by the air it collects in the bottom o f the reservoir and is then
,
pumped into the condenser .
A mo u nt of Co o l ing Wate r Pe r Po und of S te am B esides con .
de n sin g the steam the injection w ater cools it still further so that
, ,
more than merely the latent heat is removed from it If exhaust .
steam enters the condenser at a temperature t1 it contains a certain ,
amount o f heat k now n as tota l hea t a t temp eratu re tl If it is con

, .
de n se d and cooled to a temperature tz at w hich it leaves the con ,
denser it then contains a certain amount o f heat kno w n as tota l

, ,
hea t a t temp e ra tu r e t2 .
If represents the total heat at t1 and B represents the heat

A
o f the liquid at t2 then the heat given up by o n e pound of condensed
,
s team is equal to (A B ) B ritish Thermal U ni ts provided the

—
,
exhaust that enters the condenser is dry saturated steam If C is .
the temperature o f the injection or cooling w ater and D is the tem

p e r at ur e of the discharge w ater then every pound o f cooling w ater ,
absorbs approximately one B ritish Thermal Unit for every degree

rise in the temperature o r w e may say that the heat absorbed is ,
equal to (D C) B ritish Thermal Units per pound o f cooling w ater

—
.
Then it w ill take as many pounds o f w ater W to absorb (A B ) —
heat units as (D C) is contained in (A B ) This may be expressed .
thus
There fore W represents the number o f pounds o f w ater required

,
per pound of steam condensed .
EX A M L E 1 S upp
P t m i e xp n d d in n n g i n t 4 p u n d b
. ose s ea s a e a e e o o s a so
l u t pr u r I f th i n iti l t m p tu r f th c li n g w t r i 4 5 d g r
e e ss e . e a e e ra e o e oo a e s e ees ,
a n d the c n d e n s r i
o f th u r f c e typ
e di ch r g i n g w t r t 1 20 d g r
s o e s a e, s a a e a e ee s ,
an d the t m p e r at ur e
c on d n d t m i 1 3 0 d g r s h w man y p oun d s
of t he
r q i d p p n d f t m"
e e se s ea s e ee ,
o
o f c o li n g w t r
o a e ar e e u re er ou o s ea
S OL U I ON B y c o n lti n g t h s t m t bl
T . w fin d th t t l h t o f
su e ea a e s, e e o a ea
t m t 4 p n d pr u r t b
s ea a ou B riti h T h r m l U n it
s Th h t
e ss e o e s e a s . e ea
o f t h liqu id in th c o n d n d t am t 1 3 0 d gr
e e i B riti h T h r m l
e se s e a e ee s s s e a
U n it T h n
s . e
A M L E 2 Su pp e t m t 6 p n d s ab l u t pre su r xh u st s
EX P . os s ea a ou so e s e e a
in to j ta c o d n r
e T h t m p rn t r f t
e h i n j
se cti n w t r i
. 5 0 d gr
e e e a u e o e e o a e s e ees
n d th di ch rg i 1 20 d g r H w m ny p nd f w t r n c ry
d f t m"
a e s a e s e ees . o a ou s o a e ar e e e ss a
to c n d n
o 8 p e se o un s o s ea
S OL U I ON I n th j t c o n d n r th t m p r tu r
T . f th c o n d n d t m
e e e se e e e a e o e e se s ea
an d the di ch r g w t r i ths m a W fi d f r m th t m t bl th t th
e a e s e sa e . e n o e s ea a es a e
t t l h t f t m t 6 p nd b lut i
o a ea o s ea B riti h T h r m l U n it
a ou nd s a so e s s e a s, a
th he t f th liqu id in th c n d n d t m t 1 2 0 d gr is
ea o e B riti s h
e o e se s ea a e e es
T h r m l U n it
e aTh n b f r s . e as e o e .
1 20 —
50
T h eref re o ,
8 p oun d s o f w at e r w ill r e q u re i X 8, or p ou n d s .
The abo v e calculation can n o t be relied upon to any great

extent for w e seldom know the true condition in the condenser an d ,
it w ould be o f little value to us if w e did know as the exact condi ,

.
tion w ill change considerably I n practice it is customary to allow .
for about tw ice as much w ater as the above calculation w ould require .
These figures gi v e us a fair idea of the necessary sizes o f the pipes

and passages leading to the condenser and gi v e a basis for estimating ,
the dimensions of the air pump .
Coo l ing S urf ac e in S urf ac e Co nd e ns e r s The amount o f sur .
f ace required to condense the steam in surface condensers depends

upon the conductivity o f the metal the condition o f the tubes and ,
their thic k ness and the di ff erence in temperature betw een the tw o
,
sides The tubes o f a condenser are much thinner than boiler tubes
.
,
hence w e might expect them to be more efficient in condensing the

steam than the boiler tubes are in evaporating w ater It has been .
found in actual practice that a surface condenser receiving c ooling ,
w ater at 6 0 degrees and discharging it at 1 20 degrees w ill condense

from 1 0to 20pounds of steam per square foot of the tube surface per
hour An average of 1 3 pounds per square foot of surface per hour
.
1 40 ST E A M E N GI N E S
Variab l e T hr us t
In the actual engine the thrust along the
.
rod is constantly varying even though the pressure on the piston

remains the same This is due to the angularity of the connecting
.
od The turning moment is al w ays equal to the thrust along the

r
.
connecting rod multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the

connecting rod to the center o f the shaft If the steam pressure o n .
the piston remains constant the maximum turning moment occurs

,
w hen the connecting rod is at right angles to the crank for in this ,
position the perpendicular distance from the rod to the center o f the
sha ft is a maximum and equal to the length o f the crank ; and as ,
the rod makes its greatest angle w ith the line connecting the dead
center at this point the thrust along it will also be a maximum If
, .
the cut o ff is very early o n e quarter stroke for instance the maxi
-
,
-
,
mum thrust along the rod w ill occur earlier than at the point pre
v io u sl y mentioned but the leverage of the force w ill be less so that
, ,
really there will be little change in the point o f maximum turning

moment no matter w here the cut o ff may occur -
.
Diagrams To repr esent this turning moment diagrams o f

.
,
crank effort may be dra w n with rectangular c o ordinates having

,
-
,
the cran k angles represented as abscissas and the turning moments

corresponding to these angles as ordinates .
F L Y W H EE L
B esidesthe thrust o f the connecting rod there must be taken

into account friction and the inertia o f the recipro cating parts At .
first this may be thought o f small consequence but with a fairly

heavy p iston and connecting r o d it is obvious that at high speed the
momentum w ould be great In the case o f a vertical engine on
.
,
the up stroke the steam must lift this heavy mass and impart a very
considerable velocity to it w hile on the do w n stro ke the acceleration
,
o f the mass is added to the steam pressure This makes the e ffecti v e .
force on the up stroke less than that due to the actual steam pres
sure and greater on the do w n stroke
,
.
Func tio n In the case o f a horizontal engine it is evident that

.
w hile the piston can push the crank around during part of the stroke ,
and pull it along during another part yet at the end o f the stroke ,
the pressure on the piston no matter how great can exert no turn
, ,
ing moment on the sha ft Therefore if some means is not p ro

.
,
v for ma k ing the shaft turn past these points w ithout the assist
ide d
ance o f the piston it may stop This means is pro v ided in the ,
.
fly w heel w hich is merely a heavy w heel placed on the main shaft .
On account o f the momentum of the fly w heel it can not be stopped

quickly and therefore carries the shaft around until the piston can
again either push or pull .
S iz e o f W he e l If a long period be considered the mean e ff ort

.
,
and the mean resistance must be equal ; but during this period there
are temporary changes o f e ff ort the excesses causing increase o f ,
speed To moderate these fluctuations several methods are employed

. .
The turning moment o n the shaft of a single cylinder engine

varies firs t because o f the change in steam pressure and second on
, , , ,
account of the angularity o f the connecting rod B e f ore the piston .
reaches mid stroke the turning moment is a max imu m as sho w n b y

-
,
F ig 84 Gr phi
a c al Re pr t i
e se n at o n of T ri
u n ng M o men t of Cr an k S h ft
a of a S i ng el
C y li d r E i tr
. .
n e ng ne for One S o ke
the curve Fig 84 Near the ends o f the stroke the turning moment
,
. .
diminishes and finally becomes zero This o f course tends to cause .

, ,
a corresponding change in the speed o f rotati on of the shaft In .
order to have this speed as n early const ant as possible and to give
a greater uniformity of driving po w er the engine may be run at high ,
speed By thi s means the inertia o f the revo l v ing parts such as
.
,
the connecting rod and crank causes l ess varia tion When the w ork , .
to be done is ste ady and al w ays in the same direction a heavy fly ,
w heel may be used The hea v ier the fly w heel the steadier w ill
.
,
~
be the motion It is desi rable of course in all engines to have steady

.
, ,
motion but in some cases it is more important than in others Fo r

, .
instance in electric lighting plants it is necessary that the machinery

,
shall mo v e w ith almost perfect steadiness It i s undesirable to use .
larger w heels than are absolutely necessary because o f the cost of ,
the metal the w ei ght on the b earings and the danger from bursting
, ,
.
M ethods of R edu cin g Siz e

If the turning moment w hich is .
exerted on the shaft from the piston could be made more regular
and if dead p oints could be a v oided it w ould be possible to get a ,
steadier motion w ith a much smaller fly wheel .
If the engine must be stopped and reversed frequently two o r ,
more cylinders are used being connected to the same sha ft T he

, .
cran k s are placed at such angles that w hen o n e is exerting its mini
mum rotati v e effort the other is exerting its maximum or w hen o n e
, ,
is at a dead center the other is exerting its greatest e ff ort T hes e

, .
‘
cyl inders may be identically the same in dimension as is the case

w ith most hoisting engines and w ith many locomotives ; or the engine
may be compound or triple e xpansion This arrangement is also .
used on engines for mines collieries and for hoisting o f any sort
, ,
w here ease of stopping starting and reversing are prerequisites

, , .
Simple expansion engines w ith their cranks at right angles are usually
spo k en of as being coupled .
The governor adj usts the po w er o f the engine to any large varia
tion of the resistance The fly whee l has a duty to perform which
.
is similar to that o f the go v ernor I t is designed to adjust the e ff ort

.
o f the engine to sudden changes o f the load w hich may occur during
a single stroke It also equalizes the variation in rotati v e e ffort on

.
the crank pin The flyw heel absorbs energy w hile the turning
.
moment is i n excess o f the resistance and restores it w hile the cran k ,
is at o r near the dead points During these periods the resistance is

.
in excess of the po w er .
Act io n of Fl yw he e l T he action o f the fly wheel may be r e p r e

.
sented as in Figs 8 4 and 8 5 It w ill be noticed that in Fig 84 the

. . .
,
curve o f the crank eff ort runs belo w the axis to w ard the end o f the
stroke This is because the compression is greater than the press ure
.
near the end o f expansion and produces a resultant pressure o n the

,
piston In Fig 85 the e ffect o f compression has been neglected

. . .
L e t us suppose that the resistance o r load i s uniform I n Fig 8 4 , , . .

,
the line A B is the length o f the semi circumference o f the crank pin -
.
o r the circumferential distance t he crank pin moves during o n e
stroke The cur v e A M D O B is the curve o f turning moment for

.
o n e stroke. M N is the mean ordinate and therefore A E F B , ,
represents the constant resistance The effort and resistance must .
be e q ual if the s p eed is uniform ; he nce the are a A E F B e q ual s

that the variation is much less than fo r a single cylinder hence a ,
lighter w heel may be used .
Ca l cu l a tions of M as s The w eight of the fly w heel depends upo n

.
the character of the w ork done For pumping engines and ordinary
.
machine w ork the effort need not be as constant as for electric light
ing I n determining the proper w eight o f a fly w heel the diameter
.
o f the w heel must be kno w n I f the w heel is too large the high linear
.
,
velocity o f the rim w ill cause too great a centrifugal force and the
w heel w ill not be safe I n practice about
. feet per minute is
,
taken as the maximum linear velocity o f cast iron wheels When -

.
made o f w ood and carefully put together the velocity may be taken
as to feet per minute .
The linear velocity of a w heel is expressed in feet per minute

b y the formula V = 2 t R N or 71 D N in which V is velocity in feet
r
,
'
per second R is radius o f w heel in feet D is diameter o f w heel in

, ,
feet and N is revolutions per minute

,
.
Then i f a w he el runs at 1 00 revolutions per minute the allow ,
able diameter w ould be obtained from the equation

6 000 XD
There f ore
6 000
X 1 00
feet
I f a wheel is 12 feet in diameter the allowable speed is f ound to be
V
N
7: D
6 000
3 14 1 6 X 1 2
.
revolutions per minute

159
I t is usual to make the diameter less than the calculated diameter .
H aving determined the diameter the w eight may be calculated ,
by several methods There are many formulas to obtain this result

.
given by various authorities o n e formula being ,
G X Cl 2
Xb
D >< N 2 2
in w hich W is w eight o f rim in pounds ; d is diameter o f cylinder in

inches ; b is length o f stroke in inches ; D is diameter of flywheel in
feet ; N is number of revolutions per minute ; and C is a constant

having a value which varies for different types of engines and
for di fferent conditions as f ollo w s
S lid e v a lv e e n g i n es o r din ar v w o r k C ,
C o rli ss e n g i n es o rdi n ary w o r k C ,

.
lid e v lv n g i n
S -
l e ctric li g hti n g
a e e C
es , e
A u t o m tic hi g h p d n g in
a s C ee e es
C rli n gi n es e l c t ic lightin g
o ss e , C e r
_
.
EX AM LE 1 P F i n d the w e i g ht f
. fly w h e l im for n u t o m a tic hi g h o a e r a a
s p d n g i n u d fo l ctric li g h ti n g T h cyli n d er i 2 4 i n ch in di m t r ;
ee e e se r e e . e s es a e e
t h s tr o k e i 2 f t
e s I t r u n s t 3 00 r e v o l u ti n p
ee . m i n ut e n d t he fly w h e l
a o s er ,
a e
i t o b e 6 f e t in di am t r
s e e e .
S O L U T IO N .
1 000000X X 24
3 6 X 9 0000
p und 42 6 6 o s
E X A M LE 2 P A pl i n lid v lv . n g in e f e l e ctric li g hti n g i

a s 2 0 i n ch e s
e a e e or s
X 2 4 i n ch I t r un t 1 5 0 r v l u ti n p minut T he fly w h e l i t o b e
W h t i th w i g ht o f it im "
es . s a e o o s er e . e s
8 f e t in di m e t r
e a e . a s e e s r
S O L U IO N T
7 00000X 4 00x 2 4
.
6 4 X 2 25 00
—
4666 p o un ds
The w eight of a fly w heel is considered as b eing in the rim The .
weight o f the hub and arms is simply extra w eight Then i f the .
,
w eight of the rim and its diameter be kno w n the w idth of the face ,
and thickness o f the rim can be found Assume the given diameter .
to be the mean of the diameter o f the inside and outside o f the rim .
Let b equal w idth of face in inches ; t equal thic k ness of rim in inches ;
d equal diameter of fly w heel in inches ; and 2607 equal w eight of 1 .
cubic inch o f cast iron Then .
AM PLE 3
EX . Su pp
o se the r im o f fly w h e e l w i gh
a p o un d i e s s, s 9
fee t in di m t r a n d the w o f t he f a idth c i 2 4 i n ch e Wh t is the thic k n
"
a e e , e s s . a es s
of t he ri m
SO L UT I O N .
W
. 8 19 d b
6 000
. 8 1 9 X 1 08 X 24
i n ch es
In thi c a the im
s se r wo u ld pr b bly b e m d 2 1 i n ch e thic k
o a a e s . T he
we i g ht i n cl u di n g hu b
,
a n d ar m w o u ld pr b bly b b ut
s, p o a e a o o un d s .
1 46 ST E A M E NGIN E S
GO V E R NO R
The load on an engine is ne ver constant although there are ,
cases where it is nearly uniform While the engi ne I S running at .
constant speed the resistance at the fly w heel rim is equal to the

,
w or k done by the steam disregarding friction If the load on the

,
.
engine is w holly or partially removed and the supply o f steam con

tinu es undiminished the force exerted by the steam w ill be in excess
,
o f the resistance Work is equal to force multiplied by distan c e ;

.
hence w ith constant effort if the resistance is diminished the dis

, , ,
tance must be increased I n other w ords the speed of the engine .

,
“
w ill be I ncreased and the engine w ill
,
race Also i f the load .
,
increases and the steam supply remains constant the engine w ill ,
“
S lo w do w n .
It is evident then that if the speed is to be kept constant

, ,
some means must be provided so that the steam supply shall at all
times be exactly proportional to the load This is accomplished by .
means o f a governor .
M e tho d s of Ac tio n Steam engine governors act in one of tw o

.
-
w ays (1 ) they may regulate the pressure of steam admitted to the

steam chest or (2 ) they may adjust the speed by altering the amount
,
o f steam admitted Those w hich act in the first w ay are called

.
thr ottlin g govern ors because they throttle the steam in the main
,
steam pipe Those o f the latter class are called automa tic cu t off
.
-
g ove r n ors since

,
they automatically regulate the point of cut off -
.
Theoretically the method of governing by throttling the steam

,
ca u ses a loss in e fficiency but the throttling superheats the steam , ,
thus reducing cylinder condensation By the second method th e .
loss in e fficiency is very slight unless the ratio of expansion is already ,
great in w hich case Shortening the cut off cause s an increasing

,
-
cylinder condensation .
Con tro l b y Centrifu ga l F orce In most governors of the thr o t .
tling type and those applied to Corliss engines centrifugal force ,
counteracted by some other fOr c e is employed A pair of heavy .
masses (usually iron balls or w eights ) are made to revolve about a

S pindle w hich is driven by the engine
,
When the speed increases .
,
the centrifugal force increases and the balls tend to fly outw ard ,
that is they re v ol v e in a larger circle The controlling force w hich

,
.
,
is usually gravity or springs is no longer able to k eep the balls in ,

in w hich F is f orce in pounds ; W is w eight o f one ball in pounds v is

velocity in feet per second ; g is acceleration due to gravity ; and r is
radius in feet From the above equation it is seen that force varies
.
inversely as the radius .
While the pendulum is revolving centrifugal force acts hori ,
z o n t al l y out w ard and tends to make the balls fly from the center ;
and the action o f gravity tends to make the balls drop do w nw ard In .
order that the balls shall revolve at a certain height the moments ,
o f these tw o f orces about the point of suspension must be equal or

'
Fig . 86 . D i ag r a m s S h wi
o ng Ac tio n of P en d ul u m G o vern or
m
the w eight o f the balls ultiplied by their distance from the center
must equal the centri f ugal force multiplied b y the height or ,
WX r = F >< h
from w hich
Substituting value o f F just given , we have
There f ore ,
Now since v the linear velocity o f a point re v ol v ing in the circum

,
ference of a circle is expressed as 2 : r N feet per second w here N

, 7
’
,
’
ST EAM EN GI N ES 149
is revolutions per second this value may be substituted in the

,
above formula gi v ing,
and since the values of g and F are kno w n the formula may be
,
w ritten
. 8 1 46
N
( 9
2
i nches
(N )
’ 2
If it is desired to use the N,instead o f N the the ’

,
former may be substituted in the formula by multiplying the fraction

2
by 6 0 , or 3600, giving
inches
From the ab ove f ormula it is e v ident that the height is i nde

pendent o i the w eight of the balls or the length of the rod depending ,
entirely upon the number o f revolutions The height varies inversely .
as the square of the number o f revolutions .
The ordinary pendulum governor is n o t isochronous that is , ,
it does not revolve at a uniform speed in all positions the speed ,
changing as the angle bet w een the arms and spindle changes .
Fl y Bal l G ove r no r
= The early form consisted of t w o hea v y
.
balls suspended by li nks from a pin connection in a vertical spindle ,
as Sho w n in Figs 8 7 and 8 8 The Spindle is caused to revol v e by

. .
belting o r gearing from the main Shaft so that as the speed increases , ,
centrifugal force causes the balls to re v ol v e in a circle o f larger and

1 50 ST E A M E NGI N E S
larger diameter The change of position of these balls can be made

.
to affect the controlling valves so that the admission or throttling

w ill vary w ith their position With this governor it I S evident that
.
f or a given speed of the engine there is but one possible position for
the governor consequently o n e definite amount o f throttling or o n e
,
point o f cut o ff as the case may be If the load varies the speed of
-
, .
,
the engine w ill change This causes the position of the governor balls
.
to be changed slightly thus altering the pressure B u t in order that

, .
the pressure or cut off shall remain changed the governor balls must
-
,
stay in their ne w position That is to say the speed of the engine

.
,
i pl T y p
S m e e of Fl y t T p
La er e of Fl y
B ll G v r B ll G v r r
y
a o e nor a o e no
must be Slightly changed Thus Wi th the o ld ball governors there

.
w as a Slightl y different speed for each load This condition has been .
greatly improved by various modifications until n o w such go v ernors

give excellen t regulation .
While the engine is runni ng W i th a light load the val v e con ,
trolled by the governor w ill be open just enough to admit steam at

a pressure that w ill k eep the engine running at a given speed N ow .
if the engine i s heavily loaded the throttle valve must be wide open
, .
The change o f Opening is obtained by a variation inthe height o f the

governor w hich is caused by a change of speed Thus it is seen that
,
.
the governor can control the speed only w ithin certain limits which
are not far apart The difference in the extreme heights of the gov
.
c ruor must be su fficient to open the throttle its entire range In .

1 52 ST EA M EN GI N ES
io n e d governor b ec am e sluggish The balls had to turn slow ly

.
because they w ere so heavy ; this w as especially troublesome in high

Speed engines .
Porter I mp roved T yp e T o remedy these defects the weighted

.
o r Porter governor Fig 8 9 w a s designed

,
. . It has a greater height .
for a given speed and the variation in height for a given variation
,
o f speed is greater and consequently more sensitive By in cre as

, , .
ing this variation in height the sensitiveness is increased Thus if

, .
,
a governor running at 5 0 revolutions has a variation in height o f 5 7 .
inch it is not as sensitive as one having a variation o f 1 inch for

,
the same speed .
I n the w eighted governor the w eight is f ormed so that the center

,
o f gravity is in the axis I t is placed o n the Spindle and is free to

.
revolve The w eight adds to the w eight

.
o f the balls and thus increases the mo ,
ment o f the w eight It does not ho w .

,
ever add to the centrifugal force and

, ,
hence the moment of this force is u n

changed I t may then be said that the .
w eight adds effect to the w eight o f the

governor balls but not to the centrifugal
force and as a consequence the height o f
,
the governor for a given speed is in

creased I i W e q u al s the weight o f the
.
8
2gFfiggfi5 539324
1 9 0
0
T yp ball
e
as before and W equals o n e half the ,
’
-
added w eight the equated moments are ,
r = Fh
Substituting f or F its value obtained from the formula p ,

.
1 47, we have
( + W )r
W
(
’
WX N)
’ 2
X
ST E A M E NG IN E S 153
Since it is known that

g 8 146
(N ) (N )
’ ’
4 72 2 2 2
W+ W
h
(
H ence the height of a w eighted
governor is equal to the height o f
W+ W W ,
a simple pendulum go v ernor multiplied by +

(
Fo r instance if the height of a Simple pendulum is
, 1 0inches and
W ate r G v r r w i th
s o e no F ig 91 W ater S pp ri T p of Fl y
f ty S t p B ll G v r r
s ng y e
Sa e o a o e no
the w eight the balls equal to the added weight the height o f
of ,
the w eighted governor w ill be
Thus it is evident that if a w eight

equal to the combined w eight
o f the balls is added the height of the governor w ill be doubled
,
.
I f the belt driving the governor slips o ff or breaks the balls w ill ,
1 54 ST E A M E NG I N E S
drop w ith the result that the engine w ill run a w ay

, To diminish .
this danger many governors are provided w ith some kind o f safety
stop w hich closes the val v e when the governor loses its normal
action Usually a trip is provided w hich the governor does not
.
touch in its normal positions but w hich w ill be released if the balls ,
drop do w n belo w a certain point .
Sp rin g T yp e In many cases a spring is used in place o f th

.
weight This type of gover n or is frequently used on throttling

.
engines and it consists of a pen ,
dulum governor with springs

added to counteract the c e ntrif
ugal force o f the balls Thus the .
height and sensitiveness are in

creased Fig 90 sho w s the ex . .
t e rio r vie w o f a Waters g overnor

and Fig 9 1 Show s the same .
go v ernor having the safety stop .
In thi s governor the w eights are

al w ays in the same plane the ,
variation in height being due to

the action of the bell crank levers -
connecting the balls and Spindle .
When the balls move outw ard ,
the Spindle moves do w nw ard and

tends to close the valve The .
governor balls are caused to re

F ig 9 2
' °S
wgsg f e
e
v lv s t f volve by means o f a belt and bevel
a e ea °
gears The valve and seat are .
S ho w n in section in Fig 92 The valve is a hollo w cylinder w ith

. .
three ports through w hich steam enters The seat is made in four .
parts that is there are four edges that the steam passes as it enters
, ,
the valve The valve being cylindrical and ha v ing steam on both
.
,
sides is balanced and because o f the many openings only a small

, ,
travel is necessary .
S haft G o v e r no r Usually some f orm o f pendulum governor

.
is used for throttling engines Fo r governing an engine by varying .
the point o f cut off Shaft governors are generally use d although the
-
, ,
Corliss and some other engines use pendulum governors for this pur
156 S T E A M E N GIN ES
e rn or is keye d t o the S ha f t T w o arms having w eights

.
A A at the ,
ends are pivoted to the arms o f the wheel b b The ends having the
,
.
eights are connected t o the collar o n the loose eccentri c C by means

w
of rods B B .
When the wei g hts move to the position indicated by the dot ted
lines the eccentric is turned o n the sha ft about a quarter o f a revo
,
l u t io n l n the direction m w hich the engine runs that I S the eccentri c , ,
is advanced or the angular advance I S increased this makes cut o ff -
"
,
occur earlier as Shown by the table presented in Valv e Gears

,
If .
the en gine had a Single p lain Slide valve the variati on of the an gular ,
D i gr
a a m S h wi
o ng Act i on o f S tr i g h t L i
a - ne Ty p e of S h af t G o verno r
advance w o ul d produce too great a variation o f lead ; but as thi s

engine has a se p arate valve for cut o ff admission is not altered by
,
-
,
the cut off valve

-
.
The Springs F F balance the centrif ugal f orce o f the w eights ;

the w eights A A are varied to suit the speed ; and the tension on
the springs is altered by means o f the scre w s c c Auxiliary springs .
are added in order to obtain the exactness o f regulation necessary

for electric lighting These springs tend to throw the arms outward
.
,
but act only during the inner half o f this movement .
S tr aight Lin e T yp e Fig 94 S ho w s the governor o f the Straight

-
. .
lin e engine I t has but o n e b all B w hich is linked to the spring S

. .
,
S T E A M EN G I N E S 157
and to the plate DE on which is the eccentric C When the ball

, .
flies outw ard in the direction indicated by the arrow F the eccentri c ,
is shifted about the pivot 0 the lin k s moving in the direction of the
,
arro w H The ball is heavy and at a considerable distance from

.
the center hence it has a great centrifugal force and the spring must
,
be stiff The governor of the B uckeye engine alters the cut off by
.
-
changing the angular advance w hile the Straight line engine gov
,
-
e r n or changes the travel o f the valve The latter type o f valve i s

.
very common .
I nertia Fo rm The w ell known R ites inertia governor Fig 95

.
-
, .
,
is a form of shaft governor largely used f or certain types of engines .
This governor regulates the

S peed o f the engine by S hifting
the eccentric thus changing ,
the valve travel and in c re as

ing o r decreasing the angular
advance depending o n the
,
S peed conditions It differs in .
its operation from the c e ntrif

ugal Shaft governor previous
l y considered in that it ma k es
,
use of the inertia of tw o large

w eights instead of centrifugal
f orce To understand this
.
action it first becomes nec

,
95 “ fi T yp" f
essary to know something eepsgggz g
' s ef a °
about its construction .
The governor consists essentially of a heavy arm A pivoted at

E to the flyw heel This arm carries t w o heavy weights at B The
. .
eccentric D is fastened to the arm by three countersunk scre w s as ,
S ho w n and moves w ith reference to the engine S haft w henever the

,
w eights B cause the arm A to move about its pivot point Fas .
tened to the flyw heel arm and the governor arm A is the S pring C ,
w hich brings the arm A back to its normal position w hen the engine
is not Operating This Spring also has certain other functions to
.
perform in the operation o f the governor .
The action of the governor is such that the valve experiences

v er y much the same movement as in the centri f ugal governor AS .
the engine speeds up the tendency of the hea v y arm A is to lag be hi nd

,
the fly w heel Th is lagging action controls the position o f the cecen

.
tric S O that the v alve tra v el is reduced thus limiting the amount of ,
steam that enters the cylinders If after the engine is operating at

.
,
a uniform rate of Speed an increase of lo ad suddenly occurs the

, ,
motion of the engine Shaft and flyw heel w ill be Slightly retarded and
“ "
the engine w ill commence to Slo w dow n On account o f the energy .
stored up in the go v ernor arm and the w eights B B they w ill not be ,
S O quickly a ffected hence the go v ernor w ill be moving S lightly faster

,
than the Shaft As a result the eccentric position w ith reference to

.
the Shaft w ill be changed and the v al v e tra v el increased thus per
, ,
mitting more steam to enter the cylin der increasing the pow er com ,
mensurate w ith the added load If for any reason the engine takes
.
a sudden spurt in speed the tendency o f the governor is to fall back

,
w ard s o to speak ; and if the engine is suddenly Slo w ed do w n for any

,
cause the t endency o f the go v ernor is to plunge for w ard ; hence the
,
valve tra v el is Shortened or lengthened according t o w hich action

ta kes place This type of governor gives very close regulation w hen
.
properly constructed .
ER ECTI O N AND O PERATI O N O F ST EA M ENG I NES
limited scope o f this w ork w ill not permit o f an exhausti v e

(T he
study o f these tw o important deta ils the erection and operation of —
steam engines ; only the general principles governing each w ill be

pointed out .
E R ECT I O N
Fo und at io ns
When about to erect an engine the first requisite
.
is the foundation the character o f w hich w ill of course depend upon

, , ,
the type and the Size of the engine I t S houl d be built according to
.
plans submitted by the engine b ui lders no changes of material c o n ,
sequence being made w ithout the approval of the builders I t .
S hould be neither connected w ith nor in close proximity to any sup
porting column or columns of the building as vibrations o f the engine ,
w ill be transmitted to the building w hich might prove to be disas

trous The foundation Sho ul d be built upon a solid bottom but if
.
,
this is not obtainable at the dep t h required by the foundation plans ,
the base of the f oundation should be extended in all directions in

'
is placed thereon in o r der t o insure a proper setting of the cement .
When the concrete has set sufficiently it S hould be inspected to see ,
that no omissions or errors have been made after which the engine ,
may be unpac k ed and prepared for setting I f the foundation is a .
large o n e an inspector Should be o n hand at all times to follow the

,
w ork and see that no errors are made .
S e tting the Eng ine Upon the accuracy and thoroughness of

.
the setting o f the engine in a large measur e depends its successful

,
operation as to smoothness and e fficiency o f running In this proc .
ess there are a great many things to be considered First the base .
,
and sub base must be carefully cleaned and set in position N ext
-
.
,
the cran k Shaft cylinders , piston crosshead valves and other deta ils
, , ,
must be carefully placed in position and alignment made according

t o the plans o f the builders As all of these details require skill an
.
,
inexperienced person should not attempt the setting up o f an engine .
It is al w ays preferable w hen possible to obtain an experienced man

, ,
from the engine builders .
I ns tall atio n of Attac hme nts In addition to the erection and

.
setting of the engine proper there are various attachments and aux
iliar ies that require care and Skill in their proper installation The .
steam and exhaust piping as w ell as the cylinder drainage Should be

care fully attended to The piping Should be of ample size all bends
.
,
should be easy and gate valves Should be used w henever possible

, .
The piping should have a gradual fall fro mthe boiler to the engine ,
at o r near w hi ch Should be placed a separator .
S ep arator The separator Should be of approved design and

.
,
care must be taken to carefully provide for drainage i n order to insur e

the removal o f the w ater other w ise the separator might form a
,
reservoir for w ater and thus endanger the engine more w ith its use
than w ithout In additi on to being a safeguard against w ater ham
.
mer when properly attached the separator also improves the steam
, ,
economy of the engine Since it removes the most o f the entrained

,
moisture w hich is carried from the boiler through the steam

pipes .
E x haus t Pip es The exhaust pipes Should be o f ample area to

.
take care o f all exhaust steam and safeguards should be used to insure
,
no backing up o f the condensed exhaust into the cylinders T o this .
en d Sharp bend s Sh oul d b e av oi ded and gate v alve s sho ul d b e u sed

,
ST E A M E NGI N E S 161
‘
i f val v es are necessary as by their use the area o f the pipe is less
,
reduced than by other forms of valves Check valves S hould be .
avoided w henever possible .
Cylinder Drains The cylinder drains should be o f sufficient

.
area to care fo r all condensed ste am in the cylinders and so attached

to the cylinders and the exhaust pipe or receiver that no pockets
w ill be formed for the accumulation of w ater In the case o f c o m .
~
pound engines the cylinder drains o f the high and the l o w pressure
cylinders S hould not be connected together but se p ar ate l v connected ,
to the exhaust o r other main drain In condensing engi nes the cyl .
inder dra ins Should al w ays go into the e xhaust drain i f it is l ow

enough to admit o f proper drainage .
OPE R AT I O N
Let us now turn our attention to the operation and manage
ment o f an engine It Should be borne in mind that many sug
.
gestions as to the proper alignment and adjustment of bearings the ,
adjustment of valves and the consideration given lubrication w ill

,
be applicable both to the first setting up of the engine and also to the
daily operation after w ards .
Co mp e te nt Eng inee r a R e q uis ite The operation of an engine .
should be committed to a careful s killful and reliable man This , , .
is especially true in the case of modern w ell equipped plants w hich -
represent quite an ou tlay o f capital I n many of the smaller plants .

,
how ever not much attention is gi v en to the matter and we find as

, ,
a resul t men holding positions as operators who k now very little

,
about their business Under such conditions the plants are seldom
.
operated e fficiently .
As a suggestion of some o f the duties of a man in charge of a

modern plant w hich also suggest the amount of j udgm ent and e xp e
,
ric u ce required the follo w ing general instructions are presented

, .
Car e of Be ar ing Cap s The caps on the main be arings S hould

.
al w ays have su fficient liners underneath to enable the nuts on the

bearing studs to dra w the cap dow n tightly upon them and not pinch
the Shaft which should be free to revolve in its bearings w ithout
,
u nnecessary play .
The caps Should be removed occasionally as conditions demand

in order to clean out the oil grooves w hich are chipped in the b a bb itt
metal as the passages may become clogged w ith dirt or other f or

,
e ign matter .
Adjus tme nt of Co nne ct ing Ro d Bo x In adjusting the connect

.
ing rod b ox at the crank pin end the same general rules Should be
,
obser v ed regarding the liners under the cap the large nuts draw n —
solidly upon i t the small nuts firmly j ammed and the cotter pins
,
placed in positi on The adjustment o f the box Should then be

.
tested w ith a lever about 1 2 inches in length the adjustment being ,
so made that with a lever of this length the operator can easily mo v e
'
the end of the connecting rod sufficiently to ta k e up the side play

bet w een the flanges on the crank pin and the end of the box The .
adjustment should never be made so close that this side movement

can not be observed .
The adj ustment of the connecting rod box at the crosshead pin
Should be made by placing the crank on the center nearest the cyl
inder ; then w ith a w rench pro v ided for that purpose slac k o fl both ,
w edge scre w s at the upper and lo w er S ides of the connecting rod ,
and draw the w edge up until it is solid against the box ; then slack
O ff one scre w about a sixth o f a turn and draw up the other so as to
,
firmly loc k the w edge .
Lining Up Cro s s he ad The crosshead Should be lined up betw een

.
the guides whi le disconnected f rom the connecting rod

,
When in .
this condition the crosshead should be so lined that it can be easily

pulled from o n e end o f the guides to the other w ith a Short lever .
The crosshead shoul d ne v er be run very close and S ho ul d al w ays ,
be free enough to allo w long and continuous runs w ithout heating

the guides to the degree that they w oul d be uncomf ortably w arm
t o the touch .
When ma k ing any adjustments of the crosshead the operator ,
should assure himself that the loc k nut w hich prevents the pisto n
rod turning in the boss of the crosshead is securely placed .
Adjusting Ec c e ntr ic S trap The eccentric strap adjustment is

.
made by liners placed betw een the halves of the strap and double
nutted bolts When adjustment is necessary the other end o f the
.
,
eccentric r o d Should be disconnected and after dra wi ng up the strap ,
bolts it should be tested by giving the strap a half revolution about

,
the eccentric If it is found that the friction betw een the strap and
.
the eccentric is s u fli c ient to support the w eight of the r o d the bol ts ,

1 64 ST E A M E NG IN E S
Solid L ub rican ts Several

solid lubricants are used such as
.
,
graphite metalline soapstone and fiber graphite

, , ,
Grap hite w hen mixed w ith certain oils is w ell adapted for heavy
pressures It is especially good for heavy pressures and l ow veloci
.
ties Under conditions w hich require a large amount of cylinder o il

.
,
a small amount o f crystal o r fla k e graphite may be used w ith good

results Care must be exercised how ever if the exhaust steam is
.
, ,
used for feed w ater as the graphite may get into the boilers and
,
cause inconvenience and perhaps serious trouble .
M etalline is a solid compound containing graphite It is made .
in the form of solid cylinders w hi ch are fitted to the holes drilled ,
into the surface of the bearing Wh en a bearing is thus fitted no .

,
other lubricant is necessary .
S oap s tone in the f orm of po w der and mixed w ith o il or fat is

sometimes used as a lubricant Soap mixed with graphite or .
soap stone is often used w here wood is in contact with w ood o r

-
iron .
A preparation called fib er grap hite is used for self lubricating -
bearings It is made o f finely divided graphite mixed w ith fibers

.
o f w ood It is pressed in molds and afterw ards fitted to bearings

. .
For great pressure at S lo w speed graphite lard tallo w and , , , ,
other solid lubricants are suitable I f the pressure is great and the .
S peed high castor sperm an d heavy mineral oils are used

, , , .
For l ow pressure and high speed olive sperm rape and refi ned , , , ,
petroleum give very satisfactory results .
In ordinary machinery heavy mineral and vegetable Oils and ,
lard oil are good The relative value of various lubricants depend s
.
upon the prevailing conditions Oil that is suitable for one place .
might n o t fl ow freely enough for another .
The quality of o il is of great importance I n many branch es o f .
industry it is imperative that the machinery run as perfectly as

possible On this account and bec ause of the high cost of machinery
.
,
only first class oil should be used The cylinder o il especially S hould .
be high grade because the valves piston and piston rods are the
, , ,
"
most delicate parts of the engine .
u a lities of a Good Lu b rican t From the foregoing brief discus .
s ion of lubricants it w ill be evident that they must possess certain
qualities w hich may be enumerated as follows :

ST E A M E NG IN E S 165
The lubricant must be sufficiently fluid so that it , w ill not i n

itself make the bearing run hard .
It must not be too fluid or it w ill be squeezed o u t from betw een

the bearing surfaces If this happens the bearing w ill imm ed iately
.
,
heat and begin to cut The heating w ill tighten the bearing and
.
increase the pressure and the cutting .
It must not gum or dry w hen exposed t o the air .
It must not be easily decomposed by the heat generated If it .
should be decomposed it might form substances w hich w ould be

,
i njurious to the bearings .
It must not ta k e fire easily .
It must contain no acid and S hould form no acid in decomposing ,
as acids corrode the bearings .
B oth mineral and animal oils are used as

lubricants Formerly animal oils w ere used
.
entirely but they were likely to decompose at

,
high temperatures and form acids It is impor .
“
tant in using high press u re steam to have high
"
test oils that is oils w hich w ill not decompose
, ,
o r volatilize at the temperature of the steam .
I t w as the di fficulty of getting such oils w hich

made great trouble w hen superheated steam w as
first used M ineral oils w ill stand high tempera
.
tures very readily and even i f they do decompose

, ,
they form no acids .
Common Oil ers Engines are lubricated by

.
means o f o il cups and w ipers placed on the F ig 9 6 St d d T y p an ar e

f S i m pl 0“C p
. .
bearings w herever required They are made in .

° e u
many forms Formerly the oil cup w as made w ith a tube ext end
.
,
ing through the oil A piece of lamp w ick or w orsted leads from
.
the oil in the cup to the tube Capillary attraction causes the .
o il t o fl o w continuously and drip do w n the tube When not in use .

,
the lamp w ick Should be w ithdra w n This type o f oil cup is n o w .
seldom used .
The oil cup Show n in Fig 96 is simple and economical The . .
opening o f the valve is regulated by an adjustable stop The o il

~
.
may be seen as it flow s drop by drop The cylindrical portion is .
made o f glass so that the operator can see ho w much oil there is i n
,
the cup w ithout opening it .

A f orm of wiper crank pin oiler is show n in Fig 97 The oil . .
cup is attached to a bracket The oil drops from the cup into the
.
Sheet o f w icking or w ire cloth
and is removed at each rev

o l u tio n of the crank pin by
means o f the cup w hich is

attached to the end o f the
connecting rod This form of .
oiler w or k s very satisfactorily

at Slo w speeds .
Cen trifu ga l Oil ers Fig 98 . .
F ig 9 7
. . oF rm f W ip r C k Pi O il
o e r an
S ho w s a
n
centrifugal
er
oiling de
v ice w hich operates very sat
isfa c t o ril y at all Speeds The oil flo w s from the oil cup through
.
the tube to the small hole in the cran k pin by centrifugal force It .
reaches the bearing surface by

m e ans of another small hole .
Cyl in de r Lu b rica tion In oiling .
the valve chest and the cylinder ,
the lubricant must be introduced

against the pressure o f the steam .
This may be done in se v eral w ays ,
in each o f w hich it is introduced

into the steam before it reaches
the valve chest and is carried
by the steam to the surfaces to
be lubricated .
By Oil Pu mp s T he oil may .
be forced into the steam pipe by

a small hand pump o r in large ,
engines by an attachment from ,
the engine itself The supply of

C t if g l O il
.
98
. en r u a er
o il is o f course intermittent if the

, ,
p ump is dr iven by hand but continuous

,
and economical i f driven
by the engine .
B y Sight Feed Lu b rica tors

-
The most common device f or f eed
.
ing oil to the cylinder is that w hich introduces the o il drop by drop
into the steam w hen it is in the steam pipe or steam chest The oil .
engines run so fast that it is impossible to examine the vari o us parts ,
and special means must be provided fo r lubrication It is especially .
important in high speed engines that there Should be no heating .
I n order to avoid the danger o f neglecting to oil a bearing o f a

high speed engine it is customary to have all the bearings oiled from
,
o n e central source Al l the o il is supplied to o n e reservoir from

.
,
w hich pipes lead to all bearings I f this is not done large o il cups
.
,
are used as a rule so that oiling need not be attended to as frequently

, , .
I n some high speed engines the moving parts are enclosed and
the cra nk runs in a bath o f o il This secures certain oiling and is
.
very e ffective Al l the bearings may be inside this crank case so

.
,
that all are oiled in this w ay I t is thus impossible for a careless

.
operator to overlook o n e point and so endanger the whole engine .
S tart ing the Engi ne B efore starting an engine the oil cups
.
,
S hould be started feeding grease cups scre w ed do w n

, and the gov ,
e rn or and other parts of the valve gear oiled The cylinder l ub ri .
cator Should be started be f ore the engine so that the oil passages
w ill contain oil The cylinder drain cocks Should be open so that
.
any condensed steam in the cylinder w ill b e removed w ithout injury

to the cylinder These precautions ha v ing been observed the
.
,
throttle may be opened slow ly and the engine started and gradually
brought to the required speed .
After starting the engine notice Should be taken o f the governor

,
and all the lubricating apparatus to see that each is properly per
f orming its f unction .
When the engine is to operate condensing the condenser Should ,
be started first i f it is in such a position that the w ater in the

,
exhaust can drain into it I f the condenser is above the engine and
.
no means are provided for removing the w ater the engine should be ,
started n o n condensing When a jet condenser is used the quan

- .
,
tity o f injection water Should be increased as the load is increased ;

the amount being determined by the conditions of the vacuum and
temperature o f the discharge w ater w hich Should be from 1 00 to ,
°
1 10 F
°
. I f the w ater is colder than this it w ould d enote that more ,
injected water is being used than is required .
The foregoing suggestions and indicated precautions are only

a fe w o f the more important things that w ill arise in the course of the
erection setting and operation o f an engine The one performing
, , .
ST E A M E NGI N E S 1 69
these various duties must at all times exercise good judgment and
act according to w hat his past experiences and that o f others have
taught under S imilar circumstances .
ENG I NE S PECI FI CATI O NS
S e l e c ting The engineer w ho has the responsibility

an Eng ine .
o f selecting an engine fo r a given class of service has no small task
to perform if he carefully analyzes all the f actors entering into the

,
problem If the installation contemplated is to be an extensi v e or

.
expensive one expert advice Should be solicited Since this is not

,
.
al w ays to be had a fe w suggestions w ill be given as to how be st to

,
proceed w hen o ne has to specify an engine for a given service Con .
sider for the time being that an expert consulting engineer is not avail
able and a rather inexperienced person o r n o n tech nical man w ho ,
-
,
kno w s little about the theoretical questions that Should be given

consideration has to select the engine I n this case the most satis
, .
f actory procedure to f ollo w w ould be to go to some reliable engine

builder and ask him to build or specify an engine that w ould per
f orm the service required H aving only o ne builder intrusted the
.
,
item o f expense w ould not be chie f in his consideration since there

w ould be no competition there f ore the builder would build or speci fy
,
the best engine possible for the service If the f unds available .
are limited o r must be closely conserved the intended purchaser may ,
state the limits o f cost and then require the builder to come w ithin
those limits I t would also be w ise o n the part o f the purchaser
.
to require a guarantee as to the per f ormance of the engine and its

maintenance cost for a given period o f one year or more .
Dr aw ing Up S pe c ific at io ns If the purchaser is a competent

.
engineer o r he has in his employ such a person a complete set o f ,
S pecifications may be dra w n up and submitted to several engine
builders for competitive bids The speci fications submitted Should

.
cover in detail the service for which the engine is to be used the ,
speed at w hich it is to O perate the type o f valves and valve gear

,
desired the per cent of variation permissible in its governing and

, ,
many other items as to the design and detail o f construction M ost .
specifications also speci fy w ithin what limits the engine must operate ,
as to the amount of steam used per indicated horsepow er per hour ,
and the range o f mechanical effi ciency that must be attained A p r o .

1 70 STE A M E NGI N E S
vision should be made in the contract as to the conditions under

w hich the acceptance test w ill be made and by w hom .
The form of spec ification usually submitted by the builders

and which in general will be like those w ritten by an engineer w hen
requesting bids is submitted here w ith This may be taken as a , .
typi cal specification the items being changed to meet different con ,
d itio n s o f service as the particular case demands .
S PE CI F I CA T I ON S O F A V E R T I CA L CR OS S - COM P O UN D, S I DE
CR A N K , E N GI N E , A R RA N GE D FOR 1 000 K W DI R E C T -
. .
CO N N E C T E D GE N E R A T O R , 6 0 C Y CL E A L T E R N A T OR
SI ZE , P O W E R , AN D D I ME N S I ON S
D i m t e r f hi g h pr
a e ur cyli n d r 2 7 i n ch s
o ess e e ,
e .
D i m t r f l w pr
a e e u r e cyli n d r 5 4 i n ch e
o o e ss e ,
s .
Str k e 4 2 i n ch es
o ,
.
R v l u ti n p
e o m in ut e 1 20
o s er ,
.
I n iti l t m pr a ur
s ea 1 25 p un d 2 6 i n ch e
e ss c uu m c n d en i n g
e, o s, s va ,
o s .
R t e d l d in i n dic t d h r p w r
a oa ut ff a e o se o e ,
c -
o ,
At c u t o ff i n dic t d h r
-
pow r ,
m xi m u m u t ff
a e o se e ,
a c -
o ,
E ti m t d t t l w i g ht f n g i n
s a e o a p un d e o e e, o s .
W i g ht o f w h l
e p n d D i am t r 1 6 f t F c
ee ,
i n ch es ou s . e e ,
ee . a e, .
D i am t r f b ri n ge e 1 9 i n ch
o L n g th 3 5 i n ch
ea s, es . e ,
es .
D i a m e t r f h f t b t w n b ri n g 22 i n ch
e o s a e ee ea s, es .
D i am t r o f cr n k p in 9 i n ch
e e L n gth 8 i n ch
a ,
es . e ,
es .
D i am t r f cr e e h e d p in 8 i n ch
o L e n g th 8 i n ch es
o ss a ,
es .
,
.
B ari n g u r f c
e f cr s h e a d 1 7 i n ch es by 20 i n ch s
a e o o ss ,
e .
D i m e t e r f pi t n o d 5 i n ch
a o s o r ,
es .
D i m t r o f thr ttl e v lv
a e e 1 2 i n ch o a e, es .
D i m e t r f xh au s t Op e n i n g 22 i n ch
a e o e ,
es .
W O R M AN S I P AN D M A E I AL S
K H T R
T h w r k m n hip fi n i h fitti n g
e o d m at ri l w ill b fi t cl
a s , in e v e ry
s , ,
an e a s e rs - ass
p rtic u l r Al l f r g i n g w ill b f p n h rth t l h m m r d ir n

a a . o s e o o e -
ea s ee or a e e o ,
as
h r ft e r p ci fi d A l l c ti n g u bj ct t w r ch cyli n d r g id
e ea S e e . as s s e o ea ,
su as e s, u es,
pi t n e t w ill b p u r d f r m m ixt u r c n t i n i n g ch rc l ir n g r d d
s o s, c .
,
e o e o es o a a oa o ,
a e
acc rdi n g t th iz of c ti n g in rd e r t c u r e th pr p r h rd n
o o e S e asnd o o se e o e a e ss a
cl en of g r i n
os es s a .
Th n gin e w ill b e m d t
e g u ge
e n d i n t rch n g e bl T hi f t u r a e o a a e a a e . s ea e
w ill b e th r o g hly c rri d u t o u a e o .
F l t u rf c a w ill bs cr p e d t u rf c pl t
a es nd u rf c nd
e s y l in d i a o s a e a es, a s a e a c r
ca l g ri n di n g w ill b e u d w h e r e a dv n t g e u se a a o s .
G U A R AN T EE
W g u r n t th w r k m an hip n d m t ri l in th n g i n t b fi t
e a a ee e o s a a e a s e e e o e rs
cl ass a n d in f u l fill m n t f u g r n t w w ill g iv d plic t t t k e th

e o o r ua a ee e e a u a e o a e
pl c o f n y p art th t m y pr v d f ctiv in m t ri l w r k m n hip

a e a a a o e e e e a e a , o a s ,
or
d e i gn w it hin n y r ft r the e n g i n i s t rt e d
s o e ea a e e s a .
1 72 ST E A M E NG IN E S
v alv e g e r i p itiv c m p o d o f i m pl e l e v e r n d li n k n d the

T he a s os e, o se S s a s, a
c ut ff-
on t k pl c e t n y p i n t b t w n z r n d th m xi m u m u t o ff
ca a e a a a o e ee e o a e a c -
.
T h c u t ff
e xc pt t li g ht l d cc u r w h n th m i n n d u t off v lv e
-
o ,
e e a oa s, o s e e a a c -
a s
a re m vi n g in pp o it dir cti n
o n d th
o ut ff i s h rp w ithe le e o s, a e c -
o s as s a as a re as
in g typ f v lv g r n t w ith t n di n g the h rt tr k u d

e o a e ea o s a S o s o e se .
T he u t ff i v ri d i m u lt n e u ly u p o n l l t h cyli n d r in su ch a m n
c -
o s a e s a o s a e e s a
n er th t th w o r k d n in a ch i ppr xi m t ly q l
a e o i l the dr p
e e s a o a e e ua ,
as s a so o
in t e m p r t u r f t m in e ch
e a T hi
e o dd to m th r n n i n g n d g iv
s ea a . s a s s oo u a es
b e t di trib u ti n f t m f o e c o n o m y t l l u t ff u n d r v ri bl l o d
s s o o s ea r a a c -
o s e a a e a s .
T h v lv g e r w ill b
e a c o n tru ct e d in th m t b t n ti l an d d ur abl
e a e s e os su s a a e
m nn e r an d in u ch a w y
a ,
t e q u liz th s ut o ff t b th n d o f th a y l in as o a e e c -
a o e s e c
d r s fo l l u t o ff R o c k h af t pi n n d li n k w ill b m d f p en
e r a c -
s .
-
S s, s, a s e a e o o
h rth s t ee l C n n cti n g li n k w ill b fitt d w ith br n z n d h vi n g q u ic k

ea . o e s e e o e e s a
t p r k y dj u t m n t T h cc n tric tr ap w ill b e li n d w ith b bbitt

a e e a s e . e e e s s e a
h m m r d in n d b r e d u t T he r o c k h f t b ri n g w ill b e b b b itt d
a e e a o o .
-
s a ea a e
a nd dj u t abl
a s e .
GO VER NO S R
T he g o v r n o r w ill b it u t e d n th mai n h f t f th n gi n e A ch n g e
e e S a o e s a o e e . a
in p iti o n f t he c n tri f u g l w i g ht r e v l
os o th cc n tric c n tr lli n g th
e a e s o v es e e e o o e
p o iti n n d m ti n of th u t ff v alv e ar u n d th S h ft an d v ari t he

s o a o o e c -
o s o e a es
p o i n t f u t ff o c -
o .
A l l the b ri n g pi n s in th g v r n o r w ill b m d e o f t l t e l h rd e n d
ea e o e e a oo s e a e
an d g r u n d t u r n i n g in b ari n g b u sh e d w ith ph ph o r br n z e T he c n
o ,
e s os o . e
t ifu g l f rc
r a f ch g v rn r w i g h t i r i t d by pl t pri n g thr ugh
o e o ea o e o e s es s e a a e S o
a p in h a vi n g h rd e n d t l p i nt r ti
a n g in ph p h r br eo n z c up o n e at
s ee o s es os o e s,
th e n d o f th
e pri n g n d the o th r t th c n t r f g r avity f the g v r n r
e s a e a e e e o o o e o
w i gh t
e T h c e n tri f u g l f o rc
. f t he g v r n r w i g ht i th u o pp
e ad in a e o o e o e s s s ose
dir ct an d f ricti n l m n n e r w ith o u t c u i n g pr u r

e o e ss f ricti n n tha a s ess e or o o e
pi n u p o n w hich the g v rn r w i ght sw i n g T hi g v r n r w ill r gu l at e

s o e o e s . s o e o e
th e p e e d f the n gi n w ith a cl n s an d c e rt i n ty i m p o ibl e w ith a

S o e e ose es a ss
fl y b ll g v r n r a n d it
-
a o cti n i u n ff ct d by w id n d su dd n fl u c tu a
e o ,
s a o s a e e e a e
ti o n f l o d T h g v r n o r w ill c n tr l b o th u t o ff e cc en tric s
s o a . e o e o o c -
.
P I S O N S P I S T O N R O D S AN D S T UF F I N G B O XE S
T , ,
T he pi t n s w ill b e c o r e d u t n d pr o vid d w ith i n t r n l ribbi n g m ak

s o o a e e a ,
in g th m v ry li g ht n d tr o n g
e e T h y w ill b e s c u r d t t he pi t n
a d by
s . e e e o s o ro
b e i n g f rc e d u p n t p r w ith S h u ld r b y n d n d by a n u t w ith a i m pl
o o a a e ,
o e e o ,
a ,
S e
b u t e ffici n t l o c k i n g d e vic e
e T h pi s t n w ill b e pr vid e d w ith c as t ir o n . e o s o -
p a c ki n g ri n g s .
T h pi s t n r d s w ill b e o f o p e n h e arth t e e l ru nn i n g thr u g h d e p s t u ff

e o o -
s o e
in g b x e n d b bbitt d g l n d s
o s a T he r o d w ill n t t
a ch the h e d s w hich
e a . s o ou a —
w ill b b o r d l rg br n z ri n gs fitti n g th r o d in the b tt m f a ch

e e a e
—
o e e s o o o e
s t u ffin g b o n d pr e v e n ti n g e c a p e o f p c k i n g t o t he i n t e ri o r o f t he cyli n d e r
x a s a .
L o w pr e u r pi s t n w ill b e of t ee l
ss e o s .
FR AM I N G
T hi s w ill c o n i t f o e ch cyli n d e r o f a d e p an d m s s , iv e b s c on t ai n
r a , e a ss a e
in g t h m a i n b e ri n g
e O n t h b a c k f e a ch b e w ill t n d
a s . v ry h vy e o as s a a e ea
r e ct n gu l r c l u mn
a a h o w n in th bl u e pri n t e c u r ly b lt e d t
o ,
as S h vy e ,
s e o o a ea
fr m a h d I n f r n t th fr m e h e ad w ill b e c o nn ct e d to t h b e s by
e ea . o e a s e e as
fo r ge d t eel c ol umn b o l te d by fl an ge s f o r ge d solid w ith the c o l u mn s

s s T he .
ST EA M E N GIN E S 1 73
r e r c o l u mn w ill u pp t th cyli n d r w h n th f r g d c o l umn s in fr on t

a s or e e s e e o e
are r m v d f cilit ti n g t he pl ci n g
e o e f h f t n d th r p rt
,
a a a o S a a o e a s .
G U I DE S C R O S S E A D ,
AN D C O S E A D P I N S H S, R S H
T h g id w ill b e
e p r t f r m th f r m n d dj u t bl for w e r w ith
u es se a a e o e a e a a s a e a
n
a il di h t t h b tt m w hich t g th r w ith
o s a thi n br fri n g u p o n t he
e o o ,
o e e a a ss e
b o tt m of th cro h d f r m n ffici n t l f ili n g d vic

o e ss ea ,
o s a e e se -
o e e .
T h cr o s h d s w ill b
e f p n h rth t e l fitt d w ith b bbitt e d c as t
s ea e o o e -
ea s e e a
i on h
r S o es .
T h cr s h d pi n w ill b e f p e n h e arth s t e e l fl a tt e n e d o n t w s id s t
e os ea s o o - o e o
pr e v n t w ri n g v l
e ea o a .
CONN E C I N G R O D S AN D B O XE S
T
T he c n n cti n g d w ill b e o f f o r g d s t e l pr o vid d w ith g ib

o e ro nd k y e e ,
e a e
en d T he tr p w ill b
s . pr vid d w ith pi n chi n g b lt w hich w ill pr e v n t
s a s e o e o s e
Spr di n g B th cr n k n d cr s h e d p in b x w ill b e li n d w ith b bbitt

ea . o a a os a o es e a
h mm r d in n d b r d ut
a e e a o e o .
T h b dy f t h c n n cti n g o d w ill b m d
e o o f l rg r cti n th n th
e o e r e a e o a e se o a e
pi t n d b i n g d i g n e d pr p rly f th dd d tr i n d u to it l e n g th
s o ro ,
e es o e or e a e s a e s
and n g u l r m ti n
a a o o .
S A
H FTC R AN K P N AN D D I S K
,
I ,
Th h f t w ill b pil d n d f g g t d h m m r d ir o n f r g i n g
e s a e e a a o e a e e o .
T h cr n k di k w ill b m d w ith c u n t rb l n c
e a s f m ixt u r e c o n t i n e a e o e a a e, o a a
in g ch rc l ir n T h cr n k p in w ill b m d f f rg d t e l T he S h f t
a oa o . e a e a e o o e s e . a
an d cr n k p in w ill b a f rc d i n t t h di k by hydr u lic pr e s u r e an d the di k

e o e o e s a s s
w ill a l o b k y d e c u r ly t th h f t
s e e e s e o e S a .
M A I N B E A R I N G S AN D R EM O V A B L E SH E LL S
T he m i n b ri n g s w ill b e fitt e d w ith cyli n dric a l h e ll s li n d w ith b ab bitt
a ea S ,
e ,
h am m r d in n d b o r d o u t T h e S h ll s c n e ily b e t ak n o u t by e m
e e a e . es e a as e r ov
in g t h p nd i m ply j c k i n g u p th h f t s u ffici en tly t t k th w i g ht

e ca a s a e S a o a e e e
ff t h b ri n g w h n th y
o e ea n b r v lv d r u n d th h f t n d t k e n u t
s, e e ca e e o e a o e S a a a o
w ith o u t di tu rbi n g n y th e r p rt s f th ngine Th h ll a m d ho l o a s o e e . e S e s ar e a e
l w f
o w t r circ u l ti n
or T hi s i n o t i n t e n d d t o b e u d rdi n rily b u t
a e a o . s e se o a ,
in c dirt as e th r u nu u al c o n diti n h u ld c u t h b ri n g to h e a t it
or o e s o s S o a se e ea ,
f t n n bl
o e t he n g i n t c m pl t it
e a es u n w ith u t s t ppi n g
e e o o e e s r o o .
T h m i n b ri n g w ill b
e pr vid d w ith a s e lf ili n g d e vic e w hich w ill
a ea s e o e -
o
k e p th m fl o d d w ith o il
e e o e .
O I L F EED S Y S T EM
d w ill b p os itiv n d dj u t bl an d the sy t e m w ill b e cl os e d
T he f e e e e a a s a e s ,
s th t th r w ill b littl w t n d d t ri r ti o n o f il R i n gs at the e n d

o a e e e e as e a e e o a o . s
f t h b ri n g w ill thr w ff
o e ea c pi n g o il i n t o cl fitting hi ld s w ith u it
s o o es a o s e- S e s
bl dr i n pip e l di g t l r g e ttli n g r rv ir b n e th A s m ll p u m p
a e a s ea n o a a se es e o e a . a
driv e n f r m th v lv g r w ill d liv r th il to a f d t n k t ch b e r

o e a e ea e e e o ee a a ea a
in g T hi s t n k w ill b pr vid d w ith n dj u t bl e f d u tl t pip e l e di n g

. a e o e a a s a ee o e a
t oth b ri n gs n d w ith a g ug g l s n d b y p
e ea , v rfl o w n d n b
a a e- as a -
ass o e ,
a ca e
fill d by h n d n d u d as a n o rdi n ry o il u p if it is d ir d t c u t ff t he
e a a se a c es e o o
a u t m tic s u pply w hil e the e n i n e is r unn i n

o a
g g .
F L Y W EE L H
T he w h ee l w ill b e c a t in h lv e an d w ill b e b o lt e d t g th e r a t the hu b s a s o e
w ith r e m e d b lt s c r e f u lly fitt d in h l es drill e d f r o m t he s lid

a o n d th
a e o o ,
a e
p arts Will b e p l an ed Wh ere th ey jo i n St eel arr ow h ead li nk s w ill b e us e d ,

1 74 ST E A M E N GI N ES
at the ri m . T he w he le w ill be c r ef u lly d e i gn e d thr u gh u t in r d r t

a s o o o e o
h v l r g f ct o r o f af
a e a a e a s e ty ,
a n d b o th d g s n d f c f im w ill b e t u rn d
e e a a e o r e
tru e .
P L A OR MS
TF
P l t f r m s c o n v e n i e n t f o h n dli n g n d p r ti n g t h
a o ngin w ill b p r a a o e a e e e e ro
id d
v e h w n in pri n t T h
as S o n b rr n g d t u it th l c ti n f th
. es e c a e a a e o s e o a o o e
n gin
e an d w ill b
e m d s ti ff t v id vibr ti n T h h n d f ili n g w ill b
e a e o a o a o . e a a s e
f
o ml sea br t u bi n g fitt d i n t o br a c p
ess a ss ir n p t T h pl t f r m
,
e ss a s or o os s . e a o
pl t w ill b di m n d figu r e d pl n d w h r th y j i n t g th r n d n tly

a es e a o ,
a e e e e o o e e a ea
fitt d eS t ir w ill b m d o f ch nn l ir n w ith e t ir n di m o n d thr e d

. a s e a e a e o ,
as -
o a a s .
F I XT U R E S
T he f o ll ow ng i
fixt u r e s w ill b pr o vid d : thr ttl v lv ; i n dic t r m ti n ; e e o e a e a o o o
c m pl t
o t fit f i g ht f e d cyli n d r l u bric t r ; g l
e e ou o s b dy il p u m p ;
-
e e a o s ass o o s
g r e e
as c u p f r v lvs e g r ; c n
o tri f u g l cra n k p in il r ; r rv ir w ith i g ht
ea e a a o e s es e o s S
f d u tl t ; il pip
ee o e s n d w ip r f
o ili n g th m i n p rt f th n gi n c n
es a e s or o e a a s o e e e o
ve n i n tl y
e n d c n ti n u u ly ; r li f v lv
a o f ch n d f th cyli n d e r ; drip
o s e e a es or e a e o e s
c o c k s ; w r n ch e f u n d ti n b lt ; an d f ou n d ti o n p l ans
e s, o a o o s a .
Co ntr ac t After the engine has been selected and the builders
.
determined a w ritten contract should be entered into in order to

,
make it a legal document A contract according to B lac k stone is .

, ,
an agreement upon su fficient consideration to do or n o t to do a par

t ic ul ar thing In the case of the purchasing o f an engine the builder
.
,
agrees to build erect and put into operation an engine in accord

, ,
ance with the specifications and drawings submitted w hich items ,
become a legal portion o f the contract The purchaser ma y also .
require that the engine be ready for operation in a given time and
that it must also come up to certain requirements in its performance ,
as previously mentioned I n consideration o f the foregoing the .

,
purchaser agrees to pay the builders a specified sum o f money either ,
in on e payment o r more as determined by them The w ording and .
statement of the contract should be carefully prepared in order to ,
avoid any possible misinterpretation o f any of its pro v isions .
COST O F ENG I NES AN D O F T H EIR O P ERATI O N
The question o f the cost of an engine and o f its erection and

operation is indeed a very vital one This cost can not be classified .
in a brief way S ince there are so many contributing factors that differ
,
w idely in difl er e n t localities For example no w ell defin e d indica

'
-
.
,
tion o f the cost o f Operation can be gi v en and the cost o f labor ,
and material are fluctuating items of expense ; therefore the cost of ,
the engine can not be stated definitely since in a brief interval o f ,
time it may be considerabl y mor e or le ss M any articles a p p ear .

1 76 STE A M E NGI N E S
T AB LE V
Co s t of I n s t a l l a t io n and O p e r a t io n f o r O n e Y e ar
K i d
n of E i ng ne
i pl Slid V lv e N n
S m e e a o -
c on
75 $ 4 03 $ 23 5 5
o
d n ing
e s
C m p u n d Sl d e Valve 1\
o o I
T
on
3 1 50 4 38 2 1 45
c o n d e n sm g
‘ 0
C o mp Ou n d S lid e V alv e C o n d en s
in g
i pl C rli N n c o n d n i n g
S m e o ss o - e s
C mp u n d C rli C n d en i n g
o o o ss o s
T ripl C rli C o n d en i n g
e o ss s
interest o n real estate ; interest o n investment ; maintenance etc , .

,
of equipment ; fuel ; w ater ; supplies ; and attendance .
The relative value of these various items for a large central sta
tion lighting p lant w as given in the En gin eering M agaz ine M ay , ,
1 905 Taking the total cost o f maintaining the station as 1 00 per

.
cent the follow ing w ere the average costs o f the various items :
,
Fuel w ages water o il and w aste rent

station repairs steam repairs electric repairs
Annual Op e ratio n Expe ns e s Professor Carpenter in the .
Economis t summarizes the cost of installation and the operation o f

an entire plant for o n e y e ar o f hours as given in Table V .
A coal consumption of pounds per boiler horsepow er per hour is

assumed and the cost given per engine horsepo w er is f or a horse
pow er engine .
An illustration involvin g the items given in Table V w ill serve

to make it clearer The case of a S imple Slide val v e non condensing
.
-
plant will be considered .
C st
o i
o f e n g n es a n d b il e rs t p o a er
Annua l c o t f d pr e ci ti n n d i n t e r t t
s o e a o a es a p er h p
. .
An nu l a co t f c l t
s o pe t n
oa a 6 7 5 0>< 2 r o =
An nu l a c o t f l u bri c n t t
s o p a s a er
An n u a l c o s t o f l ab o r at p e h or ep ow er r s
Annu al c os t for the l a t fo u r it e ms s o r p er h p . .

ST E A M E NG I N E S 1 77
The foregoing tables ser v e to gi v e some idea o f the cost o f

w ill
engines al s o of the cost o f operat ion o f a steam plant but it must be
, ,
remembered that the figures gi v en w ill not be exact for all localities
o r for all times due to the changing influences pre v iously mentioned
, .
ENG I NE T ES TS
I mp orta nc e of Te s ts It w a s mentioned in connection w ith the
.
discussion of speci fications and contracts that often a guarantee is

given by the builder as to the economical performance of a steam
engine hence it is required that the engine be tested in order to asc e r
,
tain w hether o r not it meets the provisions o f the guarantee While .
this is one reason that may be assigned for testing an engine yet ,
there are several others of importance The user from time to time .
may w ant to ascertain the condition o f the engine as a w hole and

also the condition o f particular features such as the v alves etc Fo r , .
purely theoretical reasons an engine is often tested in order that

an analytical study may be made of its performance under v arious
conditions and in compa rison w ith other engines o f d ifferent classes .
M any such tests have resulted in obtaining data the facts of w hich ,
have demonstrated to both the builder and the user possible e c o n o

mies B ecause of the information thus obtained the builder has
.
,
been enabled to design a better engine and the user to operate his ,
engine more ad v antageously The remarks given w ill su ffice to .
indicate that the ultimate obj ect o f an engine test is the determina
tion o f the econ omy w ith w hich the engine produces a given amount
o f p ower In steam engines the economy as usually ascertained
.
, ,
relates to the w eight o f steam consumed to the quantity of coal ,
required to ma k e the steam or to the number of heat units supplied

,
.
The elementary quantities concerned are accordingly tw o in num

.
ber v iz the amount of steam fuel or heat (as the case may be )
, , , ,
consumed and the amount o f po w er developed H o w to determine

, .
these quantities is the problem .
A S M E Co d e The American Society o f M echanical

. . . . .
Engineers deemed the testing o f engine s according to

some definite and standard method o f such importance that a com
m itte e w as appointed to de v ise a standard code This after much .
,
labor and diligent study w as presented to the Society and adopted

,
.
The full report appears in V olume 24 page 7 1 3 of the Trans ,

1 78 ST EA M E N G IN ES
actions This code indicates the method of obtaining the required

.
data and also g ives a recommended form o f report In so far as the .
conditions w ill permit this cod e should be follo w ed The several

, .
items o f the code are summarized as follo w s

M E T H OD OF C O NDU CT I N G ST E AM EN G I N E T E ST S —
C ODE OF 1 902
(1 ) Object of T es t Ascertain at the o utset the specific object

.
o f the test w hether it is to determine the fulfillment o f a contract

,
guarantee t o ascertain the highest economy obtainable to ascertain

, ,
the performance under special conditions t o determine the e ff ect of ,
changes in the conditio ns or to find the p erformance of the entire ,
boiler and engine plant and prepare for th e test accordingly , .
N 0 specific rules can be given for the preparations for the test
as conditions surrounding each test w ill req uire a more or less differ
ent solution w hich must be solved by the o ne in charge The o ne
, .
particular thing to be emphasized at all times is that in order to ,
obtain data that is absolutely reliable for the pur pose in v iew the ,
one in c harge must be vigilant consc ientious and a bove all , , , ,
honest .
(2) Gen era l Condition of the P l ant Examine the engine and .
the entire plant concerned in the test ; note its general condition and
any points o f design construction o r operation w hich bear o n the
, ,
objects in vie w M ake a special examination o f the v alve and pis

.
tons for lea k age by applying the w or k ing pressure w ith the engine
at rest and observe the quantity o f steam if any blow ing through , ,
per hour .
If the test is for the purpose o f ascertaining the highest e fficiency ,
the valves an d pistons must be made steam and w ater tight -

.
T o test the val v es and piston block the flyw heel so the piston
w ill be near one end of the stroke and tur n on the steam The leak ,
.
age w ill escape to the exha u st port and w ill be observable Another .
a ppro x imate method is to block the e n gine as before and having an
ind icator on the cylinder obser v e the drop in pressure after an inter
,
val o f time In a tight engine th e fall of pressure w ill be slow

.
,
wherea s in a lea k y on e it w il l be fast Other methods of determining .
the amount of leakage may suggest themselves to the engineer in

charge of the test .
( )
3 D imen s io ns etc M easure
, o r check the dimensions
. o f the
cylinders in every case this being done w hen they are hot If they
,
.
are much w orn the average diameter Should be determined M eas

,
.
ure also the clearance w hich should b e done if possible as described

, , ,
1 80 ST E A M E NGI N ES
it to b ecome thoroughly heated in all o f its parts and in the mean ,
time all o f the measuring apparatus should be properly adjusted .
H aving made the prel iminary arrangements mentioned a t a gi v en ,
S ignal the he ight of w ater in the gauge glasses of boilers is observed ,
t he depth o f w ater in the reser v oir from w hich the feed w ater is
supplied is noted the exact time of day is observed and the test is
, ,
held to commence Thereafter the measurements deter m ined upon

.
for the test are begun and carried for w ard until its close It is con .
v e n ie n t to begin the test at some even hour o r minute but the impor ,
tant thing is to begin the test w hen accurate readings can be obtained
irrespecti v e of the t ime When the time for closing the test arrives
.
,
the w ater in the glasses Should be brought to the same height as it

w a s at the beginning ; if this is n o t possible corrections must be made ,
in the report .
(9 ) Il I eas u remen ts of H eat Un its Cons u med b y the Engine The .
measurement o f the heat consumed requires the measurement of all

the w ater supplied to the bo iler by w hatever means ; the tempera
,
ture o f the w ater supplied from each source ; together w ith the pres
sure and quality of the steam w hich are t o be taken at some point
,
near the throttle val v e The quantity o f steam used by the steam
.
calorimeter must also be accounted for .
~
The heat to be determined is that used by the entire engine
equipment embracing the cylinders and all auxiliary cylinders and
,
mechanisms concerned in the Operation of the engine including air ,
pumps feed pumps reheaters etc

, , , .
( )
1 0 M eas u r emen t of F eed W a te r o r S tea m C o ns u
,
mp tion of
En gin e etc
, . The method o f determining the steam consumption
applicable to all plants is to measure all the feed w ater supplied to
the boilers and deduct therefrom the w ater discharged by separa
tors and drips as also the w ater and steam w hich escapes on account
,
o f lea k age o f the boiler and its pipe connections and lea k age of the
main and branches connecting the boiler and engine In plants .
w here the engine exhausts into a surface condenser the steam c o n

sumption can be measured by determining the quantity o f w ater
dis charged by the air pump corrected for any lea k age o f the con
,
denser and adding this to the steam used by jackets reheaters and , ,
auxiliaries a s determined independently .
In measuring the w ater it is best to carry it through a tank or

tanks resting upon platform w eighing scales suitably arranged for
the purpose the w ater being afterw ards emptied i nto a reservoir
,
beneath fro m w hich the pump is supplied

, .
ST E A M E NGIN E S 18 1
( )
1 1 M eas u remen t of S team Us ed by Au xiliaries Although the .
s team used by the auxiliaries w a s measured as mentioned in item
y e t it is very desirable to ascertain the steam consumption of eac h

auxiliary independently in order that a close analysis o f the engi n e
,
performance can be made Several means may be employed for

.
determining the stea m consumption of the various au x il iar ies and ,
S ince they w ill be apparent to the operator no di s cussion of the m
w ill be given but they are only mentioned in order to empha s ize the
,
desirability of obtaining such data .
(1 2 ) C o a l M eas u r em en t In.commercial tests of the combined

'
engine and boiler equipment o r those made under ordinary cond

,
tions o f commercial service the test should extend o v er the entire

,
period of the day that is tw enty four hours or a number of days

, ,
-
,
o f that duration . Consequently the coal consumption S hould b e

,
determined for the e n tire time If the engine runs but a part of the
.
time and during the remaining portions the fir e is banked the meas ,
u r e me n t of coal S hould include that used for banking It is w ell .

,
how e v er in such cases to determine separately the amount consumed

,
during the time the engine is in operation and that consumed dur
ing the period w hile the fires are banked so as to have complete ,
data for purposes of analysis and comparison using suitable p r e c au ,
tions to obtain reliable measurements The measurement of coal .
begins w ith the first firing after cleaning the furnaces and burning
,
do w n at the beginning o f the test and ends w ith the last firing at the
, ,
expiration o f the allotted time .
In connection w ith coal measu rements w hate v er the class of ,
tests it is important to ascertain the percentage of moisture in the

,
c oal the w eight o f ashes and refuse and where possible the ap p r o x i
, , , ,
mate and ultimate analysis of the coal (Fo r discussion of this item .
o f coal the student is referred to V o l 22 P 3 4 o f the A S M E .

, .
,
. . . .
Transactions ) .
( )
1 3 I n d i ca te d H orse p owe r T he indicated
. horsepo w er S hould
be determined fro m the average mean e ff ective pressure of diagrams
taken at intervals o f tw enty minutes and at mo re frequent inter v als ,
if the nature of the test makes t his necessary for each end of each
cylinder .
The indicator diagrams Should be taken at regular intervals

but n o t necessarily simultaneously at the tw o ends of the cylinder .
If the diagrams vary so much as not to give fair results the d iagrams ,
Shou ld be t a k en more frequently .
The method o f attaching operating and adjusting the indicator

, ,
1 82 ST E A M EN G I N ES
and also the method to follo w in obtaining the mean e ffective pres
“ "
sure are described in Steam Engine Indicators .
( 4)
1 and ( )
1 5 T es tin g I n di ca tor S p r in gs a n d B ra k e H o rs ep ower .
“
These items are fully discussed and explained in Steam Engine
"
"
Indicators .
(1 6 ) u ality of Steam When ordinary saturated steam is used

.
,
its quality S hould be obtained by the u se of a throttling calorimeter

attached to the main steam pipe near the throttle valve When the .
steam is superheated the amount of s uperheating Should be found

,
by the use o f a thermometer placed in a mercu ry well I nserted in the

pipe .
(1 7) Sp eed There are several means for obtaining the num

.
ber o f rev olutions the engine makes per minute They may be .
counted during one minute or some other division of time a tach ,
o m e t e r may be used but the most reliable results are obtained by

,
using a re v olution counter such as w as illustrated and described in

,
“ "
Steam Engine I ndicators In using the counter the total reading
.
,
Should be take n each time the general test data is recorded These .
revolutions per minute corresponding to the difference in reading of

the instrument can then be computed know ing the time inter v al , .
(1 8 ) Recording Data Take note of e v ery event connected w ith

.
the progress o f the trial whether it seems at the time to be impor

,
tant or unimportant R ecord the time o f every event and time of

.
,
taking every w eight and every observation Observe the pressures

, .
,
temperat ures w ater heights Speeds etc every tw enty o r thirty

, , , .
,
minutes w hen the conditions are practically uniform and at much ,
more frequent inter v als if the conditions vary Obser v ations w hich .
concern the feed water m easurements Should be made w ith special

care at the expiration of each hour of the trial so as to divide the ,
tests into hourly periods and Show the uniformity of the conditions
and tests as the test goes forw ard Where the w ater discharged .
from the surface condenser is w eighed it may be advisable to divide ,
the test by these means into periods of less than o n e hour .
The data and observations of the test should be kept o n properly

prepared blanks or in notebooks containing columns suitably arranged
for a clear record .
( )
1 9 Un ifor m ity fo Co n ditio n s I n a test
. having f or an object
the determination of the maximum economy obtainable from an
engine or w here it is desired to ascertain w ith special accuracy the
,
e ffect o f predetermined conditions of Operation it is important that ,
all the conditions under w hich the engine is operated Should be main
184 ST E A M E NGI N E S
ta k en and reported upon This report w ill serve to give the order .
and manner in w hich data should be tabulated and also the method
in w hich the report should be w orked up .
D ET E R M I NAT I O N O F E FF I C I E NC Y O F A B U C K E Y E E N G I N E
U NDE R DI F F E R EN T LO A DS
P ur p ose
T he p u rp
thi ri f t t n th B u c k y n g i n l c t d in th
ose of s se es o es s o e e e e e o a e e
E n g i n ri n g L b r t ry o f P u rd u
ee a U n iv r ity w t o d t e r m i n th b t
o a o e e s as e e e es
effici n cy u n d e r i di ff r n t l o d
e r n gi n g fr m z e r t
S x e e l o ad by 4 l d a s, a o o o ,
oa
t p t h n g i n ru n n i n g n n c n d n i n g n d u i n g 1 6 0 p oun d of t m pr e
s e s, e e e o - o e s a s s s ea s
sur ab
e, lut so e .
Plan
T he z ro l o ad w a d e t ermine d w ith th f riction br ke I F ig 1 00 r em ov ed

e s e a ,
.
,
an d the e n g i n e r u nn i n g f r e e T he f u ll l o a d w d t e r m i n d by th br k e l o ad
. as e e e a
Fig 1 00
. . B u c ke y e E i Fitt d w i th Pr
n g ne e o ny Br a ke and I nd i c a to s r
w hich th e n gi n c rri d w ith 2 5 p c en t c u t ff thi b i n g th b u ild r r ti n g

e e a e er -o
,
s e e e s
’
a
f thi s typ e f n gi n
or Th 4 o 1e nd 1 1 l d w re t k n a
e . e , ,
a
-
oa s e a e s
nd r p ctiv ely f th fu ll l o d
a es e ,
o e a .
S t m pr ur
ea w m i n t i n d c n t n t a t the pr e su r i n dic t d f
es s e as a a e o s a s e a e or
th t t
e E ch t e t w
es . f n h u r d u r ti n t h
a s n gin h vi n g b n u n
as o o e o a o ,
e e e a ee r
und r c e diti n f th t e t a l n g th o f ti m u ff ici n t t p r m it th c n di

on o s o e s e e s e o e e o
ti n t b e c m c n t n t
o s o o e o s a .
ST E A M E NGI N ES 185
M e tho d of Co nd u c t ing T e s t
Con stant ste a m pr u r e w as o bt i n d by thro ttli n g the 5 i n ch t m e ss a e -

s ea
l in e l e di n g t o th
a n g i n e by m e an s o f t h pip e li n e v lv T hi s thro ttli n g
e e e a e .
a cti o n w a n t u ffici n t t o c u
s o th t m to b c m e up rh e at d
s e a se e s ea e o s e e .
T h r e v l u ti o n p e m i n u t e w r
e o bt i n d by m e an o f a r e vol u ti on
s r e e o a e s
c ou n t e r .
I n dic t r di g r m s w e r e t a k e n e v ry fi e m i n u t e
a o a 1 3 e t s o f di g r m
a e v s, s a a s
b e I n g bt i n d f ch h u r u n ’
o a e or e a o S r .
B r m t r r di n g w e r e t k n e v e ry 1 5 m i n u t
a o e e ea s a e es .
Th m un t o f w a t r w as d t r m i n e d by c o n d n i n g thee xh au s t s t e a m
e a o e e e e s
at a t mo s ph r ic p r ss ur e e e .
P r e li m ina r y W or k
B e f or e c omm en c i n g th w r k the en g i n e w as pl a c e d in s go o d c o n diti o n e o a
as w s p a ibl T h go v rn o r w as adj u t d in o rd e r t o r e d u c e f ricti n ; pl ay

o ss e . e e s e o
w a t k n u p in the v lv g r an d the v alv

s a e w e r e c ar e f u lly s t t o g iv e q u l
a e ea es e e a
c ut-o ff n b th e n d at f u ll l
o o d ; l l t u ffi n g b o x s w e r e r p c k e d ; th b r ak
s oa a s e e a e e
w h l w a t u r n e d u p a n d br ak e r e c libr a t e d
ee s a .
2 T h pr e s u r e in t he e n g i n e u pply li n
- e s w s o bt i n d by t ppi n g i i n ch s e a a e a a -
pip e i n t o th m i n b o u t 3 f t f r m th v lv e T hi s i i n ch pip w s n
e a ,
a ee o e a .
-
e a co
nec te d to l rg e t m g u g e w hich f a c e d th o p e r to r o f th thr o ttli n g v lv e

a a s ea a e a e a ,
th u s e n abli n g him to w atch the g u ge al l the ti m e an d mai n t ai n a c o n st an t a
pr e s ur e
s .
O b s e r v e d Da t a
Inch t e t the f o ll o w i n g b rv a ti n s w er e tak en

ea s o se o
S t e m pr u r e c o n t a n t thr u g h o u t
a ess ,
s o
B r k e lo d a a
R e v l u ti o n p er m i n u t e
o s
W i g ht f c o n d n se d s t e am
e o e
B r m ter a o e
I n dic t r di agr a m a o s
R e s ul ts
H vi n g t he ab o v e d a t it b c m e p
a ibl e to c alc ul at e the f ll o w i n g a e o s o ss o
(1 ) P e c n t f u t o ff h e a d e n d n d cr n k n d
r e o c -
,
a a e .
(2 ) M e n e ffe ctiv pr ess u r e

a h d n d n d cr an k end
e ea e a .
(3 ) I n dic t e d h o r p o w e r h e a d e n d an d cr an k e n d an d t o t a l
a se , .
(4 ) B r k h o r s p w r
a e e o e
(5 ) F ricti n h o r e p w r o s o e
(6 ) M ch n ic l e ffici e n cy
e a a .
(7 ) P u n d t am p e i n dic a t e d h o r se p w er p
o s s e ,
h o ur and p er b r ak e h o rs e
r o er
pow r p e hour e r .
(8 ) B riti h T h e r m l U n it s p e r h o u r p e i n dic a t e d h o r se p w er an d b r ak e h o r e
s a ,
r o s
p ower p h u r er o .
(9 ) T h e r ma l ff ici n cy e e .
C nst n t o nd F mu l as
a T he c o n s t n t s o f the e n g i n e an d f o r mu l
s a or . a as
e m pl o y e d in o bt ai n i n g the c a lc u l at e d it m s in t he s umm ary o f r e s u lt s are as e ,
fo ll o ws
1 86 ST E A M E NG I N E S
T AB L E V I
I nd ic a to r Diag ra m Da ta f o r B u c k e y e Eng ine T e s t

STEA M E N GIN ES 189
T AB L E V I I
I nd ic a tor Dia g r a m Da ta f o r B u c k e y e Eng ine T e s t

T AB L E VIII
P ER F O R M A N C E O F
UNDER DI F F ER EN T C U T O FF S
’
-
.
S U M MA RY
L GA D
"
M L OA D
14 L OAD
Fig 7 4
. . t
I nd i c a or ri
Di agr ams T ak e n Du ng T est of B u c k ey e E i
ng n e
192 ST E A M EN GIN E S
C o li n g w at e r f th br k n t r thr u gh h n t h o wn in the il l us
o or e a e e e s o a o se o s
t tio n
ra T h dir cti n
. f r o t ati n f th br k w h l
e I n dic t d by the
e o o o o e a e ee IS a e
arr o w n r D B y m e n s f th h n d w h e l E th br ak l d i ppli d n d
ea . a o e a e ,
e e oa s a e a
r gu l t d T h br k w c r efu lly c libr t e d b ef r b eg i n n i n g th t t

e a e . e a e as a a a o e e es .
Ca l i b r a tion of Con s ta nts
H E . . pi t on di pl c e m en t
s s a 41 cu . ft .
CE . . pi t on di pl ac e m en t
s s . 3 96 cu . ft .
H E . . l r c
c e a an e
CE . . cl e ar an c e
H E . . ihp . . . C o n s t an t 001 78 7
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T h e r m al E ffi ci en cy C ons t an t 4 2 42
7 78
T bl s V I an d V I I c n t i n i n f o r m ti o n f r m the i n dic t r di gr ams
a e o a a o a o a ,
an d T abl e V I I I i a g n e r l u m m ry o f t h o b e rv d n d c lc u l a t e d r es ult s o f
s e a s a e s e a a
the t e t
s s .
Fig 1 04 S h o w s m pl i n dic t o r di g r m t k n d u ri n g th t e s t
. sa e a a a s a e e .
IN D EX
P A GE
En g in e me ch n i m n ly i a s s, a a s s of (c o n ti n u e d )
flyw h l ee .
g v rn r
o e o
En g i n e p ci fic ti nS e a o s
c on tr ct a .
dr w i n g p p ci fic ti n
a u s e a o s
l e cti n g n n gin
se a e e
E n g in e
A S M E C d
. . . . o e
i m p rt n c f o a e o
m th d f c n d u cti n g
e o o o .
Fa m r tr cti n n gi n
or a o e e
p r ti n f pl n t
o e a o o a
r d r ll r typ
oa o e e .
m i p rt bl typ
se - o a e e
Fl y b ll g v r n r
-
a o e o
Fly w h l ee
f u n cti o n
iz e f w h l
S o ee
cti n f
a o o
F s t r u p e rh t r
o e s ea e
Go v rn r
e o
me th od f cti s o a on
p n d u l um
e
Ja c k ti n g
e
j ck ta e ,
fun cti on of
vi ng
sa d ue to j c k ti n g
a e
Lo c omo tiv n gi n e e es
b il r
o e .
e n gin ch r ct ri tic
e a a e s s
m cha n ic l ffici n cy
e a e e
typ f es o .
Loss e s , n ly ia f a s s o
cl r n c
ea a e .
c li ng b y xp n i n
oo e a s o
e xh u st a
f ricti o n
r di ti n
a a o
s t eam c n d n ti n n d o e sa o a r e- e v p o r ti
a a on
IN D EX
P A GE
M ari n e i
e n g n es
au xi l i ry a pp r t u a a a s
c nd r o ense s .
pu mp s
r v r i g m ch i m
e e s n e an s
d fi n i ti n f t rm
e o o e s
en gin d t il
e e a s .
b ri g ea n s .
cr nk a s
cr h d g id oss ea u es
cyli nd r e . .
m ri n d t il r a m bl t ti
e e a s ese e s a ona ry
m an g m n t f a e e o
dj u t m n t ft r t rti n g
a s e s a e s a
b ef r t rti n g o e s a
bil g es
m r g n ci
e e e es .
h t b ri n go ea s
h t r d o o s
j ck ts a e .
k no ck s .
li nk i n g u p
l ubric ti n a o
m r k i n g ff n u t
a o s
r fitti n g b ri n g
e ea s
t rti g n g i n
s a n e e
t ppi g v l
s o n e ss e
m th d
e o f pr p u l i n
s o o s o
pr p ll r
o e e s .
scr w e
pr p lli n g cti n f
o e a o o
pr p u l i n
o s o .
c m ic l p d
e on o a s ee
i n dic t d thru t a e s
re i t n c f ct r f hip in
s s a e a o s or S mo ti on
t rti g
s a n
typ f es o
c m p ri n f m ri n w ith t ti
o a so o a e s a ona ry typ es
cy l i n d r e
i n clin d e
v rtic l e a
M ch n ic l n d th r m l ffici cy
e a a a e a e en
n ly i
a a f l s s o o ss es
l s in pr ctic l n gi n
os es a a e e .
l w th r m l ffici cy i n h r t
o e a e en e en . .
M u ltipl xp n i n
e e a s o
xh aust w s t u tiliz e d
e a e .
IN DEX
P A GE
M u ltipl xp n si n (c n ti nu d )
e e a o o e
l c n d n ti n
e ss o e sa o .
m e th o d f c m p u n di n g s o o o
New c m n st m o e ea en g me
N o rdb r g n g i n
e e e
Pe n d u lum g v rn r o e o
P i t n ri n g
s o s
Pi t n
s o s
"dr pl
ua u e e n g ne s i
Sa v r y st e m n gin
e a e e
S p ar at ly fi d
e e p rh t r
-
re su e ea e
Sh f t g o v r n r
a e o .
Sn p ri n g
a s
S t ti o n ry e n g i n s
a a e
ngl a c mp n d type- o ou e .
B u c k y e v rtic l cr e c m p u n d typ e e a o ss- o o
C o rli typ ss e
N rdb r g n g i n
o e e e
i m pl id cr k typ
S e s e- an e
im pl v rtic l typ
S e e a e
dv t g f v rtic l v r h riz n t l typ

a an a es o e a o e o o a e
di dv t g f v rtic l typsa an a es o e a e .
s t ti n rya o a
U n ifl w t m gi
o s ea en ne
St m ch t
ea es .
St m n g i n
ea e es
n nu l
a p r ti axp o e a on e en s e s
c m p un d p m pi n g n g i n
o o u e e
c t f os o .
d v l pm nte e o e .
e rly a
n g in
e m ch i m e ly i f e an s s, an a s s o
n gi n
e p ci fic ti n e s e a o s
r cti n f
e e o o
f n d ti n ou a o s
i n t ll ti n f tt ch m n t
s a a o s o a a e s
tti n g th n g i n
se e e e .
m ri n an gi n e e e .
m ch n ic l n d th r m l ffici cy
e a a a e a e en
N
IN D EX
P A GE
T yp es c n tru cti
an d o s on of t
s ea m i
en g n es (c o n ti n u e d )
t ti n ry g i n
s a o a en es
w t r pum p
a e s
U n ifl o w t
s e am en g me
typic l i n dic t r c rd
a a o a s
W at e r p um p s
cr k anfly w h l typ or ee e
dir ct cti n g typ

e -
a e
Wa tt t e m ngin
s a e e

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1917 SteamEngines Llewelly

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A T H OR O U GH AND PR A C T I C AL P R E SE N T A T I O N OF M O DE R N

w hich so s il n tly p r t th m iv l ctric g n r t or in e o e a es e ass e e e e e a s

a d mir tio n An d yet v ry m v m n t is so fr an d p rf ct in

its a cti n e v ry f u n cti n is p rf r m d w ith u ch pr ci i n

o f m ny f his m i n r di c v e ri e in c nn cti n w ith it r e m i n

th t hi w rk m n c u ld n t b u ild ngi n cyli n d r n r r t ru

(11 B u t ch n ic al kill i n t the n ly p artic u l ar in w hich pr g

h t d t eam the id e of c om p oun d xp n i n th d v l p m n t

i l l y p e rf e ct n d s e fﬁci e n t s i i nh er n tly p oss ibl e

(11 T t ry has b een d ev l p d f rom hist ric l s t ndp i nt an d

a b s rbi ngly i n t re ti ng an d i n tru ctiv to th t ti on ry n g i n r

stu dy I f th erefor e the b ook h u ld pr v f r l v al ue in

sti m ul ti n g th i n t eres t f the tr i n d m n th l y m n in th

t ch n ic l d e v l op m n t s of th d y the p u bli h r w ill f l th t

its m i i o n has b n a cc m pli h d

F rma tr cti n or a o eng ne i

DEV ELO P M ENT

Earl y H is to ry . I n the study

able to review the historical development of the steam engine in

intended however to give the history o f the steam engine in detail

although it is an exceedingly interesting one w hich w ould be bene ,

ﬁc ial for any o n e to revie w but rather a short r é sum é in order

e ntee nth century little progress w a s made At this time ho w ever .

there w as a great need o f steam pumps to remove w ater from the

consisting o f a vessel having a pipe leading from the bo t tom w hich

Later an engine w as constructed in the f orm o f a steam tur

again t urned to pumps .

S avery Finally Thomas Savery completed in 1 693 the ﬁrst

commercially successful steam engine I t w as very w asteful of .

steam as compared w ith engines of today but as being the ﬁrst ,

engine to accomplish its task it w as successful Savery s engine

Fig 1 consisted o f tw o oval v essels A I and A 2 placed side by side

and in communication w ith a boiler B 1 The lo w er part s Were con .

n e c te db y tub es ﬁtted w ith suitable valves I n operation steam .

o ut . The steam w as then condensed and a vacuum formed by let

full The valve w a s then closed and steam again ad mitted by

val v e 2 so that on Opening valve 3 the w ater w as forced out through

the delivery pipe 0 The tw o vessels w orked alternately When

o n e w a s ﬁlling w ith w ater the other w as open to the boiler and ‘

w a s being emptied Of the t w o boilers B 1 and B 2 o n e supplied

used by Salomon de Caus and forced a supply o f feed water into

A modiﬁcation of Savery s engine the pulsometer shown in ’

Fig 2 is still found in use in places w here an ordinary pump could

not be used and w here extreme simplicity is o f especial advantage .

Its val v es w ork automatically and it requires very little attention .

A serious di fﬁculty w ith Savery s engine resulted from the fact ’

very deep it w as necessary to use several engines each one raising ,

the w ater a part of the w hole distance The consumption of coal .

in proportion to the w ork done w a s about twenty times as great as

entirely due to the immense amount o f steam w hich w as w asted by

condensation when it came in contact w ith the w ater in the oval

N ewcomen The next great step in the development o f the

steam engine w as taken by N e w comen w ho in 1 705 succeeded in ,

developing a scheme w hich prevented contact bet w een the stea m

diminishing the amount of steam

I n New c omen s engine Fig 3’

there w as a horizontal lever A ,

pivoted at the center carrying at ,

one end a long heavy rod B w hich

the other end o f the lever and

top Steam acting on the lo w er

side o f the piston at atmospheric

pressure w as admitted from the boiler to the cylinder and as the