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• Se a roda é
desacelerada ou TR FU rdyn Re
acionada por TR,
temos:
FR, ROLL fR GR
• Valores de referência.
• Se a roda é
desacelerada ou TR FU rdyn Re
acionada por TR,
temos:
FU , max FZ , max H R
Máxima tração FZ
Circunferência Raio
Dimensões
de rolagem dinâmico
145/70 R13 1,640 0,261
155/70 R13 0,680 0,267
165/70 R13 0,730 0,275
175/70 R13 1,770 0,282
195/70 R14 1,940 0,309
185/65 R14 1,820 0,290
185/60 R14 1,765 0,281
195/60 R14 1,800 0,286
195/70 R15 2,000 0,318
195/65 R15 1,895 0,302
195/65 R15 1,935 0,308
Deslizamento
– Deslizamento em
F R rdyn
frenagem SB
F
Resistência aerodinâmica
1
FL L CW A v 2
1,199 Kg / m 3
Coeficiente de arraste aerodinâmico
• O coeficiente
leva em
consideração um
fluxo em linha
reta, longitudinal
ao veículo;
• A área leva em
consideração a
projeção frontal.
Valores típicos de Coeficiente aerodinâmico
FST mF g senST
Inércia
• É a resistência à aceleração;
• Não atua quando a velocidade é constante;
• É proporcional a:
– Massa total do veículo;
– Inércia rotacional de suas peças.
Dinâmica da frenagem
FB B rB
B
r
onde:
FB – força de compressão na pastilha;
µb – coeficiente de atrito entre pastilha e disco;
Rb – raio efetivo da força de frenagem no disco.
Máxima força de frenagem Bmax
• Se as rodas estão
rolando
B max Wb o
1. Resistance
a. Aerodynamic
b. Rolling
c. Grade
2. Tractive Effort
3. Acceleration
4. Braking Force
5. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Main Concepts
• Resistance
• Tractive effort
• Vehicle acceleration
• Braking
• Stopping distance
F ma Ra Rrl Rg
Resistance
F ma Ra Rrl Rg
Aerodynamic Resistance Ra
Composed of:
1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)
2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators
and air vents (3%)
Ra C D A f V 2
2
PRa C D A f V 3
2
ft lb
1 hp 550
from National Research Council Canada sec
Rolling Resistance Rrl
Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (90%)
2. Tire penetration and surface compression ( 4%)
3. Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel (
6%)
4. Wide range of factors affect total rolling
resistance
Rrl f rlW
5. Simplifying approximation:
V
PR rl f rlWV f rl 0.011
ft lb
147
1 hp 550
sec
Grade Resistance Rg
Composed of
– Gravitational force acting on the vehicle
Rg W sin g θg
For small angles, sin g tan g
Rg W tan g Rg
tan g G
θg W
Rg WG
Available Tractive Effort
2rne 1 i
V
0
V = velocity (ft/s)
r = wheel radius (ft)
ne = crankshaft rps
i = driveline
slippage
ε0 = gear reduction
ratio
Typical Torque-Power Curves
Maximum Tractive Effort
Fmax L
h
1
L
• What about 4WD?
Diagram
R
a
h
R ma
rlf
h
W W
f
F
bf θg
lf
R
rlr
lr W
L r F
br
θg
Vehicle Acceleration
• Governing Equation
F R m ma
• Mass Factor
(accounts for inertia of vehicle’s rotating parts)
m 1.04 0.0025 02
Example
A 1989 Ford 5.0L Mustang Convertible starts on a flat grade from a dead
stop as fast as possible. What’s the maximum acceleration it can
achieve before spinning its wheels? μ = 0.40 (wet, bad pavement)
• Front axle
W lr h f rl
Fbf max
L
• Rear axle
W l f h f rl
Fbr max
L
Braking Force
• Ratio
l r h f rl front
BFR
l f h f rl rear
• Efficiency
g max
b
Braking Distance
b V12 V22
• Theoretical S
– ignoring air resistance 2 g b f rl sin g
• Total
d p V1t p
ds d d p
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• Worst-case conditions
– Poor driver skills
– Low braking efficiency
– Wet pavement
• Perception-reaction time = 2.5 seconds
• Equation
V12
SSD V1t r
a
2 g G
g
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
d
V12 V22
1.47 V12 0
1.47 2
1
V 1.075
2 V2
1.075
V2
2 g a g G 2 32.211.2 32.2 0 2 11.2 11.2 a
d p 1.47 V1 t p 1.47Vt p
V2
d s 1.075 1.47Vt p
a
V = V1 in mph
a = deceleration, 11.2 ft/s2 in US customary units
tp = Conservative perception / reaction time = 2.5 seconds
Primary References