JOURNAL OF

Hydraulic Engineering
EDITOR
Thanos Papanicolaou, Ph.D.
Jnivers¡ty of Tennessee, Knowille
ASSOCIATE ED¡TORS
Francesco Ballio, Ph.D..
Aff.M.ASCE
Pol¡tecnico di Milano
Brian D. Barkdoll, Ph.D.,
n Technologicol U n ¡vers¡ty
M ich i go
Jean E. Berlamont, Ph.D.
Katholieke Un¡versite¡t, Leuven
Nani Bhowmik, Ph.D.,
lllinois State Woter Suruey
Koen Blanckaert, Ph.D.
École Polt¡echnique Fédérate
de Lousonne
Fabian A. Bombardelli, Ph.D.
Un¡vers¡tyof Colifornio, Davis
Scott F. Bradford. Ph.D.
Noval Research Loboratory
Bruno Brunone, Ph.D., M.ASCE
University of Perugio
Herve Capan, Ph.D.
Notionol Toiwon University
Oscar Castro-Orgaz, Ph.D.
nst ituto de Ag ri cu ltura Sosten i ble
I
M. Hanif Chaudhry, Ph.D.,
University of South Carolina
Yee-Meng Chiew Ph.D.
Nonyo ng Technolog ico I U n ¡vers¡ty
Sung-Uk Choi. Ph.D.
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George Constantinescu, Ph.D.,
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Joanna Crowe Curran, Ph.D.
Northwest Hydraulic Consultonts
Jacques W. Delleur, Ph.D.,
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P.E. Cristian Escauriaza, Ph.D.
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Heide Friedrich, Ph.D.
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Mohamed S. Ghidaoui, Ph.D.
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Kevin Haas, Ph.D.
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David F. Hill, Ph.D.
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Abdul A. Khan, Ph.D.,
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USDA.ARS
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S¡chuon University
Xiaofeng Liu, Ph.D., P.E.
Pen n sylvo nio Stote U n i ve rcity
P.E. Bruce Melville, Ph.D.
Univers¡ty of Aucklond
Gregory B. Pasternak, Ph.D.
Un¡versity of Colifornio, Dovis
Colin Rennie, eh.O.je.tng.
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Virginio Tech
Daniele Tonina, Ph.D.,
P.E., M.ASCE
University of ldoho
Blake P. Tullis, Ph.D.
utah stote univers¡ty
Bas van Maren, Ph.D.
Deltares
Jose G. Vasconcelos, Ph.D.
Auburn University
Daniel Griffin Wren, Ph.D.
P.E. USDA-ARS, Erosion Lob
Weiming Wu. Ph.D.
Clarkson Un¡versity

Andrea Defina, Ph.D. John A. McCorquodale, Ph.D., P.E.

University of Padovo University of New Orleans

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Hydraulic Engineering
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 JOURNAL OF

Hydraulic Engineering
APRIL 2017 . VOLUME 143 . ISSUE 4

Contents
r¡r]JcATtot{s FORUM
&rure Gcasen, Monoging William Froude and the Froude Number 0251 600s
Muond Publisher Willi H. Hoger ond Oscor Castro-Orgoz
ñI¡ITII¡II < DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL PAPERS
4r,nqee Cochran, Air Movement lnduced by Water Flow with a Hydraulic Jump in Changing Slope pipes 04016092
r{ssoc¡,ote Publisher Yu Q¡on, David Z. Zhu, Wenming Zhang, Nollomuthu Rajoratnom, Stephen Edwini-Bonsu,
ü.e|tu hderson, ond Peter Steffler
lMrcging Editor Time Scale of Local Scour around Pipelines in Current, Waves, and Combined Waves 0401 6093
-utltu topps¡, and Current
$Ítowging Editor Qín Zhong, Scott Draper, Liong Cheng, and Hongwei An
Elme¡ Guertin, Peak Pressure Surges and Pressure Damping Following Sudden Air o4016094
$t€,-ager, Journals Systems Pocket Compression
ú'/,ninistrotor Thomos M. Hatcher and .Jose G. Vosconcelos
rcq¡rfer Chapman, Stabil¡ty of Unstructured Block Ramps 0401609s
4ssrbfont M a nag i ng Ed ito r Volker Weitbrecht, Simono Tamogni, ond Roben M. Boes
--r.rn Dollings,
Three-Dimensional Simulation of Local Scour around a Weir-Type Structure: 0401 6096
Editorial Coordinqtor Hybrid Euler-Lagrange Model for Bed-Material Load
lrcke G. Eccles, Kozuyuki Oto, Tokoh¡ro Soto, Hojíme Nakogawa, and Kenji Kawoike
Z.ditorial Coordi notor
calculating the Exp¡icit Probability of Entrainment Based on lnert¡al Acceleration 04016097
-.aJ,e Hertneky, Measurements
z,¡blications Coordi notor
Georg¡os Maniat¡s, Trevor B. Hoey, Morwon A. Hosson, Joseph Sventek, Rebecco Hodge,
FNOOUCTION DEPARTMENT Tim Drysdole, ond Manousos Volyrokis
$Íact Boyle, Evolution of Local Pier-Scour Depth with Dune Migration in Subcritical Flow Conditions 0401 6098
Director J¡on-Hao Hong, Yee-Meng Chiew, Po-Hung Yeh, and Hsun-Chuan Chan
Misrael Gentry, Effect of sediment Transport Boundary conditions on the Numerical Modeling of Bed 0401 6099
Workflow Monoger Morphodynamics
i4¿shree Ranganathan, Alejandro Mendozo, Jorge D. Abod, Eddy J. Longendoen, Dongchen Wong, pobto Tossi,
*nior Monoger ond Komol EI Kodi Abderrezzok
-.eather DiAngelis. Detecting Local Scour Using Contact lmage Sensors 04016100
Assistont Monoger Hongwei An, We¡dong Yao, Liong Cheng, Scott Drdper, M¡ng Zhao, Guoqiong Tong, yu Zhong,
bcia Jones Kershaw, ond Philip Hortin
*nior Production Editor Formulas for the Transportation of Bed Load o401 61 01
)e"Andréa Johnson, Chong-Hung Zee and Roymond Zee
Production Editor Multiphase Mesh-Free Particle Method for Simulating Granular Flows and 04016102
-annah Patterson, Sediment Transport
Production Editor Mohommod Amin Nobion ond Leilo Farhodi
{,ffie Thacher,
TECHNICAL NOTES
?roduction Editor
Comparison of Current Methods for the Evaluation of Einstein,s lntegrals 0601 6026
r,: Uan Fleet, Senior Monoger, Koveh Zamoni, Fobión A. Bombardelli, and Bobok Komroni-Moghaddom
lnformation Services
Exact Procedure for Einstein-Johnson's Sidewall Correction in Open Channel Flow 060'16027
Junke Guo

PUBLISHING OFFICE

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JOURNAL OF

Hydraulic Enginedring
APRIL 2017 . VOLUME 143 . lssuE 4

Examining the Generality of 6/TKE for Gravel and |ñIlbldB with sand Fill 0601 6028
Daniet G. Wren, Michoet E. Ursic, Roger A. Kuhnle, and üI|qfut
Rosette Diffusers for Dense Effluents ,06016029
Ozeoir Abessi, Philip J. W. Roberts, ond Varun Gondhi
Subtract¡on Approach to Experimentally Assess drcÚfri of the Complex Pier 0601 6030
Components to the Local Scour Depth
Mario Moreno, Rodrigo Moio, Lúcio Couto, ond Antón'p.trllÑ
Forum
William Froude and the Froude Number
Willi H. Hager, F.ASCE
Professor, Versuchsanstalt fiir Wasserbau, Hydrologie und Glaziologie VAW,
Eidgenóssische Technische Hochschule ETH ZuÁch, CH-8093 Zürich,
Switzerland (corresponding author). E-mail: hager@vaw.baug.ethz.ch
Oscar Castro-Orgaz
Professor, Univ. of Cordoba, Campus Rabanales, Leonardo Da Vinci
Building, E-1407I Cordoba, Spain. E-mail: oscarcastro@ias.csic.es;
ag2caoro@uco.es
Forum papers are thought-provoking opinion pieces or essays
founded in fact, sometímes containing speculation, on a civil en-
gineering topic of general interest and relevance to the readership
of the journal. The views expressed in this Forum article do not
necessarily reflect the views of ASCE or the Editorial Board oJ
the journal.
DOf : 1 0. 106I(ASCE)HY. 1 943-7 900.0001213
lntroduction
The Froude number is a basic notion of open channel hydraulics
governing these flows in terms of flow control and propagation di-
rection. The English naval architect Froude (Fig. 1), however, has
never worked in this field so that the notion Froude number appears
to be a misnomer. This research deals with this controversy by
highlighting the career ofFroude and his Hydraulic Tank, including
particularly the investigations on the ship Greyhound by which
üe so-called law of consentation was established by comparing
model with prototype data relating to naval resistalce. In addition,
the studies of both De Saint-Venant and Boussinesq relating to
open channel hydraulics are presented in the light of the currently
accepted Froude number concept. This study does not suggest to
.-hange the currently accepted term Froude number but attempts to
highlight the misconception of a currently adopted definition in
¡erms of the historical merits of William Froude.
The Froude number F : V lc denotes a dimensionless group in
open channel hydraulics defined as the ratio between the actual
cross-sectional average flow velocity V and the shallow wave celer-
itl c. It applies to the one-dimensional (lD) representation of an
open-channel flow but can also be expanded to two-dimensional
iD) flows by accounting for the plan velocity components. It is
:eneralized for nonhydrostatic flows by adding streamline curva-
:¡:e corrections (Castro-Orgaz and Hager 2010). For free surface
¡ ¿ter flow, it fully describes the lD processes if limitations relating
:¡ t'luid viscosity and surface tension are satisfied (Chow 1959;
Castro-Orgaz and Hager 2010; Heller 2011). Given the relevance
¡f the Froude number, a number of issues are considered. These
in,-lude its selection and appropriateness of Froude's name, his
'¡orks done in relation to hydraulic engineering, his biography,
.:nd his Hydraulic Tank erected in the 1870s as the first permanent
:i draulic laboratory. Does Froude really deserve the recognition
::¡ this number? How did a naval engineer come to have this
:¿:se influence on open channel hydraulics? How did Froude's
.,¡boratory look like and why did Froude have such a large impact
:,r the progress of naval engineering but none on hydraulic
E A,SCE 0251 6005-1
engineering? This Forum article addresses both Froude's merits
and limitations in current hydraulic engineering.
Froude's Law of Comparison
Froude (1874) addressed the relation between a model and its
prototype based on his experiments with the ship Greyhound
(Fig. 2). He attempted to determine the resistance force of a proto-
type ship whose form and dimensions were known. The towing of a
ship by another under usual sea conditions was solvéd by "paying
out a continuous length of twine attached to a log-ship of large area,
the twine . . . gripping a counting wheel of definite circumference,
which was geared so as to transmit the motion thus obtained to a
revolving cylinder charged with a sheet of paper, the length of
which occupied the entire circumference of the cylinder. The cir-
cumferential travel of the sheet thus represented the ship's travel
on a reduced but measurable scale; and on it the force-indications
of the dynamometer, and a time scale supplied by a piece of clock-
work, were simultaneously and automatically remarked." Froude
further states: "It was . . . essential . . . that the ship which was
being towed should not be immediately in the wake of the towing
ship, but . . . in undisturbed water." To keep the towed ship on one
side of the wake of the towing ship, a 13.6-m (45-ft) boom was
rigged out from the starboard side. The rope length used was so
that the bow of the towed ship was 57.5 m (190 f0 clear of rhe
towing-ship stem (Fig. 3). The Greyhound of nominal 878 tonnage
was towed at speeds from 3 to 12.5 knots (5.5 to 23 k*/h). A toral
of 11 test series were conducted with the presence and absence of
bilge-keels, and at various displacements below the water surface,
resulting in plots of resistance versus speed of ship. It was con-
cluded that
. Up to 8 knots, the resistance is almost proportional to the square
of speed;
. Above this speed, the resistance increases more than
quadratically;
. Resistance is not much affected by the trim;
. Resistance is decidedly less at light than at notmal
displacement; and
. Resistance attributable to bilge-keels presence is less than
should be caused by their surface friction alone.
To prove the law of compariso¿ as termed by Froude, a
| /L6-scale model of the Greyhound was tested, and its resistance
was determined at various speeds and conditions applied under
prototype observations (Fig. 4). These tests were conducted at
the Hydraulic Tank (see under 'Hydraulic Tank'); Froude states that
their accuracy was by far better than of the prototype experiments
because oftest reasons. The data sets ofmodel and prototype have a
similar behavior under identical conditions. Froude then set out to
test his Law: If the ship be D times the model dimension, and if at
speeds V1, Vz, Vz.. . the measured model resistances are R1, R2,
R3, . . . then for ship speeds V rDr 12, v 2Dr /2, V jDt 12,the resistan-
ces will be R1D3, RzD3, R3D3. According to Froude, the main rea-
son for resistance is wave generation. The wave configurations
generated by both the prototype and model ship were noted to
be similar. The law of comparison would thus be absolutely
correct if the elementaly resistances attributable to wave making,
surface friction, and the formation of dead-water constituted the
J. Hydraul. Eng.

'F7p* d.
(a)
Fig. 1. Wiltiam Froude: (a) around 1860; (b) in rhe late 1870s [image (a) counesl'
entire resistance, and if it were strictly true, the resistance would
vary as the square of the speed times the surface area on which
it acts. Froude concludes that the model and prototype data substan-
tially verify the law of comparison. From the present perspective,
his law states that the ratio V /(gL)l/z applies between a prototype
and its model if gravity effects are dominant, with Z as the ship
length.
From Law of Conservat¡on to Froude Number
Weber (1919), a notable German naval engineer, presented a long
paper on the mechanical similitude of model and prototype data.
Various laws were attached to individuals having worked on the
topic. For gravity flows, Froude's name was selected, resulting
in the well-known expressions for the time, velocity, or acceleration
scales. Similar suggestions for flows in which viscosity and surface
tension dominate a flow resulted in the Reynolds and today's
Weber numbers. As to Froude's law, his observations relating to
ship resistance are mentioned. To apply his law the skin friction
force is subtracted from the total force measured, resulting in
the wave and ship form forces, to which the law only applies.
Although Weber noted that he did not find a proof of the correct-
ness of the law in Froude's papers, Froude's particular merits were
stated to be
. Subdivision of total ship resistance into skin and form effects;
. Separate determination of skin resistance using model tests; and
. Attribution of form resistance to gravity effect.
Weber (1930) then proposes the Froude number instead of
law of conservation as earlier retained (Weber 1919). It is men-
tioned that Froude was the first who determined ship resistance
using the similitude procedure and therefore is considered the
founder of the science of similitude. Weber further states that he
@ ASCE 0251 6005-2
1'ILLIi}' FROL:DE
5.a.. LD _ :.t *
tstt-;a:t
(b)
of Antiquariat, Zunch, Switzerland]
has devoted this number to Froude, thereby relating two similar
mechanical processes governed by gravity. In contrast to the cument
statement, Weber proposed for the Froude number the square
Fw.b".: V,/(sL).
Attribution of Froude Number
Given its current imponance in open channel hydraulics, the notion
Froude number is considered a misnomer. Froude's merits in naval
engineering are enorrnous, but his research had nothing to do with
the commonly used number F. Instead, the studies of both Barré De
Saint-Venant (1797-1886) and Joseph V. Boussinesq (L}4Z_I929)
have definitely contributed to this subject matter. De Saint_Venant
(1870) deals with the elementary propagation velocity, the so_called
celerity, of a flow in a prismatic channel. Application of the mo_
mentum theorem to a stagnant water column leads to the celerity c,
as originally found by the French maüematician Joseph_Louis
Lagrange (1736*1813)
c: (sh)t/z (1)
In Eq. (1), h = water depth and g = Sravit\ acceleration. De Saint_
Venant refers shortly to the solitary wave first observed by John
ScottRussell (1808-18S2) in 1837: Itresults by pushing a siagnant
water body in a rectangular channel by a plane immersed into the
fluid. Its celerity is described by Eq. (1) if the wave height
compared with the water depth remains small.
Based on observations of Henry Bazin (1829-1917), the abso-
lute propagation velocity of open-channel flow is equal to the mean
velocity V plus or minus the celerity. With ¡ as streamwise coor-
dinate and / as time, Bazin (1865) found
J. Hydraul. Eng
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i !ú-'m gtln¿a¿rtu wdd,lybo bb f 'Í I't@ @.rú¿g qbh¿D &o.uaa&c At tcaul
ú- X. k Mübú;V tu:n ef5P"úg blar|eaAtu ¿r¿ 7¿Arú? cb'aúLÍü;.onfa¿ aa¡rrtt *á " "
t :r-^tu.Inlc tudtun oftnmñ;ú¿,tugrtuüb 1/ llnuluu*okeá,byüo&,*orlc
d::?j; bf"b¿Am' g g C@Jtb baqr*in! nbbtugf Cdñato b Qbrdzrr e

I \
i l

*.3.e

Fig. 2. Dynamometric apparatus used in towing ship models (reprinted from Froude 1874)

4r¿Lu",

Iag -hu

Fig. 3. Plan of Her Majesty's Ship (H.M.S .) Activetowing the Greyhound (reprinted from Froude t874)

dxldt:Vtc
De Saint-Venant states that an elementary disturbance of water
ilorv is only propagated in the streamwise direction
ot Vl@h)I/2 > l, resulting in a hydraulic jump if the tailwater
:! characterized by VlQh)'/t <t. The limit of the approach
:lou, velocity generating a hydraulic jump corresponds to
1,' \gh)t/z > 1. De Saint-Venant differs between the following
:¡o fundamental flow regimes:
. \/ljh)1/2 < I any flow disturbance is felt both upsffeam and
downstream; and
(2) . V l@h)r/z > 1 any disturbance is felt only downsrream of the
source.
The case VlGh)tlz < 1 was referred to as the river regime,in
íf V > c, which the flow velocity is smaller than the wave celerity, whereas
the case wirh V lbh)t/2 > 1 was referred to as the torrent regime.
De Saint-Venant stated that neither a river nor a toffent are defined
by only the absolute flow velocity or flow depth,.but by the ratio
V I @h)1/2, and he noted that flows wíth V I fuh)tl2 > 1 are hardly
observed in nature.
In a second paper, De Saint-Venant (1871) derived the unsteady
flow equations currently refeffed to as the shallow-water equations.

O ASCE 0251 6005-3 J. Hydraul. Eng.

 Ca¡.áiaou
Nnal tÁn. .L9 a
-4/¿7n.a] Sythahmd. I *-*---
O61t¿w.2?&¿¿ D).th.rbtu J
6úúttq/úús@ 4 -.----
*--- ----
Ilonal, ein -*-
Ji¿ht Ef .h. haL 6
Dupkin"tx. G?@1,11 hJ. th. dñ I

,tpa¿ t&,Jbc¿ Z a,ilütt tó

Fig. 4. Resistance versus speed of Greyhound model at various conditions (reprinted from Froude 1874)

Let V again be the cross-sectional average flow velocity, /¿ is the the number V l@h)1/2 is not explicitly mentioned, but rhe paper was
flow depth, and Iy' is the energy head or flow depth of stagnant revolutionary because Scott Russell's observations were theoretically
water. For horizontal rectangular channels, a frictionless fluid then described for the first time. Boussinesq (187lb) considered
satisfies the two equations gradually-varied open-channel floW thereby following De Saint-
Venant in adopting the regimes of river and tonent flows. As to
v : 2(sq)tt2 _ Z(s\t tz (3) the Froude numbe¡ De Saint-Venant thus clearly has prioriqz in
having distinguished between these two regimes.
A fuli account on free-surface flows was given by Boussinesq
, :3(gH)1/2 - 2(sh)t/z (4)
(1872). First, the fundamental flow equations including the boun-
These are culrently refered to as solutions of Ritter's dambreak dary conditions are specified. Next, 2D flows are considered result-
wave (Ritter 1892). ing for the simplest case in the linear wave equation. A higher
De Saint-Venant (1871) generalized his findings to arbitrary chan- approximation involves the solitary wave as fundamental solution.
nel geometries, resulting in the continuity and energy equations Its stability is discussed along with a description of its generation
by a piston-moving fluid at rest in one direction of the channel,
daldt -r d(av)lds :0 (s) thereby pointing at the role ot V /(gh)1/2. Neither De Saint-Venanr
nor Boussinesq defined explicitly a dimensionless group V/c
d(/ds : (tls)dv ldt + (v I g)dvlds + (yl"l)Fl@s) (6) but worked with similar dimensionless numbers. For example,
Boussinesq 877) based most of his reasoning of backwater curves
(I

In Eqs. (5) and (6), u = cross-sectional area; tl = time; s = streamwise
coordinate; ( = vetical elevation ofthe free surface relative to a refer-
ence level; X = wetted perimeter; p = fluid density; and Flfug) =
boundary friction per unit channel length. Applying Eqs. (5) and
(6) to the rectangular, frictionless, and horizontal channel, Eqs. (3)
and (4) result as solutions. A comparison of the results with the data
of Bazin (1 865) for the celerity of solitary waves indicates agreement
if the wave height is not too large. Given these two impressive papers
on general 1D open-channel flows forwhich the cuüentFroude num-
ber is essential, De Saint-Venant certainty is much more linked to this
phenomenon than Froude.
Boussinesq was closely acquainted with De Saint-Venant, given
that the latter presided the Mechanics Section of the French Academy
of Sciences, Paris, and Boussinesq had to submit to him the papers to
be published inits Comptes Rendus. The first account of Boussinesq
(1871a) on open channel flow involves the solitary wave, including
its celerity, its free surface profile, and the wave energy. The effect of
on the group U -
V2 lGh)1. Given the value of Boussinesq's pa-
pers, the 1871 Poncelet Price waS awarded to him by a Commission
chaired by De SaintVenant ("Prix" 1872), honoring the French
hydraulician Jean-Victor Poncelet ( 1 788* I 867).
Discussion
No attempt is made in this paper to change the current Froude num-
ber by proposing another name. However, hydraulic engineers
should recognize that this notion is a misnomer if applied to
free-surface flow because its main features, namely a distincúon
between the subcritical and supercritical regimes, is not given based
on Froude's work. In the early 1870s, supercritical or torrential
flows were hardiy observed in nature given the few manufactured
conveyances. This is reflected by the few hydraulic jumps o
bserved, except at drops or wave breaking along estuaries. It is

O ASCE 0251 6005-4 J. Hydraul. Eng.

 -: : :r more astonishing that both De Saint-Venant and
:r¡sa$' this additional possibility of water flow, for
.'-'.-.
.
::,oerienced it in their daily life. More striking for
-'.-..: :ngineering community was the fact that depending
-' .,. regime, free-surface profiles had to be computed
: .:. ihe flow direction, depended solely on F.
' : r: i.':-i.-h of De Saint-Venant and Boussinesq date almost ex-
- ..-.: :;ine time, the first having an advance of some months.
: :: Di Saint-Venant considered exclusively lD flows culmi-
- - .:: shallow-water equations, whereas Boussinesq reached
' I :1..n s. which degenerate into lD flows if hydrostatic pres-
-
-: -::-.:rid. Given that the Froude number in open-channel
: ..:::i:lh
describes lD flow, the Froude number should there-
- -: :rr-ruied to De Saint-Venant. As stated previously, the
- - . - r at all intend to propose this change, primarily because
r -.: = is a familiar notion in hydraulics, having been adopted
:- , . :uring the past decades. Yet, the authors think that the
' ::-ls misnomer should at least be kept in mind, so that
: :r. -r De
Saint-Venant not only in the theory of elasticity,
: ---:..,a¡lv in hydraulics receives an adequate merit.
3;graphy
,-.' Froude was bom on November 28, I 810 at Dartington, west
:- -tr\. in southwest England. He was a King's Scholar at West-
' : --ontinuing studies at Oriel College, Oxford University, where
. of the Royal Society that "his investigations at present take com-
: - :re¡ Hurrell taught mathematics, resulting in the first rank of the
' - --:=-,.ltic c1ass. On leaving Oxford, Froude adopted the profession
- . :ngineer, becoming in 1838 an assistant to Isambard K. Brunel
: , -i859), the famous English railroad, bridge, and naval engineer.
:' -:r u as first engaged on the Bristol and Exeter Railway; retiring in
' .- rn account of his father's failing health, he occupied himself in
. .- ..:lc investigations on ttre resistance of a plane moving obliquely
" - :'lid or practical engineering work including the design of the
::,-r\. waterworks from 1863 to 1866. His intimate fiiendship with
: --,:j led Froude back at times to take part in common engineering
.- : on occasion of the launch of the Great Easte m in 1 857. then the
--,::!t boat ever built worldwide, Froude conducted a series of tests
iiip friction and rolling, a topic intimately connected to Froude's
-:: *ork. His interest in the response of water waves on a floating
-' ,:', \ras also developed, so that he established his theory of trochoi-
- '.'.
a\,es. Its principles were represented by experiments, the results
-.,.hich were highlighted at the frst meeting of the Institution of
'.',J Architects GI{A) in 1861 (Memoir 1879; William 1879;
l-: late 1879; M¡. 1880; Froude 1917).
The Chief Constructor of the Navy realtzed the importance of
-:',rl tests and requested Froude to conduct experiments for the
-:riralty. An experimental tank with its machinery was erected
I J7I near Froude's house at Chelston Cross, Torquay, from when
,., .hips of the Royal Navy were there model-tested. This included
' : ,-)ptimum hull shape, the adequate propulsion, and the effect of
'-:-¡ce friction to define general principles for ship design. Under
: -,ude's superintendence, the prototype Greyhound was towed at
.rious speeds to measure the tow-rope strain. A comparison with
¡k tests fully verified the so-called law of comparison. It was also
..-rnd that screw propellers placed too close to the stem of a ship
::sulted in poor pedormance in terms of power used.
From 1871 to I876, he obtained by a self-recording apparatus a
:riasure of the resisting force offered by the water to the rolling
:.r¡ion of a ship. He applied his findings to the design of the
--:¡r'hound in 1812. Earlier, Froude recommended the use of
: -.se-keels as a remedy to rolling, which were successfully applied
. Indian troop ships.
3 ASCE 0251 6005-5
Froude's work on resistance and propulsion of ships made his
name known among naval engineers. Tests at reduced scale allowed
him to develop the Law of comparison, by which a ship's resistance
is deduced from that of its model. These findings were not only
published in the Transactions INA, but also in Blue Books and
the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science (BAAS) available then to the Admiralty. In his opening
address as president of the Mechanical Section of BAAS at Bristol
in 1875, Froude explained the effect of streamlines as far as how
they affect ship resistance.
Froude was described as an able workman, with his own hands
executing accurate pieces of work; his mechanical skill was shown
by the design and the details of the beautiful machines used at
Torquay. The model-cutting machine, a result of thoughtful consid-
eration, was based on using hard paraffin for the test hulls; the
resistance-recording apparatus was used for the tank experiments;
the rolling recording instrument or the large screrí-engine dyna-
mometer were all evidence of his mechanical skill. Froude's
character had a rare degree of modesty and disregard combined
with a singular charm of voice and manner.
Froude's work was awarded by his election to the Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1870; he received in 1876 the honorary degree
Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) from the University of Glasgow and
the Royal Medal of the Royal Society "for his researches both theo-
retical and experimental on the behavior of ships, their oscillation,
their resistance, and their propulsion." It was stated by the president
pletely the lead in this very imporlant question-most importantly
to a maritime nation." At the time of his death, Froude served as
vice-president of INA. In December 1878, Froude went for a
holiday to the Cape of Good Hope, but on his return to England,
he was taken ill with dysentery. He passed away on May 4, 1879;
his grave was and still is at the Naval Cemetery, Simons Town,
South Africa. His death was a great blow to naval science. Furlher
historical notes are given by White (1911) and Baker (1911).
Froude's complete bibliography is provided, for example, by
Poggendorff (1898). His main papers are collected in a separate
volumé edited by Duckworth (1955).
As to Froude's poftrai| the first was published only in 1905 and
reproduced by a special resolution ofthe INA Council (Dana 1905).
It shows Froude close to his death, possibly in 1878 before his
voyage to South Africa. The identical pofirait was reproduced by
"The resistance" (1934), Abell (1934a, b), Spratt (1948), Duckworth
(1955), and Rouse (1965). Further accounts were offered by Johns
(1924), "William" (1933a, b), and "Institution" (1954). tn 2003, the
first author was searching for an altemative and indeed found in
Zunch a second-hand bookshop selling Froude's pofirait taken
around I 860 used then as a visit card. Froude is dressed in the fashion
of the mid-nineteenth century, with a tie of the era and a gown, cross-
ing his arms and looking to the side. His beard is not as long as on the
1878 photo, and his eyes are directed away from the photographer.
He leaves a keen and independent impression and self-conf,dently
focuses on the future, which for him made his name famous and
for the ma¡kind opened a door into the study ofphysical processes
using not only prototype observations.
Hydraulic Tank
Froude had realized already in the 1850s that the problem of ship
design could not be solved theoretically. Based on experimentation
at his home and on River Dart using a steam launch, Froude
contacted the Admiralty suggesting the erection of a special Tank,
whose purposes would be (Crichton 1990) the following:
J. Hydraul. Eng
 (image courtesy of Scottish Maritime Museum)
Fig. 5, Scottish Maritime Museum at Dumbarton, near Glasgow, U.K.

. Tank of trapezoidalcross section 75 m (250 ft) long, 10 m (33 ft)

wide at surface, 1.8 m (6 ft) at bottom, and 3 m (10 ft) deep;
. Estimated cost of f584, plus f133 for laying water supply
pipe; and
. ilork expenses of f500/year, comprising two workmen and a
competent draughtsman (Froude proposed his son Robert
Edmund); Froude himself offered his services for free'
The Lords Commissioners approved Froude's proposal in
February 1870 asking him to conduct tests on ship resistance
and ship rolling. fne tan¿ on which the Tank should be built
was close to Froude's home, with the stipulation that at the expiry'
it should be restored to its original condition. The Tank was filled
with water by March 21, l81l' and the first experiment was con-
ducted on March 3, 1872. Model construction and test procedure
are described by Crichton (1990).
The Torquay Thnk was stiil in operation in 1882, although
Robert E. Frouáe by then planned its replacement' The New Tank
(9 ft)
was to be 121 m (4t10 ft) long, 6 m (20 ft) wide' and 2'7 m
deep. It was set up at the Old Gunboat Yard at Haslar Creek'
Cosport, west of Portsmouth, South England. The Tank was ready
Uy iSSe. In 1901, the famous English naval engineer Alfred Yarrow
(iS+Z-tgZZ) proposed that a Tank be set under the auspices of INA to
establish a facility at the National Physical Laboratory Bushy Park'
The National Tank was finally completed in 191 1 and named Alfred
Yanow Tank. It was 167 m (550 ft) long, 30 m (90 ft) wide, and 3'8 m
(12.5 ft) deep at its center. By the time of Robert Froude's death, each
major naval power and a large number of shipbuiklers had a Tank'
commemorating the concepts of the founder William Froude'
The fust Tank for commercial shipbuilding was built by William
Denny & Sons in 1881 on River Leven at Dumbarton, west of
Glasgow. Its head of the scientific department, Purvis, had collabo-
rated with Froude until 1878. Purvis oversaw the design and Fig. 6. Bronze medal showing William Denny at enffance of Maritime
construction of the Tank, assisted by Robert E. Froude' who was al- Museum (image courtesy of Scottish Ma¡itime Museum)
lowed by the Admiralty to fumish details of the Torquay Tank'
0251 6005-6 J. Hydraul. Eng.
O ASCE
 Fig. 7. From (a) hull plan to (b) paraffin hull and (c) final hull body (images by wil1i H.

)nny's Tank of rectangular shape was 85 m long, 6.7 m wide, and
-: m deep. The test techniques of Denny's Thnk were identical to
i¡:e of the Torquay Tank. The front wall of the building contained
¡ nemorial bust of Froude. The south end of the building was de-
;¡"-r¡'ed by fire in 1924 it was lengthened by 15 m including an ob-
slr ation plafform. This Tank remained in use until 1983; cunently it
;: üe core of the Scottish Maritime Museum at Dumbarton.
lfaritime Museum
)-rring his stay at Glasgow University in 2009, the first author
:.ited the Maritime Museum at Dumbarton (Fig. 5). Until this
time, he was not aware that the original Hydraulic Tank was set
up there and accessible for visitors. So, step into the building in
which the Froude Tank is on show! At the entrance hall, Sir
William Denny (1847-1887), an intimate friend of William
Froude, greets you (Fig. 6). His contact with Froude allowed
him for securing a replica of Froude's Tank, allowing for model
tests of ships manufactured by Denny & Bros.
Once a ship had been designed, its model was prepared from
plans shown in Fig. 7(a), in which the hull,s contour lines are trans-
mitted onto the model made of paraffin tFig. 7(b)1. The raw hull
was finally smoothed by scratching all joints and seams, resulting
in a smooth ship model body ready for Tank testing [Fig. 7(c)].

FlS. 8' (a) View at tank with ship model attached to platform drawing it through water (image by Wilti H. Hager,
exhibit photographed with permis-
' ::- of Scottish Maritime Museum); (b) test drive along Denny's Tank in 1950s (image by Willi H. Hager, exhibit photographeO wlth permission of
S,: ,:rish Maritime Museum)

E TSCE 025 1 6005-7 J. Hydraul. Eng.

 Fig. 8(a) shows the curent entrance to the Tank, where the test
piece was fixed to the setup and drawn through the Tank, seen in
the back. Fig. 8(b) is a historical photo exhibited ar rhe Scottish
Maritime Museum showing the test procedure in the 1950s. In con-
trast to the original Tank, a collaborator drives the electrical motor
mounted on the platform above the test channel, üereby obtaining
the model data. A number of additional items are exhibited at
the Museum including mathematical and physical instruments for
model preparation, tools to finish test hulls, photographs ofthe en-
gineers involved in the Tank, and awards collected by the Dennys
for the numerous successful boats launched. In summary, if you
spend a joumey in Scotland, a visit to the Scottish Maritime
Museum is highly recommended.
Conclusions
This Forum article describes the origin and the current application
of the Froude number. Although William Froude counts among the
greatest naval engineers based on his theoretical and particularly
experimental research, his name is not at all associated with the
number describing open-channel flows. This misnomer originates
from Weber, a German naval enginee¡ who overlooked the main
fields in which the Froude number was and is applied.
This Forum is evidence that even a misnomer of this importance
survives for a century. The authors do not at all suggest a name
change of this number but attempt to highlight the origins of both
the naval engineer Froude and the two who would be destined to
receive the merit in name, De Saint-Venant for his shallow-water
equations and shortly later, Boussinesq who generalized these. This
Forum thus highlights the meandering paths of a key expression
in hydraulic engineering because of the misunderstanding of the
historical background, aiming to clarify the background for educa-
tional and conceptual reasons.
Notation
The following symbols are used in the paper:
c = celerity (m/s);
D = length scale (-);
dxf dt = absolute velocity (m/s);
F = Froude number (-);
r/bd = boundary friction per unit channel tength (N/m);
g - gravity acceleration (m/t2);
H = energ! head (m);
h = flow depth (m);
Z = length (m);
R= resistance force (N);
s= streamwise coordinate (m);
r= time (s);
C= vertical elevation of free surface relative to reference
level (m);
p = fluid density (kg/m3);
X = wetted perimeter (m); and
c¿ = cross-sectional area (m2).
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O ASCE 0251 6005-B
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53(2), t-33.
 Air Movement lnduced by Water Flow with a Hydraulic
Jump in Changing Slope Pipes
Yu Qianl; David Z.Zhu, M.ASCE2; Wenming Zhang, A.M.ASCE3; Nallamuthu Rajaratnam, F.ASCEa;
Stephen Edwini-Bonsu, M.ASCEs; and Peter Steffler, tt¡'RSCE6

Abstract: This paper presents experimental and numerical results of ai¡ movement in sewer pipes. Both the airflow in a straight pipe and
pipes with changing slopes were studied. The result from the straight-pipe model suggests that the air pressure gradient is built up in the pipe
even when it is kept at atmospheric pressure at both ends. The combined effects of water drag and the pressure gradient were analyzed.
A general method for estimating the airflow rate was proposed. Further, physical and numerical experiments were performed on'air movement
induced by water flow with a hydraulic jump in pipes with a changing slope. The ratios of air and water flow rates were found to be sub-
stantially higher than published values because of different air transportation mechanisms. The rough surface and airlwater bubbly flow in the
roller of the hydraulic jump can affect the momentum flux of the air phase, and this additional momentum needs to be incorporated in airflow
modeling. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0001252. @ 2016 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Author keywords: Circular pipe; Hydraulic jumps; Numerical model; Physical model; Sewers.

lntroduction two factors was proposed. Edwini-Bonsu and Steffler (2004)

Sewer pipes are generally designed for carrying liquid flow down-
stream without considering the airflow (Edwini-Bonsu and Steffler
2004). Under anaerobic conditions, hydrogen sulfide (HzS) will be
produced. It is not only the main cause of sewer pipe corrosion but
also an odor nuisance to the public (U.S. EPA 1985)' Therefore, an
understanding of air movement in sewers is fundamental to guide
the activity of sewer odor control (LA Report 2011). Certain drain-
age infrastructures such as dropshafts, inverted siphons, and chang-
ing slope pipes are expected to have a significant effect on the air
movement in sewer systems because of the presence of air pressure
in the pipe headspace (AE 2008; LA Report 20ll; Zhang et al'
2O16; Ma et al. 2016).
Pescod and Price (1982) experimentally examined the factors in
sewer ventilation and reported that the pressure difference served as
a primary factor in sewer ventilation while the liquid drag effect
was secondary. However, no quantified relation between these
lPh.D. Student, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering' Univ' of
Albefta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2. E-mail: yu.qian@ualberta.ca
2Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of
Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2 (corresponding author).
E-mail: david.zhu@ualberta.ca
3Postdoctoral Fellow, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2. E-mail: wenming@
ualberla.ca
aProfessor Emeritus, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, CanadaT6G2W2.E-mall: nrajaratnam@
ualberta.ca
sAdjunct Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2. E-mail: edwinibon@
ualberta.ca
dProfessor Emeritus, Dept.
of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2. E-mail: peter.
steffler@ualberta.ca
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 20,2015; approved on
August 3, 2016; published online on October 25,2016. Discussion period
open until March 25, 2017; separale discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of Ihe Journal of Hydraulic Engineer-
ing, @ ASCE, ISSN 0733-9429.
numerically studied the effect of water drag on airflow, whereas
the combined effect of the water drag and pressure gradient was
studied by Edwini-Bonsu and Steffler (2006). Their models suggest
that for laminar flow, the effects of water drag and pressure gradient
are additive, while not so in turbulent flow. Note that the water
velocities in all these studies were relatively small (0.2-0.8 m/s)
and a further study on higher water velocity is needed.
The air demand also needs to be considered in dam outlet work.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers (1980) analyzed field
measurement data and proposed an empirical equation for estimating
the airflow demand. Larchar (2011), Tullis and Larchar (2011),
Wright (2013), and Wright and Tullis (2014) extensively studied
the air demand in low-level outlet works. They measured the ai¡ de-
mand under different flow scenarios. The ratio of air and water flow
rates was found to be a function of the filling ratio and had a maxi-
mum value of about 1.0. Volkart and Speerli (1994) measured the air
dema¡d in a high head dam and found that the airflow rate reached
up to 50 times the water flow rate as the high-speed water became
spray. Speerli and Hager (2000) observed the airflow in conduits and
observed countercurrent air movement. However, the effect of pres-
sure generated on airflow in the conduit was not assessed.
Hydraulic jumps in circula¡ and rectangular open channels have
been studied extensivel¡ but nlostly to understand the liquid phase
(e.g., Rajaratnam 1965; Hager 1992). Chanson (2006), Chanson
and Qiao (1994), Chanson and Brattberg (2000), Chanson and
Gualtieri (2008), andZhangetal. (2014) conducted laboratory ex-
periments on the bubble characteristics in hydraulic jumps in rec-
tangular open channels. Kalinske and Robertson (1943) conducted
experiments on the air entrainment in closed conduits and proposed
equations for the air entrainment rate attributable to hydraulic
iumps. Escarameia (2007) summarized the existing data on closed
conduits and reported that the airflow was lower than that of
Kalinske and Robertson (1943). Mortensen et al. (2011) conducted
experiments on the hydraulic jumps in circular pipes of different
diameters and proposed a linear equation for the transportation
of airflow across hydraulic jumps. These studies were all on con-
duit jumps where water filled the pipe after the jump and air was
mainly transported in bubbly form. Given the fact that it is more

@ ASCE 0401 6092-1 J. Hydraul. Eng.

 Air velocitv measurement

Fig. 1. Schematic of experimental apparatus showing sloping and horizontal pipes

rrr{Liron in sewers with headspace, it is necessary to study the air of Exp. Bl at Q.:6.5,9.88, 13.58, and 15.66Lls. The airflow
rxr:tr,ii:r€nt in pipes with hydraulic jumps with headspace. Edwini- rate, water depth upstream of the jump, and the water flow rate were
&:m:s: ,1004) suggested that the hydraulic jump would generate a measured for 0:30' (Exp. A1). In addition to túese measure-
iis:s*: ¿rnount of airflow because of the potential momentum trans- ments, air velocity and water sudace profile in the center plane
rer m üe roller by the airlwater bubbly flow, but a detailed analysis of the pipes were also measured for Exp. BI for Q,:9.88 L/s.
Js :iot presented.
¡lr
A rotating vane anemometer (VelociCaIc 5125, TSI, Shoreview,
Tiis research presents experimental and numerical studies on Minnesota) was mounted on the air inlet for measuring the airflow
tm ¡:dlow in a straight pipe and pipes with a hydraulic jump. The rate. An additional experiment was conducted for examining the
'rr-tn5}t-pipe
model was used for assessing the combined effect of measurement reliability. At the same airflow conditions, the read-
ruat:r drag and pressure gradient on airflow in the sewer. The pur- ing of the rotating vane anemometer was compared with the read-
nl*e of the hydraulic-jump model was to measure the airflow rate ing of two hotwire anemometers (HHF 42, Omega, Laval, euebec
mu¡ced by water flow with a hydraulic jump in pipes of changing and Velocicheck 8330, TSI, Shorevieq Minnesota). Over a total of
:tr:rr.e, It was also used to explore the momentum transfer effect of a 22 readings, the rotating vane anemometer gave an airflow rate
r"-,';r-¡ulic jump on airflow. This study can be used to predict the reading of 15.63 L/s with a standard deviarion of t0.60 L/s. The
oür:]o$' in a sewer pipe with known flow conditions, and thus it air velocity was measured at 18 locations across the air vent, and
* i¡-.efuI in guiding activities in sewer odor control and pipe the airflow rate through the air vent was estimated to be 14.84 Ll s
:::rr:trsion prevention. by the hotwire. With a difference of 57o, the airflow rate measure-
ment was considered reliable at the air vent.
The air velocity inside the pipe was visualized by dry ice mist
Experimental Des¡gn
created by mixing dry ice with water (Merzkirch 1987) and cap-
T:e physical experiment of the air movement in changing slope tured using a high-speed camera (Phantom v211, Vision Research,
r¡¡nes u,ith a hydraulic jump was conducted at the T. Blench Hy-
Wayne, New Jersey) for a period of 3 min at 1,000 frames/s. The
¡r'¿nlic Lab at the University of Albefta. Fig. 1 shows a schematic local air velocities were obtained from the analysis of the videos,
rr' úre experimental apparatus. Two transparent Plexiglas pipes and each local velocity was an ensemble average of 15 velocity
¡, :ü an inner diameter D :
0.28 m and a length of 2.0 m each were
calculations. For the air velocity measurement inside the pipe, the
rrritnected. The upstream pipe was set at an angle of á : nature offlow visualization limited the accuracy because the front
10 or 30'
r,:'h üe horizontal, while the downstream pipe was kept horizontal. of the mist was not as well defined sometimes and large discrep-
4. :eilgate was used to control the downstream water level and the
ancies were expected. An average deviation of f0.28 m/s was ob-
r;rüion of the hydraulic jump. Water was supplied from a pump served, with the measured ai¡ velocity ranging fiom 0. 1 1 to 2.09 m I s.
,üm': the water discharge was measured by an electromagnetic However, at this stage, there are no obviously better ways to conduct
ir,rqmeter. A hole with a diameter of l0 cm was cut above the measurement because of the restriction of pipe walls and splashes of
nuer inlet. water drops in the pipe headspace. The water flow rate from the
Table I provides a summary of the experimental conditions. magnetic flowmeter was checked with the traditional method of
]ñ-erent downstream flow conditions as well as pipe slopes were using a bucket and stopwatch, and the difference was less than 3Va.
:l-.rnined. The downstream conditions were changed so that the Two methods were used to rheasure the water flow depth in the
0
u:jlow at the pipe outlet included free floW partially restricted pipes. Method 1 was by measuring the wetted perimeter of the pipe
ü
ir:'a. or fully blocked flow. Exp. 51 was a numerical simulation using a measuring tape accurate to I mm. The effect of the pipe wall
thickness was corrected since the water level was culr/ed upstream
of the jump. Three readings were. taken at the desired locations,
d
Tóle 2 cm upstream and 2 cm downstream. This method was used to
1. Summary of Experiments
d obtain the water depth for Froude number calculation. Method 2
c irperiments Q" (L/s) Downstream condition involved a total of 7 small holes drilled into the pipe top. A wooden
d 6.50-13.58 Hydraulic jump with headspace stick was inserted into one hole where the measurement was made,
f 6.50-15.66 while the other holes were kept sealed. The distance between the
d 9.90 Hydraulic jump with no headspace water surface and the pipe invert was the measured water depth. A
It 15.84 Conduit jump comparison was made between these two methods I m downstream
n 5.01-15.00 Tailgate fully open, supercritical flow of the pipe jointfor Q,: 9.88 L/s. The direct measurement gave a
t- 6.50-15.66 Numerical simulation for Exp. Bl reading of 19.5 cm, while the indirect method yielded a water depth
¡s 5,:,te: Angle for 'A" experiments, 0 :3O'; angle for "B" experiments, of 19.7 cm. Therefore, these two methods compared well with each
re ;: l0'. other and were considered reliable.

s. E ASCE 04016092-2 J. Hydraul. Eng.

I
 Opening

Fig. 2. Geometry and boundary conditions of numerical models: (a) straight-pipe model; (b) hydraulic-jump model

Numerical Methods aVa¡)

: o (1)
dx¡.
,A¡/SÍS CFX 14.0 was used for the numerical simulations. The
geometry of the straight pipe and the hydrautc-jump models are
shown in Fig. 2. The straight-pipe model had a pipe diameter of E(pr¡), A , -- ,\ Ap.Aitt
0.6 m, length of 10 m, and slope of I.SVo. For the hydraulic-jump -V + a\\pupi+puluj):- U* ü (2)
model, a box was added in front of the air inlet so that the atmos-
pheric pressure specified on the box was far from the air inlet. where x¡ (i : 1,2,3) = Cartesian coordinate: ú ¡ = rftoanvelocity
Air bounda¡ies were defined as opening at atmospheric pressure components; u'¡ = flttcfiating velocity component; p = density
where air can move into or out of the domain. Other boundaries of of fluid; t = time; 7¡¡ = rÍteatr viscous stress tensor component;
the pipes and box were set as no-slip walls. In Fig. 2, the one-way and p = pressure.
arrows indicate water inlet or outlet boundary conditions. And the For multiphase flow modeling, the volume of fluid (VOF)
two-way arrows indicate opening boundary conditions where air method (Hirt and Nichols 1981) was used. This method introduces
can move either into or out of the domain. Other boundaries of an additional variable o to present the volume fraction for each
the pipes and box were set as no-slip walls. control volume. Its time-averaged goveming equation is
The Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation
and the continuity equation can be written as (Ferziger and 0a 0a (3)
Peric 2002) dt 'dx¡
-lu'-:0
@ ASCE 0401 6092-3 J. Hydraul. Eng.
 Table 2, Numerical Experiment List for Straight-pipe Model and Results
Specified values Values obtained and calculated from the model
Erperiments Q* &/s¡ (Pa) h/D V,, (m/s)
P""i dpldx (Palm) Q" (L/s) {J v,/v",
CO 21.21 0 0.50 0.6 0.56 N/A
CI 10.t2 0.48 0.48
20 0 0.10 1.30 2.20 0.058 197.09 9.85 0.57
40 0.14 1.53 2.01 0.045 173.78 4.34 0.44
80 0.22 L78 1.89 0.088 205.12 2.56 0.49
160 0.32 2.08 ).71 0.055 136.23 0.8s
C] 20 1 0.10 1.30 2.20
0.33
0.066 2l.52 1.076 0.070
5 0.32
'1 -101 .36 -5.37 -0.30
0.45
40 1 0.14 1.53 2.01
-143.24 -7.t62 -0.40
0.137 15 8.97 3.97 0.41
5 0.471 59.45 1.49 0.16
7 0.613 18.41 0.46 0.057
80 1 0.22 1.78 1.89 0.347 288.91 3.61 0.68
5 0.623 234.40 2.93, 0.56
7 0.784 209.47
aj N/A N/A 0.14 N/A N/A 0.045
2.62 0.058
350.71 N/A N/A
\--te: c0 used for model validating, D :0.30 m, L
- 6.0 m, pipe slope = 0.0%; for c1-C3, D - 0.60 m. rl 10.0 m, pipe slope = 1.5Vo.

For two-phase flow, a : I represents that the control volume is

according to Pescod and price (1992). Air velocity profiles at
:rampletely filled with one phase, while ¿r :0 means it is com_ dif_
ferent locations from the numerical model are plotteJin Fig.
:letely filled with the other. 3. The
effect of mesh refinement (dashed line) and turbulence áamping
Tt'e n-a based shear stress transport (SST) turbulence model
.r ¿s used. In free surface
flows, a high-velocity gradient at the inter-
(dotted line) were studied at r :
3.0 m. The simulation with mesñ
..--e between two fluids results in high turbulence generation.
refinement and turbulence damping at ¡ :
1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 m are
l-:e turbulence damping effect at the free surface was considered
shown in solid lines. The
comparison of air velocity profiles
between the measured and simulated ones is only qualitative,
:', introducing an additional source term in the cu equation as and
:torov when the distance to the pipe inlet increases, the air velocity profile
2004)
matches the experimental data better. In the above comparison,
Pescod and Price (1982) did not provide the information
s,: ran6p(#5)' @)
length and the location of their air velocity measurement.
of ihe pipe

\ópan. / The sensitivity of the turbulence damping was first analyzed.

The air velocity profile at ¡ : 3.0 m for the model without this
:,:re .S. = source term added into the cu equation; 1 interfacial
= damping was plotted as a dotted line in Fig. 3. The inclusion
,::: density determined by the program; A,n _- typical mesh size of
this damping substantially improved the simulated air velocity pro_
-: .:terface; ó : 0.075 = model constant; É¿ = viscosity of fluid; and
: file. Secondly, the mesh was locally refined at the air_water inter_
= source coefficient.
face. The air velocity profile at "r : 3.0 m without such refinement
Because of the air-water bubbly flow and the rough surface
,rg the roller, the momentum transfer from water to air is en_ is plotted as a dashed line, indicating that a mesh refinement
wourd
-,::ced by a hydraulic jump. also improve the air velocity profile. However, further refinement
Therefore, additional momentum flux
iirflow was added in the hydraulic-jump model because our would increase the node number exponentially and exceed the
:-.,rminary experiment indicated that the numerical model was available computing power.
' . :ble to model the momentum transfer between air and water
' :;," along the roller. The strength of the additional momentum
-
- ¡- ran be changed in the model to match the measured flow rate
...-t-lS). I tr¡es¡ ie¡ned at iniertace
,- -- No refinement at inlerface
I

The node number and element size were detemined based on a .. lro ¡u¡bulence damping reml
,: -.::ivity analysis and on mesh independence. P,!999u!4_1ry9.!j!¿
A series of meshes . -a '

' .:: Senerated by decreasing the node number by 1.3 times. There_
': Ihe node numbers tesred were 2.70,2.0g, and 1.60 million.
-'' :r-odel became mesh independent at 2.70 million nodes where
n :rsnif,cant improvement on the water velocity profile was
:'..:-.ed. Therefore, the rest of the simulations were based on é o.os
= 3.0 rd

- - nillion nodes.

Hesults and D¡scuss¡ons

a,/-\
x=1.5m
0.00
t@hanism of Transportation of Air 0.0

r Straight-Pipe Model u.(m/s)

i " r : ar Exp. C0 in Table 2, a straight-pipe model of pipe diam- Fig. 3, Comparison of simulated air velocity profiles at pipe center
, .- J:0.30 m, zero slope, and length of 6.0 m was first built plane with Pescod and price (1982)

i 1,:.: 040 1 6092-4

= J. Hydraul. Eng.

Illlr
 I Simulated supercritical flow
O Simulated subcritical flow
O Pescoda:rdPrice (1982)
- - Edwini-Bonsu md Steffle¡ (2004
\ o
a
o average pressure gradient was 0.045 Pa/m.
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
h/D
Fig. 4. Plot of the air and water velocity ratio with filling ratio for
Exp. C0 and Cl
The simulated airflow rate was L}.lZLls, which was 387o
higher than the value of 1.33 L/s measured by Pescod and Price.
In their study, the airflow rate was obtained by integrating the
point velocity measurements that inherently had large unceftainties.
Also, no detailed discussion on ambient pressure conditions was
provided in their study. In the numerical model, the momentum
transferred from water to air was amplified because of the finite
amount of mesh at the air-water interface. Therefore, large discrep-
ancies were noticed, as expected. The coefñcient E ÁEq. (4) was
determined at 150 and no more improvement was observed for
a higher -E value.
Further experimental conditions and simulation results are sum-
marized in Table 2. For Exp. Cl, the pipe exit pressure was fixed at
atmospheric pressure while the pipe diameter and water flow rate
were changed. For Exp. C2, the pipe exit pressure varied to study
the effect of the pressure gradient inside the pipe. For Exp. C3, a
single-phase model was conducted where airflow was only driven
by the pressure gradient. It was found that for the same pipe diam-
eteq with the increase in water discharge, the Froude number
[defined as F: V*/(gh")0's, where h" = hydraulic depth
Vw = dyetai9a water velocity] decreases as a result of the increase
in water depth, in Table 2.
as shown
For Exp. the ratio of air to water flow rates, p, decreases
Cl,
with the increase in water flow rate. The ratio of the air to water
velocity values, V"/V., are plotted in Fig. 4 with the study of
Edwini-Bonsu and Steffler (2004) and Pescod and Price (1982).
From the figure it can be seen that the V o/ V * values for supercriti-
cal flow are substantially higher than published values. While for
the supercritical flow with lower Froude number and subcritical
Pressure
o9s odb o|6
Fig. 5. Typical pressure distribution in straight-pipe model for
@ ASCE
li
flow, the V olv, are close to previous studies. As shown in Fig. 5,
even when the upstream inlet and downstream outlet were both set
at atmospheric pressure, a positive air pressure gradient was always
generated in the pipe headspace, because the drag ofwater produ-
ces a negative pressure at the pipe inlet for air to move in. At the
outlet, the pressure would be slightly higher than atmospheric pres-
sure for air to move out so that the pressure increases from the inlet
to the outlet. For example, for D :0.60 m and Q* :40
Lls, the
With respect to Exp. C2, where the pressure at the pipe exit was
above atmospheric pressure, most of the airflow rate decreased with
the increase in pipe exit pressure except for Q* :
80 L/s, with a
slight increase in airflow rate as stated in Table 2. If ¡he pressure
gradient was high enough, the airflow rate was negative. A typical
1.0 air velocity contour under this condition is plotted in Fig. 6. The
maximum air velocity occurred at the water surface. The air veloc-
ity decreased with the vertical distance to the water surface. At the
top of the cross section, the air was moving opposite to the water
flow because of the positive pressure gradient.
For Exp. C3, in which the air was purely driven by the pressure
gradient, the effect of pressure gradient on the airflow is theoreti-
cally calculated using the energy equation. Considering a pipe
D :0.60 m in diameter, 10 m in length, with a f,lling ratio
h/D (where lz is the water depth) of 0.14 and a pressure gradient
of 0.045 Paf m, the airflow rate can be estimated at 300 L/s from
energy equations, and the estimated airflow rate was 16.J7o smaller
than the simulated value of 350 L/s.
Associating with the control volume shown in Fig. l, assuming
that the air and water velocities have uniform proflles, the force
balance equation for a control volume is written as
l^f
- V,)¿BLx - LpA, tiO"ViLxP" : 0 (5)
tCop,(V,
where C¿ = drag coeffrcient; Ar = length of the control volume;
B = water surface width; and Po = perimeter of headspace for
airflow.
Looking at the balance of the lust two terms in Eq. (5), the pres-
sure gradient can be normalized with water depth and water veloc-
ity as (Ap/A*)(D-n)lQ",V'*). The term C, is obtained from
the normalized pressure gradient and the filling ratio h I D . 'fhe re-
and lation of drag coefficient C¿ with h/D atd the normalized pressure
gradient is fitted from software Oügín
C¿ -ter x ro5
" (X'#)0" " (*)'"+oo43 (6)
with R2 :0.98. The value of C¿ estimared from Eq. (6) is
of the order of 0.1. The drág coefficient between the air and
water surfaces is commonly given as 0.13 for wind force over a
lake (Fischer et al. 1979). In a confined space such as in a pipe,
[Paj
-.r
6rt o*of pf s$ !9u of $S
D:60 cm, Q,:40L/s, pexit - 0 Pa, I : 10 m
0401 6092-5 J. Hydraul. Eng.
 Similarly, the water surface change at the hydraulic jump was also
a" (rn/s)
predicted accurately by the numerical model.
i 1.50
Preliminary simulation suggests that the numerical model
,::1
126 was not able to accurately model the extra momentum transfer
:,;.i 1.02 between the air and water because of the rough surface and
oze the bubbly flow at the roller of the hydraulic jump. While the
ffi momentum transfer from the hydraulic jump to the air phase
#$
ffi
0.54
did not affect much on the water flow, it induces a pressure change
ffi u.JU
that significantly affects the airflow given the low density of the
K
€ 0.06 air. Therefore, a momentum source term was incorporated on air-
flow in our numerical model. The momentum source term (S.)
specified in the CFX code has a dimension of ML-2T 2, which
meant momentum flux per unit volume (ANSIS). In the hydraulic-

I."' jump model, the source term was added to the pipe joint with a
volume of 0.0015 m3. Therefore, the actual momentum flux
added M, is the value of momentum source ,S" added in the
numerical model multiplied by 0.0015 m3. The measured airflow
rate was used as a calibration quantity and the strength of the
momentum source was adjusted accordingly. The air velocity
profile and theoretically calculated pressure were used as valida-
Fig. 6, Typical velocity contour at pipe location of x
- 5 m showing tion criteria.
reversed airflow at top; D:0.60 m, Q.:20L/s, p."it:5 Pa The change in airflow rate with added M" for Q, :13.58 L/s
is plotted in Fig. 8(a). A clea¡ growing trend of Qo is observed,
although the growth was small for a wide range of M".The M,
the drag coefficient is expected to change given the unique air value was determined when the simulated airflow rate was within
lelocity profiles. l}Vo of that measured in this case. As shown in Fig. 8(b), it was
also found that for a higher water flow rate, a higher M" value was
needed to match the simulated airflow with experiment results.
Hydraulic-Jump Model: Water Surface Profile
The M, value increases rapidly if the water flow rate exceeds a
andAir Velocity Profile certain value. It can be explained by the fact that higher water flow
The measured and simulated water surface profiles are plotted rate would generally produce a hydraulic jump with a higher
in Fig. 7. The model was able to simulate the change in the water Froude number that had a rougher surface and more vigorous sur-
iurface profile. The bump in the sloping pipe at x ¡y
-1.0 m was a face movement. Therefore, more momentum would be transferred
:esult of the sloshing of water from the circular water inlet. to the air phase.

Si¡¡ulated waler surfac*

0.4 -x Mcasr¡rcd s¡ttir surfacc

i o.r

-¿-ltll2
x {¡n}

(b)

frg. 7, Comparison between measured and simulated water surfaces for Q.:9.88 L/s, 0 - l0': (a) water surface in sloping pipe;
: neasured and simulated water surface

E ASCE 0401 6092-6 J. Hydraul. Eng.

 Measured 15.5 L/s

l5

l4 É
.9
6
J
oi' 13

Water surface

12
Pipe invert
0.0
-1.0 0.5 L0 1.5 2_0

tt zr, (m/s)
(a)

(a) M, (ke nrlst)

t\
l\
t\
?
-a
I
l#
k o.z
ú

(b) 0_ (L/s)

the hydraulic
Fig. 8. Plot of addiúonal momentum source induced by
juáp: (a) change of airflow rate different M" values for
'e*: L/s; (b) different Ml
-with
.ú9:gttl0,
13.58

Air velocity profiles at sections 1'0 and 0'5 m upstream of the >'
m downstream of the pipejoint were measured in
pip"¡oint *¿i.'O
;h; pb. center plane for Exp. Bl at Q.:.9'99 L/s' and these re-
;;id;*" with those simulated in Fig' 9' The error bars
"ompared measure-
in tt ngu." highlight the uncertainties of air velocity
"
ment. Tñe simulateá air velocity profiles are overall in agreement

*irh,fror" measured, with certain discrepancies. The discrepancies

S mainly came from the chaotic form of
airflow that was
ir ftg us-
measurement
pfrysicatty observed and the nature of air velocity u, (mls)
pipe' near the water surface' (c)
ing no* íisualization. In the upstream
resulting in a pos-
,nE *u,.t dragged the air flowing downstream' Fig. 9. Comparison of measured and simulated air velocity
profiles at
crown of the sloping pipe, negative air
itive air velocity. Close to the
pl*" *ith Q.:9'88 L/s' 0: 10:' water level 20 cm in the
positive
u.to.ity *as Áeasrr"d and simulated, as a result of the ""i",
downstreum pipe, U":0'0015 kg'm/s2: (a) 1 m
upstream of the
as shown in
p;;;;";" gradient developed in the pipe headspace'
pipe joint; (U) O.S m upstream of the pipe joint; (c) 1 m downstream
Fig. fO. in the horizontat pipe, the air velocity was found to be
of the pipe joint
po-.itiu" from the water surface to the pipe top'
at the air inlet to
A theoretical estimation was made on the pressure
model' Calculations
u"ify1tt" pressure produced by our numelical
*"." *u¿" at the air inlet, andihe energy equation between a point
where D o= diameter of air vent; K1
: 1 '0 = minor loss coefftcient at
inside the ai¡ inlet is pressure; and p1= pressure at the
f; from the air inlet and a point right the ai¡ inlet; Patm. = atmospheric
:9'88 L/s' to have airflow
"*"y inside of the áiiint"t' not e^p' sl' Q*
an
of -0'59 Pa' which com-
Pum.-rc, Ql .-rPt (1 i;e ofl .Sz L/s, Eq' (7) yieided a pressure
by our numerical model'
- "| )
of 8 Pa given
t,, 2g10.25rD1)' P"g f ÁO w"ff rviift the valuo -0. 5

J. Hydraul. Eng.
0401 6092-7
O ASCE
 lPal

Ws;fifiii::r'r l

io of oÉ ol$ o:$ os6 6f ola

^&"4 ^s

Fig. 10. Simulated air pressure distribution for B1; 0. :9.88 L/s,0:10", M,:0.0015 kg.m/s2

u,(mls)
uo(mlss) ,o?
- 2.84 z3a
.):.,,¡ 2.46
it¡i 2.17
#,¡ 2.08 ";& 1.79
ffi r.zo i#ffi t.+t
ffi r.az ¡ffirn"
r.ve
@
ffi o.s+
0.66
m^--
/
Éffi u-5
ffi
m o.2B
g u.lv
H-.- H -o.lo
8.U,19
II

r 13t
IiÍl
(a) (b)

u, (mls)

;r?"9"f of orlo,.taoSof q*dfaf

=,8. 11 . Simulated air velocity contour at different locations, looking from downstream with Q. : 9.88 L/t, 0 : l0o, M,: 0.0015 kg . m/s2:
, . :n upsfream of the pipe joint; (b) 0.5 m upstream of the pipe joint; (c) I m downstream of the pipe joint

Itesimulated cross-sectional air velocity contours are shown in
'' , , l. At 1 m upstream of the pipe joint [Fig. 11(a)], the air veloc-
: rltour was somehow symmetric to the center plane. In the pipe
" :. ' rDace near the water suface, a maximum air velocity was com-
: -::i. In the upper region of the headspace, negative airflow was
' ::i. At 0.5 m upsffeam of the pipe joint, a similar flow pattern
' :: !-omputed [Fig. 11(b)], but the simulated air velocity distribu-
I '¡ as asymmetric because of the uneven distribution of the water
--,..-e obtained in the numerical model. The maximum simulated
"l: '' llocity at this location was computed at the left bottom of the
: :t headspace where water flowed downstream at a relatively high
: ^-'itv. Reversed airflow was observed at the right bottom of the
pipe and at the top of the pipe headspace. At 1 m downstream of
the pipe joint, positive air velocity was found in the entire pipe
headspace, and the highest air velocity was at rhe top right of the
pipe headspace. The reason for the asymmetry distribution of air
velocity was that the pressure upstream of the jump was not evenly
distributed.
Hydraulic-Jump Model: Bulk Airflow Rate
The measured and simulated airJlow rates and B values are pre-
sented in Fig. 12 with water discharge and the Froude number
in the upstream pipe. The airflow rate was used as a calibration

0401 6092-B J. Hydraul. Eng.


trA1 OBI X84
o82 v83 lSr
Kalinske md Robefson, 1943
--'----
- Mofensen el a/., 201 I
Escarmeia,2007
1.5
*--.- usAcE, 1980
-"-" Shma, 1976
* t.0
0.5
0.0
(b)
Fig. 12. Plot of airflow rate in hydraulic-jump model: (a) airflow rate
versus water flow rate; (b) ratio of airlwater flow rate B versus Froude
number at the toe of jump or in supercritical flow (for Case 84)
criterion in the hydraulic-jump numerical model as mentioned
previously. The airflow rate increases with the water flow rate. The
trend of air and water flow rate in Fig. 12(a) is in good agreement
for Exp. A1 and B1, suggesting that the effect of d on B is relatively
small. The airflow rate in Exp. 84 shows a slightly faster growth
rate with the water flow rate because of the fact that there was no
sudden reduction of headspace. The airflow rate for the conduit
jump (Exp. 83) was lower than other cases because the air was
mainly transported in the forms of bubbles and air pockets, while
headspace existed for air movement in other cases (except for Exp.
B2). Exp. 83 was similar to most of the previous studies (Kalinske
and Robertson 1943; Mortensen et aL 20ll; Escarameia 2007).
Finally, no air was transported in Exp. 82 where the tailgate was
closed from the top and with no headspace.
In Fig. 12(b), most of the present p values were found to be
substantially higher than the published values in which the roller
of the hydraulic jump filled the pipe and the flow became a conduit
jump. Because ofthe blockage ofheadspace, the transportation of
bubbles induced by the hydraulic jump was the dominant mecha-
nism of air transportation. Therefore their p values were lower than
those in the present study in which headspace existed and air
moved freely from upstream to downstream. tn Exp. 83, a conduit
jump was created and the B value was found to be fairly close to the
published values [Fig. 12(b)].
The method proposed previously from the straight-pipe model
can be used to estimate the airflow in the sloping pipe. Considering
O ASCE
Exp. Bl and a water flow rate of 9.88 L/s, the numerical model
suggests a filling ratio of 0.11, ari averaged water velocity of
2.33 mls, and a pressure gradient of around 0.52 Palm. Eq. (6)
yields a drag coefficient of0.065. From Eq. (5), a critical pressure
gradient is calculated to be 0.64 Pa/m. Therefore, the air is flowing
at the same direction as the water flow. Solving for Eq. (5) gives the
averaged air velocity V, : 0.20 m/s, which results in an airflow
rate of 11.60 L/s, or about 27Vo higher than the measured value.
Given that the aitflow rate is sensitive to the pressure changes, a
small pressure change may lead to a dramatic change in airflow
rate. This accuracy is acceptable.
The effects of the length of the pipe and the diameter of the air
opening for the hydraulic-jump model were studied with pipe
lengths of 3 and 4 m and with a larger air inlet for a water flow
rate of 9.88 L/s. It was found that when the diameter of the air
vent area was increased from l0 to 15 cm, the airflow rate was
8.2Lls. The increasing of airflow rate was '7.8Vo when the area
of the ai¡ vent was increased by 2.25 times. Therefore, the diameter
of the air vent did not significantly restrict the airflow. For the
pipe lengths of 3 and 4 m, the airflow rate was found to be 7.6
md 7.1 L/s, respectively. The change was not significant com-
pared with the one from our original model. The water surface
for all three cases was found to be similar. Therefore, pipe length
did not signif,rcantly affect airflow.
Conclusions
Three-dimensional, multiphase numerical models were built to
study the effect of water drag and pressure gradient on airflow in
partially filled sewer pipes. The straight-pipe model suggested that
for a circular pipe with the inlet and outlet open to the atmosphere,
an air pressure gradient was automatically generated in the pipe. A
positive pressure gradient reduces the airflow rate. If the pressure
gradient is high enough, the air can move in the opposite direction
of the water flow. For the airflow affected by both water drag and
pressure'gradient, the drag coefFrcient was found to be a function
of the fiiling ratio and normalized pressure gradient. A general
method was proposed to predict the airflow rate in a straight sewer
pipe with known flow conditions. This work provides a way to pre-
dict the airflow in a certain sewer network given the upstream and
downstream pressure and wastewater flow conditions. For sewer
networks, the pressures in pipes are not necessarily atmospheric.
With the proposed method, one can estimate the airflow condition
(e.g., airflow rate and flow direction) in sewer systems and there-
fore have a general understanding ofthe odor transportation in such
a system.
The hydraulic-jump model was focused on a more complex flow
regime. The momentum transferbf a hydraulic jump on airflow was
proposed from the hydraulic-jump model. For the hydraulic-jump
experiment and numerical model, when a hydraulic jump existed
the airflow rate was larger than published values and the ratio of air
to water flow rates p was of the order of 1.0 when the downsffeam
pipe was not full. By forming a hydraulic jump with a Froude num-
ber large enough to partially seal the headspace, the airflow rate
was found to decrease and approach published values. No air
was transported if the tailgate was closed from the top, leaving
no headspace downstream of the jump. The proposed method from
the straight-pipe model also works well with the hydraulic-jump
model. The additional momentum flux caused by the roller of a
hydraulic jump on airJlow was discussed. It was found that the
numerical model was not able to accurately simulate the airflow
induced by a hydraulic jump without adding additional momentum
sources in the model. The strength of this momentum flux source
040 1 6092-9 J. Hydraul. Eng.
Im.Teases with the increase in water flow. The detailed mechanism Chanson, H. (2006). 'Air bubble entrainment in hydraulic jumps, similitude
md quantified relationship were not discussed in the present and scale effects." Research Rep. No. CE57/05, Dept. of Civil Engineer-
*¡rl.l'. ing, Univ. of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia.
Chanson, H., and Brattberg, T. (2000). "Experimental study of the air-water
shear flow in a hydraulic jump." Int. J. Muttiphase FIow, 26(4),
583-607.
Aclsrowledgments Chanson, H., and Gualtieri, C. (2008). "similirude and scale effecrs of air
entrainment in hydraulic jumps." J. Hydraul. Res., 46(l),3544.
Jte authors gratefully appreciate the financial support from the Chanson, H., and Qiao, G. L. (1994).'Air bubble enffainment and gas
l}ina Scholarship Council. (CSC), the City of Edmonton, and transfer at hydraulic jump s;' Research Rep. No. CE149, Dept. of Civil
ilue \atural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Engineering, Univ. of Queensland, Australia.
,mC¿nada. The authors also would like to thank Perry Fedun for his Edwini-Bonsu, S. (2004). 'Air flow in sanitary sewer systems: A
xeüFnical assistance. physically-based approach." Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton,
Canada.
Edwini-Bonsu, S., and Steffler, P. M. (2004). 'Air flow in sanitary sewer
conduits due to wastewater drag: A computational fluid dynamics
ffition approach." J. Environ. Eng. Sci., 3(5), 331-342.
1W 'ollowing symbols are used in this paper: Edwini-Bonsu, S., and Steffler, P. M. (2006). "Dynamics of air flow
in sewer conduit headspace." J. Hydraul. Eng., 10.10611(ASCE)
-{-- = headspace area;
07 33-9429Q006) I 32:8(79 I ). 1 9 I -7 99.
I = width of water surface; Egorov, Y. (2004). "Contact condensation in stratified stream-water flow.',
C; = nondimensional drag coefficient; (https ://domino. grs. de/ecora./ecora.nsf/) (Apr. 9, 20 1 6).
¿ = pipe diameter; Escarameia, M. (2007). "Investigating hydraulic removal of air from water
D, = diameter of air vent; pipelines." Water Manage., 160(l), 25-34.
E = source coefficient; Ferziger, J. H., and Peric, M. (2002). Computational methods for Jtuid
F = Froude number; dynamics, 3rd Ed., Springe¿ Berlin.
.f = Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient; Fischeq H. B., List, E. J., Koh, R. C. Y., Imberger, J., and Brooks, N. H.
(1979). Mixing in inland and coastal waters, Academic Press, San Diego,
9 = acceleration attributable to gravity;
/¡ = water depth; FL.
ñ* = hydraulic depth; Hager, W. H. (1992). Energy dissipators and hydraulic jump, Khtwer
Academic, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
1 = interfacial area density;
Hirt, C. W, and Nichols, B. D. (1981). "Volume of fluid (VOF) method
f,: = minor loss coeffrcient; for the dynamics of free boundaries." "I. Comput. Phys., 39(l),
¿ = pipe length; 201-225.
-ül_. = ÍloÍreotum added in the numerical model; Kalinske, A. A., and Robefison, J. M. (1943). "Closed conduit flow."
n - fypical mesh size at interface; Transactions ASCE, 108(1), 1435-1447 .
P- = perimeter of headspace; Larchar, J. A. (2011). 'Air demand in lowlevel outlet works." M.Sc. thesis,
p - pressure; Utah State Univ., Logan, UT.
,rm- = atmospheric pressure; LA Report. (2011). "Waste odor control master plan." (http://www
,itr = pressure at pipe exit; .lacitysan.org/lasewers/sewers/odors/pdf/Odor_Master_Plan_20 I 1 pdf)
(Jan. 11, 2016).
O, = airflow rate;
Ma, Y., Zhu, D.2., and Rajaratnam, N. (2016). 'Air entrainment in a tall
O* = water flow rate; plunging dropshaft." J. Hydraul. Eng., 10.106U (ASCE)HY. 1943-7900
5-" = source term added into the cu function; .0001181,04016038.
r = time;
Merzkirch, W. (1987). Flow visualization, 2nd Ed., Academic
¡, = local air velocity; Orlando, FL.
Press,

ir = rneoll velocity components; Mofensen, J. D., Barfuss, S. L., and Jhonson, M. C. (2011). "Scale effects
¡, = fluctuating velocity components; of air entrainment by hydraulic jumps within closed conduits."
tr-, = averaged air velocity; J. Hydraul. Res., 49(7), 90-95.
1-," = averaged water velocity; Origin version b9.3.226 [Computer software]. Originlab, NoÍhampton,
: (i : l, 2, 3) = Cartesian coordinates MA.
-r = length of conffol volume; Pescod, M. B., and Price, A. C. (1982). "Major factors in sewer
:
= volume fraction of fluid; ventilation." J. Water Pollut. Coerol Fed., 54(4),385-397.
,i = ratio of airflow rate and water flow rate; Rajaratnam, N. (1965). "Hydraulic jump in horizontal cond:uit." Water
Power Dam Constr.,17(2), 80-83.
: = model constant 0.075;
Sharma, H. R. (1976). 'Air-entrainment in high head gated conduits."
: = angle between pipesi J. Hydr. Div., 102(ll), 1629-1646.
- - viscosity of fluid; Speerli, J., and Hager, W. H. (2000). "Air-water flow in bottom outlets."
-r = density of fluid; Can. J. Civ. Eng.,27(3),454462.
;o = density of air; Tullis, B., and Larchar, J. (2011). "Determining air demand for small- to
;., = density of water; and medium-sized embankment dam lowlevel outlet works." J. Itig.
:... mean viscous stress tensor components.
= D rain. En s., 1 0. 1 06 I (ASCE)IR.l9 43 -47 7 4.0000345, 793-800.
USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). (1980). "Engineering and
design: Hydraulic design of reservoir outlet works." Rep. EMlI10-2-
1ó02. Washingron. DC.
ffibrences U.S. EPA. (1985). "Design manual: Odor and conosion control in sanitary
sewerage systems and treatment planfs." Rep. epa/625/1 -85/01,
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ilüü-ñr"15 .rJ.0 lcomputer software]. ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA. velocity flow in the high head tunnel outlet of the Panix Dam." proc.,

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 E
N' (2014)' "Mean
Zhang,W.M', Liu, M. N., Zhu, D'Z''mdRajaratlam'
18th ICOLD Congress, Intemational Commission
on Large Dams'
velocities in free hydraulic jumps for t*4ll:
and rufbulent bubble
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outlet works for small
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to medium-sized dams'" M'Sc' thlsis' Utah Zt *g, W. frl-, Zhu,D'Z., Rajaratnam'
p' táor+i' "Prototype and laboratory low-level
wüú Ñ w, and rullis, B' Pelz, W (2016). "Use óf air circulation pipes in deep dropshafts
to medium-sized embankment Eng''
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lng', \0'106L/(ASCE)IR' 1943 -47 1 4'O0OO7 12'
dams." "/. Irrig. Drain' io. roar¡t¡.Sce)Er..1943-'t 87 0'0001046, 04otso92'
04014013.

J. Hydraul. Eng.
0401 6092-1 1

@ ASCE
 Time Scale of Local Scour around Pipelines in Current,
Waves, and Combined Waves and Current
Qin Zhangl; Scott Draper2; Liang Chengs; and Hongwei Ana

Abstract: This paper presents results of an experimental investigation into the time scale of local scour around subsea pipelines in current-
only, wave-only, and combined wave and current flow conditions. To cover a range of geometric scales, the experiments were conducted in
a small and a large recirculating (Otube) flume with model pipelines ranging from 50 to 196 mm in diameter. Based on the experimental
results and existing data available in the literature, it is shown that the time scale of the scour process is mainly dependent on the maximum
instantaneous Shields parameter in all three flow conditions. Using this result, a new predictive formula for the time scale is presented, which
is applicable universally to current-only, wave-only, and combined wave and cufient conditions. In addition to the time scale analysis,
equilibrium scour depth measurements are presented for all three flow conditions. A new method of predicting the equilibrium scour depth
in combined wave and cuffent conditions is proposed based on the current component of equilibrium scour depth and the wave component of
equilibrium scour depth. Collectively, the empirical formulas developed for time scale and equilibrium scour depth may be used to improve
predictive engineering models of scour beneath subsea pipelines. DOI: 10.1061(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0001247. @ 2016 American Society
of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Subsea pipeline; Time scale; Equilibrium scour depth; Combined waves and cunenr.

lntroduction years by the development of numedcal models for predicting

Over the last four decades, the significance of local scour below
offshore pipelines has attracted a large number of investigations.
These studies have focused on scour in steady cunent, in waves,
and in combined waves and current, with the objective to provide
;mpirical results suitable for engineering predictions of üe poten-
:ial and extent of pipeline scour. The majority of this earlier work
ras focused on two aspects of the scour process, the equilibrium
(i.e., the maximum scour depth achieved beneath a
'cour depth
-ired pipeline), and the time scale of the scour process.
The first of these two aspects, namely, the equilibrium scour
::pth, has been studied extensively. This has included the gener-
.¡ion of a large data set of empirical results using two-dimensional
:odel-scale experiments of scour depth in steady current (Bijker
.:d Leeuwestein 1984; Chiew 1991; Kjeldsen et al. 1973; Mao
.186; Moncada-M and Aguine-Pe 1999), in waves (Sumer and
. -:ds@e 1990), and combined waves and cunent (Lucassen 1984;
lrner and Freds@e 1996), as well as experiments focusing on
::¡e-dimensional (3D) local scour below a rigid pipeline in cur-
--:ts (Cheng et al. 2009', Wu and Chiew 2012) and in both
¡ies and combined wave and cuffent (Cheng et aI.2014). This
. '::rimental data set of results has been complemented in recent
two-dimensional scour processes in curent or wave conditions
(Brprs 1999; Fuhrman et al.2014: Li and Cheng 1999; Liang et al.
2005; Liang and Cheng 2005; Zhao and Cheng 2008).
The time scale of the scour process is related to the rate at which
scour develops, and was first introduced for pipelines by FredsBe
et al. (1992). Specifically, Freds@e et aI. (1992) suggesred that rhe
time development of scour beneath a pipeline (leading to the scour
hole shown in Fig. 1) could be approximated by the formula
(,,, s"/[,-.^ol-i
r\tt-rerL'-c^P\-rrjl
- )] (r)
where S(r) = time-varying scour depth; r = dme; S"/ = eguilibrium
scour depth; and, T t = time scale of the scour process (which can be
interpreted from this equation as the duration oftime necessary for
the scour depth to reach a significant fraction of the equilibrium
value, i.e., 0.63S"/).
Using continuity arguments and an assumption that the scour
hole scales with pipe diameter, Freds@e et al. (1992) reasoned that
the time scale could be normalized according to
,¡:9#wr, (2)

Ph.D. Candidate, Schooi of Engineering, Ocean Univ. of China,
i38 Songling Rd., Qingdao, Shandong 266100, China (corresponding
..",- . :r. E-mail: zhangqin200000@gmail.com
- gravity. Based on an empirical fit to experimental data available in
S:nior Lecture¡, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineer-
-: - niv. of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
'Pofessor, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering,
..r. of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
-Lecturer, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering,
. -:.. of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
li:te. This manuscript was submitted on April 25,2015; approved on
, .9. 2016; published online on October 26,2016. Discussion period
::- -nti1 March 26,2017; separate discussions must be submitted for
i - .lual papers. This paperis pafioffheJournalofHydraulic Engineer-
.ri ASCE. ISSN 07.1.1-9429.
where D = diameter of the pipeline; s = relative density of the sedi-
ment; d56 = mean sediment grain size; and g - acceleration due to
the literature for current-only and wave-only scour beneath pipe-
lines, Fredspe et al. (1992) found that Eq. (1) could explain the
scour process reasonably well when the nondimensional time scale
was calculated according to
rrr !u-' t
-50
(3)
where d = normalized free field shea¡ stress, known as the Shields
parameter, and is given by

= -:-: 0401 6093-1 J. Hydraul. Eng