Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
United Nations
Environment Programme
Realizao
Patrocnio
Coordenao Geral:
Coordenao no LabSolar:
Srgio Colle
Samuel Luna de Abreu
Cenrios Energticos:
Samuel Luna de Abreu (*)
Colaboradores:
Ricardo Rther
Colaborador:
Cristina S. Yamashita
620.91
Atlas brasileiro de energia solar / Enio Bueno Pereira;
Fernando Ramos Martins; Samuel Luna de Abreu e
Ricardo Rther. So Jos dos Campos : INPE, 2006.
il.
60p. ; (PAPEL)
ISBN 85-17-00030-7
ISBN 978-85-17-00030-0
1.Energia. 2.Energia renovvel. 3.Energia solar.
4.Radiao solar. 5.Modelagem atmosfrica.
6.Sensoriamento remoto da atmosfera. I.Pereira, E.B;
II.Martins, F.R.; III. Abreu, S.L.; IV. Rther, R. V.Ttulo.
PREFCIO
FOREWORDS
his publication was developed within the scope of the SWERA (Solar
and Wind Energy Resource Assessment) project, financed by the United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and co-financed by the Global
Environment Facility (GEF). The project was started in 2001 under the
coordination of the Climate and Environment Division of the Center for
Weather Forecasts and Climate Studies of the Brazilian Institute for
Space Research (DMA/CPTEC/INPE). The SWERA main focus is to
promote the creation of a reliable and high-quality database intended
to help in planning and developing public policies to offer incentives to
national solar and wind energy projects and, attract capital investment
from private sector in the renewable energy area. The products of
SWERA Project include information that will be extremely useful within
the aforementioned context. Such information includes maps and
digital data of various solar radiation components as well as detailed
infrastructure and socio-economic parameters of countries participating
in this pilot project. The resulting database is compatible with the
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and therefore may be easily
employed in feasibility studies during renewable energy project
development. The solar energy products applicable to Brazil were
developed by means of a partnership between DMA/CPTEC/INPE and
the Solar Energy Laboratory of the Federal University of the State of
Santa Catarina (LABSOLAR/UFSC) by using the radiative transfer model
BRASIL-SR and a geo-referenced database of environmental and socioeconomic data made available by several national and international
partners. The main products in the solar energy area, generated as a
consequence of the SWERA Project in Brazil, are:
high resolution solar radiation digital and printed maps;
generation of hourly temporal series;
resoluo;
gerao de sries temporais horrias;
construo de diferentes cenrios de aproveitamento da
A
O
GIS tools.
T
T
section analyzes the temporal and spatial variations and trends of solar
energy resources and, finally, the fifth section presents some solar
energy scenarios for Brazil.
NDICE
Introduo
INDEX
13
Introduction
13
14
14
Modelo BRASIL-SR
15
15
Base de dados
19
Database
19
Dados de satlite
19
Satellite data
19
Dados climatolgicos
20
Climate data
20
Temperatura e visibilidade
20
20
Albedo de superfcie
21
Surface albedo
21
Umidade relativa
22
Relative humidity
22
Altitude
22
Altitude
22
22
22
Rede SONDA
23
SONDA network
23
24
24
25
25
Intercomparao de modelos
25
Model inter-comparison
25
26
26
26
26
Validao da DNI
28
Validation of DNI
28
Mapas solarimtricos
31
Solarimetric maps
31
Mdia anual
34
Annual mean
34
Mdia sazonal
35
Seasonal mean
35
Mdia anual
36
Annual mean
36
Mdia sazonal
37
Seasonal mean
37
Mdia anual
38
Annual mean
38
Mdia sazonal
39
Seasonal mean
39
Mdia anual
40
Annual mean
40
Mdia sazonal
41
Seasonal mean
41
43
43
Variabilidade anual
43
Annual variability
43
Variabilidade sazolnal
44
Seasonal variability
44
Mdia anual
46
Annual mean
46
Mdia sazonal
47
Seazonal mean
47
Tendncias regionais
48
51
Regional trends
48
51
Aquecimento solar
51
51
Fotovoltaico
53
Photovoltaic
53
53
54
55
Referncias bibliogrficas
57
References
57
ndice de figuras
59
Figures index
59
ndice de tabelas
60
Tables index
60
INTRODUCTION
Figura 1a apresenta a
estrutura da matriz de oferta
de energia primria brasileira e
a Figura 1b a empregada na
produo de eletricidade. A
queima de combustveis fsseis
responde por grande parte da
demanda de energia no setor
de transporte e atende a cerca
de 40% da energia utilizada no
setor agropecurio brasileiro
causando a contribuio mais
importante em emisso de
gases do efeito estufa (CO2,
. (a) Matriz energtica brasileira
e (b) Matriz de energia eltrica [2].
CO, etc.) no Brasil. Programas
de incentivo para adoo de
queima de biomassa (etanol e biodiesel) esto em implementao no
pas [2] e espera-se que num futuro prximo, a biomassa tenha uma
contribuio significativa nesses setores reduzindo a contribuio
brasileira para a emisso global de gases de efeito estufa.
INTRODUO
10
or outro lado, o Brasil, por ser um pas localizado na sua maior parte
na regio inter-tropical, possui grande potencial para aproveitamento
de energia solar durante todo ano [6, 7]. A utilizao da energia solar traz
benefcios a longo prazo para o pas, viabilizando o desenvolvimento de
regies remotas onde o custo da eletrificao pela rede convencional
demasiadamente alto com relao ao retorno financeiro do
investimento, regulando a oferta de energia em perodos de estiagem,
diminuindo a dependncia do mercado de petrleo e reduzindo as
emisses de gases poluentes atmosfera como estabelece a
Conferncia de Kyoto [8]. Existe um grande leque de possibilidades a
mdio e longo prazo para aproveitamento dessa abundante forma de
energia renovvel, que vai desde pequenos sistemas fotovoltaicos
autnomos at as grandes centrais que empregam energia solar
energtico solar;
11
12
asically there are two methods to survey the solar energy resources
in a given area of interest: the utilization of a radiometer network
distributed over the region along with data interpolation techniques,
and the use of computer models to estimate the incidence of solar
radiation through empirical relations or by solving the physical
equations that describe the radiative transfer in the atmosphere.
. Comparison between
rRMSE deviations observed for
global solar radiation estimates
obtained by extra/interpolation of
ground data acquired at 16 AWS in
operation at Southeast region of
Brazil and obtained by using
BRASIL-SR model and satellite
images. The magent line is the
tendency curve of
extra/interpolation deviations as a
function of distance from the
nearest AWS. The horizontal lines
represent the range of deviation
values obtained by using BRASIL-SR.
MODELO DE TRANSFERNCIA
RADIATIVA
13
14
hen passing through the atmosphere the solar radiation has its
intensity reduced through scattering and absorption processes by the
atmospheric components. Figure 3 represents, in a very simplified way,
the main interacting processes of solar radiation and thermal radiation
of the Earth-Atmosphere system.
s nuvens, os gases,
partculas atmosfricas e a
superfcie refletem cerca
de 30% da radiao incidente no topo da atmosfera. Os 70% restantes so
absorvidos
produzindo
aquecimento do sistema e
causando evaporao de
gua (calor latente) ou
conveco (calor sensvel).
A energia absorvida pelo
sistema Terra-Atmosfera
reemitida na faixa do
infravermelho do espectro
de radiao eletromagntica 4 a 100m
sendo
que
6%
proveniente da superfcie
e 64% tem origem em
nuvens e constituintes
atmosfricos.
15
O
. Flowchart of the
BRASIL-SR radiative transfer
model.
and diffused).
16
g, may be
Ceff =
Ceff =
L - Lclear
Lcloud - Lclear
where 0 is the radiation flux at the top of the atmosphere, tclear and
tcloud are respectively the atmospheric transmittance for clear and
overcast sky conditions and Ceff is the effective cloud cover index
given by the satellite images:
L - Lclear
Lcloud - Lclear
n that way, the incidence of global solar radiation at the surface may
be estimated from two independent components: the first component
corresponds to clear sky condition, tclear, and the second to a
completely overcast, tcloud . The random nature of solar radiation for
any sky condition is evaluated through the effective cloud cover index,
Ceff . The tclear component is a function of the surface albedo, the solar
zenithal angle and the optical thickness of the atmosphere. The tcloud
component is a function of the solar zenithal angle, the optical thickness
and optical cloud properties. The two components may be estimated
from the parameterization of the well-known physical processes by
using climate data. To determine the transmittances tclear and tcloud,
the model uses 135 spectral intervals in the shortwave spectra (0 4m)
and adopts 30 atmospheric layers to solve the radiative transfer equation.
(1 - tc)
tcloud-dir = ..................
(b - tc)
onde
tcloud-dir =
where
(1 - tc)
(b - tc)
17
18
DATABASE
BASE DE DADOS
19
T
TEMPERATURA E VISIBILIDADE
20
Bra-zilian
territory.
It
showed
good
agreement with
the
measured
values even for
regions with a
lower density of
stations.
. Mapa da
mdia anual de
temperatura obtido por
interpolao Krigging.
. Map for
annual mean of
temperature obtained by
Krigging interpolation.
. Mapa da
mdia anual de
visibilidade obtido por
interpolao Krigging.
ALBEDO DE SUPERFCIE
. Map for
annual mean of visibility
obtained by Krigging
interpolation.
SURFACE ALBEDO
. Mapa da
mdia anual de
albedo de superfcie
obtido por
interpolao de
vizinho mais
prximo.
. Map for
annual mean of
surface albedo
obtained using the
nearest neighbor
interpolation
technique.
21
UMIDADE RELATIVA
22
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
he relative humidity is the relationship
between the water vapor mixture ratio observed
in the atmosphere and that which would prevail
in saturated conditions at the same temperature.
The relative humidity values are available in
http://ingrid.ldeo.columbia.edu/, International
Research Institute for Climate Prediction (IRI)
site. This database contains monthly averages in
a regular grid with a 2,5 x 2,5 resolution and it
covers the period from 1960 to 2002. Figure 9
shows, as an illustration, the annual average map
of the relative humidity prepared by
interpolation using the method of the nearest
neighbor.
. Mapa da
mdia anual de
umidade relativa
obtido por
interpolao de
vizinho mais
prximo.
. Map for
annual mean of
relative humidity
obtained using the
nearest neighbor
interpolation
technique.
ALTITUDE
. Imagem
de relevo gerada por
interpolao (vizinho
mais prximo) da
base de dados
GTOPO30.
.
Topography image
obtained from the
nearest neighbor
interpolation of the
GTOPO30 database.
Petrolina (PE)
0904'S / 4019W
2005
Caic (RN)
0155'S / 3705'W
2004/2005
1052'S / 6158'W
2005
Cuiab (MT)
1533'S / 5604'W
2004/2005
Braslia (DF)
1536'S / 4742'W
2005
2026'S / 5432'W
2004/2005
Florianpolis (SC)
2736'S / 4830'W
2000/2005
2926'S / 5349'W
2004/2005
REDE SONDA
SONDA NETWORK
instrumentao e sensores
instalados nas estaes SONDA
so equipamentos de primeira
linha de reconhecida confiabilidade no meio cientfico. Os
dados de irradiao solar global e
direta so coletados com sensores Kipp&Zonen CM21 e
Eppley NIP, respectivamente. Os
dados coletados nas estaes da
rede SONDA so submetidos
um rgido controle de qualidade
que utiliza critrios estabelecidos
pela
World
Meteorological
Organization (WMO) para as
estaes da rede Baseline Solar
Radiation Network (BSRN) [22]. A
Figura 11 apresenta fotos das
instalaes das estaes em
Braslia (DF) e So Martinho da
Serra (RS).
. (a) Mdulo de
medidas da estao SONDA em
Braslia com os sensores de
radiao instalados sobre o teto;
(b) Plataforma com os sensores
de radiao na estao SONDA
em So Martinho da Serra; e (c)
Plataforma de coleta de dados
he
instrumentation
and
sensors installed at the SONDA
stations are first class equipment
of certified reliability. The global
and direct solar irradiation data
are collected with Kipp&Zonen
CM21 and Eppley NIP sensors,
respectively. The data collected at
the SONDA network stations are
subjected to a rigid quality control
to allow that uses criteria
established by World Meteorological Organization (WMO) for
stations of the Baseline Solar
Radiation
Network
(BSRN)
network [22]. Figure 11 exhibits
photos of stations located in
Brasilia (DF) and So Martinho
da Serra (RS).
23
24
. Nmero de PCD
utilizadas para validao do
modelo BRASIL-SR.
Norte
11
2002 a 2005
Nordeste
13
2003 a 2005
Centro-Oeste
25
2002 a 2005
Sudeste
38
2002 a 2005
Sul
11
2004 a 2005
Europa
[24]
Raumfahrt [28].
Raumfahrt [28].
[24]
25
26
clear sky days throughout the year [29], which is ideal for comparing the
model behavior with regards to the parameterization of typical radiative
processes for clear sky conditions. The Balbina site is located close to
the hydroelectric power plant of the same name in the Amazon region.
The climatology of the region is strongly influenced by the Inter-tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ), with a high precipitation and a few clear sky
days throughout the year. The Florianpolis site already reached the
established requirements by the BSRN (Baseline Solar Radiation
Network) network for collection and qualification of ground data. The
climatology of Florianpolis exhibits days with clear sky and overcast
well distributed all over the year.
. Comparao
entre as estimativas do
modelo BRASIL-SR para
o total dirio de
irradiao solar global e
valores medidos em
superfcie: (a) na regio
Norte, (b) na regio
Nordeste, (c) na regio
Centro-Oeste, (d) na
regio Sudeste e (e) na
regio Sul.
Norte
353,48
640,29
Nordeste
306,75
631,10
Centro-Oeste
272,11
669,80
Sudeste
249,10
662,74
Sul
259,49
546,71
. Scatter graphs
between BRASIL-SR
estimates for the daily
global solar irradiation and
ground data acquired in:
(a) in the North region, (b)
in the Northeast, (c) in the
Midwest, (d) in the
Southeast region and (e) in
the South region.
0,12
0,97
27
he histograms exhibited on
Figure 13 show a larger spreading of
the deviations in Southeast and
Midwest regions. One of the factors
for this may be related to the
occurrence of biomass burning
events that is more frequent in
those regions during the dry season
(May through October).
28
. Histogramas
de freqncia dos desvios
entre valores estimados e
medidos do total dirio de
irradiao solar global: (a)
regio Norte, (b) regio
Nordeste, (c) regio
Centro-Oeste, (d) regio
Sudeste e (e) regio Sul. A
linha contnua representa
a probabilidade
cumulativa para os
desvios observados.
. Histograms of
deviation frequencies
between estimated and
measured values for daily
global solar irradiation: (a) in
the North, (b) in the
Northeast, (c) in the
Midwest, (d) in the
Southeast and (e) in the
South Brazilian regions. The
continuous line represents
the cumulative probability
for the observed deviations.
VALIDAO
DA DNI
So Martinho da Serra
(RS)
353,48
640,29
0,07
0,15
0,85
Florianpolis
(SC)
306,75
631,10
0,06
0,13
0,97
Petrolina
(PE)
272,11
669,80
0,05
0,13
0,89
29
SOLARIMETRIC MAPS
ll the following maps exhibit the average values of estimates for the
daily total of solar irradiation provided by the BRASIL-SR radiative
transfer model for the period between July 1995 and December 2005
a full decade of data. The spatial resolution is 10km x 10km for all the
maps.
he map shown in the page 34 exhibits the annual average of daily
total of global solar irradiation that reaches the Brazilian territory. In
spite of the different climate characteristics along the Brazilian territory,
one can observe that the global irradiation is fairly uniform. The
maximum solar irradiation value - 6,5kWh/m2 - occurs in the northern
part of Bahia state close to the border with the Piau state. This area
exhibits a semi-arid climate with low rainfall throughout the year
(approximately 300mm/year) and the lowest annual mean cloud
amount [29]. The lowest global solar irradiation 4,25kWh/m2 occurs
on the North shore of Santa Catarina where precipitation is welldistributed throughout the year. The annual mean of daily horizontal
global solar irradiation in any region of the Brazil (4200-6700 kWh/m2)
are much greater than those for the majority of the European countries
such as Germany (900-1250 kWh/m2), France (900-1650kWh/m2) and
Spain (1200-1850 kWh/m2) where projects to harness solar resources
are greatly disseminated some of which with great government
incentives [33].
MAPAS SOLARIMTRICOS
31
32
33
34
Atlas Brasileiro de Energia Solar
35
36
Atlas Brasileiro de Energia Solar
37
38
Atlas Brasileiro de Energia Solar
39
40
Atlas Brasileiro de Energia Solar
41
ste tpico tem por finalidade avaliar como o fluxo de radiao solar
incidente na superfcie varia em torno dos valores mdios anuais e
sazonais apresentados nos mapas anteriores. Dois estudos foram
realizados e esto apresentados neste documento: um estudo da
variabilidade mdia anual e um estudo da variabilidade mdia para
cada estao do ano.
Vanual =
Vd,a
Nd
his topic is for the purpose of evaluating how the solar radiation flux
varies around the annual and seasonal means exhibited on the previous
maps. Two studies were done and they are presented here: the
variability of global solar irradiation along the year and the variability of
global solar irradiation in each season (winter, summer, spring and fall).
DQMd
Id
d=1
Vanual =
Nd
Vd,a
Nd
Nd
(Id,a Id)2
(Id,a Id)2
DQMd =
a = 1995
where
Na
Id
d=1
2005
2005
onde
DQMd
DQMd =
a = 1995
Na
ESTUDO DE VARIABILIDADE E
TENDNCIAS
43
around its average within the whole period of 10.5 years of data of
this study. In other words, an annual variability equal to 0.45 stands
for a spreading of daily values of global solar irradiation up to 45%
around its mean value presented in page 34.
nalyzing the annual variability map one may notice that the
entire Amazon region and the western portion of the Northeast and
Midwest regions including the North of the So Paulo state and the
West of Minas Gerais show modest variability throughout the year less than 25%. These regions show distinctive climate characteristics
that reduces the solar flux variability throughout the year as for
example the low nebulosity during the entire year in the semi-arid
region and the high nebulosity during the summer in the Amazon
region.
great portion of the South region and the eastern area of the
Southeast showed annual variability between 30 and 35% caused
mainly by the penetration of polar air masses during the dry season
of the year (May through October). The greatest variability values
were observed in coastal region from Santa Catarina to So Paulo.
This region coincides with the area of largest mean nebulosity of
Brazil according to the climate data presented by INMET [29].
44
variabilidade sazonal, Vsazonal, foi definida como a mdia da
variabilidade intra-sazonal observada para cada ano do perodo de
1995 a 2005. A variabilidade intra-sazonal para um ano especfico,
Vsaza, foi determinada por meio da razo entre o desvio quadrtico
mdio e o valor mdio do total dirio do fluxo solar na estao do ano
em estudo, descrito pela expresso abaixo:
he seasonal variability, Vsazonal, was defined as the mean intraseasonal variability observed for each year for the period from 1995 to
2005. The intra-seasonal variability for specific year, Vsaza, was
determined through the ratio between the mean quadratic deviation
and the mean value of the daily solar flux for the specific season:
2005
Vsaza
2005
Vsazonal =
Vsaza
Vsazonal =
Na
n2
(Id,a Isaz)2
d = n1
(Id,a Isaz)2
d = n1
Vsaza =
Na
a = 1995
n2
onde
a = 1995
where
Nd
Isaz
Vsaza =
Nd
Isaz
age 47 shows the seasonal variability maps for the four seasons
of the year. It can be verified that the seasonal variability shows the
same pattern observed for the annual variability. The entire midNorth area of the country - the Amazon region, the Cerrado, the
semi-arid region of the Northeast, the West of Minas Gerais and the
Northwest of So Paulo - show the smallest seasonal variability. On
the other hand the coastal regions of the South and Southeast show
the largest variability during all seasons of the year.
45
46
Atlas Brasileiro de Energia Solar
47
48
igure 15 shows the annual average potential of solar energy for the
10 years period on which this study is based. The Northeast region
shows the largest energy resource followed by the Midwest and
Southeast regions. As mentioned before, the climate characteristics of
the North region reduce its mean solar irradiation to values close to
those observed for the South region.
he reason for the variability increase observed during the fall and
winter seasons in the North and Midwest regions is not clear. A larger
. Variability of the
annual mean values of solar
irradiation for each of the
geographical regions of
Brazil.
. Variabilidade dos
valores mdios da irradiao
solar ao longo do ano para
cada uma das regies
geogrficas do Brasil.
49
50
CENRIOS DE APLICAES DA
ENERGIA SOLAR
51
52
.
(a) Energia total
necessria para
aquecimento e
(b) tempo de
retorno do
investimento
(PB).
.
(a) Total
required energy
for water
heating and
(b) payback
time (PB).
Renda inferior a
1000US$/ms
1.004.826,7
322.303
323,9
2.993,1
2,9
formado
pela
(urban + rural area) with an income below
Braslia onde a populao atingida representa o
populao
residente
em
Braslia
(urbana
+
US$1,000/month.
nmero total de habitantes (urbana + rural) com renda
rural) com renda inferior a US$1000 ao ms.
inferior a US$1000/ms.
53
54
potencial de uso de
PV, no entanto, imenso,
e pode ser estimado de
dezenas a centenas de MWp
somente na regio amaznica,
mesmo se somente uma
parcela das 286 centrais de
gerao diesel existentes, com
capacidade de 620MWA,
adotassem mdu-los PV
numa proporo diesel-PV
otimizada [37]. Alm disso,
enquanto a distribuio da
radiao solar na regio
considervel, e com pequena
variao sazonal, tal como
demonstrado pelo mapeamento
apresentado neste Atlas, a
distribuio dos recursos elicos
na regio uma das piores do
pas (26,45 TWh/ano) [5]. Dessa
.
forma, a tecnologia solar PV uma Sistema interligado de distribuio
das alternativas mais viveis de de eletricidade no Brasil [2].
energia
renovvel
atualmente
disponvel para atender a demanda da regio, que dispersa e de
relativamente pequena densidade energtica. A economia de
combustvel fssil e a reduo de emisso de gases do efeito estufa
so exemplos dos benefcios trazidos pela adoo de um sistema
simples com a adio de gerador fotovoltaico sem capacidade de
armazenamento de energia uma planta trmica alimentada com
leo diesel. Acrescenta-se a isso a perspectiva de converso futura
para uma configurao fotovoltaico/clula de combustvel resultaria
numa gerao 100% limpa e renovvel baseada exclusivamente no
recurso solar.
covers 100% of the fuel, as long as they operate at or below the 0.34
l/kWh specific consumption limit. This government subsidys life span
has recently been extended for another 20 years. Utilities are allowed
to include a surcharge to all urban and rural consumers of the national
interconnected system to collect funds to subsidize consumers of these
isolated systems. This surcharge system, and the funds collected, are
directed to the so-called Isol-CCC Account (Fuel Consumption Account
of the Isolated Systems) which sub-sidizes diesel for the thermal plants
in isolated mini-grids.
55
56
1. Goldemberg, J.; Villanueva, L. D. Energia, meio ambiente e desenvolvimento. So Paulo: EDUSP, 225p., 2003.
2. Agncia Nacional de Energia Eltrica, Ministrio de Minas e Energia. Balano Energtico Nacional - BEN 2004, 2004. [online]
http://www.mme.gov.br/, 2005.
3. Stivari, S. M. S; Oliveira, A. P.; Soares, J. On the climate impact of the local circulation in the Itaipu lake rea. Climatic Change, 72(1-2):103-121,
2005.
4. Fearnside, P. M. Do hydroeletric dams mitigate global warming? The case of Brazils Curu-Una dam. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for
Global Change, 10:675-691, 2005.
5. Centro de Pesquisas de Energia Eltrica. Atlas do Potencial Elico Brasileiro. CEPEL/ELETROBRS/Ministrio de Minas e Energia. 45p., 2001.
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Figura 1.
(a) Matriz energtica brasileira e (b) Matriz de...
FIGURES INDEX
Figure 1.
(a) Brazilian energy matrix and (b) Electric power matrix
Figura 2.
Comparao dos desvios rRMSE das estimativas...
13
Figure 2.
Comparison between rRMSE deviations observed for...
13
Figura 3.
Diagrama simblico dos processos de interao...
14
Figure 3.
Diagram of radiative processes of solar radiation in the...
14
Figura 4.
Fluxograma do modelo de transferncia radiativa BRASIL-SR
14
Figure 4.
Flowchart of the BRASIL-SR radiative transfer model
14
Figura 5.
Localizao das estaes da base de dados do...
20
Figure 5.
Location of surface stations available in the NCDC database
20
Figura 6.
Mapa da mdia anual de temperatura obtido por...
20
Figure 6.
Map for annual mean of temperature obtained...
20
Figura 7.
Mapa da mdia anual de visibilidade obtido por...
20
Figure 7.
Map for annual mean of visibility obtained by...
20
Figura 8.
Mapa da mdia anual de albedo de superfcie obtidos por...
20
Figure 8.
Map for annual mean of surface albedo obtained...
20
Figura 9.
Mapa da mdia anual de umidade relativa obtido por...
22
Figure 9.
Map for annual mean of relative humidity obtained...
22
Figura 10.
Imagem de relevo gerada por interpolao (vizinho mais...
22
Figure 10.
Topography image obtained from the nearest neighbor...
22
Figura 11.
(a) Mdulo de medidas da estao SONDA em Braslia...
22
Figure 11.
(a) Container of the SONDA site in Brasilia with the...
22
Figura 12.
Comparao entre as estimativas do modelo BRASIL-SR...
26
Figure 12.
Scatter graphs between BRASIL-SR estimates for the daily...
26
Figura 13.
Histogramas de freqncia dos desvios entre valores...
28
Figure 13.
Histograms of deviation frequencies between estimated...
28
Figura 14.
Grfico de disperso entre valores medidos e estimados...
28
Figure 14.
Scatter plot between measured and estimated values...
28
Figura 15.
Potencial anual mdio de energia solar em cada uma...
48
Figure 15.
Annual average potential of solar energy for each...
48
Figura 16.
Variabilidade dos valores... ao longo do ano para cada...
48
Figure 16.
Variability of the annual mean values of solar irradiation...
48
Figura 17.
Variabilidade dos valores mdios sazonais... para as cinco...
48
Figure 17.
Variability of the seasonal mean values of solar irradiation...
48
Figura 18.
Anlise de regresso linear aplicada s mdias anuais...
50
Figure 18.
Linear regression analysis applied to the annual mean of...
50
NDICE DE FIGURAS
59
60
Figura 19.
(a) Energia total necessria para aquecimento e (b) tempo...
52
Figure 19.
(a) Total required energy for water heating and (b) payback...
52
Figura 20.
Sistema interligado de distribuio de eletricidade no Brasil
54
Figure 20.
Interconected system for electricity distribution in Brazil
54
Figura 21.
Potencial disponvel para a gerao diria PV...
54
Figure 21.
The daily PV generation yields, in kWh/kWp, in the...
54
Figura 22.
Efeito de reduo de pico ao adicionar-se um...
56
Figure 22.
Peak-shaving effect of adding a small amount of PV...
56
NDICE DE TABELAS
TABLES INDEX
Tabela 1.
Estaes da rede SONDA utilizadas na etapa...
22
Table 1.
The SONDA sites used to validate solar estimates...
22
Tabela 2.
Nmero de PCD utilizadas para validao do...
24
Table 2.
The AWS sites used to validate solar data provided...
24
Tabela 3.
Desvios observados para as estimativas fornecidas...
26
Table 3.
Deviations observed for the BRASIL-SR estimates...
26
Tabela 4.
Desvios apresentados pelas estimativas de irradiao...
28
Table 4.
Deviations presented by direct normal radiation estimates...
28
Tabela 5.
Resultados apresentados para o cenrio de adoo de...
52
Table 5.
Results shown for the solar water heating scenario that...
52
Tabela 6.
Estudo de Caso para a cidade de Braslia...
52
Table 6.
A case study for Brasilia - the results obtained for the...
52