Appendix B

Some Notes on the Statistical Comparison of Two Samples

Th e following pr esen t s m et h ods for t est ing t h e spa t ial differ en ces bet ween t wo dis t r ibu t ions . At t h is p oint , Crim eS tat does not in clud e r ou t ines for t est ing t h e differ en ces bet ween t wo or m ore sa m ple s. Th e followin g is p r ovided for t h e r ea der s in for m a t ion. Ch a pt er 4 dis cu ssed t h e ca lcu la t ion of t h ese st a t is t ics a s a sin gle dis t r ibu t ion .

Di ffere n ce s i n th e Mea n Cen te r of Tw o S am ple s

F or differ en ces bet ween t wo sa m ples in t h e m ea n cen t er , it is n ecessa r y t o t est bot h differ en ces in t h e X coordin a t e a n d differ en ces in t h e Y coordin a t es. Sin ce Crim eS tat ou t p u t s bot h t h e m ea n X, m ea n Y, s t a n da r d devia t ion of X, a n d s t a n da r d devia t ion of Y, a sim ple t -t est ca n be set u p. The n u ll h ypot h esis is t h a t t h e m ea n cen t er s a r e equa l H 0:

:XA = :XB :YA = :YB

a n d t h e a lter n a t ive h ypot h esis is t h a t t h e m ea n cen t er s a r e n ot equa l H 1:

:XA = :XB / :YA = :YB /

Beca u se t h e t r u e st a n da r d d evia t ions of sa m ple A, FXA an d FYA , a n d s a m ple B, FXB an d FYB , a r e n ot k n own , t h e s a m ple s t a n da r d devia t ion s a r e t a k en , S XA , S YA , S XB an d S YB . H owever , s in ce t h er e a r e t wo differ en t va r ia bles bein g t est ed (m ea n of X an d m ea n of Y for groups 1 an d 2), t h e a lter n a t ive h ypot h esis h a s t wo fu n da m en t a lly differ en t interpr etat ions: Compa rison I: Compa rison II: Th a t E ITH E R :XA = :XB OR :YA = :YB is t r u e / / Th a t BOTH :XA = :XB AND :YA = :YB a r e t r u e / /

In t h e firs t ca se, th e m ea n cen t er s will be con sider ed n ot being equa l if eith er t h e m ea n of X or t h e m ea n of Y ar e sign ifica n t ly differ en t . In t h e secon d ca se, bot h t h e m ea n of a n d t h e m ea n of Y mu st be sign ifica n t ly differ en t for t h e m ea n cen t er s t o be con sid er ed n ot equ a l. Th e first cas e is clear ly ea sie r t o fu lfill th a n t h e secon d. Si gn ific an ce le ve ls By t r a d it ion , s ign ifica n ce t es t s for com p a r is on s bet ween t wo m ea n s a r e m a d e a t t h e

"#.05 or "#.01 levels , t h ou gh t h er e is n ot h in g a bsolu t e a bou t t h ose levels . Th e sign ifica n ce

levels a r e select ed t o m inim ize T ype 1 E rrors, ina dver t en t ly decla r in g a differ en ce in t h e m ea n s wh en , in r ea lity, th er e is not a differ en ce. Thu s, a t est est a blishes t h a t t h e

B-1

lik elih ood of fa ls ely r eject in g t h e n u ll h yp ot h esis be less t h a n on e-in -t wen t y (less st r ict ) or on e-in -on e h u n dr ed (m or e s tr ict ). H owever, with m u ltiple com pa r ison s, t h e ch a n ces in cr ea se for find ing significa n ce du e t o t h e m u ltiple t est s. For exa m ple, wit h t wo t est s - a differ en ce in t h e m ea n s of t h e X coor d in a t e a n d a d iffer en ce in t h e m ea n s of t h e Y coor d in a t e, t h e lik elih ood of r eject in g t h e first n ull hypoth esis (:XA = :XB ) is on e-in -t wen t y a n d t h e lik elih ood of r eject in g t h e secon d / nu ll hypoth esis (:YA = :YB ) is a ls o on e-in -t wen t y, t h en t h e lik elih ood of r eject in g eit h er on e / n u ll h ypot h esis or t h e ot h er is actu a lly on e-in-ten . To ha n dle t h is s it u a t ion , comp a r ison I - th e eit h er /or con dit ion , a Bonfer oni t est is a ppr opr iat e (An selin, 1995; Syst a t , 1996). Beca u se t h e likelih ood of a ch ieving a given sign ifican ce level incr ea ses wit h m u lt iple t est s, a pen a lt y m u st be a ss igned in fin din g eith er t h e differ en ces in m ea n s for t h e X coor din a t e or differ en ces in m ea n s for t h e Y coord in a t es sign ifica n t . Th e Bon fer oni cr it er ia divid es t h e crit ical p r obabilit y level by t h e n u m ber of t est s. Thu s, if t h e "#.05 level is t a k en for r eject in g t h e n u ll h ypot h es is, t h e cr itical pr oba bilit y for ea ch m ea n m u st be .025 (.05/2); t h a t is, differ en ces in eith er t h e m ea n of X or m ea n of Y bet ween t wo groups m u st yield a significa n ce level less t h a n .025. F or com pa r is on II - t h e bot h /a n d con dit ion , on t h e ot h er h a n d, t h e t est is m or e st r ingen t sin ce t h e differ en ces bet ween t h e m ea n s of X a n d t h e m ea n s of Y m u st bot h be sign ifican t . Followin g t h e logic of th e Bonferoni crit er ia , t h e crit ical pr obabilit y level is m u ltiplied by th e n u m ber of t est s. Thu s, if t h e "=.05 level is t a k en for r ejectin g t h e n u ll h yp ot h es is , t h en both t est s m u st be significa n t a t t h e "#.10 level (i.e., .05*2). 1 Te s t s Th e st a t is t ics u sed a r e for t h e t -t est of th e differ en ce bet ween m ea n s (Ka n ji, 1993). a. F irs t , test for equa lity of var ian ces by ta kin g th e r a t io of t h e var ian ces (squ a r ed sa m ple st a n da r d deviat ion s) of bot h t h e X a n d Y coor din a t es: S XA 2 ---------S XB 2

FX =

(B.1)

FY =

S YA 2 ---------S YB 2

(B.2)

wit h (N A - 1) a n d (N B - 1) d egr ees of fr eedom for gr ou ps A an d B r es pectively. Th is t es t is u su a lly don e wit h t h e la r ger of t h e va r ia n ces in t h e n u m er a t or. Sin ce th er e a r e t wo var ia n ces be in g com pa r ed (for X an d Y, res pectively), th e logic sh ou ld follow eith er I or II a bove (i.e., if eith er a r e t o be tr u e, th en t h e crit ical " will be a ctu a lly "/2 for ea ch; if both m u st be t r u e, t h en t h e crit ical " B-2

will be actu a lly 2*" for ea ch ). b. Secon d, if t h e va r ia n ces a r e con sid er ed equ a l, t h en a t -t est for t wo gr ou p m ea n s w it h u n k n own , bu t equ a l, va r ia n ces ca n be u se d (Ka n ji, 1993; 28). Let
N (A) i=1

G (XAi - X A )2 + G (XB i - X B )2
i=1

N(B)

S XAB = SQRT [---------------------------------------] (N A + N B - 2)

N (A)

(B.3)

_ N(B) _ (YAi - Y A )2 + G (YB i - Y B )2

i=1

i=1

S YAB = SQRT [---------------------------------------] (N A + N B - 2)

(B.4)

wh er e t h e su m m a t ion s a r e for i=1 to N wit h in ea ch group s epa r a t ely. Then t h e t est becom es (X A - X B ) - (:XA - :XB ) --------------------------------------1 1 S XAB * SQRT[ ---- + ---- ] NA NB _ _ (Y A - Y B ) - (:YA - :YB ) ---------------------------------------1 1 S YAB * SQRT[ ---- + ---- ] NA NB _ _

tX

(B.5)

tY

(B.6)

wit h (N A + N B - 2) degrees of fr eedom for ea ch t est . c. Th ir d, if th e va r ia n ces a r e n ot equ a l, th en a t -test for t wo grou p m ea n s wit h u n k n own a n d u n equ a l va r ia n ces sh ou ld be u sed (Ka n ji, 1993; 29).

B-3

tX

_ _ (X A - X B ) - (:XA - :XB ) ---------------------------------S XA 2 S XB 2 SQRT { [ ---- + ---- ] } NA NB _ _ (Y A - Y B ) - (:YA - :YB ) ---------------------------------S YA 2 S YB 2 SQRT { [ ---- + ---- ] } NA NB

(B.7)

tY

(B.8)

wit h degr ees of fr eedom SA2 SB 2 [ ---- + ---- ] NA NB v = { ------------------------------------------- } - 2 S A4 SB 4 [ ----------------- + ----------------- ] N A 2 ( N A + 1) N B 2 (N B + 1)

(B.9)

for bot h t h e X a n d Y t es t . E ven t h ou gh t h is la t t er for m u la is cu m ber s om e, in p r a ct ice, if t h e sa m ple size of ea ch group is gr ea t er t h a n 100, th en t h e t va lu es for in fin it y ca n be t a k en a s a r ea s on a ble a p pr oxim a t ion a n d t h e a bove degr ees of fr eedom n eed n ot be t est ed (t =1.645 for "=.05; t =1.960 for "=.01). d. Th e sign ifica n ce levels a r e t h ose select ed a bove. F or compa r is on I - t h a t eit h er differ en ces in t h e m ea n s of X or differ en ces in t h e m ea n s of Y a r e sign ifican t , t h e crit ical pr obabilit y level is "/2 (e.g., .05/2 = .025; .01/2 = .005). F or com pa r ison II - t h a t bot h differ en ces in t h e m ea n s of X a n d differ en ces in t h e m ea n s of Y a r e significan t , t h e crit ical pr obabilit y level is "*2 (e.g., .05*2 = .10; .01*2 - .02). Re ject t h e n u ll h yp ot h esis if: Compa rison I: E it h er t est ed t -va lu e (t x or t y ) is gr ea t er t h a n t h e Cr it ica l t for "/2 Bot h t est ed t -va lu es (t x an d t y ) a r e gr ea t er t h a n t h e cr it ica l t for "*2

e.

Compa rison II:

B-4

Exam ple 1: Bu rglaries an d Robbe ries in Baltimo re Coun ty To illu st r a t e, com pa r e t h e dis t r ibu t ion of bu r gla r ies in Ba lt im or e Cou n t y wit h t h ose of r obber ies, bot h for 1996. F igu r e B.1 shows t h e m ea n cen t er of a ll r obber ies (blue squ a r e) a n d a ll r esiden t ial bu r gla r ies (r ed t r ian gle). As can be seen , th e m ea n cen t er s a r e loca t ed wit h in Ba lt im or e Cit y, a p r op er t y of t h e u n u su a l s h a pe of t h e cou n t y (wh ich s u r r ou n d s t h e city on t h r ee s ides). Th u s, t h ese m ea n cent er s ca n n ot be con sid er ed a n u n bia sed est im a t e of t h e m et r op olit a n a r ea , bu t u n bia sed es t im a t es for t h e Cou n t y on ly. Wh en t h e r ela t ive posit ion s of t h e t wo m ea n cen t er s a r e com pa r ed (figu r e 4.12 in ch a pt er 4), t h e cen t er of r obber ies is sou t h a n d west of t h e cen t er for bu r gla r ies. Is t h is differ en ce sign ifica n t or n ot ? To t es t t h is , t h e s t a n da r d devia t ion s of t h e t wo d is t r ibu t ion s a r e fir s t com p a r ed a n d t h e F -te st of t h e la r ger t o th e sm a ller va r ia n ce is u se d (equ a t ions B.1 a n d B.2). Crim eS tat pr ovides t h e st a n da r d deviat ion of bot h t h e X a n d Y coor din a t es; th e var ian ce is th e squ a r e of t h e s t a n da r d devia t ion . In t h is ca s e, t h e va r ia n ce for bu r gla r ies is sligh t ly la r ger t h a n for r obber ies for bot h t h e X a n d Y coor din a t es. S XA 2 ---------- = S XB 2 S YA 2 ---------- = S YB 2 0.0154 ------------ = 1.058 0.0145 0.0058 ------------ = 2.007 0.0029

FX =

FY =

Beca u se both sa m ple s a r e fair ly la r ge (1180 r obber ies a n d 6051 bu r gla r ies ), th e degr ees of freedom a r e a lso ver y la r ge. Th e F -ta bles a r e a lit t le in det er m in a t e wit h la r ge sa m ples, bu t t h e va r ia n ce r a t io a ppr oa ch es 1.00 a s t h e sa m ple r ea ch es in fin it y. An a pp r oxim a t e crit ical F -ra t io can be obt a in ed by t h e n ext la r gest pa ir of va lu es in t h e t a ble (1.22 for p #.05 a n d 1.32 for p #.01). U sin g t h is cr it er ia , d iffer en ces in t h e va r ia n ces for t h e X coor din a t e a r e p roba bly n ot sign ifica n t wh ile t h a t for t h e Y coor din a t es defin it ely a r e sign ifican t . Con sequ en t ly, th e t est for a differ en ce in m ea n s wit h u n equ a l var ia n ces is u se d (equ a t ions B.7, B.8 a n d B.9). _ _ (X A - X B ) - (:XA - :XB ) -76.608482 - (-76.620838) tX = ---------------------------- = -------------------------------S XA 2 S XB 2 0.0154 0.0145 SQRT { [---- + ---- ]} SQ RT{ [-------- + --------]} NA NB 6051 1180

0.0124 ------------- = 3.21 (p #.005) 0.0039

B-5

Figure B.1:

1996 Burglaries and Robberies in Baltimore County

Comparison of Mean Centers

" #

Mean center of burglaries

Mean center of robberies

Miles
0 2 4

_ tY =

_ 39.348368 - 39.334816 ------------------------------------0.0058 0.0029 SQ RT{[---------- + ----------]} 6051 1180

(Y A - Y B ) - (:YA - :YB ) --------------------------- = S YA 2 S YB 2 SQRT{[ ----- + -----]} NA NB 0.0136 ------------0.0018

7.36 (p #.005)

Th er efor e, wh et h er we u se t h e eit h er /or t est (cr it ical "#.025) or t h e bot h /a n d t est (cr it ical "#.1), we find t h a t t h e differ en ce in t h e m ea n cent er s is h igh ly sign ifica n t . Bu r gla r ies h a ve a differ en t cent er of gr a vit y t h a n r obber ies in Ba lt im ore Coun t y.

Di ffere n ce s i n th e St an da rd D is ta n ce De vi at io n of Tw o S am ple s
Sin ce th e st a n da r d d ist a n ce devia t ion, S XY (equ a t ion 4.6 in ch a pt er 4) is a s ta n da r d devia t ion , differ en ces in t h e st a n da r d d ist a n ces of t wo grou ps can be com pa r ed wit h a n equ a lit y of va r ia n ce t est (Ka n ji, 1993, 37). S XYA 2 ---------S XYB 2

F =

(B.10)

wit h (N A - 1) a n d (N B - 1) degr ees of free dom for gr oup s A an d B, r espectively. Th is t est is u su a lly d on e wit h t h e la r ger of t h e va r ia n ces in t h e n u m er a t or . Sin ce t h er e is on ly on e va r ia n ce bein g comp a r ed, t h e crit ical " ar e as listed in th e tables. F r om Crim eS tat, we find t h a t t h e st a n da r d dist a n ce deviat ion of bur gla r ies is 8.44 m iles wh ile th a t for robberies is 7.42 miles. In ch a pt er 4, figu r e 4.12 displayed th ese t wo st a n da r d d ist a n ce devia t ions . As ca n be s een , t h e disp er sion of in ciden t s, a s d efin ed by t h e st a n da r d dis t a n ce d evia t ion , is gr ea t er for bu r gla r ies t h a n for r obber ies. Th e F -t est of th e differ en ce is ca lcu lat ed by S XYA 2 ----------S XYB 2 8.442 ---------7.422

F =

1.29

wit h 6050 a n d 11 80 d egr ees of free dom r espectively. Aga in , t h e F -ta bles a r e slight ly ind et er m ina t e with r espect t o lar ge sam ples, but t h e n ext la r gest F beyon d in finit y is 1.25 for p #.05 a n d 1.38 for p #.01. Thu s, it a ppea r s t h a t bur gla r ies h a ve a sign ifica n t ly grea t er disper sion t h a n r obber ies, at leas t a t t h e p #.05 level.

B-7

Di ffere n ce s i n th e St an da rd D e vi at io n al E llip se of Tw o S am ple s

In a st a n da r d deviat ion a l ellipse, th er e a r e a ct u a lly six va r iables bein g com pa r ed: Mea n of X Mea n of Y An gle of r ot a t ion St a n da r d d evia t ion a lon g t h e t r a n sform ed X a xis St a n da r d d evia t ion a lon g t h e t r a n sform ed Y a xis Area of th e ellipse Di ffere n ce s in th e m e an ce n te rs Compa r ison s bet ween t h e t wo m ea n cent er s ca n be t es t ed wit h t h e a bove st a t ist ics. D i ffe r e n c e s i n t h e a n g l e o f r o ta t i on Un for t u n a t ely, t o ou r kn owledge, t h er e is n ot a for m a l t est for t h e differ en ce in t h e a n gle of r ot a t ion . Un t il t h is t est is developed, we h a ve to rely on su bject ive ju dgem en t s. D i ffe r e n c e s i n t h e s t a n d a rd d e v i a t io n s a l o n g th e t r a n s fo r m e d a x e s Th e differ en ces in t h e st a n da r d devia t ion s a lon g t h e t r a n sfor m ed a xes (X an d Y) can be t est ed wit h a n eq u a lit y of va r ia n ce t est (Ka n ji, 1993, 37). S X1 2 ---------S X2 2

F Sx =

(B.11)

F SY

S Y1 2 = ---------S Y2 2

(B.12)

wit h (N A - 1) a n d (N B - 1) degr ees of free dom for gr oup s A an d B r espectively. Th is t est is u su a lly d on e wit h t h e la r ger of t h e va r ia n ces in t h e n u m er a t or . Th e exa m ple a bove for com p a r in g t h e m ea n cen t er s of Ba lt im or e Cou n t y bu r gla r ies a n d r obber ies illu s t r a t ed t h e u se of t h is t es t . D i ffe r e n c e s i n t h e a r e a s o f t h e t w o e l li p s e s Sin ce a n a r ea is a va r ian ce, th e differ en ces in t h e a r ea s of t h e t wo ellipses can be com pa r ed wit h a n eq u a lit y of va r ia n ce t est (Ka n ji, 1993, 37).

B-8

F =

Ar ea A -----------Ar ea B

(B.13)

wit h (N A - 1) a n d (N B - 1) degr ees of free dom for gr oup s 1 a n d 2 r espectively. Th is t est is don e wit h t h e la r ger of t h e va r ia n ces in t h e n u m er a t or. Si gn ific an ce le ve ls Th e t est in g of each of t h ese pa r a m et er s for t h e differ en ce bet ween t wo ellipses is even m or e com plica t ed t h a n t h e differ en ce bet ween t wo m ea n cen t er s sin ce t h er e a r e u p t o six pa r a m et er s wh ich m u st be t est ed (differ en ces in m ea n X, m ea n Y, a n gle of r ot a t ion , st a n da r d d evia t ion a lon g t r a n sform ed X a xis, st a n da r d d evia t ion a lon g t r a n sform ed Y a xis, a n d a r ea of ellipse). H owever, a s wit h differ en ces in m ea n cen t er of t wo groups , th er e a r e t wo differ en t int er pr et a t ion s of differ en ces. Compa rison I: Compa rison II: Th a t t h e t wo ellipses d iffer on ANY of t h e pa r a m et er s That th e two ellipses differ on ALL par am eters.

In t h e first cas e, t h e crit ical p r obabilit y level, ", m u st be divid ed by t h e n u m ber of pa r a m et er s bein g t es t ed, "/p. In t h eory, t h is cou ld in volve u p t o six test s, t h ough in pr a ct ice som e of t h ese m a y n ot be t est ed (e.g., t h e a n gle of r ot a t ion ). F or exa m ple, if five of t h e pa r a m et er s a r e bein g est im a t ed, t h en t h e crit ical pr obabilit y level a t "#.05 is a ctu a lly "# .01 (.05/5). In t h e secon d ca se , t h e crit ical p r obabilit y level, ", is m u lt ip lied by t h e n u m ber of pa r a m et er s bein g t es t ed, "*p, since all t est s m u st be significa n t for t h e t wo ellipses t o be con sider ed a s differ en t . For exam ple, if five of t h e pa r a m et er s a r e being est ima t ed, th en t h e crit ical p r obabilit y level, s a y, a t "#.05 is a ctu a lly "#.25 (.05*5).

D i ffe r e n c e s i n Me a n D i re c t i o n B e t w e e n Tw o Gr ou p s
St a t is t ica l t est s of differ en t a n gu la r dis t r ibu t ion s ca n be m a de wit h t h e dir ect ion a l m ean an d var ian ce st a t istics. To t est t h e differen ce in t h e an gle of rota t ion between t wo groups , a Wa t son-William s t est ca n be us ed (Kan ji, 1993; 153-54). The st eps in t h e t est a r e as follows: 1. All an gles, 2i , ar e con ver t ed in t o ra dia n s Ra dia n i 2. = Angle i * B/180 (B.14)

F or ea ch s a m ple sepa r a t ely, A an d B , th e following m ea su r es a r e ca lcu lat ed

B-9

N1

N1

Cj =

G cos 2j
A=1 N2

Sj =

G s in 2j
A=1 N2

(B.15)

Ck =

G cos 2k
B=1

Sk =

G s in 2k
B=1

(B.16)

wh er e 2j an d 2k a r e t h e in divid u a l a n gles for t h e r espect ive gr ou ps, A an d B . 3. Ca lcu la t e t h e r esu lt a n t len gt h s of ea ch gr ou p R A = S QRT[ C A 2 + S A 2 ] R B = SQRT[ C B 2 + S B 2 ] 4. (B.17) (B.18)

Resulta nt lengths for t he combined sample are calculat ed as well as t he len gt h of t h e r esu lt a n t vect or . C = CA + CB S = S A + SB R = SQRT[ C 2 + S 2 ] N = NA + NB (R A + R B ) ----------N (B.19) (B.20) (B.21) (B.22)

R =

(B.23)

5.

An F -t es t of t h e t wo a n gu la r m ea n s is ca lcu la t ed wit h RA + R B - R F = g (N - 2) --------------------N - (R A + R B ) wh er e 3 g = 1 - ------8k (B.25)

(B.24)

with k bein g iden t ified fr om a m a xim u m likelih ood Von Mises dist r ibut ion by r efer en cing R * with 1 an d N -2 degrees of fr eedom (Mar dia , 1972; Ga ile a n d Bu r t , 1980). Some of t h e r efer en ce ks a r e given in t a ble B.1 (from Ma r dia , 1972; Ka n ji, 1993, t a ble 38).

B-10

Ta ble B .1

Ma x i m u m L i k e li h o o d E s t i m a t e s fo r Gi v e n R * i n t h e Vo n Mi s e s Ca s e
(from Mard ia, 1972; Kanji, 1993, tab le 38) R* 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 k 0.00000 0.10013 0.20101 0.30344 0.40828 0.51649 0.62922 0.74783 0.87408 1.01022 1.15932 1.32570 1.51574 1.73945 2.01363 2.36930 2.87129 3.68041 5.3047 10.2716 in finit y Ta ble B .2

Comp arison o f Tw o Grou ps f or Ang ular Me as ur e m e n t s

Ang le of Dev iation From D ue North Group A In c id e n t 1 2 3 4 5 6 Me a su re d An g l e 160 184 240 100 95 120 Group B In c id e n t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 B-11 Me a su re d An g l e 196 212 297 280 235 353 190 340

6.

Reject t h e n u ll hypot h esis of n o an gu la r differ en ce if t h e calcu la t ed F is gr ea t er t h a n t h e cr it ica l va lu e F 1 , N -2 .

E x a m p l e 2: An g u l a r c o m p a r i so n s b e t w e e n t w o g r o u p s A four th exam ple is th at of sets of an gular measu rem ents from t wo different groups, A a n d B. Ta ble B.2 p r ovides t h e da t a for t h e t wo set s. Th e a n gu la r m ea n for Gr oup A is 144.830 with a dir ect ion a l va r ian ce of 0.35 while th e a n gula r m ea n for Gr ou p B is 258.950 with a dir ect ion a l va r ian ce of 0.47. The h igh er dir ect ion a l va r ian ce for Gr ou p B su ggest s t h a t t h er e is m or e a n gu la r va r ia bilit y t h a n for Gr ou p A. Using th e Wat son-Wheeler t est, we compa re th ese two distr ibut ions. 1. 2. All a n gles a r e conver t ed in t o r a dia n s (equ a t ion B.14). The cosines and sines of each a ngle are ta ken a nd a re sum med with in groups (eq u a t ion s B.15 a n d B.16). C A = -3.1981 C B = -.8078 3. S A = 2.2533 S B = -4.1381

Th e r esu lt a n t s a r e ca lcu la t ed (equ a t ion s B.17 a n d B.18). R A = 3.9121 R B = 4.2162 Com bin ed sa m ple ch a r a ct er is t ics a r e defin ed (equ a t ion s B.19 t h r ou gh B.23). C = -4.0059 S = -1.8848 R = 4.4271 N = 14 R * = 0.5806

4.

5.

On ce t h e pa r a m et er , k, is obt a ined (a ppr oxim a t ed from t a ble 4.1 or obt a ined from Ma r dia , 1972 or Ka n ji, 1993), g is calcula t ed, an d a n F -test is const r u ct ed (equ a t ion s B.24 a n d B.25). k = 1.44 g = 0.7396 F = 5.59

6.

Th e cr it ica l F for 1 a n d 12 degr ees of freedom is 4.75 (p #.05) a n d 9.33 (p #.01). The t est is significa n t a t t h e p #.05 level a n d we r eject t h e n u ll h yp ot h esis of n o a n gu la r differ en ces bet ween t h e t wo gr ou ps. Gr ou p A h a s a d iffer en t a n gu la r d is t r ibu t ion t h a n Gr ou p B.

B-12

E n d n o t e s f o r Ap p e n d i x B
1. Th er e a r e lim it s t o th e Bonferoni logic. For exa m ple, if t h er e wer e 10 t est s, h a ving a t h r esh old sign ifica n ce level of .005 (.05 / 10 ) for t h e eit h er /or con dit ion s a n d a t h r esh old sign ifica n ce level of .50 (.05 * 10) for t h e bot h /a n d wou ld lea d t o a n excessively difficu lt t es t in t h e first cas e a n d a m u ch t oo ea sy t es t in t h e secon d. Th u s, t h e Bon fer on i logic s h ou ld be a pplied t o only a few t est s (e.g., 5 or few er ).

B-13