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FISIOPATOLOGIA DA CEFALÉIA
líquido cefalorraquidiano
SÃO PAULO
2008
Domingos Sávio de Souza Vieira
FISIOPATOLOGIA DA CEFALÉIA
líquido cefalorraquidiano
SÃO PAULO
2008
Vieira, Domingos Sávio de Souza
Fisiopatologia da cefaléia crônica diária: estudo do líquido
cefalorraquidiano. /Domingos Sávio de Souza Vieira. -- São Paulo, 2008.
xvi, 74 f.
Chefe do Departamento:
iii
Domingos Sávio de Souza Vieira
líquido cefalorraquidiano
Presidente da banca:
Prof. Dr. Mario Fernando Prieto Peres
BANCA EXAMINADORA
TITULARES
SUPLENTES
iv
Esta tese foi realizada na Disciplina de Neurologia Experimental, Departamento
de Neurologia e Neurocirurgia da Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP)
– Escola Paulista de Medicina e no Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa do
Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein (IEP-HIAE), durante o Curso de Pós-graduação
em Neurologia Clínica da UNIFESP. Auxílio financeiro: FAPESP, CNPq, CAPES e
Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa do Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein (IEP-
HIAE).
v
Dedicatória
vi
Dedicatória
vii
Agradecimentos
- A Cristina Massat, por ter me colocado em contato com Prof. Mario Peres, o que
possibilitou posteriormente, o meu ingresso na pós-graduação.
- Ao Prof. Dr. Eliova Zukerman, por suas observações valiosas nos artigos
científicos que compõem esta tese e pelos ensinamentos no exercício da
Neurologia.
viii
- Aos colegas do Grupo de Estudos em Cefaléias do IEP-HIAE: André Leite, Vera
Zukerman, Juliane Mercante, Felipe Corchs e Fabiano Tanuri por toda ajuda e
companhia ao longo deste trabalho.
- Aos meus tios Marieta e Francisco, com os quais sempre pude contar aqui em
São Paulo.
ix
- Agradecimento especial ao Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa do Hospital
Israelita Albert Einstein (IEP-HIAE) em São Paulo que patrocinou e tornou
possível a realização deste estudo.
x
Sumário
Dedicatória..........................................................................................................................vi
Agradecimentos.................................................................................................................viii
Listas................................................................................................................................. xii
Resumo............................................................................................................................ xvi
1. PRIMEIRA PARTE..........................................................................................................1
1.1 Cefaléia crônica diária...................................................................................................1
1.2 Hipertensão intracraniana idiopática (HII).....................................................................6
1.2.1 Fisiopatologia da HII...................................................................................................7
1.2.2 Sintomatologia da HII................................................................................................11
1.3 Cefaléia crônica diária e hipertensão intracraniana idiopática sem papiledema.........12
1.4 Cefaléia crônica diária e obesidade.............................................................................16
1.5 Obesidade e hipertensão intracraniana idiopática.......................................................18
ARTIGO 1 - Idiopathic intracranial hypertension with and without papilloedema in a
consecutive series of patients with chronic migraine.........................................................19
2. SEGUNDA PARTE........................................................................................................25
Fisiopatologia da enxaqueca e da cronificação da dor.....................................................25
ARTIGO 2 - Glutamate Levels in Cerebrospinal Fluid and Triptans Overuse in Chronic
Migraine.............................................................................................................................34
3. TERCEIRA PARTE........................................................................................................41
Enxaqueca e depressão....................................................................................................41
ARTIGO 3 - Cerebrospinal fluid GABA levels in chronic migraine with and without
depression.........................................................................................................................44
4. DISCUSSÃO..................................................................................................................50
5 ANEXOS ........................................................................................................................52
6 REFERÊNCIAS ..............................................................................................................59
Abstract
Bibliografia consultada
xi
Lista de figuras
Artigo 1
Figura 1. Correlation of body mass index (BMI) with cerebrospinal fluid opening
Artigo 2
Artigo 3
Figura 1. Cerebrospinal fluid GABA levels in chronic migraine patients with and
xii
Lista de tabelas
Artigo 1
hypertension …………………………………………………………….21
Artigo 2
xiii
Lista de abreviaturas e símbolos
CCD Cefaléia Crônica Diária
EC Enxaqueca Crônica
ET Enxaqueca Transformada
H 2O Água
HC Hemicrania Contínua
Internacional de Cefaléia
MC Migrânea Crônica
ml mililitros
mm milímetros
NMDA N-metil-D-aspartato
OR Oddis Ratio
xiv
PET do inglês “Positron Emisson Tomography”, Tomografia
PL Punção Lombar
RM Ressonância Magnética
lacrimejamento.
TC Tomografia Computadorizada
5-HT Serotonina
xv
Resumo
grupo de sessenta, tiveram elevação na pressão liquórica maior que 200 mm H20
triptanos mostraram níveis liquóricos de glutamato menores que aqueles com uso
xvi
1. PRIMEIRA PARTE
cefaléia que está presente em mais de quinze dias de um mês, por mais de três
contínua (HC).(1)
4,1% (5% das mulheres, 2,8% dos homens, relação 1,8:1 mulher/homem). A
do total dos pacientes com CCD, 42 (2,2%) apresentavam critérios para a CTTC;
significantemente mais baixa que para a CTTC. Do grupo de pacientes com a ET,
indivíduos (70%) tinham a CTTC; 15 (25%) preenchiam critérios para a CCD com
uma população de 3.377 indivíduos com mais de 15 anos, sendo mais prevalente
CTTC (55% versus 44%); o abuso de medicação esteve presente em 34% dos
Todos esses trabalhos mostram que a CCD é uma das formas de cefaléia
em seu serviço.(13)
estudando 630 pacientes com CCD, ele encontrou 489 (78%) indivíduos que
foram categorizados como tendo ET, baseado nas observações de que tais
CCD (anexo 1) que seriam usados em muitos estudos clínicos nos anos
seguintes.(2, 3, 15-17)
medicação (anexo 2), sendo esta última definição muito criticada entre os
em centros terciários de cefaléia continua bastante alta, chegando até a 88% dos
desses pacientes.(4, 14, 22) Bigal et al. estudando um grupo de 703 pacientes com
Brasil, Orri relatou que 70% dos pacientes apresentavam uso abusivo de
analgésico.(23)
35% dos pacientes com enxaqueca crônica.(30) Os pacientes com fibromialgia são
enxaqueca crônica.
Pacientes com enxaqueca crônica referem menor duração do tempo total de sono
intracraniana idiopática (HII) relatada nas últimas décadas por alguns autores, a
transitórias.(36, 37)
estimada em um a dois casos novos por 100.000 na população geral, mas sua
exata incidência e prevalência não são conhecidas. Embora a síndrome seja vista
7
também em homens, estes são menos afetados com uma proporção de 1:4,3 a
mulheres obesas em idade fértil. Por outro lado, a associação entre a obesidade e
a HII em homens não tem sido provada, bem como a predominância entre sexos
em crianças pré-puberes.(38-44)
H2O em pacientes obesos, aferida com pacientes em decúbito lateral (anexo 4).(1,
45)
seguir.
hipótese de que a HII seja resultado do aumento da secreção de LCR não tem
sido amplamente aceita, pois alguns estudos mostram não haver diferenças
controles.(47, 48) Além disso, uma condição em que reconhecidamente ocorre uma
8
Outra hipótese também tem sido testada por alguns autores. Martins,
relatados por essas e outras técnicas. Porém pouco se sabe sobre o exato
seios venosos, sendo esse último decorrente do aumento da pressão venosa por
aumento da pressão do LCR, não se sabe, mas há evidências que apóiam ambas
as hipóteses.
Outra idéia é que o lúmen seja primariamente obstruído por aumento das
laterais e transversos após a punção lombar de alívio.(66) Por sua vez, Bono et
da pressão liquórica.
10
normal dos seios durais em 5 pacientes com HII, mostrando que a pressão do
mulheres. Assim, por essa hipótese, a HII seria também mais freqüente durante a
apresentar-se de forma contínua e intensa desde seu início. A dor pode ter um
observados em até 72% dos casos, tanto de forma bi ou mono ocular, estando
casos. Outros sintomas menos comuns como parestesias, rigidez de nuca, dores
campo visual surgem em mais de 96% dos pacientes durante o curso da HII.
papiledema
instalação do papiledema.
(79)
Descrito inicialmente por Lipton e Michelson , em 1972, em uma jovem
negra obesa de 24 anos, a HII sem papiledema (HIISP) é uma entidade pouco
freqüente, mas que vem sendo, nos últimos anos, observada por um número
crescente de autores.
meses.(80)
Huff et al. observaram dois paciente com HIISP que apresentavam CCD
230 a 450 mm H2O. A média de duração dos sintomas foi de 76,2 meses até o
craniano, e com seus campos visuais normais.(84) Sete pacientes eram obesos,
pacientes com HII com papiledema descrito por Wall e George.(76) Apenas um
secundária à HIISP não é fato raro em uma população de pacientes com cefaléias
refratárias.(84)
cefaléia com características similares aos controles, esses últimos com CCD e
relacionadas à HIISP.(85)
com sinais de alteração no fluxo dos seios transversos na angio-RM. Ao lado dos
de abertura maior que 200 mm H2O (média de 282,5 ± 40,6 mm H2O), quando
pacientes com EBST sem HII) p<0.001. Dezoito dos 19 pacientes eram mulheres
obesas com média de índice de massa corpórea (IMC) 37,7 ± 3,9 Kg/m2 (p =
de história para a enxaqueca 2,4 ± 1.5 anos versus 10,9 ± 7,9 anos para o grupo
sem EBST e 11,1 ± 9,6 anos para aquele com EBST sem HII (p < 0.001). Os
inteiro e em dois pacientes a estenose era bilateral. Oitenta e cinco por cento dos
Desse modo, alguns autores (65, 86, 87) acreditam que a diminuição do lúmen
dos seios venosos esteja envolvida na gênese da HII com ou sem papiledema,
embora esta redução possa ser encontrada em alguns pacientes com CCD e
por métodos de derivação. Bono et al., entretanto, não encontraram resolução das
Estima-se que 64% dos adultos nos Estados Unidos estejam com
população adulta esteja acima do seu peso ideal com o índice de massa corpórea
associada com o número de dores de cabeça por mês entre pacientes com
cronificação da mesma.(91)
com baixo peso (IMC <18, 5), peso normal (IMC 18,5 a 24,9), sobrepeso (IMC 25
a 29,9), obesidade (IMC 30 a 34, 9), obesidade mórbida (IMC >35) e CCD,
obesidade também esteve associada com a freqüência dos ataques, bem como
como ponto para se diagnosticar a HII em pacientes obesos (anexo 4).(1) Corbett e
(95)
Mehta encontraram 25% de obesos com pressão de abertura entre 200 e 250
com sinais de inflamação sistêmica com pressão de abertura maior que 200 mm
abertura levemente maiores que os indivíduos com peso normal. Porém não
importantes tais como: o mesmo médico para realizar todas as punções, extensão
de abertura liquórica inicial e o IMC, embora sem relevância para a prática clínica.
19
em uma série consecutiva de pacientes com CCD do tipo enxaqueca crônica, sem
Vieira DSS, Masruha MR, Gonçalves AL, Zukerman E, Senne Soares CA, da
Graça Naffah-Mazzacoratti M & Peres MFP. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
with and without papilloedema in a consecutive series of patients with chronic
migraine. Cephalalgia 2008. London. ISSN 0333-1024
Chronic migraine (CM) has been associated with idiopathic intracranial hyper-
tension without papilloedema (IIHWOP), a significant percentage of these cases
occurring in obese patients with intractable headache. A prospective study from
February 2005 to June 2006 was made of 62 CM patients who fulfilled Interna-
tional Headache Society diagnostic criteria and had cerebral magnetic resonance
venography (MRV) and lumbar puncture (LP) done. Two patients were
excluded, six (10%) with elevated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) open pressure (OP),
five with body mass index (BMI) > 25. None of the patients had papilloedema or
abnormal MRV. BMI and CSF OP were significantly correlated (r = 0.476,
P < 0.001, Pearson’s correlation test). Obesity (defined as BMI > 30) was a
predictor of increase in intracranial pressure (defined as OP > 200 mmH2O)
(f = 17.26, 95% confidence interval 6.0, 8.6; P < 0.001). From our study we strongly
recommend that not only intractable CM patients with high BMI, but also first
diagnosed patients with BMI > 30 should be systematically evaluated by a LP to
rule out IIHWOP. 䊐 Comorbidity, idiopathic intracranial hypertension, migraine,
obesity
Dr Mario Fernando Prieto Peres, Rua Joaquim Eugênio de Lima, 881/conj. 708, São
Paulo 01403-001, Brazil. Tel. + 55 11 8111 6662, fax + 55 11 3285 5726, e-mail
marioperes@yahoo.com Received 12 May 2007, accepted 6 December 2007
authors have reported similar cases (9–11), and all meningitis by cysticercosis, and another woman
patients studied were refractory patients seen at with IIH with papilloedema, both of whom had
tertiary headache centres (6–12). It is unknown migrainous features. All patients had a lumbar
whether IIH is also common in a consecutive puncture (LP), which was performed with the
patient population. We aimed to analyse the preva- patient positioned in the lateral decubitus position
lence of IIH in a consecutive and treatment-naive on a level surface. A standard 22-G spinal needle
CM population. was used. The opening pressure (OP) was recorded
by using a manometer positioned at a 90° angle to
the spinal canal with the patient’s knees and hip in
Methods
the extended position and neck straightened. CSF
Sixty-two patients (10 men and 52 women, ages pressure was recorded until the patient was relaxed
15–69 years, mean age 37.9 years) were diagnosed and the pressure values had stabilized. All LPs
with CM according to International Headache were performed by the same investigator (D.S.S.V.).
Society criteria 2004 (1) and Appendix 2006 (2), and Increase in CSF was considered when the OP was
were consecutively enrolled from January 2005 to > 200 mmH2O.
June 2006 from all patients attending at the Brain Statistical analysis was performed in order to
Research Institute—Hospital Israelita Albert Ein- assess the relationship of BMI and obesity with the
stein, São Paulo, Brazil. All these patients had a increase in intracranial pressure measured by the
history of episodic migraine, but had subsequently CSF OP at LP. BMI and OP values were plotted
developed frequent migraine. The patients were using Pearson’s correlation test. We also tested the
referred from a basic health programme, in a com- hypothesis that obesity predicted increase in intra-
munity near the hospital, representative of the cranial pressure using a linear model of regression,
general population where regular visits are per- with confidence interval (CI) of 95%, considering in
formed monthly by health agents, who were all tests statistically significant values < 5%.
trained by the research team. Patients were not
exposed to previous migraine prevention treat-
ments. All 62 patients suffered from daily head-
Results
aches at the time of the study. Clinical history was
obtained by the authors. Interviews and neurologi- Seven patients out of 61 (11.47%) with CM had IIH.
cal examinations were performed by two neurolo- Excluding one patient with IIH with papilloedema,
gists (D.S.S.V. and M.R.M.), supervised by the six patients out of 60 (10%) had IIHWOP. No
senior author (M.F.P.P.). Body mass index (BMI; patient had papilloedema, visual field defects or
weight in kilograms divided by the square of height diplopia, or any history or clinical and laboratory
in meters) was recorded in all patients. Informed signs of endocrine, metabolic, inflammatory or hae-
consent was obtained from all subjects; the study matological disturbances. One patient had normal
was approved by the local ethics committee. All BMI, two patients BMI > 29 (overweight) and three
patients underwent both magnetic resonance patients BMI > 30 (obese). Ages ranged from 26 to
imaging (MRI) and MR venography (MRV) of the 52 years. All patients had normal MRI and MRV.
brain on a 1.5-T whole-body imaging system. Two The clinical characteristics of patients studied at
patients were excluded: a woman who had chronic presentation are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1 Patient number, gender, age, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) opening pressure, body mass index (BMI), years of
headache, frequency and presence of papilloedema in cases with idiopathic intracranial hypertension
40
Insomnia, depression,
Insomnia, depression
depression, insomnia
GAD, depression
Insomnia, GAD
Fibromyalgia
30
fibromyalgia
Comorbidities
GAD
20
Visual
aura
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
BMI
10
0 10 20 30 40
Topiramate 100 mg/good
OP (mmH2O)
treatment/response
migraine.
response
response
Preventive
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
bilateral/throbbing
bilateral/throbbing
bilateral/throbbing
shifting/throbbing
Frontal, temporal,
Frontal, temporal,
Moderate
Severe
Severe
Severe
Severe
Severe
Discussion
1/F/26
2/F/44
3/F/31
4/F/52
5/F/43
6/F/51
7/F/55
and the results are similar to previous findings in another study (20) found disturbances of flow in
refractory CDH populations. one or both transverse sinus in 45 out of 111
IIH is most common in women and obese indi- patients with normal opening CSF pressure. BTSS
viduals. Female : male ratios range from 4:1 to 15:1. or disturbances of venous flow were not found in
Obesity in IIH patients is found in 71–94%. The our study.
pathophysiological relation between obesity and Quattrone et al. found all patients with chronic
IIH remains unclear, and hypotheses such as migraine, IIHWOP and signals of CVT were obese
increased cerebral venous pressure resulting in or overweight (8). In studies (16, 17) showing
raised intra-abdominal pressure and endocrine dys- elevated CSF pressure values in healthy obese indi-
functions have been suggested (4). viduals, no subject underwent MRV; the possibility
Recent studies have reported that obesity is not of increased CFS pressure caused by CVT/BTSS
comorbid with migraine, but is related to the sever- cannot be excluded. Whiteley et al., studying 242
ity and frequency of headache attacks experienced consecutive out-patients who underwent a LP for a
by migraineurs as well as of associated symptoms neurological diagnosis, found a median opening
(13). Obesity has also been found to be a risk factor pressure of 170 mmH2O (range 90–280 mmH2O)
for transformed migraine, associated with fre- with a 95% reference interval for the distribution
quency and severity, but not for chronic tension- from 100 mmH2O (2.5 percentile) to 250 mmH2O
type headache (14). CSF (97.5 percentile). There was a significant corre-
In our case series, it was found that overweight lation between CSF opening pressure and BMI, but
and obesity were frequent in patients with chronic/ not relevant to clinical practice (21, 22).
transformed migraine, where 28 (46.6%) patients If we follow more strict criteria for IIHWOP,
had BMI > 25 without IIH. In our series, only one taking into account only patients with OP
patient with IIHWOP had a BMI < 25. > 250 mmH2O, we would have to disregard three
Some authors have reported CSF pressures patients, but three other patients would still be
> 200 mmH2O in healthy obese subjects (15), not diagnosed as IIHWOP and one with IIH with pap-
necessarily with a diagnosis of IIH. Corbett and illoedema, in total four of 61 consecutive patients
Mehta reported 25% of 41 normal obese subjects (6.5%)—a significant percentage. Nevertheless, we
had CSF pressure values between 200 and are confident with the diagnosis of IIHWOP in
250 mmH2O (16). Hannerz et al. have described 15 those two patients with OP 244 mmH2O, and in the
of 19 obese patients with CSF pressures one with 242 mmH2O, because of the headache
> 200 mmH2O in women with signs of inflamma- response after LP and clinical outcomes.
tion in serum (17). However, Bono et al. have IIH was found in a significant percentage in our
reported CSF pressures no higher than 200 mmH2O case series of consecutive CM patients. We strongly
in 18 obese and 33 overweight patients with normal recommend that not only intractable CM patients
MRVs who underwent lumbar puncture, showing with high BMI, but also first diagnosed patients
that overweight/obesity per se do not induce OP with BMI > 30 should be systematically evaluated
> 200 mmH2O (18). by a LP to rule out IIHWOP.
Quattrone et al. have reported that 10 of 11 The section ‘Comment’ of 7.1 of the IHS Clas-
patients with CDH and signs of cerebral venous sification only mentions ‘IIH most commonly
thrombosis (CVT) on MRV had BMI > 25, of whom occurs in young obese women. Although the
five had intracranial hypertension with OP majority of patients with IIH have papilledema,
> 200 mmH2O (8). Mathew et al. have reported 12 of IIH without papilledema is observed. Other symp-
85 CDH patients with migrainous features who toms or signs of IIH include intracranial noises,
were refractory to conventional therapy as having tinnitus, transient visual obscurations and diplo-
IIHWOP, seven of whom were obese (7). pia’ (1). We suggest additional guidelines for the
Healthy obese subjects may have CSF pressure screening of IIHWOP among chronic migraine
above the upper limit of the normal range patients should be included in the ‘comment’ text,
(200 mmH2O) (15–17), but Bono et al. have inserting that not only intractable patients, but
recently shown that excess body weight has a also first diagnosed patients with BMI > 30,
slight effect on CSF pressure in subjects with should be screened.
normal MRV (18); the same group reported bilat- Other mechanisms than CVT or BTSS may be
eral transverse sinus stenosis (BTSS) to be a strong causing elevated pressure in IIHWOP in CM
factor related to IIHWOP in patients with daily patients; further studies are necessary to clarify this
headaches with migraine features (19), although issue.
2. SEGUNDA PARTE
intracraniana, responsável pela aura, seguida por vasodilatação reativa dos vasos
ondas para as áreas adjacentes do córtex. Esse fenômeno ficou conhecido como
fenômeno similar de reatividade foi visto com sintomas visuais da aura que
reflexa.(108)
em humanos. Pacientes com enxaqueca e aura visual foram estudados por meio
DCA.(110)
sensibilização central.(111-113)
que, por sua vez, causam a ativação da porção caudal do núcleo trigeminal. Ao
vasodilatação meníngea por uma via originada no seio sagital superior, atingindo
O papel do glutamato
células gliais, atua nos neurônios pós-sinápticos que estão mais próximos. Os
que inicialmente não respondiam aos estímulos, passem a responder a eles. Esse
várias substâncias que são liberadas pelas células e tecidos vizinhos à lesão
de modulação central na enxaqueca ainda não está claro. Não se sabe ao certo
quando sujeitos prestaram atenção no estímulo doloroso, a SCP não foi ativada e
a percepção dolorosa foi facilitada. Por outro lado, quando os mesmos sujeitos
aura, como nos sem aura, estando tais níveis correlacionados com o tempo de
doença. Esses dados refletem que o acúmulo ferro na SCP pode decorrer da
32
e central.(105, 127)
(Headache 2007;47:842-847)
842
Headache 843
with widespread pain. Glutamate levels have also pain-free status when treated with triptan during the
been correlated with pressure allodynia levels in these mild pain phase than those receiving the drug when
populations.9 pain is graded from moderate to severe. This study also
The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and non- showed that in all headaches treated, the pain-free re-
NMDA receptor activation by glutamate released by sponse at 2 hours was 50% with sumatriptan versus
central nociceptor terminals induces calcium entry 0% for placebo, when the pain was mild, compared
into the dorsal horn neurons, in neurons of the trigem- with 27% versus 6%, when pain was moderated or se-
inal nucleus caudalis and also in supraspinal struc- vere. Another study31 with migraine patients treated
tures, structures that have been considered to partic- with almotriptan 12.5 mg for headaches attacks of any
ipate in the processing of head pain.22-25 Activation severity showed similar results. At 2 hours, 84% of
of NMDA receptors makes the spinal cord neurons mild attacks versus 53% of moderate or severe attacks
more responsive to all nociceptive and nonnocicep- treated with almotriptan were pain free. In another
tive inputs, resulting in central sensitization. Central clinical trial, 93% of patients with migraine but no al-
transmission and hyperexcitability are mediated by ex- lodynia treated with triptan were pain free at 2 hours
citatory amino acids (aspartate and glutamate), and by compared with only 15% of patients with migraine ex-
neurokinins (in particular the substance P) and other periencing allodynia.32
sensory neuropeptides (CGRP) acting on glutamate Accordingly, we could consider that the adminis-
and neurokinin receptors, respectively.6,23,24 Central tration of triptans in early stages of migraine attack, ie,
trigeminal neurons that receive convergent input from 30 to 60 minutes after pain arises, is able to block neu-
external stimuli may be sensitized and this mechanism ropeptides release from both the peripheral and cen-
of central sensitization has been implicated in migraine tral nerve endings, causing these neurons to become
physiopathogenesis. quiescent, thus decreasing the pain and throbbing and
Berstein et al26,27 have shown that during the mi- avoiding the development of allodynia. If allodynia
graine pain, cutaneous allodynia may progress within and central sensitization are related to glutamate lev-
an attack in 80% of patients. Initial peripheral acti- els, and triptan response related to allodynia, one may
vation and sensitization affect intracranial blood ves- speculate that glutamate levels may mediate this re-
sels and the meninges. Later, peripheral pain fibers sponse.
become hypersensitive mediating throbbing pain of One proposed site for triptan action is within the
migraine that worsens during coughing, bending over, trigeminocervical complex. It has been assumed, based
and rapid head movements. If additional central sen- on observations of inhibition of plasma protein ex-
sitization of the trigeminal nucleus caudalis occurs, travasations, and due to the localization of 5-HT1D
than cutaneous allodynia develops. Based on these as- mRNA in the trigeminal ganglion, that triptans block
pects, the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying trigeminal transmission by a prejunctional mechanism.
migraine support the early use of antimigraine drugs It has been shown that some component of transmis-
targeting peripheral nociceptors, before the develop- sion across the trigeminal nucleus involves glutamater-
ment of central sensitization.8,28,29 Theoretically, early gic mechanisms.33-36
treatment before the evolution of the pain to moderate Our study showed lower glutamate levels in
or to severe intensity could avoid or reduce the sensi- CSF of CM patients, who overused triptans, when
tization and, consequently, improve the treatment re- compared to nonoveruse patients. Triptans may work
sponse. in part by reducing extracellular glutamate, as re-
Cady et al30 found that early intervention by the flected by the decrease in CSF levels. Since glutamate
use of triptan administered when the pain is mild pro- is involved in central sensitization, triptans may reduce
duced a greater pain-free response. However, when this process in CM patients. We cannot suggest from
administered later, during the attack or when the pain our data that triptans are more indicated than other an-
had become moderate to severe, the clinical response timigraine drugs for CM treatment, but further clinical
is less significant. In general, more patients reached a studies are necessary to clarify if triptans could prevent
846 June 2007
migraine chronification, reduced headache frequency, with transformed migraine. Neurology. 2001;57:1326-
or be used as a transitional treatment in CM. Trip- 1328.
tans may affect glutamate neurotransmission by sev- 8. Lainez M. Clinical benefits of early triptan therapy
eral hypothetical ways such as inhibiting the glutamate for migraine. Cephalalgia 2004;24(suppl 2):24-30.
release, affecting the glutamate receptors binding site, 9. Peres MF, Zukerman E, Senne Soares CA, Alonso
EO, Santos BF, Faulhaber MH. Cerebrospinal fluid
increasing the glutamate uptake by glial cells and/or
glutamate levels in chronic migraine. Cephalalgia
by neuronal transporters, or decreasing the neuronal
2004;24:735-739.
firing in the trigeminal nucleus. Many variables could
10. Headache Classification Committee of the In-
interfere with the data presented in our study, includ- ternational Headache Society. The international
ing clinical differences between groups, current pain classification of headache disorders. Cephalalgia.
status, triptan overuse, triptan efficacy in headache at- 2004;24(suppl 1):9-160.
tacks, but our sample size was not enough to detect 11. Mathew NT, Ravishankar K, Sanin LC. Coexistence
such differences. In addition, the group that did not of migraine and idiopathic intracranial hyperten-
overuse did not have significantly different glutamate sion without papilledema. Neurology. 1996;46:1226-
levels, but again the sample size may have interfered 1230.
with the results. The lower glutamate levels in these 12. Quattrone A, Bono F, Oliveri RL, Gambardella A,
patients may therefore not represent a mode by which Pirritano D, Labate A, et al. Cerebral venous throm-
triptans work, but may have many other explanations. bosis and isolated intracranial hypertension without
papilledema in CDH. Neurology. 2001;57:31-36.
Further studies to investigate whether triptans work in
13. Olesen J, Bousser MG, Diener HC, Dodick D, First
part by lowering extracellular glutamate are required
M, Goadsby PJ, et al. New appendix criteria open for
to explore this pathophysiology, as well as to test any
a broader concept of chronic migraine. Cephalalgia.
current interpretation. 2006;26:742-746.
14. Cavalheiro EA, Fernandes MJ, Turski L, Naffah-
Conflict of Interest: None
Mazzacoratti MG. Spontaneous recurrent seizures in
rats: Amino acid and monoamine determination in
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41
3. TERCEIRA PARTE
Enxaqueca e depressão
Merikangas et al. foram uns dos primeiros autores que relataram o risco
educacional.(140)
Para tentar explicar essa associação, Breslau et al. reviram cerca de mil
encontrando neles uma chance três vezes maior de desenvolver depressão (OR,
3.2; 95% IC, 2.3-4.6). Ao mesmo tempo, pacientes deprimidos sem história de
enxaqueca quando comparados com pacientes sem depressão (OR, 3.1; 95% IC,
2.0-5.0).(141)
verificaram que 85% dos indivíduos têm algum grau de depressão (de leve a
grave) e que 25% apresentam depressão grave. Nesse mesmo estudo, aspectos
ideação suicida.(147)
crises de enxaqueca.(150)
crônica.(149)
com enxaqueca com ou sem depressão têm maior risco de suicídio que pessoas
maior nos pacientes com enxaqueca com aura que naqueles sem aura.(152, 153)
serotoninérgico e gabaérgico.
controles.(157)
BR A I N R ES E A RC H 1 0 9 0 ( 2 00 6 ) 1 9 7 –2 01
a v a i l a b l e a t w w w. s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m
w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / b r a i n r e s
Research Report
D.S.S. Vieira, M.G. Naffah-Mazacoratti, E. Zukerman, C.A. Senne Soares, E.O. Alonso,
M.H.W. Faulhaber, E.A. Cavalheiro, M.F.P. Peres ⁎
Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa Albert Einstein, Universidade Federal de São Paulo-Escola Paulista de Medicina, Brazil
A R T I C LE I N FO AB S T R A C T
Article history: Psychiatric comorbidity is one of the key elements in chronic migraine (CM) management.
Accepted 16 March 2006 Depression is particularly common in these patients, occurring in up to 85%. Preclinical
Available online 25 April 2006 studies have suggested that gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels may be decreased in
animal models of depression. Also, clinical studies have reported low level in mood disorder
Keywords: patients for both plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) GABA. We hypothesized that low
Chronic migraine GABA levels in the brain might be related to the depression associated with CM. We studied
Depression 14 chronic migraine patients, with or without depression, compared to age-and sex-
GABA matched controls. CSF GABA levels were measured by HPLC. CSF GABA levels showed
Pathophysiology significant lower levels in depressed patients than those without depression. No difference
Cerebrospinal fluid was found when comparing patients versus controls. A GABA deficiency may be the
underlying mechanism of depression in CM. Hence, preventive therapies modulating GABA
neurotransmission could be used in CM associated with depression.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
⁎ Corresponding author. Al. Joaquim Eugenio de Lima, 881 cj 708 01403-001 São Paulo SP, Brazil. Fax: +55 11 3285 5726.
E-mail address: marioperes@yahoo.com (M.F.P. Peres).
0006-8993/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.03.051
198 BR A I N R ES E A RC H 1 0 9 0 ( 2 00 6 ) 1 9 7 –20 1
migraine (CM) management. Depression is particularly Our study shows decreased GABA levels in the CSF of
common in these patients, some degree of depression patients with CM plus depression when compared to those
(including mild cases) was found in up to 85%; furthermore, patients without psychiatry symptoms and controls subjects.
severe depression was found in 25% of CM patients A limitation of our study was the use of the Beck Depression
(Mercante et al., 2005). GABA neurotransmission has been Inventory rather than a structured interview; however, a good
linked to the pathophysiology of depression in experimental, correlation has been established between Beck scores and
neuroimaging and clinical studies. Furthermore, decreased structured interviews (Beck et al., 1961; American Psychiatric
GABA levels in CSF and serum have been reported in Association, 1994). Several studies have showed abnormal
depression (Brambilla et al., 2003; Shian and Yathanm, GABA levels in depression, including preclinical and clinical
1998; Petty, 1995; Lloyd et al., 1987a, 1989; Tunnicliff and data (Brambilla et al., 2003; Shian and Yathanm, 1998; Petty,
Malatynska, 2003; Petty and Sherman, 1981, 1984; Petty and 1995; Lloyd et al., 1989; Tunnicliff and Malatynska, 2003; Lloyd
Schlesser, 1981; Petty et al., 1990; Emrich et al., 1980; Gold et et al., 1987a).
al., 1980; Kasa et al., 1982; Post et al., 1980; Petty, 1994). GABA in GABAergic terminals is formed from glutamate in
Despite the relevance of depression in chronic migraine, an enzymatic reaction, using pyridoxal phosphate as cofactor,
little is known about their mechanisms. We hypothesized mediated by glutamate acid decarboxylase (GAD). After being
that GABA levels might be related to the mechanisms of released into the synapses, GABA is inactivated by reuptake
depression in CM patients. Accordingly, we have measured into presynaptic terminals or into glial cells mediated by GABA
the GABA levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of CM patients as transporter (GATs). At the present time, four complementary
well as in controls subjects and its relationship with DNAs encoding high homologous GATs proteins have been
depression is discussed. cloned (GAT-1, GAT-2, GAT-3, and BGT-1). GAD is localized
only in GABAergic presynaptic terminals, lacking in glial cells.
Two forms have been discovered so far (GAD65 GAD67).
GABAergic receptors are composed by two main types with
2. Results
different distribution on the neuronal surface, GABAA, and
GABAB receptors. GABAA receptors are ionotropic and mostly
All CSF studied presented normal levels of protein, glucose,
postsynaptic receptors, mainly located at the apical dendrite
lactate, as well as the cell count.
of the neurons. It causes the fast inhibitory postsynaptic
CSF GABA levels in CM patients was not statistically
potential (IPSP). GABAB receptors are mainly located at
different from that observed in controls. When analyzed by
presynaptic terminal soma and mediate the slow IPSP
the occurrence of depression as comorbidity, it was possible to
(Brambilla et al., 2003).
verify that the GABA level in CM plus depression patients
When inescapable shocks are administered to animals,
(7.29 ± 1.44 μmol/l) was lower than that observed in patients
they demonstrate subsequent inability to perform a simple
with CM without depression (8.3 ± 1.12 μmol/l) (P < 0.04) and in
escape task in shuttle box (Petty, 1995). One call learned
controls (8.46 ± 1.93 μmol/l) (Fig. 1).
helplessness this stress-induced depressive behavior. Petty
and Sherman (1981) demonstrated that GABA injection into
frontal neocortex and hippocampus reversed the learned
3. Discussion helplessness reaction. Also, they reported two things: (1)
injection of bicuculline, a GABAA receptors antagonist, into
Depression is the most frequent psychiatric condition associ- hippocampus produced learned helplessness in naive non-
ated with migraine. Moderate or severe depression has been stressed rats; and (2) a chronic administration of tricyclic
reported in 58.7% of the patients with it (Mercante et al., 2005). antidepressants normalized both, the hippocampal GABA
Fig. 1 – Cerebrospinal fluid glutamate levels in chronic migraine patients with and without depression and controls.
BR A I N R ES E A RC H 1 0 9 0 ( 2 00 6 ) 1 9 7 –2 01 199
release and the helpless behavior (Sherman and Petty, 1980). However, no significant differences have been found in
In another preclinical study, rats that have had their olfactory several brain areas between suicide victims and nonpsychi-
bulbs removed showed increase in locomotor activities, atric controls for GABAA and GABAB receptor binding sites,
deficits in memory, changes in food-motivated behavior, and GAD activity, and GABA concentration.
a pervasive deficit in passive-avoidance learning (Kelly et al., A recent SPECT study reported abnormally decreased
1997). Following olfactory bulbectomy, GABA turnover was GABAA receptor density in the prefrontal cortex of mood
reported to increase in rat amygdaloid cortex (Jancsar and disorder patients, mainly bipolar, with or without akinetic
Leonard, 1984). Furthermore, the binding on GABAB receptor in catatonia, a psychomotor syndrome that can be seen in
frontal cortex, but not in other brain regions, has been found to mood disorders and responsive to lorazepam (Northoff et al.,
be decreased about 50% in this model. However, the binding 1999).
on GABAA receptor increased in frontal cortex and, transient- Welch et al. (1975) and Kowa et al. (1992) reported that GABA
ly, in the hippocampus of this rats (Lloyd and Pichat, 1986; levels in CSF and platelets were increased in patients suffering
Dennis et al., 1993). On the other hand, desipramine reversed of migraine and tensional headache as a possible compensa-
the behavior deficit in rats with olfactory bulbectomy, tory response to pain. We hypothesize that there were no
increasing the cortex GABAB receptor density. It has also differences between controls and patients with CM without
been showed that baclofen, progabide, and fengabide reverse psychiatry symptoms because there might be a response
the behavioral deficit in this model (Joly et al., 1987; Lloyd et promoting a GABA increase in these individuals. This response
al., 1987b; Drugan et al., 1989). mechanism is supposedly impaired in patients with CM and
A role of GABA in mood disorders was first postulated by depression, justifying why low GABA levels were observed only
Emrich et al. (1980), based on the clinical observation that in those depressed patients, and not in nondepressed patients,
valproate, a GABA agonist, which was effective in the where the compensatory GABA response to pain is normal
treatment of bipolar affective disorder. (Brambilla et al., 2003; Shian and Yathanm, 1998; Petty, 1994,
The GABA level on CSF GABA originates from brain and may 1995; Petty and Schlesser, 1981; Petty and Sherman, 1981, 1984;
reflect the GABAergic brain activity (Grove et al., 1982; Loscher, Petty et al., 1990; Lloyd et al., 1989; Tunnicliff and Malatynska,
1982). Lower CSF GABA levels have been found in unipolar 2003; Lloyd et al., 1987a; Emrich et al., 1980; Gold et al., 1980;
(Gold et al., 1980; Gener et al., 1984) and bipolar patients when Kasa et al., 1982; Post et al., 1980).
compared to control values (Berrettini et al., 1983). However, Current biochemical hypotheses of mood disorders impli-
other studies showed no abnormalities in GABA CSF levels in cate biogenic amine neurotransmitters such as serotonin and
unipolar disorder (Post et al., 1980) and, especially, in bipolar norepinephrine. This happens in either the pathophysiology
patients (Gener et al., 1984; Post et al., 1980; Berrettini et al., of depression and mania or in the mechanism of action of
1986). Discrepancies between positive and negative studies mood-altering treatments. However, most antidepressants
may be in part explained by methodological differences, such and mood stabilizers in clinical use affect a number of
as the aliquot of CSF examined and the subject characteristics neurotransmitter receptors, in addition to those related to
(i.e., age, gender, mood) (Post et al., 1980; Berrettini et al., 1986). norepinephrine and serotonin. We consider that other neuro-
There is some evidence to suggest that plasma levels transmitter systems, such as the GABA system, may be
reflect brain GABA activities (Petty, 1994). For example, GABA deranged in mood disorders alone, but also in mood disorders
levels in plasma have been reported to be almost identical to present in chronic migraine. Then, antidepressants and mood
levels in CSF, suggesting that there is no active gradient stabilizers, or eventually other medications with GABA
between these two compartments. Furthermore, after phar- activity, may be important in the management of important
macological manipulations GABA levels change in similar in the management of psychiatric comorbidity in chronic
proportion (Ferkany et al., 1978; Loscher and Frey, 1982). Some migraine. Future studies are still necessary for a better
studies have shown that depressed patients have lower understanding of the putative role of the GABAergic neuro-
plasma GABA levels, when compared with matched normal transmission in migraine headaches and their psychiatric
controls (Petty and Schlesser, 1981; Petty and Sherman, 1984; comorbidity disorders.
Petty et al., 1990). Moreover, Petty et al. (1995) reported that, in
patients with major depression, plasma GABA levels were
stable for 4-year follow-up and did not change with clinical 4. Experimental procedures
improvement. This suggests that low plasma may be a trait
marker for the depressive illness. In addition, mean levels of Fourteen patients (3 male, 11 female) were diagnosed
plasma GABA were reported to be significantly lower in both with chronic migraine according to Silberstein et al. and
manic and depressive phases of bipolar patients, when the International Headache Society (IHS-2004) criteria
compared to healthy individuals (Petty et al., 1993). (Silberstein et al., 1996; Headache Classification Subcommit-
Perry et al. (1977) studied activities of GAD in brain regions tee of the International Headache Society, 2004). Patients met
of patients with depression and they reported that GAD both IHS and Silberstein's criteria. Patients underwent a
activities were significantly decreased in frontal cortex, lumbar puncture in order to rule idiopathic intracranial
occipital cortex, and basal ganglia of depressed patients hypertension, which is present in 5–14% of chronic daily
when compared to controls values. GABAA receptor binding headache series (Mathew et al., 1996; Quattrone et al.,
sites have been found to be abnormally increased in frontal 2001). Six patients were included in the group of patients
cortex of depressed suicide victims (Cheetham et al., 1988), presenting chronic migraine and depression. The presence
suggesting lowered GABAergic activity in those patients. of depression was considered when the Beck Depression
200 BR A I N R ES E A RC H 1 0 9 0 ( 2 00 6 ) 1 9 7 –20 1
Inventory (BDI II) was higher than 16. A good correlation 4.3. Statistical analysis
between the BDI II score (cutoff level of 16) and the DSM IV
diagnostic criteria for major depression is achieved (Beck et The values in μmol/l were expressed as mean ± SD. One-way
al., 1961; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The within-subjects ANOVA was carried out to compare GABA
remaining eight patients presented only chronic migraine. levels from CSF. A Student's t test was used to compare
Controlled CSF specimens were also obtained from 14 age- groups. Five percent for two-sided tests was chosen as a
and sex-matched subjects who underwent lumbar puncture minimum level of statistical significance.
for others diagnostic purposes. Their CSF and blood tests were
normal. When necessary, instrumental investigations includ-
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50
4. CONCLUSÕES
lombar deve fazer parte da investigação inicial em mulheres obesas com IMC
venosas.
Peres et al.(158) Não obstante, um dado relevante e até então não relatado
mostrou que pacientes com abuso oral de triptanos apresentaram níveis menores
cefaléias.
51
comorbidades.
52
5.ANEXOS
A. Cefaléia por mais de um mês com freqüência diária ou quase diária (>15 dias/mês)
B. Duração média de 4 horas/dia (sem tratamento)
C. Ao menos uma das seguintes:
1. História de enxaqueca episódica prévia preenchendo os critérios da IHS 1.1 a
1.6.
2. História de aumento da freqüência com diminuição da intensidade das
manifestações enxaquecosas por no mínimo 3 meses.
3. Cefaléia que atualmente preenche os critérios da IHS para enxaqueca 1.1 a
1.6.
D. Ao menos um dos seguintes:
1. Não há sinal de que seja uma cefaléia sintomática listada no grupo 5-11.
2. Há sinais de que seja uma cefaléia sintomática, porém é descartada com
investigação apropriada.
3. Há uma condição subjacente, mas as crises não têm relação temporal com tal
condição.
IHS - International Headache Society
1.5.1 Cefaléia enxaqueca ocorrendo em 15 ou mais dias por mês por mais de três meses,
na ausência do uso excessivo de medicação.
A. Cefaléia preenchendo os critérios C e D para a enxaqueca sem aura em ≥ 15 dias por
mês por > 3 meses.
B. Não atribuída a outro transtorno
C. A cefaléia preenche ao menos duas das seguintes características:
1. localização unilateral
2. caráter pulsátil
3. intensidade moderada a forte
4. exacerbada por ou levando o indivíduo a evitar atividades físicas rotineiras
D. Ao menos um dos seguintes:
1. náuseas e/ou vômitos
2. fotofobia e fonofobia
8.2 Critérios diagnósticos pela ICHD II, para cefaléia crônica por uso abusivo de
medicações.(1)
A. Preenche os critérios para cefaléia crônica
B. Ao menos um dos seguintes:
5. Ingestão de analgésicos comuns em ≥ 15 dias por mês por > 3 meses
6. Ingestão de combinação de medicamentos em ≥ 10 dias por mês por > 3 meses
7. Ingestão de opióides em ≥ 10 dias por mês por > 3 meses
8. Ingestão de ergotamina em ≥ 10 dias por mês por > 3 meses
9. Ingestão de triptanos em ≥ 10 dias por mês por > 3 meses
C. A cefaléia apareceu ou piorou acentuadamente durante o uso excessivo de
analgésicos
D. A cefaléia desaparece ou reassume o seu padrão prévio dentro de dois meses após a
interrupção dos analgésicos.
54
Comentários:
HII ocorre mais freqüente em mulheres jovens e obesas.
Embora a maioria dos pacientes com HII tenha edema de papila, HII sem papiledema pode
ser observada. Outros sintomas ou sinais de HII incluem ruídos intracranianos, zumbidos,
escurecimento visual transitório e diplopia.
57
Você está sendo convidado para participar de um estudo sobre as causas da sua
dor de cabeça, a cefaléia crônica diária. Apesar de ser uma condição muito comum,
presente em 5% da população geral, a cefaléia crônica diária é pouco estudada e por
isso pouco se conhece sobre suas causas.
Cerca de 10% dos pacientes com dor de cabeça diária, a cefaléia crônica diária,
apresentam um aumento da pressão de dentro do cérebro, e por isso é necessário
fazer o exame do líquor, para esta pressão ser medida e esta condição ser
diagnosticada. O líquor é um exame simples, é uma punção como outra qualquer, mas
cujo objetivo é medir e retirar um líquido que envolve o cérebro e a medula: o líquido
cefalorraquidiano. Esta punção pode ser feita na região lombar ou cervical, e o exame
é praticamente indolor. O cérebro e a medula não são afetados, e os riscos do
procedimento são baixos e incluem dor de cabeça após a punção, dor no local da
punção e infecção do seu trajeto. Existe a alternativa de não ser feito o exame do
líquido cefalorraquidiano, porém isto acarretará na não realização do diagnóstico do
aumento da pressão de dentro do cérebro se ele estiver presente, além de outras
doenças inflamatórias do sistema nervoso que podem inicialmente ser diagnosticadas.
Você tem total liberdade de sair do estudo a qualquer momento, sem prejuízo do
seu atendimento no hospital, e as informações pessoais serão mantidas em absoluto
sigilo e serão utilizados apenas para esta pesquisa.
Para quaisquer dúvidas entrar em contato com Dr. Mario Peres pelo fone 3747-
3309.
__________________________ _____________________
__________________________ _____________________
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Abstract
cerebrospinal fluid from patients with chronic migraine compared to other groups of
Results: Six patients, among sixty, had CSF open pressure higher than 200 mm
glutamate levels lower than those with abuse of other analgesic types and non-
Conclusions: The study of the cerebrospinal fluid was important in patients with
and development of new drug therapies for migraine and its comorbidities.
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