Original articles

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, Unicamp. IE.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1982-3533.2017v26n4art3

“Isms” and “Zations”:

on fictitious liquidity and endogenous financialization 
Jan Kregel ** 

Abstract
Financialisation has been represented as a recent phenomenon linked to the deregulation and
globalization of the international trade and payments system that has been in progress since the opening
of the Chinese economy in the 1980s. It is often represented as the dominance of finance over
production or of monetary over real variables. This essay challenges the usefulness of this dichotomy,
arguing in the tradition of Keynes, Schumpeter and Minsky that it is impossible to separate the financing
of production into separate categories since a production decision always requires finance to be
implemented. It instead suggests that it is the process of innovation in the creation of liquidity by the
financial system that provides a more insightful analysis of the implications of financialisation.
Keywords: Financialization; Minsky, Hyman, 1919-1996; Financial crisis; Liquidity; Ponzi, C. 1882-
1949.

Resumo
“Ismos” e “Zações”: sobre a liquidez fictícia e a financeirização endógena
A financeirização tem sido representada como um fenômeno recente ligado à desregulação e à
globalização do comércio internacional e do sistema de pagamentos que tem ocorrido desde a abertura
da economia chinesa na década de 1980. Esse fenômeno é geralmente definido como a dominação das
finanças sobre a produção ou do monetário sobre as variáveis reais. Este artigo questiona a utilidade
desta dicotomia, argumentando na tradição de Keynes, Schumpeter e Minsky, que as finanças e a
produção são categorias que não podem ser separadas, já que uma decisão de produção sempre requer
a presença das finanças (ou seja, de financiamento) para se concretizar. Em contrapartida, sugere-se
que o processo de inovação na criação de liquidez pelo sistema financeiro fornece uma análise mais
profunda das implicações da financeirização.
Palavras-chave: Financeirização; Minsky; Crise financeira; Liquidez; Ponzi.
JEL G32.

Introduction: definitions and descriptions

In political science systemic discourse is organized in “isms”: capitalism,
communism, socialism, imperialism, corporativism; economists on the other hand
have recently become fascinated by “zations”: first it was globalization, and today it
is financialization. The two are often confused, and certainly there are linkages
between these “zations”. Most would agree that Globalization is clearly not a new
phenomenon. Indeed, it appears as a new form of an earlier “zation”: colonialization.


Article received on February 10, 2017 and approved on September 18, 2017.
**
Director of Research at the Levy Economics Institute, Annandale-On-Hudson, NY, USA. E-mail:
kregel@levy.org.

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017.

Jan Kregel

Initially driven by nascent nation-states seeking to create larger, more integrated

sources of natural resources and labor to support expansion, as in “lebensraum”, in
the modern era it is more closely linked to nations’ corporations seeking to organize
their activities to capture globally integrated markets to lower production costs,
ensure high levels of demand and dominance of market share. Globalization, apart
from short-periods of financial crisis and armed conflict, has been constantly present
in the organization of economic activity since the 17th century.
One of the major characteristics of globalization has been the role played by
the movement of international capital. From the early sea-faring trading companies
in Holland, England and Portugal, globalization was clearly driven by the expansion
of domestic trade and finance to encompass speculation on an international scale.
Thus, while modern economists have tended to describe the modern global economy
as one characterized by “financialization”, the earlier periods of globalization were
also led by the financialization of the global economy through the use of international
capital to finance colonial conquest.
To what extent then is financialization a particular expression of the role of
international finance in the modern period? Most responses to this question reply on
simple descriptions, rather than analytical explanations, of the phenomenon.
The most common is a generic definition that is based on the size of a
particular definition of the “financial sector”, usually by the acronym FIRE: Finance,
Insurance and Real Estate, and its size relative to overall GDP. Thus, financialization
is an increase in the size and importance of the financial sector relative to the
traditional sectors of the economy such as agriculture, manufacturing and non-
financial services, with reference to the fact that in the United States the share of the
financial sector in national income has approximately tripled since 1950 and a 70%
increase in incomes for FIRE sectors’ labor relative to workers in other sectors since
1980. From this point of view, however, it would be nothing exceptional; after all,
in the presence of technical progress a developed economy might be expected to
evolve from industrialization to financial services. It could be just another aspect of
the post-industrial society, and hardly anything exceptional.
A recent EU funded research project (FESSUD) dedicated to the subject has
provided a more expansive definition: “Financialisation involves the growth of the
financial sector in the economic, the social and the political spheres. The processes
of financialisation have major consequences for economic performance, social well-
being and the environment. The term ‘financialisation’ is designed to refer to the
roles of finance in and of itself and also the economic, social and environmental
embedding of finance in the system as a whole. The term also relates to the growth
of finance and of the financial sector (relative to the economy). The study notes that
while financialisation has long been a central feature of capitalist economies, each

880 Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017.
 “Isms” and “Zations”: on fictitious liquidity and endogenous financialization

period of financialisation had its own characteristics and effects. The most common
characteristic is the rapid expansion of financial institutions and financial markets.
In the recent period, the growth in the relative importance of financial markets has
been driven by the rapid expansion in the range and trading turnover of financial
assets such as derivatives and securitization and the rapid rise in the ratio of financial
assets to GDP and financial liabilities to GDP. An enabling feature has been the
deregulation and liberalisation of financial markets and institutions. Mainstream
economics and finance theories have also promoted financial liberalisation by
representing regulation as ‘financial repression’ constraining the ability of the
market to efficiently intermediate saving to support investment. At a systemic level,
financialisation represents the dominance of finance over industry, or in Keynes’s
terms, speculation over enterprise that has driven many nonfinancial corporations to
seek profitability from their financial as opposed to their productive activities”
(Fessud, 2016).
A more analytical explanation builds on the business response to the profit
squeeze of the 1970s and the impact of the petroleum crisis generated by the Arab-
Israeli war. In response to the crisis, policies were implemented to depress wages in
order to offset terms of trade losses imposed by the rise in oil prices; wage bargaining
to keep the growth of nominal wages below the rate of productivity growth. These
two factors operated to depress domestic demand, and instead of the expected
response of an increase in profit-led investment driving growth, the ensuing
stagnation was offset by expansionary monetary policies that generated a series of
financial bubbles, first in real estate in the 1980s and then in the form of the dot-com
boom in the 1990s. It culminated in the recovery of consumer spending even in the
absence of real wage growth with the pass through of rising residential housing
prices to consumer debt-led financing of demand. In this scenario, the inflation of
the 1970s disappears, only to be replaced by asset price inflation, and spurious
growth driven by capital gains, punctuated by periodic crises as the bubbles
collapsed. In this explanation, financial manipulation of asset prices to generate
demand replaces real wage growth as the driver of the economy and the consequent
repetitive financial crises.
There is a variation on this theme that characterizes this process as one in
which manufacturing firms, seeking to augment their profits on manufacturing
activities, turned their treasury functions into profit centers; the Chief Financial
Officer became responsible for adding to bottom line profits through innovative
management of the company finances, and then to engaging in outright speculation
in financial markets. The best-known example of this scenario is the financing of
Hallmark cards and Procter and Gamble at below benchmark market interest rates
through the use of structured financial instruments. Bankers offered financing in
which the firms effectively wrote derivative contracts on interest rates. When Alan

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017. 881
Jan Kregel

Greenspan, after substantial market guidance that tightening was to be expected,

surprised the market by actually doing so, the short options produced losses far in
excess of the premiums that were being used to reduce interest rates and eventually
exceeded the equity of the corporations, leading to the possibility of bankruptcy. In
the end, the corporations’ defaults on the contracts and the lending bank ended up
skirting bankruptcy and eventually being taken over. Obviously, it is impossible for
the entire manufacturing sector to borrow at below market interest rates since over
time the structures lead to the equivalent of the bursting of the bubble, in the form of
default or bankruptcy.
A more nuanced definition refers to the development of finance capitalism
that emerged as part of the process of the deregulation of the US financial system
starting in the 1980s which provided the possibility for increased leveraged lending
and the development of trading in a wider variety of assets generated by the
unbundling income flows and risks of all real and financial assets.
An excellent description of this process is provided by Guttmann (1994:
293) who notes that “In the early 1980s, deregulation triggered a revolution in our
hitherto highly structured and regulated credit system. Financial institutions
introduced a vast array of instruments and created whole new markets around them.
This combination of deregulation and innovation benefited almost anyone who held
excess cash, from small savers finally earning the going market rate of interest to the
giant pension funds hedging risk in the futures markets. But that very revolution also
helped to turn our nation into a "casino society" of investors who are engaged in
high-stake financial maneuvering as a shortcut to wealth. During the Reagan era a
get-rich-quick mentality took hold in our country and soon provided the securities
markets. With the onset of recovery in late 1982, the volume of financial transactions
in the United States soared to unbelievable levels, and securities trading became the
fastest growing activity in our economy.
It is surely no coincidence that the United States possesses the world’s
largest economy as well as its most developed capital markets. The two went hand-
in-hand. However, the advent of the casino society has thrown this symbiotic
relationship out of whack. Trading stocks, bonds, and other kinds of securities and
financial markets, amounting nowadays to several tens of trillions of dollars per year,
represent mere shuffling of paper assets. This is not a productive activity and is
therefore excluded from our GNP, except for brokerage commissions and service
fees generated in those trades. Moreover, it is by no means clear that our economy
needs these huge financial transaction volumes to produce the current level of GNP.
On the contrary, a strong case can be made that the spread of financial maneuvering
has diverted resources from productive enterprise. After all, even though securities
trading is going explosively, industrial investment activity has remained relatively
stagnant and productivity growth has continued to lag.”

882 Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017.
 “Isms” and “Zations”: on fictitious liquidity and endogenous financialization

This same history has been cast as one of a revolution in corporate

governance by recent Economics Nobel Prize winner Bengt Holmstrom and co-
author Steven Kaplan (2001, p. 1), as the response to the negative impact of rising
oil prices and policies to dampen the ensuing inflation on the US stock market in
“the 1980s ushered in a large wave of takeover and restructuring activity. This
activity was distinguished by its use of leverage and hostility. The use of leverage
was so great that from 1984 to 1990 more than $500 Billion of equity was retired on
net, as corporations repurchased their own shares, borrowed to finance takeovers,
and were taken private in leveraged buyouts (LBOs). Corporate leverage increased
substantially. Leveraged buyouts were extreme in this respect with debt levels
typically exceeding 80% of total capital. The 1980s also saw the emergence of the
hostile takeover and the corporate raider. Raiders like Carl Icahn and T. Boone
Pickens became household names. Mitchell and Mulherin [1996] report that nearly
half of all major US corporations received a takeover offer in the 1980s. In addition,
many firms that were not taken over restructured in response to hostile pressure to
make themselves less attractive targets.”

No dichotimization in analyzing financialization

This approach has led to the idea that just as inflation distorts economic
efficiency, one of the major implications of financialization has been to blur the
distinction between real decisions and decisions over nominal variables. Thus,
financialization distorts the traditional support of industry played by finance in the
sense of diverting it from playing the role of the “handmaiden of industry” to become
the motive determining “real” decisions in a similar way that Veblen decried the
dominance of investment banker representatives of absentee owners over engineers.1
The idea that there has been a shift in dominance or direction from real to monetary
or from industry to finance to the opposite is thus implicit in this approach. This also
implicitly accepts the idea that there was once a state of affairs in which decisions
were taken in real terms (i.e. in the absence of inflation) or that industry dominated
finance served as its “handmaiden”.
But, on both the analytical and theoretical level these dual dichotomies may
not be the most enlightening way to approach the problem of financialization and its

(1) “The material welfare of the community is unreservedly bound up with the due working of this industrial
system, and therefore with its unreserved control by the engineers, who alone are competent to manage it. To do
their work as it should be done these men of the industrial general staff must have a free hand, unhampered by
commercial considerations and reservations; for the production of the goods and services needed by the community
they neither need nor are they in any degree benefited by any supervision or interference from the side of the owners.
Yet the absentee owners, now represented, in effect, by the syndicated investment bankers, continue to control the
industrial experts and limit their discretion, arbitrarily, for their own commercial gain, regardless of the needs of the
community” (Veblen’s. The engineers and the price system, p. 69-70. Available from:
https://archive.org/details/engineersandpri01veblgoog.

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017. 883
Jan Kregel

peculiar characteristics, ancient or modern. As noted, the idea of the “nominal-real”

distortion emerges from the monetarist analysis of inflation informed by the quantity
theory of money. There is, however, an alternative approach which is inherent in the
work of Schumpeter on economic development and Keynes’s conception of a
monetary production economy, also present in the work of Hyman Minsky. This
approach rejects any distinction between the real and monetary analysis as well as
between finance and industry. It rather recognizes an intimate relation between
finance and production. In contrast to the simultaneous exchange of the quantity
theory’s barter economy with given resources, it recognizes that production in a
capitalist economy takes time. This means that production requires financial
commitments undertaken today to acquire the means of production that can only be
verified by sales of produced output at some future date, contingent on the realization
of the expectations which motivated the decision to initiate production. Thus, the
first step in any production process is the issue of a liability by the producer to a
supplier of inputs in production. Since the private liabilities of producers are not
generally acceptable to suppliers, the initiation of production requires the provision
of a generally acceptable means of acquiring goods by their recipients. This is the
role of finance, and in particular of the banking system: to convert the private liability
of the producer into an asset which the supplier of goods and services may use in
turn to acquire and produce goods and services.
This is achieved via the acceptance of the producer’s liability by a bank in
exchange for the bank’s own liability, either a banknote or coin, which can be used
by the supplier to acquire goods and services. This is what Minsky calls the
acceptance function of the banking system. But, the point to be made here is that
“real production” cannot take place, goods in progress cannot be created, without the
simultaneous creation of a generally accepted means of payment in the form of a
financial liability of the financial system. There is no way to bifurcate, or
dichotomize this process, or contest the fact that the creation of real goods and
services and financial assets occur as a combined, simultaneous process.

Excessive creation of fictitious liquidity and financialization

Starting from this conception of the production process led Schumpeter,
Keynes and a series of German and Austrian (Hahn, Mises, Hayek) as well as
Cambridge economists (Lavington, Robertson, Hawtrey) to the logical conclusion
that if banks’ issue of their own liabilities could create purchasing power for
producers before the output had reached the market, while it was in the process of
production, then the only constraint over the level of output was the willingness of
businessmen to formulate production plans and the banks to finance them. This
reasoning extended to the financing of working capital (which was a major focus of

884 Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017.
 “Isms” and “Zations”: on fictitious liquidity and endogenous financialization

cyclical movements in Keynes’ Treatise) as well as to investment expenditures

leading to the creation of capital equipment.
This is reflected in Minsky’s definition of capitalism as a system in which
the “ownership or control of capital equipment is acquired by the issuance of debt.”
The implication of this line of reasoning was that savings had nothing to do with the
financing or with providing a constraint limiting investment, as both Keynes and
Schumpeter and others never tired of repeating. Of course, some, such as Hayek,
believed that this was a fatal flaw in the capitalist system that produced its cyclical
behavior and that measures should be taken to limit investment to a priori saving, by
means of regulation of what Hayek called a “neutral” monetary policy. Virtually all
prudential regulation is the result of the impossible attempt to ensure that banks only
create the amount of purchasing power equal to the amount that households would
voluntarily choose to save – the limit being the radical proposals for 100 per cent
reserve banking.
However, in this alternative view, once it is recognized that finance and
production are co-determinants of the growth process, the problem is not to limit
investment to the real resources not committed to consumption output, but rather
how the unlimited ability to create purchasing power will be used to finance
acquisitions of capital goods or financial assets in the economy.
This is the source of Keynes’s famous dictum that “speculators may do no
harm as bubbles on a steady stream of enterprise. But the position is serious when
enterprise becomes the bubble on a whirlpool of speculation. When the capital
development of a country becomes a by-product of the activities of a casino, the job
is likely to be ill-done” (1936, p. 159). Rather than seeking regulations to limit
investment to saving, Keynes sought to direct finance to enterprise and to limit
speculation. This is the source of Keynes’s initial Treatise on Money ideas of an
industrial and financial circulation as well as his assessment of the crucial role played
by finance in providing liquidity to equities which allowed individual investors to
hold positions because of the liquidity that the financial institutions provided to the
market. “Investments which are 'fixed' for the community are thus made 'liquid' for
the individual” (1936).
Following Minsky, this approach recognizes that all positions in assets are
financed by the issue of liabilities whether they are in “real capital” or financial
assets, so the problem is really not financing investments in excess of voluntary
saving, but of what is being financed. This in its turn raises the question of why
positions in financial assets represent more attractive returns than investments in real
assets. This is, in essence, the question posed by Keynes in his concept of liquidity
preference. From this point of view financialization could be defined as the result of
financing becoming self-referential or in Keynes’s terms a preference for holding

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017. 885
Jan Kregel

financial assets resulting in the dominance of speculation over enterprise. In

Minsky’s terms this would be described as an increase in financial layering. The
simple explanation is then that financialization is determined by expected relative
returns on alternative assets favoring finance over industry.
Schumpeter was generic in his description of how innovative destruction
was financed by the “ex nihilo” creation of purchasing power – he did not restrict
his discussion to the issue of notes or deposits by fractional reserve banking as Hayek
had done. Minsky has also looked upon the creation of liquidity by commercial
banks as the primary form of liquidity creation. However, he did allow for liquidity
creation in the form of innovations originating in other financial institutions. “Our
complex financial structure consists of a variety of institutions that lever on owners’
equity and normally make on the carry, that is, borrowing at a lower rate than their
assets can earn. In order to make on the carry, these liabilities have to be viewed as
embodying more of Keynes’ liquidity premium than their assets. A crisis increases
the cost of funding by reducing liquidity premium. … although financial innovations
are common, their acceptance depends upon an attenuation, however trivial, in the
subjective evaluation of the liquidity premium embodied in holding money....
financial institutions can experiment with new liabilities and increase their asset
equity ratios without their liabilities losing any significant credence,” (Minsky, 1986,
p. 277-278). Which is to say, there are institutions that engage in the same type of
activity as banks but without the ability to borrow from the central bank, and thus
without the ability to offer insured liabilities as a substitute means of payment. Since
they are at a disadvantage in offering payment services to the public, their
fundamental activity is borrowing and lending to one another, thus increasing what
Minsky called “financial layering”; that is, the issue of financial liabilities to acquire
the liabilities of other financial institutions in the expectation of profiting from price
appreciation.
The liquidity of a liability issued by any non-insured financial institution
will then be determined by its ability to finance it—that is, to borrow in order to hold
the position. For Minsky, a condition of “financial distress” will occur when any
individual financial institution “cannot meet its obligations on its balance sheet
liabilities.” This may evolve into a “financial crisis” when “a very significant subset
of the economy is in financial distress” and “‘a slight disturbance’ in money flows
creates such widespread financial distress that financial crisis is threatened” and
financial fragility is transformed into “financial instability.” At each stage in the
evolution toward instability, financial intermediaries become more reliant on other
financial institutions, and ultimately banks, to refinance their liabilities. As Minsky
noted, “a key to the generation of financial crisis is whether the holders of marketable
securities who have large scale debts outstanding can refinance or must liquidate
their positions when they need cash” (Minsky 1964, p. 266). “The worst thing that

886 Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017.
 “Isms” and “Zations”: on fictitious liquidity and endogenous financialization

could happen to the solvency of any financial institution is a forced sale of its assets
in order to acquire cash. Imagine what would happen to asset values, if there were a
need to liquidate government bond positions by the government bond dealers or if
the sales finance companies were suddenly to try to sell their portfolios of consumer
installment paper on some market. In order to prevent this type of forced liquidation
of assets, the financial intermediaries protect themselves by having alternative
financing sources, i.e., by having ‘de facto’ lenders of last resort. These de facto
lenders of last resort ultimately must have access to the Federal Reserve System in
times of potential crisis” (Minsky, 1964, p. 376).
This is the basis of the recognition of competitive innovation in providing
for what I have called “fictitious liquidity” created by shadow banks (Levy Institute,
2012). Thus, there is an alternative explanation of financialization: When the
creation of liquidity exceeds the requirements of the real economy to absorb it in
productive investments then competition will inevitably lead to the creation and
innovation of financial assets which offer the possibility of price appreciation and
thus higher returns than investing in industry. This understanding of financialization
is a profit-driven competitive-innovative process of creation of fictitious liquidity.
Our understanding of this process of excessive and innovative liquidity creation is
clearly historical, and it is on this basis that leads to the dating of the expansion of
financialization at the end of the 1980s as the US and global economy emerges from
the inflationary recession that accompanied the oil crisis of 1973.
The response to these events has been crucial for the subsequent evolution
of the global economy – indeed monetarism is the child of this period, as is the
pressure for increased competition and liberalization in financial markets. This, in
its turn, was a major source of the ability of financial institutions to create unlimited
liquidity to meet the rising demand for liquidity in the period. This approach only
differs in perspective to the use of the term “fictitious capital” used by Guttmann in
his previously cited description of the period – the only difference is his emphasis
on the fictitious capital financed by the fictitious liquidity. Here it is the fictitious
liquidity that led to what we now call financialization. Just as Schumpeter recognized
the importance of banks’ ability to create purchasing power ab nihilo to fund
investment as the source of economic development, it is here argued that the ability
of the financial system to create fictitious liquidity ab nihilo led to the appropriation
and destruction of shareholder value for industrial corporations and the decline in
real investment.

The recent history of financialization

Indeed, the historical record suggests that this process is inherent in the
operation of competition in the financial system. As is now well known, the US
regulatory system under Glass-Steagall sharply proscribed the activities of deposit-

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017. 887
Jan Kregel

taking financial institutions. In particular, commercial banks’ dealings in securities

markets were sharply constrained and the activities of other non-bank institutions
were subject to equally restrictive regulations, providing for both a monopoly over
their respective activities. The commercial banks controlled the creation of liquidity
with a monopoly on the creation of insured deposits while the non-regulated
investment banks were limited to private partnerships with low capitalization
providing intermediation services in the form of underwriting and advice on
secondary distribution and market acquisitions.
While the ideologically driven Reagan administration deregulation phase of
the 1980s sought to remove the deposit monopoly of commercial banks, it was also
driven by the non-regulated financial institutions search for revenue in the face of
their own deregulation in the form of the suspension of fixed commissions for
broker-dealers (Mayday in 1975) and the breakdown of relationship banking formed
by the non-compete gentleman’s agreement amongst white shoe investment bankers
leading to competition on fees for both initial and secondary offerings in equity
markets and in secondary market trading. The result was a push by commercial banks
to enter investment banking and investment banks to enter into liquidity creation via
the creation of non-regulated deposits.
An additional factor was the growth in the size of the corporate sector which
produced pressure on the small capital base of partnerships on the one hand and the
magnitude of funds intermediated and managed by institutional investors such as
pension funds and other managed funds, which relied on trades in large blocks which
were usually discounted and executed in an upstairs market. This tendency was
exacerbated by the increase in merger and acquisition activity during the decade.
These trades were incompatible with the fixed commission structure (a 100-share
trade and a 1000-share trade did not have a ten-fold difference in costs) while a
50000-share trade required large amounts of capital to execute. And as corporations
expanded globally, they looked for large bought deals for primary distributions and
IPOs which also required a larger capital base for the underwriting firm.
The partnership structure of most investment banks soon became a
restriction on the ability to compete in these markets, leading to the transformation
of private partnerships into joint-stock quoted public companies. This had a profound
impact on the growth of leverage in the markets since ownership and liability control
were now severed and individual partners were no longer personally liable for their
losses while they controlled the distribution of gains. In a sense, the ability of
commercial banks to create purchasing power was acquired by the non-regulated
non-commercial banks through equity issues. And there was no Hayek or regulator
equipped to argue that their ability to create purchasing power should be limited to
private saving. It is here that the “shadow banking” starts.

888 Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017.
 “Isms” and “Zations”: on fictitious liquidity and endogenous financialization

However, the ability to raise capital requires meeting market returns, which
in turn generates pressure to increase leverage. It is a basic rule of financial markets,
that they are driven by spreads and fees which are maximized by scale, which means
maximizing leverage. By the time of the commercial bank deregulation, most
regulated commercial banks had lost their ability to service corporate clients’
transactions requirements and were limited in their ability to provide capital market
services, which meant that brokers/dealers, investment banks, hedge funds and
others had free reign in dealing with corporations. And they set about rapidly
engineering a merger mania.
Minsky has provided a very neat explanation of this process. Noting that the
return on bank capital will be driven by the net return on its assets multiplied by its
leverage: ROE = ROA * Leverage. We can thus engage in a very simple exercise.
Presume that ROE on bank equity given by the market or by management seeking
to maximize shareholder value or the value of their option linked remuneration is 25
per cent per annum and the return on assets is 5 per cent. Then leverage will be 5
which means that the bank must multiply its asset book by 5. Where are these assets
to come from? If we are to avoid financialization, then investment as a share of GDP
must be sufficient to provide the required growth of assets. What if it does not do
so? Then institutions will seek alternative means of expanding their assets – in the
form of increasing their positions in financial assets – financialization. Now,
introduce the ability of banks to increase their ROE by means of innovation in
liquidity creation, so that leverage becomes an endogenous variable in the equation.
Again, the outcome will be an increase in layering that we call financialization. Thus,
this is the analytical framework – during the 1980s, structural changes occurred
which allowed for substantial increases in both bank and non-bank leverage which
created fictitious liquidity which expanded at a rate far in excess of the financing
needs of the productive sector of the economy. The increased lending via a Ponzi
scheme was needed to generate the capital gains necessary to create the required
returns – until the rate of expansion of liquidity stopped, and crisis intervened.
Compare the financial history of the period with this analytical framework.
The recovery from the OPEC induced inflation and poor profitability of the 1970s
was reversed in the 1980s as the stock market recovered and then boomed under
Reagan supply side policies creating another form of fictitious liquidity – booming
share prices provided liquidity for firms to use no-cash takeovers by using
accelerating stock prices as collateral or direct funding. Thus “a new type of takeover
activity emerged as the leading force in the merger-driven stock market boom, the
hostile takeover bids by so-called corporate raiders” (Guttmann, p. 307). For the
investment banks this was a quadruple opportunity, serving as advisers to the
corporates, providing funding to the acquirers and the opportunity to set up risk

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017. 889
Jan Kregel

arbitrage desks to speculate on the outcome of the acquisition and finally doing the
underwriting for taking the company public.
Finally, the beginning of the 1980s saw the development of derivatives
markets which were widely used in products such as portfolio insurance, index
arbitrage and interest rate management. However, as important as these activities
were in generating revenue their importance was mainly due to the massive leverage
they introduced into the system allowing purchasers to take long positions as much
as 20 times the initial margin.
The best example of this period is the operation of Michael Milken at Drexel,
Burnham. Milken discovered and popularized the idea that the risks in non-
investment grade debt (in particular “fallen angels” i.e. companies that had been
recently downgraded) was over-priced, i.e. their prices were lower and their returns
higher than justified by their default performance) suggesting an arbitrage
opportunity for money managers to increase their returns without increasing risks.2
But what was a very sensible idea was eventually converted into an illegal shadow
banking operation in which Milken offered to issue new junk bonds to finance hostile
takeovers, ensuring the sale of the bonds by alerting risk arbitragers and money
managers with inside information on the impending takeover bid, allowing them to
profit by buying before the bid in exchange for a commitment to purchase the junk
bonds, thereby ensuring the success of the bid.
It is operations such as these that represent the beginning of the massive
expansion of liquidity creation outside the regulated banking sector, with no
effective limit, requiring a market return to justify its existence. And institutional
investors together with the newly capitalized financial institutions found ways to
employ their virtually unlimited ability to expand liquidity by the creation of
additional leverage. It is not necessary to recount the entire experience of the 1980s,
which is done very well by Guttmann, nor the subsequent “dot-com” boom which
was fueled in a similar way, or the sub-prime crisis of the 2000s. They all have the
same characteristics in the ability of financial institutions to create fictitious liquidity
to produce fictitious capital. It was the ability to create unlimited liquidity that made
financialization inevitable.
Building on the early work of Robin Marris (Marris, 1964) and others on
managerial capitalism, the stock market was no longer viewed as simply providing

(2) See Kornbluth for a more extensive discussion of Milken’s research on junk bonds which subsequent
to his advocacy came to be called “High Yield” assets. He notes that “At Berkeley in 1967, Milken had an insight
that would, in time, support an entire firm, overthrow conventional wisdom, and put a great many outsiders in
executive offices – the bond services’ seal of approval was less than accurate. All Moody’s and Standard and Poor
seemed to factor into a company’s rating was its past performance, as reflected by the ratio of debt to equity on its
balance sheet. The rating services didn’t seem to care much about cash flow, which as Milken saw it, said everything
about a company’s ability to service its debt” (Kornbluth, 1992, p. 41). This was very similar to Minsky’s approach.

890 Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017.
 “Isms” and “Zations”: on fictitious liquidity and endogenous financialization

the liquidity Keynes suggested was required to allow individual investors to hold
illiquid stocks in the belief that they could always be sold. Instead it became the
market for the trade and evaluation of corporations; mergers and acquisitions
imposed market discipline on companies that were performing below market
benchmarks. The idea was that inefficient managers would lose their jobs and new
ones would come in and eliminate inefficiencies. If the takeovers led to increasing
debt ratios, this was positive because the threat of default and the need to meet high
interest burdens led to cost cutting and to labor shedding to raise profitability.
Instead a process started that was closer to what in the UK was called “asset
stripping”. A corporation holding a large cash reserve was a target for takeover; it
could be taken over by using the debt created by a financial institution, the acquired
company would then issue its own debt to repay the acquirers debt and the available
cash transferred to the acquirer, leaving the corporation with an unsustainable debt
service burden, often leading to bankruptcy proceedings. This process was initially
called “value extraction”, and did little to improve corporate efficiency and usually
led to unsustainable debt burdens that required sharp reductions in operations and
loss of employment. In those cases where insolvency was avoided, the corporation
could be resold to shareholders via a public offering which generated additional
funds for the private owners. As managements were displaced by the acquirers, who
came to be called “corporate raiders”, they sought defenses in the form of “poison
pills”, the creation of golden parachutes for managements which, if implemented on
a successful takeover, would generate payments that would leave the company with
no assets, or the issue of massive amounts of debt on the rumor of a takeover in order
to make further issue of debt by the acquirer to fund the acquisition unprofitable.
Usually, shareholders were offered prices to sell their shares in the takeover at a
substantial multiple of the pre-acquisition market price, while management were
offered golden parachutes, in what came to be called “greenmail”.
Eventually managements resolved the threat to their tenure by convincing
shareholders that they were best off by keeping management in place. Thus,
managers argued in favor of compensation supplemented by options linked to the
share price performance to align the objectives of the principals and the agents. This
was presented as a form of operating in the interests of maximizing shareholder value
– but it led to the same results as the corporate raiders, only now it was in the interests
of the management and equity holders to maximize leverage and reduce employment
levels.3 Thus, the advent of private equity fueled by Milken’s liquidity led to a basic
shift in managerial strategy. For example, after the first takeover threat "the Business
Roundtable – an association of 200 CEOs who form a kind of corporate version of
the College of Cardinals, noted in its 1981 Statement of Corporate Responsibility
that a corporation ‘must be a thoughtful institution which rises above the bottom line,

(3) Much of this experience is recounted in Guttmann’s more recent book Finance-Led Capitalism

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017. 891
Jan Kregel

to consider the impact of its actions on all, from shareholders to the society at large.’
In other words: Don't judge us on our quarterly earnings, because management –
“which doesn't own much of its own stock – isn't going to do anything to drive the
stock price up just to satisfy shareholders we've never met." (quoted in Kornbluth,
1992, p. 85). This changed radically after options linked to stock price became the
major component of managerial compensation and any and all measures to boost
stock prices were implemented in the name of “maximizing shareholder value”.

Conclusion
In conclusion, we should not be surprised by financialization since it is the
natural result of competition and innovation in which liquidity is allowed to be
determined by the market; the result of an obsessive concentration of monetary
policy on the control of money to stop inflation rather than liquidity that drives the
creation of fictitious liquidity that funds fictitious capital which periodically is
destroyed via financial crisis.

References
BERLE, Adolf; MEANS, Gardiner. The modern corporation and private property,
New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1932.
GUTTMANN, Robert. How credit-money shapes the economy. The United States
in a global system. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994.
GUTTMANN, Robert. Finance-led capitalism. Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
HOLMSTROM, Bengt; KAPLAN, Steven. Corporate governance and Merger
cctivity in the US, making sense of the 1980s and 1990s. NBER Working Paper No.
8220, April, 2001
KORNBLUTH, Jesse, Highly Confident, The Crime and Punishment of Michael
Milken, New York: William Morrow, 1992.
KREGEL, J. Beyond the Minsky Moment: Where We’ve Been, Why We Can’t Go
Back, and the Road Ahead for Financial Reform, Levy Economics Institute, April,
2012
LOWENSTEIN, Louis. Sense & nonsense in corporate finance. New York:
Addison Wesley, 1991.
MARRIS, R., The Economic Theory of Managerial Capitalism, London: Macmillan,
1964.
MINSKY, H., “Banking and a fragile financial environment”, Journal of Portfolio
Management, 3, no. 4 (Summer). 1977

892 Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017.
 “Isms” and “Zations”: on fictitious liquidity and endogenous financialization

MINSKY, H. Stabilizing an unstable economy. Twentieth Century Fund10. Yale

University Press, 1986.
RUBIN, Robert; WEISBERG, Jacob. In an uncertain world. New York: Randon
House, 2003.
SMITH, Roy C. The money ears, the rise and fall of the great buyout boom of the
1980s. New York: Truman Talley Books Dutton, 1990.
USEEM, Michael. Investor capitalism, how money managers are changing the face
of corporate America. New York: Basic Books, 1996.
VEBLEN, Thorstein. The engineers and the price system. New York: B. W.
Huebsch, 1921. Disponível em: https://archive.org/details/engineersandpri01
veblgoog.

Economia e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, Número Especial, p. 879-893, dez. 2017. 893