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to say about those 17th and 18th century of self-interested parties, especially
pamphleteers who had developed a merchants who tried to disguise their
few doctrines related to foreign trade own favored policies with a garb of
and international monetary flows concern with the commonwealth2.
the mercantile system, as he termed In the decades to come, although
it, following Mirabeau1. Sadly, those efforts were being made (especially by
were not very complimentary words. McCulloch3) to recover and publicize
To Smith, the mercantile system was the original pamphlets and treatises,
little more than a common sense, Smiths harsh judgment prevailed as
largely unstated collection of maxims the standard attitude to early modern
and rules of thumb, based upon faulty economic ideas among the Classical
assumptions and fallacious reasoning. school adherents.
Moreover, Smith believed that these A different approach to the
ideas had been infused in public subject would only come up during the
consciousness through the efforts late 19th century, when members of the
German historical school of economics
introduced a new historiographic
The Marquis de Mirabeau
1
one of Ricardos most devoted
category merkantilismus and with
(1749-1791), a member of the disciples compiled a vast
physiocratic school, is normally annotated catalogue of writings it a whole new interpretation of pre-
credited as the first to use the on economic topics, including Smithian economic doctrines. Whereas
term systme mercantile in print, several of the most important Smith had denounced a conspiracy
in his Philosophie Rurale (1763). tracts which had appeared in
England during the 17th and
of trade to implement policies which
2
In Book IV of The Wealth
of Nations (1937[1776]), Smith early 18th centuries. were on the whole damaging to national
discusses at length the systems 4
Schmollers most famous wealth, a new generation of scholars led
of political economy which appraisal of mercantilism can by Gustav Schmoller in Germany and,
had preceded him. The system be found in The Mercantile System to a lesser extent, William Cunningham
of commerce, or mercantile and Its Historical Significance (1989
system, received the bulk of [1884]). As for Cunningham, his
in England recovered the theme, and
his attention. thoughts on the what they saw there was a legitimate
3
In his The Literature of subject are spread strategy to promote economic growth
Political Economy (1991[1845]), throughout his along nationalistic lines4. Still, as Charles
John Ramsay McCulloch The Growth of British
Industry and Commerce
Wilson has noted more than half a
(1789-1864) a member of the
Political Economy Club and (1903 [1882]). century ago, Smiths and Schmollers
standpoints do not differ as markedly context met with as much praise for its
as it would seem at first sight. Actually, breadth and scholarship as it did with
their accounts of thought and policy biting criticism to its methodological
are fairly similar, the main difference eclecticism, historiographic
being that, to use Wilsons words, one idiosyncrasies, and inner hesitations
applauds where the other condemns and contradictions.
(Wilson, 1969a, p. 68). Still, despite its own
The debate over mercantilism achievements and faults, Heckschers
continued along these lines for the work revived scholarly interest in early
next few decades, roughly as a contest modern economic doctrines, and also
between liberal and nationalistic brought mercantilism to the attention
interpretations of history, until the of every historically-minded economist
subject was given a new breath of life as an integral part of the past of his/
in the 1930s not coincidentally, at a her own discipline. Any textbook
time when nationalistic policies held a on the history of economic thought
renewed appeal. The decade saw the from then on required an introductory
theme debated by several noteworthy chapter discussing mercantilism,
scholars5, and also witnessed the and thus some very standardized,
incorporation of mercantilist studies common sense notions entered the
into the domain of a new specialized fields consciousness. Unfortunately,
field of enquiry, the history of economic these notions were often grossly
thought, which developed swiftly due misrepresentative. Reducing two
to the consolidation of economics as centuries of European history into
an institutionalized academic discipline. twenty textbook pages had the noxious
Of all contributions which appeared side effect of blurring any kind of subtle
at that time, Heckschers (1935 [1931]) distinctions, or any kind of distinctions
was certainly the one that attracted the for that matter, leaving no room for
most attention and stirred the greatest diverging ideas or detailed contextual 5
Among them were Jacob
controversy. His all-encompassing approaches. For the average late 20th Viner (1930), John Maynard
Keynes (1970 [1936]), E. A.
attempt to come up with a definitive century economist, mercantilism meant J. Johnson (1937), Max Beer
portrait of mercantilist doctrines radical nationalism, protectionism, (1938) and Eli Heckscher
and policies within their institutional and government interference, all of it (1935 [1931]).
brought about a general improvement decline, white broadcloths were still the
in trade conditions. James first main export item for England, and such
decade as king of England was one a disruption in its trade was bound to
9
Further assessments of of undoubted prosperity. White have strong economic implications for
economic conditions during
the late 16th and early 17th
broadcloth exports grew constantly, the country as a whole. Moreover, after
centuries can be found in reaching their highest ever level in 1614. the project was finally repealed, and
Wilson (1965; 1969c; 1976), Prices were on the rise, and so were everything was expected to go back to
Supple (1964), Coleman rents. But beneath the glowing surface normality, a new series of disturbances
(1977), Fisher (1950), Hinton
(1959), and Unwin (1966). of economic life, profound changes hit Englands cloth trade badly.
10
The so-called Cockayne were taking place within Englands Those were related to the beginning
project was a failed attempt main industry. The early 17th century of hostilities in Central Europe, and
to transform the structure witnessed a dual movement within the severe monetary disturbances
of Englands international British woolen cloth industry: the decay that ensued11. Not having time to
cloth trade by forbidding the
exportation of unfinished of the traditional, luxurious white and fully recover from one major setback,
woolen cloth, and thus undressed woolen cloth the jewel Englands cloth trade found itself once
stimulating the development of the kingdom and the rise of again plunged into depression.
of dying and dressing the lighter and coarser mixed fabrics Thus, by the dawn of the 1620s,
industries within the realm.
Backed by powerful interest collectively known as new draperies. Englands economic prospects did
groups and court factions, This process was already in course not look nearly as bright as they had
the project was held in high during the first decade of the century, a decade or so before. Economic
esteem by James I himself, and
and was still to go on for much longer9. grievances had been piling up since
was put into practice between
1614 and 1617, with disastrous However, an unhappy attempt at at least 1615, and the new trade
results. The episodes most government interference the infamous crisis was already unfolding in all its
detailed account is still that of Cockayne project10 brought about a unprecedented harshness. Parliament
Astrid Friis (1927), although
precipitous decline in the traditional had not convened since 1614, when in
some of her arguments have
been questioned and updated sector. White broadcloth exports 1621 an indebted king was finally forced
by Supple (1964). peaked in 1614, never to reach the same to call a meeting in order to deal with
Although Supple (1964)
11
level again. From 1615 to 1618, when religious conflicts on the continent. All
offers the most authoritative the project was being put into practice, the economic distresses accumulated
account of the early 1620s
this whole branch of cloth manufacture during those seven years were bound to
crisis, Gould (1954) and
Kindleberger (1991) are also faced constant and severe distress. appear in Westminster, and so they did.
of great interest. Although going through a secular The 1621 parliament brought a whole
array of economic issues into public frequently called forth by the crown to
scrutiny, and forced different groups give his opinion on economic matters
to reflect about them and voice their in particular those related to monetary
opinions. One of the results was a burst mechanisms, about which he liked to
of activity in economic pamphleteering. style himself as a specialist.
Edward Misselden was, in all
probability, a much younger merchant
4_ The pamphlet literature than Malynes, although his early
The most significant economic tracts biography is rather obscure15. He was
conceived during the first half of the a Merchant Adventurer16 during the
17th century were directly related to 1610s, and as such was deeply involved
the early 1620s economic disturbances in the events surrounding the Cockayne
and their public investigation in the project. Initially a harsh opponent of
parliament of 1621. The clearest the new company, he later joined its
example of this is undoubtedly the ranks, only to be accused of trying to
public controversy which took place sabotage it from the inside. During
between Gerard de Malynes and Saint George for England,
12
more scarce than Malynes. The
Edward Misselden during the early years Allegorically Described (1601b). most enlightening sources are
of the decade. Malynes was already, by 13
Those interested in Malynes Johnson (1937), Magnusson
then, an experienced pamphleteer and career can find fragmentary (1994), Finkelstein (2000)
and the Oxford DNB entry
businessman, having published his first biographical accounts in
(Grassby, 2004).
tract in 160112, and engaged in a series Muchmore (1969), Johnson
(1937), Roover (1974b), 16
The Merchant Adventurers
of projects, both public and private, Magnusson (1994), and were a powerful and traditional
which at times brought him wealth, Finkelstein (2000), as well as the English merchant company,
at others infamy13. By the end of the entry in the Oxford Dictionary who held the sole rights for
of National Biography trading with the Low Countries
1610s, he was in the Fleet Prison due to
(Gauci, 2004a). and the western parts of
his involvement in a disastrous project Germany. During the late 16th
The Fleet was the standard
14
for the coinage of copper tokens14. and early 17th centuries, this
prison for debtors and
Moral standards aside, Malynes was the most important branch
bankrupts in Early
of the Englands foreign trade,
close contact with the projecting and Modern England.
concentrating virtually all of the
business worlds certainly gave him 15
Misseldens biographical unfinished cloth exports to
much practical knowledge, and he was information is significantly the Continent.
the early 1620s, he was still a member into the most iconic mouthpiece of
of the restored old company, and it mercantilism17. Well, history and Adam
was with a view to clear his company Smith, who singled Mun as the author
of blame for the trade crisis that in whose ideas represented the mercantile
1622 he published his first pamphlet, creed. Yet, for all the attention he
Free Trade, or, The Meanes to Make Trade received, Muns part in the 1620s
Flourish. This was the piece of literature debates was overlooked for quite a long
which triggered the debate between time. Although his first pamphlet, A
Malynes and him. Malynes replied with Discourse of Trade, from England unto the
The Maintenance of Free Trade, published East Indies, was published in 1621 with
the same year, in which he explicitly the clear intention of defending the
contested Misseldens interpretation of East India Company against accusations
the economic depression in England. made in parliament of draining English
Misselden struck back with incredible bullion stocks, the work through
ferocity the following year, in his The which he became known to posterity
Circle of Commerce, or the Ballance of Trade Englands Treasure by Foraign Trade was
a pamphlet which is often credited as only published posthumously, in 1664.
the first appearance in print of the term But if the precise moment in which the
balance of trade. His virulent assault tract was composed remains unknown,
on Malynes prompted an immediate any careful reading of its contents, if
and final reply by the latter, entitled informed by some knowledge of the
The Center of the Circle of Commerce in issues at stake during the early 1620s,
reference to the analogy proposed by clearly suggests what specialized
17
Fortunately we know much Misselden between Giotos circle and a research has satisfactorily established:
more about Mun than about nations foreign trade. the tract was the product of Muns
Malynes and Misselden. Quite
Apart from Malynes and reflection upon the economic troubles
satisfactory accounts can be
found, once again, in Johnson Misselden, one other figure also looms and debates of those years. He took an
(1937), Magnusson (1994), and large within the universe of early active part in the public investigations,
Finkelstein (2000), but also Stuart economic reasoning. This last and all that must have had a lasting
in Appleby (1978), Roover
figure is also the one of greatest fame: impact on his thinking.
(1957), Supple (1954), and in
the Oxford DNB entry Thomas Mun, the Levant and East One of the most remarkable
(Gauci, 2004b). India merchant whom history turned features of the 1620s pamphlet
controversies is the highly abstract level regard to the period of concern here:
at which the debate is conducted. The early 17th century pamphleteers were
tone is in general quite pragmatic, the indeed obsessed with money. But this
authors constantly keeping an eye on obsession was not due to any sort
the objective measures that could be of cognitive blindness, but rather to
employed in order to improve general much more straightforward reasons:
economic conditions. However, there first, they believed that money had
are some fundamental principles at an all-important role to play within
stake, and these are framed in such a the sphere of economic activities, and
way as to make it impossible to reach a that an adequate supply was therefore
resolution regarding which standpoint required to ensure the nations well-
is the correct one. In other words, they being; secondly, these authors displayed
work as fundamental axioms which can a remarkable aversion to the domestic
be neither proved nor disproved by consumption of goods, and therefore
empirical evidence, but upon which the money (that is, precious metals) was
whole reasoning rests. This will become regarded as a preferable form of wealth
clearer later on. due to its durability a form of wealth
Seventeenth century economic which could not be consumed19.
writers have been blamed repeatedly This latter point, fascinating as it
for their excessive concern with is, will not be explored here at length,
precious metals. Smith was the simply because it was not one of the 18
In the first chapter of book
first to accuse them of indulging in controversial issues at stake. Rather, it IV of The Wealth of Nations,
Midas fallacy18 confusing wealth was an assumption shared by all those entitled Of the Principle of
with money; Heckscher, albeit more involved in the debates, which implicitly the Commercial or
Mercantile System.
sympathetic, still described it as a or explicitly treated consumption as the
19
These themes were
monetary fetish, resulting from the destruction of wealth. Mun expresses
developed at length elsewhere,
swift spreading of monetary relations the idea clearly when he says that to lose and therefore will only be
throughout European society, and and to consume doth produce one and the same dealt with in a somehow
the confusion arising thereof in the reckoning (1664, p. 85), but it is also cursory manner here. Readers
interested in a more detailed
minds of those who had to deal with present elsewhere, under several guises.
exposition of these and other
such deep changes. At a certain level, The word consumption itself often related points are referred to
these indictments are accurate with assumes a negative connotation, being Suprinyak (2009).
sterling and the Dutch currency would was a morally reproachable attitude
rise, even though their point of metallic an usurpation of the royal prerogative.
equivalence was reached at a lower rate. Money is publica mensura, the general
To complicate matters even further, standard of value, and therefore
bills of exchange were payable after arbitrary fluctuations on its own
fixed time intervals, and therefore value are highly prejudicial to general
normally included interest and risk- economic stability. To Malynes, the
bearing prizes21. abuse of exchange was the root of
It was precisely in their analysis Englands commercial decadence.
of this exchange market that Misselden Malynes believed exchanges
and Malynes adopted inescapably between currencies should be based
divergent standpoints. Malynes exclusively on their metallic content.
perspective is certainly the most unusual Rates should be regulated in such
one for modern standards, but it is no a way as to commute equivalent
less sharp for that. In characteristic amounts of precious metals that
style, he argues that both monetary is, according to his famous concept
and commodity flows are ultimately of par pro pari. When that is not the
determined by fluctuations in the case, all other economic flows are
exchange market or to use his own suddenly subordinated to the rulings of
words, exchange is active, and commodities this primordial market, the exchange
and money are passive (1623, p. 84). This market. If a currency is undervalued
proposition was firmly anchored on his in the exchange market, there are
particular perception of the functioning arbitrage gains to be made through
of exchange markets. Malynes was a melting and exporting it as bullion;
biting critic of the free determination equally, the commodity market suffers
of exchange rates between currencies due to changes in relative international
21
More comprehensive and
detailed accounts of monetary in the international market. To him, prices, which adversely affect foreign
and financial systems in determining the value of money was trade. Moreover, if foreign currency
Early Modern Europe can be part of the sovereigns prerogative; thus, is overvalued, it is unprofitable
found in Kindleberger (1993),
allowing it to freely float according altogether to bring it in, be it as bullion
Einaudi (1953), Gould (1952),
Roover (1974a), Supple (1957), to market forces, manipulated by or currency, and thus commercial
and Unwin (1966). bankers, merchants, and speculators, revenues are turned into imports of
Malynes would here inferre; but it is the nations. Commercial imbalances need
plenty or scarcity of Commodities, their use to be covered by monetary transfers,
or Non-use, that maketh them rise and fall which in their turn exert pressures
in prices (Misselden, 1623, p. 21). over exchange markets, thus affecting
Thus, Misselden understood exchange rates. His own description
clearly what was at stake and, of the process is as sharp as it
although half-heartedly, gave his own is illuminating:
version of events. Mun, of course, As plenty or scarcity of mony do make the
went much further; and in his direct price of the exchange high or low, so the
confrontation of Malynes ideas lies the over or under balance of our trade doth
key to understanding the fundamental effectually cause the plenty or scarcity of
intellectual divergence raised by this mony. [] the monies which are carried
from us within the balance of our trade
debate. Unlike Misselden, Mun was not
are not considerable, for they do return to
willing to make concessions. Chapters
us again: and we lose those monies only
XII to XIV of Englands Treasure are
which are made of the over-balance of our
dedicated to an explicit criticism of general trade, that is to say, That which we
Malynes ideas regarding exchange spend more in value in forraign wares, than
markets. As Misselden before him, Mun we utter of our own commodities. And
begins by stating that exchange markets the contrary of this is the only means by
are governed by the demand and supply which we get our treasure. In vain therefore
of currencies: hath Gerard Malines laboured so long,
and in so many printed books to make
[T]hat which causeth an under or
the world believe that the undervaluing of
overvaluing of moneys by Exchange, is the
our money in the exchange doth exhaust
plenty or scarcity thereof in those places
our treasure, which is a mere fallacy of
where the Exchanges are made
the cause, attributing that to a Secondary
(Mun, 1664, p. 95).
means, whose effects are wrought by another
But his analysis soon turns much Principal Efficient, and would also come
more acute and to the point. Far to pass although the said Secondary means
from determining commodity flows, were not at all (Mun, 1664, p. 96, 104).
exchange markets merely reflect the Mun turns Malynes reasoning on
movements of commodities between its head, and proudly tells everyone he
is doing so. If any doubts still remained, as Misseldens own hesitations seem to
he went as far as appropriating himself indirectly show. Probably few people
of Malynes own phraseology to would be willing to go so far as to
hammer his point home: assert that exchange markets are the
ultimate determinants of all economic
[T]he profit and loss upon the Exchange
phenomena. But the idea that there
is guided and ruled by the over or under
balance of the several Trades which are was something about money which
Predominant and Active, making the price could potentially disrupt both foreign
of Exchange high or low, which is therefore trade and domestic activities still held
Passive, the contrary whereof is so often much appeal. The debate had not
repeated by the said Malynes been won before it started. Instead, it
(Mun, 1664, p. 119). was carried on fiercely because it was
Here we have in a nutshell what concerned with issues which occupied
the 1620s dispute was all about. Which many minds at the time, and to which
is the primary force behind economic no easy solution could be offered. The
processes, money or commodities? controversy was not a futile quarrel
Was the economic crisis due to the over theoretical points, but part of a
malfunctioning of international larger effort to come to grips with the
monetary mechanisms, or to a chronic logic behind economic phenomena.
imbalance in foreign trade? Distinct
answers were being advanced at the
same time, and we can only guess at 5_ Economic debates in
how deeply each of them appealed to the political arena
public consciousness. We know that, Since merchants have received all
in the long run, Muns standpoint the attention so far, from now on
prevailed, which certainly helps to the presence of economic ideas
explain why Malynes came to be outside the scope of pamphlets will
regarded as such an oddity. But it seems be explored. Arguably, one of the
that during the 1620s his ideas were far gravest faults of mercantilism
from absurd and unconventional, or scholarship is its excessive reliance on
even outmoded. Quite on the contrary, specialized literature, and disregard of
they may have still carried much weight, economic ideas expressed in wider,
less knowledgeable channels. For all existence of any such relationship; but
the growth in print culture, it is hard to maybe a closer investigation will reveal
believe that an economic pamphleteer early Stuart days to be some kind of
writing during the early Stuart years mythical lost era when economists and
could hope to reach an audience human beings could still live peacefully
much larger than his own merchant with each other.
community. If that was the case in As already mentioned earlier,
general, what to say of a work such as the parliament of 1621 was in a way
Englands Treasure by Foraign Trade, which a moment of catharsis for economic
was not even published until after the ideas. Although other subjects such as
Restoration? What sort of impact could the Palatinate crisis22, non-conformity
the work of Mun have over the minds policies, and patents of monopoly23
A diplomatic meltdown
22
parliament for advice on how to deal emerged: several reasons were advanced
with them. King and parliament would as possible explanations for each of the
be involved with economic issues problems, but only very sporadically
throughout the whole session, although was any direct relationships between
the immediate practical results of such the two of them hypothesized27. As the
consultations were less than remarkable. economic grievances continued to be
The Commons asked their king to intensely debated, some rapprochement
dedicate special care to the redress was eventually achieved although an
of economic grievances during the incomplete and often awkward one28.
summer adjournment25, and the Privy Thus, in their attempts to
Council, already following Sir Lionel examine Englands economic maladies,
Cranfields lead, accordingly engaged the Commons came across the problem
in investigating and reforming the of the relationship between monetary
inconveniences raised in the house26. and trade processes. This is also, as
Economic topics were under the argued above, the single most important
spotlight during the whole year of 1621. topic in early Stuart economic literature.
What exactly, then, were the Commons These issues, which virtually defined
concerned with, economic wise, and economic reasoning during the
how were these concerns approached period, were brought to light in the
by different voices in the house? 1621 parliament, when attempts were
The depressed state of Englands being made to reconcile cloth trade
cloth trade, and the kings explicitly depression and scarcity of money as
stated concern with the scarcity of interconnected economic problems.
CD 1621, II: 417; III: 404;
25
Wee are to assure ourselves that the want 6_ Merchants and councillors
of money is because trade is sick, and as
Lionel Cranfields firm belief in the
longe as trade is sick, wee shalbee in want
of money33. primordial influence exerted by the
balance of trade over economic
More importantly, Cranfield processes raises some interesting issues.
was in a formidable position to do so. Could it be that, through his position
When the 1621 parliamentary session as an influential public figure, Cranfield
started, he was already recognized as contributed more to the dissemination
the crowns main economic advisor. of a favorable-balance-of-trade
During the summer adjournment, he doctrine during the early Stuart period
would finally be made Lord Treasurer, than economic pamphleteers such as
and thus become arguably the most Thomas Mun? To what extent could
powerful and influential court officer, the abstract leanings of an important
apart from Buckingham. Under these minister influence the course of public
circumstances, his opinions, in all policy? These are intriguing questions,
likelihood, carried substantial weight. to which no easy answer can be found.
No solid agreement was ever But Cranfields position at the time
reached in parliament regarding the suggests yet another possibility. As the
merits of each of these opposed merchant and financier who rose to
standpoints. But despite their failure to occupy an all-important public office,
reach a consensual interpretation of the Cranfield must have exerted a powerful
crisis, members of parliament in 1621 stimulus over those merchants who
brought to the forefront the difficulties thought they had something relevant
surrounding the integration of to say about economic matters. The
money and international trade mere prospect of being heard by a Lord
in a coherent explanation of Treasurer who was not only interested,
economic processes. In so doing, they but could actually understand what
provided economic writers with a they had to say, must have motivated
theme they would insistently pursue reflection and analytical effort in people
throughout the remainder who would normally follow political
of the decade. wrangles only at a distance. 33
CD 1621, VI: 296.
Mun and Cranfield had business beyond us, as you are distant from us.
connections dating back to the latters (1623, p. 5).
days in the City, and it seems reasonable Even Malynes tried to reach
to suppose that Mun would feel the balance-of-trade oriented treasurer,
much more comfortable approaching going so far as to ask permission
Cranfield than Dorset, Suffolk, or in a letter to dedicate his book Lex
Mandeville34. Moreover, this was a two- Mercatoria to him35. The book was
way avenue, for after parliament was printed in 1622 without this
over Mun was called to be a member dedication, for reasons that one can
of the Privy Council committee for only speculate about.
examining the decay of cloth trade,
and later of the standing commission
7_ Concluding remarks
for trade. Cranfield had been involved
a few years earlier in an attempt to Economic pamphleteers thus held a
actually compile Englands balance of close relationship with the political
trade, and that was duly remembered by society at large. The analysis developed
Misselden when he dedicated The Circle in this paper has shown how the
of Commerce to the Lord Treasurer: economic literature which came up
during the 1620s responded to the
When the eye of heaven, in the eye of the intellectual challenges raised during
king, had looked upon you, and picked you
the parliamentary debates in 1621. Far
out, and placed you in a higher orb; you
34
Thomas Sackville, 1st from being idle abstract speculators, or
were first seene in this circle, of the balance
Earl of Dorset (1536-1608), of trade. Other faire pieces you had, but
even mere pleaders for vested interests,
Thomas Howard, 1st Earl
this was your master piece, because all the economic writers such as Gerard de
of Suffolk (1561-1626), and Malynes and Thomas Mun showed
Henry Montagu, Viscount rest had reference unto this
Mandeville, later 1st Earl of (Misselden, 1623, p. 3). acute awareness about the most pressing
Manchester (1563-1642) had economic topics of their time, and the
Shortly thereafter, Misselden
all formerly occupied the blueprint offered by the public debates
office of Lord Treasurer earlier clearly expresses these mixed feelings of
which surrounded Englands economic
in James Is reign. flattery and fellowship when he says
troubles give us a glimpse of how
35
Centre for Kentish Studies:
Sackville Manuscripts, for as you were of us, and now you are vital these issues must have seemed to
U269/1/OE461. farre above us; so can you judge, as farre those involved. Moreover, the main
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