A Functional Contextualist Account of Behavioral Economics. RFT Applied To Decision-Making and Choice Behavior

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ISSN 2177-3548
A Functional Contextualist Account of Behavioral Economics:

Relational Frame Theory Applied to Decision-Making and Choice
Behavior
Uma Abordagem Funcional Contextualista da Economia Comportamental:
Teoria das Molduras Relacionais Aplicada à Tomadas de Decisão e
Comportamentos de Escolha
Un Enfoque Funcional Contextualista de la Economía del Comportamiento:
Teoría de los marcos relacionales Aplicada a la Tomas de Decisión y las
Conductas de Elección
Marco Tagliabue1, Massimo Cesareo2, Valeria Squatrito3, Giovambattista Presti3
[1] Department of Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, OsloMet – Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway [2] IESCUM - Istituto Europeo per lo
Studio del Comportamento Umano – Parma, Italy [3] Kore University Behavioral Lab, Department of Human and Social Sciences, Kore University, Enna, Italy | Título
abreviado: Behavioral Economics and Relational Frame Theory | Endereço para correspondência: Marco Tagliabue, PB 4 St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway |
Email: marco.tagliabue@oslomet.no | doi: 10.18761/PAC.2021.v12.RFT.05
Abstract: Behavioral economics is a discipline that is mainly rooted in cognitivism and that
is concerned with the study of decision-making processes and choice behavior. These involve
addressing the relations between cognition and overt behavior, which comprise one of the most
challenging topics in the domain of behavioral sciences at large and have been approached
by different epistemological viewpoints. Within the cognitivist tradition, private events have
been often treated as causes of behaviors, adopting a mechanistic view. Conversely, a contextual
functional behavioral perspective treats them with the same methodology that is adopted for
overt behaviors. Relational frame theory, a post-Skinnerian theory of language and cognition,
offers a behavioral perspective on cognition and overt behavior and how they influence human
behavior, by keeping a high degree of coherence with basic principles and goals of behavior
analysis (i.e., effective action). This conceptual paper represents an attempt to offer a perspective
drawn from contextual behavioral science on some constructs described in behavioral econom-
ics. Furthermore, it provides a common ground for behavior analysts and researchers in other
fields of psychology to further expand our knowledge and respective explanations of decision-
making processes. Finally, it draws a line for connecting basic research to applied solutions.
Keywords: Relational frame theory, behavioral economics, decision-making, cognition, value.
Revista Perspectivas 2021 Early View RFT Special Volume pp.001-023 1 www.revistaperspectivas.org
Resumo: Economia comportamental é uma disciplina fundamentada principalmente no
cognitivismo e dedica-se ao estudo de processos de tomada de decisões e comportamentos
de escolha. Ambos envolvem a abordagem de relações entre cognição e comportamento ma-
nifesto, que compreende um dos tópicos mais desafiadores no domínio das ciências do com-
portamento. Diferentes perspectivas epistemológicas orientam a abordagem aos fenômenos.
A partir de uma tradição cognitivista, eventos privados têm sido tratados frequentemente
como causas de comportamentos, adotando uma visão mecanicista. Contrariamente, uma
perspectiva comportamental funcional e contextual os aborda com a mesma metodologia
adotada para comportamentos manifestos. A teoria das molduras relacionais, uma teoria
pós-Skinneriana da linguagem e da cognição, oferece uma perspectica comportamental so-
bre o papel e a influência da cognição sobre o comportamento humano, mantendo alto grau
de coerência com princípios básicos e objetivos da Análise do Comportamento (i.e., ação
efetiva). O presente trabalho conceitual representa um esforço para apresentar explicações
extraídas da ciência comportamental contextual a respeito de alguns conceitos descritos pela
economia comportamental. Além disso, propõe uma base comum para analistas do compor-
tamento e pesquisadores de outras abordagens da Psicologia que contribua com a expansão
do conhecimento e explicações acerca de processos de tomada de decisão. Traça-se uma linha
de conexão entre a pesquisa básica a soluções aplicadas.
Palavras-chave: Teoria das molduras relacionais, economia comportamental, tomada de
decisões, cognição, valor.
Resumen: La economía comportamental es una disciplina radicada en el cognitivismo y

que trata el estudio de los procesos de toma de decisiones y comportamientos de elección.
Ambos involucran el estudio de relaciones entre cognición y comportamiento manifiesto,
lo cual incluye algunos de los temas más desafiantes en el dominio de las ciencias compor-
tamentales y que ya han sido tratados desde diferentes puntos de vista epistemológicos. A
lo largo de la tradición cognitivista, los eventos privados han sido a menudo tratados como
causas de comportamientos, utilizando una mirada mecanicista. En cambio, una perspec-
tiva comportamental funcional y contextual los trata con la misma metodología que viene
adoptada para comportamientos manifiestos. La teoría de los marcos relacionales, una teoría
post-Skinneriana del lenguaje y de la cognición, ofrece una perspectiva comportamental so-
bre cognición y comportamientos manifiestos y como ellos influencian el comportamiento
humano, manteniendo un alto nivel de coherencia con los principios básicos y objetivos del
análisis comportamental (i.e., acción efectiva). Este articulo conceptual representa un in-
tento de ofrecer una perspectiva extraída desde la ciencia comportamental contextual sobre
algunos constructos descritos en economía comportamental. Además, proporciona una base
común para analistas del comportamiento y investigadores en otros campos de la psicología
para expandir ulteriormente nuestro conocimiento y las explicaciones correspondientes sobre
los procesos de tomas de decisión. Por último, traza una línea de conexión entre investigación
de base y soluciones aplicadas.
Palabras clave: Teoría de marcos relacionales, economía comportamental, toma de decisio-
nes, cognición, valor.
Marco Tagliabue, Massimo Cesareo, Valeria Squatrito, Giovambattista Presti 001-023
Relational frame theory (RFT) is a post-Skinner- may have a heuristic function, from a behavior ana-
ian account of language and cognition. These are lytic perspective it should not take on an explicative
conceptualized as a particular type of operant function, for this would hinder the possibility to in-
behavior, named arbitrary applicable relational fluence it (Cesareo, 2018). Conversely, by adopting
responding (AARR). The explanatory power of a behavioral analytic standpoint, our attention goes
RFT extends principles of behavior analysis (BA) herein to describing what a bias is and what are the
to the domain of higher cognitive functions and contextual variables of its occurrence.
addresses non-direct (i.e., derived) learning and In order to meet the utility criteria (success-
value-based behavioral change. Moreover, RFT ful manipulation) of a context-based approach, we
explains how humans equally assign values to should start addressing the external contingencies
objects, events and experiences; it offers an alter- that can be manipulated to understand what a bias
native account of how the tradition of behavioral is. Next, we may prevent and overcome the occur-
economics (BE) values commodities. rence of a bias as long as it is aimed at improving the
BE can be defined in its most simple form as human condition. In other words, we need to iden-
“economics with more explanatory power because tify relevant contextual variables to improve our un-
the models are a better fit with the data” (Thaler, derstanding and influence of behavior. As stated by
2016, p. 23). It stems from the descriptive inade- Skinner (1974): “Explaining behaviors using mental
quacy of the standard economic model to account states, just move(s) the focus out of the research of
for systematic deviations from “best” decisions: (an explanation of) the behaviors. (To) Rely upon
that is, decisions that grant the highest utility or re- an “inner person” means to give an explanation (of)
inforcement. Quiñones, Hayes, and Hayes (2000) to something that could not be explained (itself and
maintained that RFT was positioned well enough its just a way to explain things that we are not able
as an account of human language for providing a to explain) in other ways” (p. 165).
needed corrective in the analysis of complex con- The first aim of this paper is to extend a func-
sumer behavior and, more general, to psychology. tional contextual approach resting on BA to other
As the consequences of actions are not always con- fields than those traditionally explored, widening its
veyed contingently, an analysis of verbal behavior application, and calling for forthcoming applicative
may identify rules that may put in touch an individ- studies from other areas, including but not limited
ual with the description of contingencies, without to the field of BE. We drive analogies from RFT and
necessarily experiencing them directly. Embracing acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT; i.e., a re-
an RFT approach may allow us to be more precise search-based intervention derived from RFT) based
insofar as the understanding of the functional rela- on studies and research protocols that have been
tion between verbal antecedents and human behav- implemented in the field of organizational behavior
ior is concerned, especially when consequences are management (see Hayes, Bond, Barnes-Holmes, &
possibly delayed, uncertain or abstract. Austin, 2006). Similarly, we are interested in showing
Although BE and BA share a tendency to pro- how RFT can expand the behavior analytic root of
vide descriptive accounts of behavioral patterns the field of BE, which has attracted researchers with
(i.e., describing how individuals act in the presence diverse backgrounds (e.g., psychology, economics,
of certain stimuli), there is at least one difference marketing, law, etc.). BE has been traditionally influ-
concerning the way in which cognition is treated. enced to a much larger extent by a cognitive vision
In fact, behavioral economists often tend to appeal than an approach grounded on a scientific analysis
to what they term as biases in order to describe of behavior (interestingly enough so, for the former
cognitive mechanisms that lead people to act in a is electively considered a behavioral science, but the
way that is not in line with the notion of rational- latter is reluctantly so) (see Carr, Luke, & Arntzen,
ity (i.e., maximizing or optimizing outcomes). That 2019). Nevertheless, there have been cases in which
implies a causal relation between cognition and the functional and cognitive views might “collabo-
(overt) behavior. Although the use of the term bias rate” (see De Houwer & Hughes, 2019, 2020; De
(as well as other mentalistic terms adopted in BE), Houwer, Hughes, & Barnes-Holmes, 2017a, 2017b).
A Functional Contextualist Account of Behavioral Economics: Relational Frame Theory Applied to Decision-Making and Choice Behavior 001-023
The second aim of this conceptual work is function of antecedents, consequences, and learn-
twofold. First, we offer common grounds for both ing history. However, when dealing with symbolic
behavior analysts and other researchers in the behavior, it is necessary to take into consideration
field of psychology to come together and expand the important component that comes from de-
further the field by blurring the line between basic rived learning: this is, learning without any direct
research and applied solutions. We present RFT contact with contingencies, which may also lead
as a theory that integrates and extends behavior to a bias. We start by introducing the broader ob-
analytic principles to include human cognition. jective of RFT to account for human cognition
Specifically, we target choice behavior insofar as and we set out to understand how RFT and BE
both its conceptual explanations and applied im- address verbal behavior. Specifically, we focus on
plications are concerned. In this context, we refer the concepts of bias, discounting, and value. Lastly,
to choice not by limiting its meaning to economic we discuss applied implications and a tool for put-
decision making, but rather extending it to any be- ting to empirical test some of the concepts raised
havioral direction that a human being follows as a in the next sections.
Figure 1. Diagram of relations between a behavioral account of human language and cognition and basic and applied science.
The vision herein described assumes that BE behavior relation is considered incomplete and
could be seen as an applied field within applied be-needs be further analyzed. On this extent, several
havior analysis. Similar to other areas of applica- of the topics of BA share with mentalistic accounts
tion that span from education, to organization and the same potentially “metatheoretical problems”
clinical applications, important benefits may be of encouraging incomplete accounts (Hayes &
drawn from basic research studies coming from the Brownstein, 1986). For example, one of them is the
experimental analysis of behavior (EAB). Figure 1 nature of the relation between covert and overt be-
represents our take on the interconnections that a haviors. Questions such as “What role does thinking
behavioral account of human behavior, including play in the control of behavior?” are focusing on the
language and cognition, has with basic and ap- nature of a behavior-behavior relation that must be
plied science, respectively. Although it may be per-explained by appealing to particular contextual ar-
ceived as an oversimplification of the interconnec- rangements (Hayes & Brownstein, 1986).
tions between different areas of basic and applied Assuming that there is a causative relation
behavioral analytic studies, the point is to offer abetween thoughts and overt behaviors could be
sense of how the conceptualization of BE within a a complete explanation to the mechanist, whose
behavioral framework may put basic and applied view of the world does not insist on influence as a
researchers in a position to better understand and necessary goal of science, and whose truth criterion
manipulate the environmental variables (i.e., basic,is not usefulness within a model, but coherence as
or top-down), and policy makers and governmen- in a mechanistic one (Hayes & Brownstein, 1986).
tal agencies to adopt better and long-term solutionsHowever, for those assuming a functional contex-
to create socially relevant impact (i.e., applied, or
tualistic position, like behavior analysts, that would
bottom-up). In addition, it fosters collaboration not be sufficient. As Skinner (1974) noted, once we
and integration from different fields within appliedhave explained a response by appealing to mental-
behavior analysis, which shares with BE a common istic terms, we still need to explain their origins and
goal of striving for an increased explanatory power be able to manipulate the functional relation with
of (economic, organizational, abnormal, etc.) be- the behavior. This raises a difficult challenge in BA:
havior. While BE strives to “generating theoretical namely, how is it possible to provide a comprehen-
insights, making better predictions of field phe- sive account of the relation that occurs between
nomena, and suggesting better policy” (Camerer, covert and overt behaviors while avoiding appeal-
Loewenstein, & Rabin, 2004, p. 3), we argue that BE ing to tautological explanations? As Hayes, Barnes-
and BA could and should jointly inform and shape Holmes and Roche (2001) stated, “[t]he analysis of
social policies and phenomena for the better. If we human language remains a mountain that behav-
consider language and cognition as behaviors, it is ioral psychology has yet to climb” (p. 19).
easier to think of interventions that manipulate the The relation covert-overt behavior is relevant
context for improving our condition. In the same in several areas: among them is BE, where today
way, it will be easier to observe the links between the behavior analytic vision is overshadowed by
BA, BE, and possibly education and psychotherapy. the cognitive tradition. Whereas, historically, the
BE tradition was partially characterized by a be-
havioral approach, similar to Brandon (2008), we
Relational Frame Theory Extends maintain that behavior analysis and contextual
the Behavior Analytic Vision to behavior science may enhance our understanding
Cognition of behavior change within the scope of BE: this in-
cludes choice, decision-making, judgement, and the
Two main scientific goals of BA are prediction and extent to which biases and values may affect them.
control of behavior. In order to pursue the latter, Nevertheless, this approach does not program for
behavior must be explained by considering con- neglecting the cognitive processes underlying their
tingencies that lie in the environment. Whenever resulting behavioral outputs; rather, it puts forward
dealing with overt or covert behavior, a behavior- an integrated model informed by RFT to increase
the explanatory and predictive power of the behav- Barnes-Holmes, & Roche, 2001). For example, af-
ioral assumptions on which BE experimentation ter learning one of the most common type of rela-
has focused ever since the tenets of bounded ratio- tions, if…then, which is necessary for planning, we
nality were set (Simon, 1955). Bounded rationality might start predicting events in the future; next, we
refers to the concept apt to capture and describe can react to those predictions and act to emotions
how the limits in our thinking capacity, available in- we feel in the present and their derived scenarios.
formation, and time (Simon, 1983) can exert a sys- While the event has not yet occurred, we can feel
tematic influence on our decisions. In other words, anxious or fearful, safe or firm when making that
we propose a cognitive and behavioral model that prediction. Similarly, by building comparative
has the potential to enhance the field: it extends the and evaluative relationships, which are needed in
cognitive focus of BE by providing a more technical problem solving to evaluate and compare, we can
analysis of behavior (e.g., choice, decision-making, compare ourselves with an ideal situation, person
etc.) and it deepens the explanation and prediction or self and feel confident or inadequate. We can
of behavior by putting the analysis of cognitive pro- perceive ourselves qualified or inferior to others or
cessing back into the picture. fear the judgment of ourselves or others even in the
absence of such a direct experience (see also Hayes,
Language and Cognition: A Contextual Strosahl, & Wilson, 2012).
Behavioral Vision From this point of view, there are no functional
RFT conceptualizes language and cognition as be- or dysfunctional behavioral patterns. That is to say
ing constituted by a specific high order pattern of that all patterns are functional in the sense that they
operant behavior, which is termed arbitrary ap- are a function of the environmental variables that
plicable relational responding (AARR). AARR is control them. Even in worst-case scenarios, where
functionally characterized by derived responding an individual’s prediction of a failure on a future
(mutual and combinatorial entailment) and trans- occasion increases the probability of emitting an
formation of stimulus function. Verbally competent avoidance pattern, this pattern is always under the
human beings progressively learn to respond to control of environmental events. For example, if a
more and more articulated networks of mutual re- child exhibits patterns of behavior that have been
lations. These relations start from coordination and clinically described as “social phobia”, these pat-
expand to opposition, temporal, spatial, distinction, terns might be a function of avoidance and un-
deictic, and others when a human being develops der the control of verbal antecedents related to
language. Contextual cues control the type of rela- the anticipation of disastrous social interactions.
tions to which we respond to. RFT recognizes that Likewise, patterns of actions that are under the con-
frames are involved in creativity, problem solving, trol of verbal antecedents such as “I need to invest
IQ, prejudice and other human activities. Thus, lan- in this cryptocurrency before it is too late”, might
guage is the set of symbols that we use, manipulate, lead to relevant economic losses. Thus, RFT and
react to, and act upon. Language includes not only ACT show that there are no dysfunctional patterns,
words, but also images, sounds, facial expressions, and that the term dysfunction comes from deviat-
and gestures. Moreover, we can make public or pri- ing one’s own life path from one’s valued direction.
vate use of language. In the previous example, the sociophobe child may
Studying how symbolic behavior is manipu- have friends and social relations instead of avoiding
lated and how we respond to it represents the core the predicted dreadful consequences that may arise
of RFT research. Derived relational responding from them. In the second, fusion with thoughts and
allows us to learn without the need for direct ex- avoidance of discomfort related to loss of hypothet-
perience. Research suggests that the same tools we ical gains might, in fact, bring to worse economic
use to solve everyday problems can confine us in consequences.
the quicksand of suffering. The same arbitrary re- A misconception that is shared by several critics
lational patterns related to “normal” functioning preaches that BA ignores consciousness, feelings,
are implied in “dysfunctional” behaviors (Hayes, and states of mind; thus, it poses limits to its appli-
cations (Jensen & Burgess, 1997; Puligandla, 1974; Niileksela, & Kaplan, 2013), which are deviations
Todd & Morris, 1983). Although behavior analytic from best or optimal choices and decision making
accounts have been accused of neglecting cogni- insofar as their subjective value is concerned (i.e.,
tive processes, RFT emerged as an evidence-based utility). According to the cognitive psychology tra-
account of language and cognition that sought to dition, irrational behaviors have been described in
expand Skinner’s vision into a new theory, by pro- terms of mentalistic psychological causes, such as
viding a useful framework to better understand the cognitive biases or psychological predispositions
core characteristics of language. (e.g., Angner & Loewenstein, 2007; Camerer, 1999;
The early origins of RFT trace back to 1985, to a Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982). However, the
paper in which Hayes and Brownstein (1985) were BA perspective tended to focus on behavioral prin-
trying to offer an alternative and broader picture to ciples as a useful tool to define irrational behaviors
the one that was emerging from the early studies on (e.g., Hursh, 1980; Skinner, 1953).
stimulus equivalence (Palmer, 2004). Since then, an Smets (2018) highlighted that following the
increasing number of studies have been published widespread tendency to interpret biases as entities
to account for the verbal processes underlying the capable to explain or to cause behavior could lead
typically human feature of sense making and know- to several issues. According to BA, the adoption of
ing (Bordieri, Kellum, Wilson, & Whiteman, 2016). this standpoint for examining if and how deviations
This account of symbolic behavior has been applied from optimal (i.e., rational) decision making does
to several fields and its concepts are in constant not seem enough. Invoking a bias as the cause of a
development (Barnes-Holmes, Barnes-Holmes, behavior is a tautology. Thus, we would be prone to
Luciano, & McEnteggart, 2017; see also Barnes- explain why we behave in a certain way by blam-
Holmes, Barnes-Holmes, & McEnteggart, 2020). ing the effects of an underlying bias. Furthermore,
While several contributions have widened the ho- when asked to explain what a bias is, the answer
rizons of the initial formulations (Hayes, Barnes- would be behaving in a certain (irrational) way,
Holmes, & Roche, 2001) and are still in need which then brings us back to the previous question.
of empirical support, RFT is empirically robust In sum, the relation between context and behavior
enough (Dymond, May, Munnelly, & Hoon, 2010; becomes fundamental. Moreover, irrational behav-
O’Connor, Farrell, Munnelly, & McHugh, 2017) to iors may be regarded as the result of the reinforcing
offer a coherent picture of both overt (language), actions provided by the context towards establish-
and covert (cognition) human symbolic behavior. ing negative consequences (e.g., overeating, smok-
ing, lack of physical activity, etc.): in this sense, they
are dysfunctional. This type of dysfunctional rela-
The Analysis of Behavior and tions between behaviors and consequences were
Cognition in the Behavioral defined by behavioral economists as the reinforcer
Economics Domain pathology model: that is, pathological patterns of
responding for differentially valued reinforcers.
A cognitive bias is thought as a behavioral pattern Similar to a proposed approach for understand-
deviating from a norm or rationality in judgment ing and treating addiction, we attempt to provide
as a consequence of subjective reality created from an explanation of irrational behaviors that does
an individual’s perception of inputs from the world. not need to invoke mentalistic constructs (Bickel,
Several systematic cognitive distortions have been Jarmolowicz, Mueller, & Gatchalian, 2011).
associated with the notion of bias; they have been Baumeister (2001) described three broad
identified, studied, and described over the past classes of consequences to which irrationally may
decades, thanks to the development of several re- lead: deliberate self-harm, trade-offs, and coun-
search programs (e.g., Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). terproductive strategies. Self-destruction and
Departing from the concept of bounded rational- self-handicapping are examples of the first class,
ity (Simon, 1955, 1972), it is possible to trace a which is featured by a deliberate effort to annihi-
continuum to explain irrational behaviors (Reed, late oneself, or nonetheless lowering one´s future
performance for self-interest. The student party- Hindering Change in Cognitive Terms:
ing until late the night before an exam is due is Definition and Role of Biases
a typical example of self-handicapping behavior Mentalistic elements have often been excluded in a
(see Wilkinson, 2008). This behavior may be in- behaviorist account of human activity, not neces-
terpreted as overconfidence, lack of self-esteem sarily because they are denied or call outside the
or self-regulation, which comprise dispositional scope of analysis, but rather due to the impossi-
factors. However, it may also be interpreted by bility to manipulate them directly; thus, because
situational factors, such as the unimportance of they are unnecessary to pursue the goal to con-
the exam, the opportunity of social encounters, an trol behavior (Skinner, 1953). However, language,
attempt to personal gratification, or an avoidance thoughts, judgements, and choices are all behavior.
pattern to manage stressing sensations coming This statement may appear simplistic to those out-
from overtly or covertly talking about the exam. side the behavioral analytic community, but from
As far as an analysis of behavior is concerned, the a functional point of view there might be no dif-
student may be said to be impulsive, in the sense ferences between implicit and explicit topographies
that he or she prefers the immediate, certain, and (for a more detailed explanation on this topic, see
“stronger” reinforcement of the party than the de- Barnes-Holmes, Barnes-Holmes, Stewart, & Boles,
layed, uncertain, and “weaker” reinforcement of 2010), insofar as their sources, antecedent, and
possibly passing the exam. Thus, BA can offer a consequences are concerned. In BA, antecedents
more parsimonious account of irrationality com- include two main classes of stimuli: the first is a
pared to other approaches, and “does not require discriminative stimulus (SD) and the second is a
abstract theoretical explanations that are difficult motivating operation (MO). A stimulus, object, or
to empirically evaluate and observe” (Reed et al., event has a discriminative function when it sets the
2013, p. 36). The next section addresses this topic, occasion for a certain behavior to occur. An MO
considering choice and an experimental proce- changes how much you “want” something and
dure to measure choice. how hard you will “work” to get it (Michael, 1982,
The second class of consequences of irrational- in Langthorne & McGill, 2009). In other words, it
ity are trade-offs, which occur in the presence of changes the value of consequences and the rate of
inconsistent intertemporal choice with one own´s occurrence of the related behavior (see Gomes et
preferences. This may lead to the phenomenon of al., 2020 on alternating the transformation of func-
discounting values, which may affect not only tem- tion using motivational conditions).
poral outcomes, but also probabilistic (or a combi- From an economist´s point of view, BE chal-
nation of the two: both temporal and probabilistic) lenges the traditional assumptions of economic the-
and social outcomes (see Jones & Rachlin, 2006). ory, according to which our decisions are conceptu-
We take up the analysis of delay discounting from alized as being perfectly rational. Notwithstanding,
a rounder approach that includes both outcomes direct experience and a wide body of empirical
and processes. research have (disappointingly) demonstrated the
Lastly, we discuss the third class of conse- contrary. Kahneman (2003a, 2011) proposed to
quences of irrationality: counterproductive strat- adopt a dual system model to describe how deci-
egies. These are displays of perception errors that sions are taken. In order to make a clear distinction
misguide self-interested strategies; in other words, between intuitive and analytical reasoning, the au-
they are comprise patterns of lack of self-control, thor borrowed from Stanovich and West (2000) two
such as in the case of the alcoholic. We will relate metaphorical terms: System 1 and System 2. The
all these issues referring to the conceptualization of former has been described as fast, automatic, effort-
cognition that RFT offers, focusing particularly on less, associative, and difficult to control. Conversely,
values and their role in BE and RFT. the latter is slower, serial, effortful, and deliberately
controlled. RFT analyzes higher cognitive function-
ing and extends the set of operant principles typical
of BA. When applied to a dual-process cognitive gencies and behavior governed by verbal rules. In
theory (Kahneman, 2003a), it accounts for the rap- the first case, behavior is shaped and maintained
id intuitive judgment encompassed in System 1 and by stimuli that lay in the physical context. In the
the conscious awareness (i.e., analytic thinking) of second case, it is controlled by verbal antecedents:
System 2, that are evoked by cognitive permeated rules enunciated by others or through verbal pro-
analyses in BE (for an alternative account, see also cesses of derivation and transformation of stimu-
Hughes & Barnes-Homes, 2013). lus function (Catania, 1995; Catania, Shimoff, &
According to Kahneman’s vision, in most situ- Matthews, 1989; Zettle & Hayes, 1982). Thus, when
ations the two systems would act in coordination. considering the learning history, we should take
However, this is not always the case and, as a re- into account not only the history of individuals’ in-
sult, predictable distortions may occur, which are teraction with their physical environment, but also
termed biases. A bias can be described as a sys- with their verbal community. Once behaviors are
tematic mistake in decision making, that occurs governed by verbal rules, they tend to become rela-
in specific circumstances: for example, resulting tively insensitive to direct contingencies; particu-
from the conflicting processes between these two larly those repertoires that have been acquired un-
systems (Kahneman, 2011). It is normatively re- der the control of socially mediated reinforcement
garded as an obstacle to optimal decision mak- for coordination between behavior and antecedent
ing and, thus, should be avoided or corrected as verbal stimuli. It follows that certain behaviors may
much as possible. Some behavioral economists tend to be repeated, even when the context changes
proposed to embrace an evolutionary perspec- and alternative responses would be more adaptive
tive in order to better understand the process of and reinforced by direct contingencies.
decision making (e.g., Gigerenzer, Hertwig, & Stepping from the consideration of rules as
Pachur, 2011; Gigerenzer, Todd & ABC Research contingency-specifying verbal behavior (i.e., stim-
Group, 1999). From this perspective, heuristics uli specifying consequences; Skinner, 1966), three
(i.e., rules of thumb) are regarded as behavioral types of rule-governed behavioral patterns can be
responses that evolved over time, according to the thus identified: pliance, tracking, and augmenting.
constraints of the environment and the organism. Pliance is a “rule governed behavior under the con-
It is thus necessary to analyze the structure of the trol of apparent socially mediated consequences for
specific environment in which a behavior takes a correspondence between the rule and relevant be-
place in order to understand under which con- havior” (Hayes, Zettle, & Rosenfarb, 2004, p. 203).
ditions resorting to heuristics is likely to fail or Tracking is a “rule-governed behavior under the
succeed (Goldstein & Gigerenzer, 2002). The ex- control of the apparent correspondence between
tent of matching heuristics with a specific context the rule and the way the world is arranged” (Hayes
can possibly determine their accuracy and, thus, et al., 2004, p. 206). Finally, augmenting is defined as
the occurrence of bias. In behaviorist words, the “rule-governed behavior under the control of appar-
context influences the way we respond to overt or ent changes in the capacity of events to function as
covert verbal antecedents. reinforcers or punishers” (Hayes et al., 2004, p. 206).
Some of these assumptions are consistent with
the views of BA, according to which a bias may be Verbal Behavior as an Antecedent:
described as a behavioral pattern that has been se- Contingencies and Rules
lected over time due to a history of interaction with We learn directly from experience (contingency-
certain reinforcing contingencies (i.e., the learning shaped behavior) and from relating stimuli to one
history). This seems to hold true both at the phylo- another (derived relational responding). RFT re-
genetic and ontogenetic levels. It is also important searchers have shown that we respond to numerous
to emphasize that previous stimuli can exert con- relations between events under the control of con-
trol on behavior and may be of a physical or verbal/ textual stimuli, that are called frames and include
symbolic nature. One can substantially distinguish difference, oppositeness, comparison, if…then,
in this sense between behavior shaped by contin- before...after, more…less, and perspective. Derived
relational responding (Barnes-Holmes, Barnes- of a contextual variable (flexibility), and we respond

Holmes, Roche, & Smeets, 2001a, 2001b; Campbell, to new stimuli in a way that is consistent with what
Barnes-Holmes, Barnes-Holmes, & Stewart, 2011; we learned previously (coherence). By increasing
Whelan, Barnes-Holmes, & Dymond, 2006) is a the level of complexity and flexibility of derived re-
class of context-sensitive and context-driven responses, we can respond to relations and relational
sponses, which are learned through repeated expo- networks (Barnes-Holmes et al., 2017). Together,
sure to multiple examples. They can relate stimuli the five levels of relational responses and the four
in terms of physical (non-arbitrary applicable re- properties previously defined can be combined to
lational responding - NAARR) or symbolic char- form a conceptual framework for analyzing the dy-
acteristics (AARR). Moreover, RFT provides an namics of AARR as an operant repertoire (Barnes-
explanation of how we respond to different ver- Holmes et al., 2017).
bal relations. Specifically, response patterns that Thus, RFT offers an experimental interpretation
have been reinforced more frequently or that are of insensitivity to the effects of social contingencies
relationally coherent are likely to be emitted more when verbally controlled behavior is at stake and
rapidly (Barnes-Holmes et al., 2017). According is related to persistent patterns of non-functional
to an RFT-based account of cognition called re- behaviors (Hayes et al., 2001). Acting under the
lational elaboration and coherence (REC) model, control of verbal antecedents is not always dys-
this type of derived relational responding is termed functional, especially when it leads to preventing
brief immediate relational responding (BIRR). It is dangers. However, it can be related to dysfunctional
characterized by low levels of derivation and com- choices and habits inasmuch as some circumstanc-
plexity. Conversely, response patterns that have es might also lead to mental disorders. In other cir-
been reinforced with a lower frequency are likely cumstances, the symbolic context may influence the
to be emitted more slowly and may require more choice architecture and henceforth the behavior of
effort. In the latter case we speak of extended and an agent; for example, by contextual manipulation
elaborated relational responding (EERR), which of antecedent terms, like the nudging approach.
features high levels of derivation and complexity Tagliabue, Squatrito, and Presti (2019) have exam-
(e.g., Barnes-Holmes et al., 2010; Barnes-Holmes, ined in more detail the commonalities and differ-
Murphy, Barnes-Holmes, & Stewart, 2010; Hughes ences between Kahneman’s dual-process vision and
and Barnes-Holmes, 2013). models of cognition resting on RFT, while offering
Nevertheless, the REC model does not take an alternative conceptualization of Systems 1 and 2
into account coherence (Barnes-Holmes et al., based on relational responding.
2017) and flexibility (Barbero-Rubio, López-López, In sum, a bias could be seen as response pat-
Luciano & Eisenbeck, 2016; O’Toole & Barnes- tern that manifests itself as the result of an indi-
Holmes, 2009), whereas BIRRs show a higher de- vidual’s learning history and shows a low degree
gree of coherence and EERR show a lower degree of derivation, a high degree of coherence and a
of coherence. In order to partially account for this low one of flexibility (Hughes, Barnes-Holmes, &
limitation, Barnes-Holmes et al. (2017) proposed Vahey, 2012). From an RFT point of view, a cogni-
the multi-dimensional multi-level (MDML) model, tive bias can be interpreted as a pattern of behavior
which includes four functional properties (coher- determined by a reduced sensitivity to contingen-
ence, complexity, derivation and flexibility) and cies and inaccurate rules (Dixon, Hayes, & Aban,
five levels of relational responses (mutual entailing, 2000). It corresponds to the flexibility with which
relational framing, relational networking, relating an individual can assert a specific attitude or its op-
relations and relating relational networks). We can posite (Vahey, Boles, & Barnes-Holmes, 2010). RFT
respond to relationships between stimuli that are provides useful tools both for analyzing these be-
not trained or not specifically learned (derivation), havioral repertoires (e.g., the implicit relational as-
which may involve simple stimuli or stimuli in- sessment procedure - IRAP), and to train agents to
volved in the relationship (complexity). Moreover, establish new relational and more flexible networks.
we can modify a relational response as a function These may enhance our ability to act in a way that
is more adaptive to the ongoing contingencies (e.g. or she may never get to taste in the future. Why and
applying ACT-based clinical and non-clinical train- how can it happen? Although delaying reinforce-
ings; for a review, see Howell & Passmore, 2019). ment is a peculiar behavior that has brought many
Without neglecting the contributions that BA advantages to human beings, there are conditions
and BE have made to our understanding of com- in which it can be problematic.
plex relations (e.g., Kahneman, 2003b; Reed et al., It seems to be yet an open question whether
2013; Sidman, 1994; Sidman & Tailby, 1982; Tversky reinforcement can be seen to select or construct
& Kahneman, 1981), there are very few studies in complex forms of stimulus control (e.g., Sidman,
which an RFT approach was clearly resorted to. For 1994). For example, the three-term contingency
example, contributions from RFT have been used to analysis formulated by Skinner (1953) does not
account for cognitive biases and how they may lead seem to be comprehensive enough to account for
to the problem of social categorization (Weinstein, the transformation of stimulus function whenever
Wilson, Drake, & Kellum, 2008): the authors of that there is no direct reinforcement available to main-
study used the implicit association test (IAT) to in- tain a responding. This may apply to hypothetical
vestigate “the transformation of stimulus functions and delayed rewards, whose attainment is a func-
from socially relevant to arbitrary stimuli as a model tion of choices that we take in the present and
of social stigmatization and categorization” (p. 40). which comprises one of the most fertile avenues
Specifically, they were able to condition bias func- of inquiry within the field of BA and BE (i.e. delay
tions to arbitrary stimuli by fluency-based training discounting; e.g., Green & Myerson, 2004; Rachlin,
(see Heinicke, Carr, Leblanc, & Severtson, 2010). 1995). Delay discounting is a phenomenon widely
Conversely, the IRAP is an experimental procedure addressed in both BA and BE and may be consid-
for estimating relational acts based on latency be- ered as a special type of bias. It refers to the subjec-
tween presentation of stimuli and response (Barnes- tive devaluation of outcomes or consequences as a
Holmes et al., 2006). It positions itself separately function of time (but also probabilities, social prox-
from the IAT inasmuch as it can implicitly differen- imity, etc.) and is usually depicted by the coefficient
tiates between beliefs that differ from one another k. However, there are important differences when
pertaining their relational component (Barnes- examining delay discounting according to either
Holmes et al., 2010; De Houwer, Heider, Spruyt, the BA or BE traditions.
Roets, & Hughes, 2015). From a behavioral standpoint, delay discount-
ing can be described as a process in which rein-
Delay Discounting and Choice Behavior forcers are devalued as time to receipt increases
In addition to rule governed repertoires that are (Rachlin & Green, 1972). That is, the value of a
under the control of socially-mediated consequenc- reinforcing consequence (e.g., money) tends to de-
es (pliancing), and those that are under the control crease as a function of the delay up to the point of
of direct environmental contingencies produced by delivery of the consequence. This phenomenon can
the behavior itself (tracking), there is another form help describe and explain a wide variety of dysfunc-
of rule-governed behavior, which is controlled by tional behaviors. In many occasions, the immediate
verbal antecedents that alter the degree to which consequences of harmful behaviors such as smok-
consequences function as reinforcers (augmen- ing, taking drugs, or overeating are more concrete
tals). In less technical terms they are called values. and are available in a shorter time after the behavior
Valuing has an enormous impact in verbally con- occurs. Hence, these consequences have a higher
tacting stimulus functions that alter the present reinforcing value compared to alternative behaviors
ones: for example, they may transform potentially that would have better consequences but are either
punishing or neutral environments into reinforc- abstract or will occur in the future (or both).
ing ones. Many patterns of human behaviors have For example, if we were asked to change current
consequences that lie in the far future: think for ex- behaviors whose most detrimental consequences
ample of the process of aging wine or balsamic vin- are likely to occur no sooner than in the distant and
egar. A producer might put to rest a product that he uncertain future (e.g., global warming), these be-
havior changes seem unlikely to occur. In fact, the There is evidence of the relation between the
long delay between a person’s unsustainable behav- steepness of delay discounting curves and high
ior and any direct negative critical consequences degrees of cognitive fusion, experiential avoid-
may have little effect on behavior when more im- ance, and difficulties in engaging in valued action
mediate consequences control incompatible behav- (Levin, Haeger, Ong, & Twohig, 2018). In other
ior (Reed et al., 2013). However, differences in the words, individuals who show a steeper discount-
delay discounting curves have been found among ing curve have a greater tendency to enact avoid-
species (e.g. Green, 2010; Green, Myerson, Holt, ant and fused actions that allow them to have
Slevin, & Estle, 2004) as well as among individuals immediate access to short-term reinforcement,
(e.g. Dixon, Marley, & Jacobs, 2003). despite long-term costs for valued action (Levin
Self-control is strictly related to delay discount- et al., 2018). Adopting an RFT-based training al-
ing, insofar as it comprises a form of subjectively lows to alter the relation between verbal stimuli.
devaluing one’s own future consequences of choice. Applying RFT-derived interventions to people
More formally put, self-control refers to the abil- who display low levels of self-control may be effec-
ity to choose a larger reinforcer that is delayed in tive for flattening their otherwise steep discount-
time over smaller but immediate one (Grosch & ing curve. This is what has been shown by applying
Neuringer, 1981; Logue, Pena-Correal, Rodriguez, ACT-based trainings aimed to enhance individ-
& Kabela, 1986). Several studies have shown that ual psychological flexibility (e.g., Hendrickson
this skill can vary among individuals. For exam- & Rasmussen, 2013; Morrison, Madden, Odum,
ple, people diagnosed with conduct, disruptive, or Friedel, & Twohig, 2014).
impulse control disorders choose more often im- An augmental, differently to pliance and track-
mediate and smaller reinforcers than they choose ing, does not specify consequences or contingen-
large ones compared to individuals who do not cies but changes the reinforcing value of the conse-
have a similar diagnosis (Neef , Bicard, & Endo, quences specified in the rule (Torneke, Luciano &
2001; Neef, Bicard, Endo, Coury, & Aman, 2005; Salas, 2008). Augmental rules are of particular inter-
Schweitzer & Sulzer-Azaroff, 1988). est in this context, for they are at the basis of values
As McKeel and Dixon (2014) remarked, while in ACT terminology: that is, ‘‘freely chosen, verbally
several studies have shown the utilization of a constructed consequences of ongoing, dynamic,
standard self-control training procedure and vari- evolving patterns of activity, which establish pre-
ations of it by directly training people to opt for a dominant reinforcers for that activity that are intrin-
delayed choice, there is evidence about the role of sic in engagement in the valued behavioral pattern
verbal mediation in teaching individuals to choose itself ” (Wilson & DuFrene 2009, p. 66). Augmental
larger and more delayed reinforcers over small- rules share some features with the concept of MO,
er and immediate ones (e.g., Binder, Dixon, & inasmuch as it depicts an event that can temporary
Ghezzi, 2000; Dixon & Holton, 2009). We submit “alter the effectiveness of reinforcers or punishers
that an RFT perspective could be useful to explain (the value-altering effect) and the frequency of op-
how language may play an important role for ma- erant response classes related to those consequences
nipulating responses in tasks that involve choices (the behavior altering effect)” (Laraway, Snycerski,
with delayed outcomes. According to Hayes et al. Michael, & Poling, 2003, p. 412). Similar to MOs,
(2001), we can develop relations not only by mak- augmenting rules have the property to alter the re-
ing experiences with contingencies of reinforce- inforcing value of other stimuli. However, the latter
ment, but also by relating functions of stimuli that derive their functional properties through language
transfer from one to another. This complex set of while the former derive them through a specific his-
learning skills can be explained through the abil- tory of learning with the environment (Hoffmann,
ity of individuals to construct verbal language. In Contreras, Clay, & Twohig, 2016).
other words, verbal events play a major role in a
large variety of behaviors, including choice and
decision-making.
Reorienting the Agent Towards a System of stimulus functions that make violating the rule
(Value) Change more probable, evoking exactly the unhealthy be-
Health and prevention behavior comprise two fields havior that we are trying to control (Wegner, 1994).
in which delayed reinforcement is at stake: chang- For example, the word chocolate might evoke fla-
es in lifestyle (e.g. dieting, increased motor activ- vors, smells, salivation or emotions. Conversely,
ity and smoking cessation) can add up to prevent the words dieting and must evoke feelings of con-
life-threatening diseases and events in the future. strictions and life-long sufferance; they can evoke
Utility and effectiveness of interventions on health behavior aimed to control them while hindering to
behavior changes are judged by the promotions of eat the chocolate cake. Conceptualizing symbolic
sustained and desired behavior in the long term. behavior as a particular relational repertoire sheds
Most studies on changing health behavior have fo- light on why our habits are so resistant to change
cused on investigating the cognitive and emotional and enriches our level of understanding of why we
variables that are thought to support long-term be- opt away from unhealthy behavior, even when we
havior change (Schwarzer, 2008). Notwithstanding, are very motivated and we are aware of the rules
these approaches have only partially explained that lead to healthy behavior. In sum, there are im-
the maintenance of the change in health behav- bricated components that rest on the individual’s
ior (Kwasnicka, Dombrowski, White, & Sniehotta, learning history and others that rest on the func-
2016). A possible initiative can be offered by a con- tional properties of symbolic relational behavior.
text-driven approach. Health behavior change is a To overcome the paradox of evoking dysfunc-
dynamic process and a context-driven approach tional behavior by trying to control it with verbal
that can be useful to understand and predict health antecedents and interpreting adherence to the rule
behavior change (Hayes, 2004). as a success and non-adherence as a failure, be-
RFT offers a detailed analysis of the influence havior change can occur and be maintained if the
of language on complex human behavior by ana- rule does not take the form of a goal to achieve
lyzing changes in health behavior and allowing to success; conversely, the rule should assume a do-
analyze how specific verbal rules exercise control main of value (Butryn, Forman, Hoffman, Shaw, &
over response (Barnes & Keenan, 1993; Carpentier, Juarascio, 2011; Lillis, Hayes, Bunting, & Masuda,
Smeets, & Barnes-Holmes, 2002). Behavior change 2009). A previously noted, ACT (Hayes, Strosahl,
should not only act on the interruption of unhealthy & Wilson, 1999) stemmed from RFT as an ap-
behaviors, but also on strengthening or weakening proach to behavior change. ACT researchers and
existing relational responses and learning new rela- therapists strive to increase psychological flex-
tional responses in the context of healthy behaviors. ibility to help individuals live a rich and mean-
Studies on relational frames and derived relational ingful life. According to Kashdan and Rottenberg
responding allow us to analyze how any healthy or (2010), there are four aspects of psychological
unhealthy behavior depends not only on its direct flexibility that promote health behavior change
consequences, but also on the relational network that in a real-life context: (i) recognizing and adapt-
encompass the response; in fact, it is also under sym- ing to different situational demands; (ii) shifting
bolic contextual control (Barnes-Holmes & Barnes- perspective when personal or social functioning
Holmes, 2000; Hayes, 1994; Hayes et al., 2001). are not useful; (iii) finding balance of competing
Since symbolic behavior cannot be erased or desires, needs, and life domains; and (iv) being
unlearned, and mutual and combinatorial entail- aware and committed to behaviors that are con-
ment bear generative properties, behavior change gruent with deeply held values. Several studies
is made more difficult because each stimulus is part have demonstrated the effectiveness of ACT in-
of a relational network and rules contain stimuli terventions for the promotion of healthy behav-
that are part of those networks. Consequently, as iors, such as physical activity (e.g., Butryn et al.,
we evoke a rule to try to control our behavior (e.g., 2011; Moffitt & Mohr, 2015), smoking cessation
“I’m dieting and I must not eat chocolate cake”), at (e.g., Bricker et al., 2014, 2017; Gifford et al., 2004,
the same time we bear into the present unhealthy 2011; Hernández-López, Luciano, Bricker, Roales-
Nieto, & Montesinos, 2009), weight management draws heavily on the importance of language, me-
(e.g., Forman & Butryn, 2015; Lillis et al., 2009; diation and transfer of skills and knowledge of the
Lillis & Kendra, 2014). sociocultural theory of Vygotsky (1978). Within
the BE tradition values refer to a collection of at-
Counterproductive Strategies: Values and titudes that an agent may have toward general and
Decision-Making abstract phenomena (e.g., pollution, peace, etc.)
Framing influences decision-making: this is and reach beyond the level of the individual or
one of the conceptual tenets of prospect theory group; in the latter case, it is more appropriate to
(Kahneman & Tversky, 1979), whose robust- refer to them as attitudes, which represent evalu-
ness rests on several empirical observations (see ative tendencies (e.g., towards one’s family mem-
Barberis, 2013). Relating information and facts in ber, colleague, etc.; Warr, 2002; see also Stewart,
terms of losses or gains can influence valuing pat- Barnes-Holmes, Barnes-Holmes, Bond, & Hayes,
terns of actions. For example, the lockdowns enact- 2006). The BE tradition takes into account the role
ed by several governments in response to the novel of values primarily inasmuch as the calculation
coronavirus pandemic was commonly referred as and computation of functions are concerned: that
an avoidance of life losses in the hope of saving as is, value functions are curves for displaying the
many lives as possible thanks to social containment gains or losses of an agent relative to a psychologi-
measures. Herein, saving human lives may be an cally neutral reference point (van der Pligt, 2001).
archetypical example, for it would feed some ethical Whereas for RFT they are verbally constructed
concerns if compared to a system of values ranked contingencies, which affect the agent’s behavior
similarly to economic losses (e.g., due to the dis- insofar as he or she considers them hierarchically
ruption of air traffic, or the cancellation of exhibi- in symbolic relation to ongoing patterns of behav-
tions, concerts, or sports events). ior and take the form of as “chosen qualities of
Choice and decision-making processes may action patterns […] that people can work toward,
be characterized by value propositions: specifi- but that they cannot arrive at once-and-for-all”
cally, whenever the effects of that choice or deci- (Bond, Hayes, & Barnes-Holmes, 2006, pp. 33-34).
sion may not be experienced contingently, rules
and relations may help bridge present behavior Values as a Compass in Decision Making
with non-contingent consequences. Furthermore, As humans, we are able to transfer the properties
value propositions may affect consumer behavior of some objects to new and different stimuli thanks
(i.e., by stating the promised benefits and gains to temporal, space, coordination, comparative, or
vs. costs that a consumer will experience follow- causal framing, and so on. For example, we can
ing the purchase of a certain good). Some of the establish causal links between temporally or spa-
most complex and difficult phenomena that affect tially separated events. Moreover, we can compare
our societies and environment (e.g., overpopu- different situations with the intention of finding
lation, pollution, war, famine, and other wicked similarities or differences. Likewise, the symbolic
problems) possess this feature and rely on the properties of verbal language allow us to make
impossibility of experiencing direct contingen- the past figuratively relevant, not only in cogni-
cies of reinforcement; thus, they require verbal tive and imaginative terms, but also inasmuch as
mediation (see Coyne, 2005). They represent emotional and physiological activations are con-
examples of a class of consequences of irratio- cerned. Thanks to the symbolic repertoire that we
nality comprising counterproductive strategies. commonly call language, we can devise plans and
Although the present work is concerned with a forecasts for the future. The possibility of verbally
more recent approach to human language and (symbolically) representing desires and directions
values, “One reason people might prize socially that can give a sense of fullness to life is a funda-
constructed reinforcement over intrinsic rein- mental prerequisite to be able to choose, identify,
forcement is sociocultural programming” (Dahl, and cultivate one’s values, while learning to move in
Steward, Martell, & Kaplan, 2013, p. nd), which tune with them. They indicate directions of life and
do not coincide with specific actions that have di- bags can only be achieved verbally. By symbolically
rectly observable repercussions and consequences. representing and valuing the future consequences
Values are our deepest desires about how we of the agent’s actions and relating these to a specific
would like to be and how we would like to inter- purpose, a punishing contingency becomes a rein-
act with others, the world, and ourselves. They forcing one due to the transformation of stimulus
comprise principles that guide and motivate us function. In other words, assigning verbal value to
throughout our lives and allow us to give more full- the agent’s action in the present and bridging the
ness to our existence. The identification of a value is present consequences and desirable future ones, is
the result of the intimate, free, and personal choice the only way to counteract any discounting effects.
of an individual who acts accordingly and feels that The same applies even when some elements are un-
he or she gives greater authenticity, vitality, and seen and unforeseen, such as the immediate rein-
fullness to his or her existence. Hayes (2005) de- forcing contingencies of going out to meet friends
fined values as directions of life, desired, global and versus “avoiding an untouchable danger” during
verbally constructed choices. Directions of life refer the Covid-19 lockdown. Similarly, the only way to
to “qualities of actions”, which by nature are neither counteract these contingencies is to assign value to
static nor immutable over time. Values refer to the the punishing consequences of staying at home in
continuous and global qualities of actions: that is, light of avoiding health problems to ourselves and
they refer to a continuous action over time, where our loved ones.
the focus is on the way one wants to behave and not However, it may be the case that the symbolic
on the goal one wants to achieve. function of values interferes with the identification
The identification of values favors the processes of values themselves. This may lead to a difficulty
of acceptance, availability, and openness to the in- to conceptually distinguishing between evaluations,
dividual experience (even if it is painful), giving judgments, and values. Furthermore, due to the
dignity to his or her efforts. Moreover, values rep- symbolic function of language and reflecting what
resent a fundamental motivational aspect, helping our culture predisposes, we can be very sensitive
the agent to engage in concrete actions that follow and result oriented. Thus, agents may iteratively
the direction indicated by the values he or she has monitor what they are doing, how successful they
chosen. Values can be conceptualized as the result are compared to their past selves and others, fanta-
of choices. Identifying and pursuing a value means size about how and when they will achieve a better
choosing between different alternatives, preferring state of mind, or just feel the need to justify their
the option that contributes the most to making own or others’ behavior. In sum, choosing a direc-
one’s life full and rich. The direction indicated by tion of life and having values is self-reinforcing, al-
the values allow the individual to orient individuals though it does not require continuous monitoring.
along the entire path of their existence, motivating
them to remain focused even when life puts him or
her to the test. Conclusions: RFT Beyond
In some circumstances, it may be difficult to Applicative Implications
shift to long-term control, especially when short-
term reinforcers are stronger and long-term ones RFT offers a conceptualization of cognition in
are less tangible. For example, recycling behavior terms of a repertoire of relational responding, ac-
is mostly a value-based action that allows the agent cording to which biases are not intrinsically seen
to overcome the effects described by the curve that as limits of the system that may hinder our choices
characterizes a preference for plastic shopping bags and decisions. Biases are rather a product of our
to plastic-free, albeit more expensive shopping processes of symbolic derivations that are contex-
bags. Since buying plastic shopping bags might tually controlled and that occasion verbally con-
generate economic savings that can be used for trolled behavior. Human behavior is a function of
buying other goods, addressing the agent’s behav- the large physical and symbolic context in which
ior toward spending more for plastic-free shopping it occurs, and verbal process can shape it continu-
ously. Moreover, augmental rules can contribute to- References

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Funding information doi:10.1007/BF03395355
This article received no external funding. Barnes-Holmes, D., Barnes-Holmes, Y., Luciano,
C., & McEnteggart, C. (2017). From the IRAP
Acknowledgements and REC model to a multi-dimensional multi-
The authors are grateful to César Antonio Alves level framework for analyzing the dynamics
da Rocha and to an anonymous reviewer for their of arbitrarily applicable relational responding.
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The authors have contributed to all the parts of the (IRAP) as a direct measure of implicit be-
manuscript. The authors certify that they have no af- liefs. The Irish Psychologist, 32(7), 169-177.
filiations with or involvement in any organization or Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/
entity with any financial or non-financial in the sub- profile/Ian_Stewart3/publication/241832168
ject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
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Informações do Artigo
Histórico do artigo:
Submetido em: 01/Dec/2020
Primeira decisão editorial: 06/Apr/2021
Aceito em: 20/Apr/2021
Editor: William F. Perez

A Functional Contextualist Account of Behavioral Economics. RFT Applied To Decision-Making and Choice Behavior

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A Functional Contextualist Account of Behavioral Economics. RFT Applied To Decision-Making and Choice Behavior

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A Functional Contextualist Account of Behavioral Economics:

Marco Tagliabue1, Massimo Cesareo2, Valeria Squatrito3, Giovambattista Presti3

Resumen: La economía comportamental es una disciplina radicada en el cognitivismo y

relational responding (Barnes-Holmes, Barnes- of a contextual variable (flexibility), and we respond

ously. Moreover, augmental rules can contribute to- References

sis. The Psychological Record, 52, 139–158. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.01.001

Hernández-López, M., Luciano, M. C., Bricker, J. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.697

Simon, H. A. (1972). Theories of bounded ratio- behaviorism in psychology textbooks. The

Wilson, K. G., & DuFrene, T. (2009). Mindfulness

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