Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Porto Alegre
2013
!
!
DEDICATÓRIA
Aos meus pais, pela força, apoio, amizade e amor constantes e inabaláveis.
Ao meu querido marido, por ser, há tantos anos, a inspiração e o porto seguro
que me permitem seguir viagem.
À minha doce filhinha Isadora, pois tudo que faço é, desde sempre, dedicado
especialmente a ela, com todo amor.
!
!
AGRADECIMENTOS
À bolsista Déborah Garcia, que, com a excelência e dedicação que lhe são
características, realizou importante pesquisa de prontuários.
Aos estimados colegas Prof. Dr. Rafael Brighenti e Dr. Pedro Guilherme
Schaefer, competentes patologistas, pelo coleguismo e apoio.
!
!
Marcel Proust
!
!
RESUMO
Introdução: o carcinoma epidermoide invasor (CE) de vulva é uma doença rara, que
corresponde a cerca de 3-5% dos tumores malignos do trato genital feminino e a
90% de todas as neoplasias malignas primárias da vulva. Existem duas vias para o
desenvolvimento de neoplasias intraepiteliais (NIV) e CE vulvar: uma via não
relacionada ao papilomavírus humano (HPV) e outra relacionada ao HPV, com
características clínicas, patológicas e epidemiológicas distintas. Objetivos: estudar
as duas vias da carcinogênese vulvar, realizando correlação da expressão imuno-
histoquímica do p53 com a histologia. Métodos: foi realizado estudo do tipo caso-
controle com 76 casos. Esses foram reclassificados conforme a terminologia da
Sociedade Internacional para o Estudo das Doenças Vulvares (ISSVD, 2004), tendo
sido realizada imuno-histoquímica para p53 e revisão de dados clínicos.
Resultados: foram identificados 26 casos normais, 15 casos da via associada ao
HPV (12 de NIV usual; 3 de CE condilomatoso) e 13 da via não associada ao HPV
(5 de NIV diferenciada; 8 de CE queratinizante). A expressão do p53 nas vias
carcinogênicas apresentou diferenças significativas: na via não associada ao HPV o
p53 apresentou maior percentagem de células coradas (>25%, p<0,001), padrão
basal com extensão ao terço médio para as NIV diferenciadas e difuso ou infiltrativo
para os CE (p<0,001). A via carcinogênica associada ao HPV apresentou marcação
de p53 menos extensa (até 10% das células, p<0,001), com padrão basal para as
NIV usuais, sendo negativo para p53nos CE condilomatosos (p<0,001).
Encontramos diferenças entre as idades (p<0,05), sendo que as pacientes da via
não associada ao HPV apresentaram média de 66 anos e as da via associada,
média de 44 anos. Conclusão: existe um padrão característico, baseado na
histologia e expressão do p53, que separa as lesões vulvares em duas vias
carcinogênicas distintas. O uso rotineiro de imuno-histoquímica para o p53
simultânea ao diagnóstico histológico em todos os casos de NIV e CE vulvar poderá
auxiliar na definição da via carcinogênica, permitindo um melhor acompanhamento
clínico das pacientes.
!
!
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva is a rare disease, which
accounts for about 3-5 % of malignant tumors of the female genital tract and 90 % of
all primary neoplasms of the vulva. There are two pathways for the development of
intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) and vulvar squamous cell carcinoma: a pathway
unrelated to human papillomavirus (HPV) and other HPV-related, with significant
differences in clinical, pathological and epidemiological aspects. Objectives: To
study the two pathways of vulvar carcinogenesis, correlating the results of p53 with
histology. Methods: A retrospective case-control with 76 cases. These were
reclassified according to the terminology of the International Society for the Study of
Vulvar Diseases (ISSVD, 2004). Was performed immunohistochemistry for p53 and
review of clinical data. Results: We identified 26 normal cases, 15 cases of HPV-
related pathway (12 usual VIN; 3 warty squamous carcinoma) and 13 not related with
HPV (5 differentiated VIN; 8 keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma). The p53
showed significant differences: in cases related to HPV p53 showed a higher
percentage of stained cells (> 25 %, p<0.001 ), basal pattern extending to the middle
third to the differentiated VIN and diffuse or infiltrative for keratinizing carcinoma (p<
0.001). The p53 in HPV-related cases was less extensive (up to 10 % of the cells,
p<0.001), with a basal pattern for usual VIN and negative pattern for warty carcinoma
(p< 0.001). We found significant differences between age groups, with the group of
patients with HPV-related average of 44 years and the patients in the group
unrelated to HPV average of 66 years. Conclusion: There is a characteristic pattern,
based on the results of histology and p53, which separates the vulvar lesions in two
distinct carcinogenic pathways. We propose the routine use of p53 simultaneously to
histological diagnosis in all cases of VIN and vulvar squamous cell carcinoma, as this
would assist in defining the carcinogenic pathway allowing better monitoring of the
patient.
!
!
LISTA DE ABREVIATURAS
- IHQ: Imuno-histoquímica
!
!
SUMÁRIO
1. INTRODUÇÃO ........................................................................................................ 9
!
!
1. INTRODUÇÃO
!
!
2. REVISÃO DA LITERATURA
!
!
!
! 11
!
!
! 12
A ISSVD adotou em 2004 a classificação das NIVs em dois tipos: NIV usual e
NIV diferenciada. A ISSVD decidiu abolir o termo NIV 1. O termo NIV só é aplicado a
lesões de alto grau antes denominadas NIVs 2 e 3 e para NIV diferenciada. Essa
mudança foi feita baseada na observação de que as lesões chamadas de NIV 1, 2 e
3 não representavam um continuum biológico, já que a lesão chamada NIV 1 não é
precursora de câncer invasor (18).
!
!
! 13
OMS (2003)
ISSVD (2004)
!
!
! 14
população (23). Manifesta-se inicialmente como uma placa eritematosa que pode
evoluir para lesão brancacenta e endurecida (21), podendo ocorrer teleangiectasias,
fissuras, erosão e ulceração. Pode ser assintomático ou associado a prurido e
queimação local (24). A etiologia exata é desconhecida, mas fatores imunológicos,
genéticos, hormonais, infecciosos e trauma têm sido envolvidos (21).
!
!
! 15
Essas lesões são chamadas de NIV usual (“not otherwise specified”) pela
ISSVD. Esse grupo está associado ao HPV: a presença de HPV 16 é detectada em
cerca de 70% dos casos (34). Essas lesões correspondem histologicamente às
lesões escamosas intraepiteliais de alto grau encontradas no colo uterino, região
anal, vagina e pênis, ou seja, aquelas em que a displasia ocupa dois terços ou toda
espessura do epitélio (7,15). Nas últimas décadas a NIV usual tem sido
diagnosticada em pacientes mais jovens (cerca de 40 anos). Fatores de risco para
NIV usual incluem: tabagismo (60-80 %), história de condilomas acuminados, herpes
genital e infecção pelo vírus do HIV. O envolvimento multifocal da vulva ocorre em
mais de 40% dos casos e essa NIV está associada à doença intraepitelial
multicêntrica de colo uterino ou vagina (34).
!
!
! 16
Existe, porém, frequente sobreposição entre esses dois padrões, sendo que a
mistura dos padrões basaloide e condilomatoso é comumente encontrada na mesma
lesão. Assim, os dois subtipos são considerados variantes histológicas da mesma
lesão, em vez de duas entidades separadas (15,35,36).
!
!
! 17
A NIV diferenciada foi descrita inicialmente nos anos 60 como uma forma
altamente diferenciada de carcinoma “in situ” e designada como carcinoma
intraepitelial do tipo simplex. Em 1977 o termo “diferenciada” foi introduzido para
ressaltar as características morfológicas altamente diferenciadas dessa entidade
(22).
!
!
! 18
Já que a lesão na maioria das vezes é unifocal, ao contrário da NIV usual, que
geralmente é multicêntrica, a ampla excisão local provavelmente reduz o risco de
progressão para CE (11).
!
!
! 19
De acordo com Del Pino et al. foi demonstrado que pode existir alguma
sobreposição entre os tipos histológicos e a associação com HPV, sendo que a
presença de NIV diferenciada ou líquen escleroso na periferia de tumor é uma forte
evidência de sua natureza independente do HPV, enquanto o achado de NIV usual
favorece via associada ao HPV (15).
2.4 p53
!
!
! 21
De acordo com Van der Avoort et al. (29) a alta expressão imuno-histoquímica
de p53 se correlaciona com a presença de DNA aneuploide em lesões vulvares. A
aneuploidia do DNA, segundo o mesmo autor, pode ocorrer nos estágios iniciais de
transformação maligna.
marcação de p53 no epitélio vulvar normal. Nos casos em que não há marcação do
p53 pode haver mutações negativas (“null mutations”) verdadeiras ou a mais rápida
degradação do p53 pela ligação à proteína E6 do HPV (53).
!
!
! 23
IHQ:!menor! CE!Basaloide/!
VIA$ASSOCIADA$ expressão!do!
AO$HPV$ NIV!Usual!
p53! Condilomatoso!
!
!
! 24
NIV usuais clássicas (associadas ao HPV) que representam a maioria das NIV
diagnosticadas (13,35).
!
!
3. OBJETIVOS
!
!
4. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
1. Nogueira MC, Guedes Neto EDP, Rosa MW, Zettler E, Zettler CG.
Immunohistochemical expression of p16 and p53 in vulvar intraepithelial
neoplasia and squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Pathology oncology
research POR . 2006;12(3):153–7.
2. Bodelon C, Madeleine MM, Voigt LF, Weiss NS. Is the incidence of invasive
vulvar cancer increasing in the United States? Cancer causes & control!: CCC .
2009 Nov [cited 2013 Apr 14];20(9):1779–82.
5. Van De Nieuwenhof HP, Van Kempen LCLT, De Hullu JA, Bekkers RLM,
Bulten J, Melchers WJG, et al. The etiologic role of HPV in vulvar squamous
cell carcinoma fine tuned. Cancer epidemiology biomarkers prevention a
publication of the American Association for Cancer Research cosponsored by
the American Society of Preventive Oncology. 2009;18(7):2061–7.
6. Walboomers JM, Jacobs M V, Manos MM, Bosch FX, Kummer JA, Shah K V,
et al. Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer
worldwide. The Journal of pathology. 1999 Sep;189(1):12–9.
!
!
! 27
10. Van Der Avoort IAM, Shirango H, Hoevenaars BM, Grefte JMM, De Hullu JA,
De Wilde PCM, et al. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma is a multifactorial
disease following two separate and independent pathways. International
journal of gynecological pathology official journal of the International Society of
Gynecological Pathologists. 2006;25(1):22–9.
11. Hoevenaars BM, Van der Avoort IAM, De Wilde PCM, Massuger LFAG,
Melchers WJG, De Hullu JA, et al. A panel of p16(INK4A), MIB1 and p53
proteins can distinguish between the 2 pathways leading to vulvar squamous
cell carcinoma. International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer.
2008 Dec 15;123(12):2767–73.
13. Scurry J, Campion M, Scurry B, Kim SN, Hacker N. Pathologic audit of 164
consecutive cases of vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia. Int J Gynecol Pathol.
2006/04/25 ed. 2006;25(2):176–81.
14. Hussain SK, Madeleine MM, Johnson LG, Du Q, Malkki M, Wilkerson H-W, et
al. Cervical and vulvar cancer risk in relation to the joint effects of cigarette
smoking and genetic variation in interleukin 2. Cancer epidemiology,
biomarkers & prevention!: a publication of the American Association for Cancer
!
!
! 28
17. Shafi MI, Luesley DM, Byrne P, Samra JS, Redman CW, Jordan JA, et al.
Vulval intraepithelial neoplasia-management and outcome. British journal of
obstetrics and gynaecology. 1989 Nov;96(11):1339–44.
20. Heller DS. Report of a new ISSVD classification of VIN. Journal of lower genital
tract disease. 2007 Jan ;11(1):46–7.
22. Van De Nieuwenhof HP, Van Der Avoort IAM, De Hullu JA. Review of
squamous premalignant vulvar lesions. Critical reviews in oncologyhematology.
2008;68(2):131–56.
23. Meffert JJ, Davis BM, Grimwood RE. Lichen sclerosus. Journal of the American
Academy of Dermatology. 1995 Mar;32(3):393–416; quiz 417–8.
!
!
! 29
25. Fung MA, LeBoit PE. Light microscopic criteria for the diagnosis of early vulvar
lichen sclerosus: a comparison with lichen planus. The American journal of
surgical pathology. 1998 Apr;22(4):473–8.
29. Van der Avoort IAM, Van de Nieuwenhof HP, Otte-Höller I, Nirmala E, Bulten J,
Massuger LFAG, et al. High levels of p53 expression correlate with DNA
aneuploidy in (pre)malignancies of the vulva. Human pathology. 2010
Oct;41(10):1475–85.
30. Neill SM, Lewis FM, Tatnall FM, Cox NH. British Association of Dermatologists’
guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus 2010. The British journal of
dermatology. 2010 Oct;163(4):672–82.
31. Derrick EK, Ridley CM, Kobza-Black A, McKee PH, Neill SM. A clinical study of
23 cases of female anogenital carcinoma. The British journal of dermatology.
2000 Dec;143(6):1217–23.
!
!
! 30
33. Poulsen H, Junge J, Vyberg M, Horn T, Lundvall F. Small vulvar squamous cell
carcinomas and adjacent tissues. A morphologic study. APMIS!: acta
pathologica, microbiologica, et immunologica Scandinavica. 2003
Sep;111(9):835–42.
34. Crum, C.P., M.R. Nucci and KRL. Diagnostic Gynecologic and Obstetric
Pathology. Elsevier Health Sciences.; 2011.
35. Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: historical aspects and current status.
International journal of gynecological pathology official journal of the
International Society of Gynecological Pathologists. 2001;20(1):16–30.
37. Garland SM, Steben M, Sings HL, James M, Lu S, Railkar R, et al. Natural
history of genital warts: analysis of the placebo arm of 2 randomized phase III
trials of a quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, and 18) vaccine.
The Journal of infectious diseases. 2009 Mar 15;199(6):805–14.
38. Herod JJO, Shafi MI, Rollason TP, Jordan JA, Luesley DM. Vulvar
intraepithelial neoplasia with superficially invasive carcinoma of the vulva.
BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 1996
May;103(5):453–6.
39. Yang B, Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia of the simplex (differentiated)
type: a clinicopathologic study including analysis of HPV and p53 expression.
The American journal of surgical pathology. 2000;24(3):429–41.
41. Van De Nieuwenhof HP, Massuger LFAG, Van Der Avoort IAM, Bekkers RLM,
Casparie M, Abma W, et al. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma development
!
!
! 31
43. Oren M. Decision making by p53: life, death and cancer. Cell death and
differentiation . 2003 Apr;10(4):431–42.
47. Ngan HY, Cheung AN, Liu SS, Yip PS, Tsao SW. Abnormal expression or
mutation of TP53 and HPV in vulvar cancer. European Journal of Cancer.
1999;35(3):481–4.
48. Scheffner M, Werness BA, Huibregtse JM, Levine AJ, Howley PM. The E6
oncoprotein encoded by human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 promotes the
degradation of p53. Cell . 1990 Dec;63(6):1129–36.
50. Finlay CA, Hinds PW, Tan TH, Eliyahu D, Oren M, Levine AJ. Activating
mutations for transformation by p53 produce a gene product that forms an
hsc70-p53 complex with an altered half-life. Molecular and cellular biology .
1988 Feb;8(2):531–9.
!
!
! 32
51. Rodrigues NR, Rowan A, Smith ME, Kerr IB, Bodmer WF, Gannon J V, et al.
p53 mutations in colorectal cancer. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America . 1990 Oct;87(19):7555–9.
57. Mulvany NJ, Allen DG. Differentiated intraepithelial neoplasia of the vulva.
International journal of gynecological pathology official journal of the
International Society of Gynecological Pathologists . 2008;27(1):125–35.
!
5. ARTIGO ORIGINAL EM PORTUGUÊS
Raquel Camara Rivero1, Deborah Garcia2, Luciano Serpa Hammes3, Lúcia Maria
Kliemann4, Edison Capp5
1
Mestranda do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina: Ciências Médicas da
Faculdade de Medicina da UFRGS e Médica Patologista do HCPA
2
Acadêmica da Faculdade de Enfermagem da UFRGS
3
Superintendente de Educação Pesquisa e Responsabilidade Social do Hospital
Moinhos de Vento
4
Professora do Departamento de Patologia da Faculdade de Medicina da UFRGS e
Preceptora da Residência Médica em Patologia do HCPA
5
Professor do Departamento de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia e do Programa de Pós-
Graduação em Medicina: Ciências Médicas da Faculdade de Medicina da UFRGS e
Preceptor da Residência Médica em Ginecologia do HCPA
Correspondência:
Prof. Dr. Edison Capp
Serviço de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia - Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre
Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350/11º andar - Porto Alegre, RS 90035-903, Brazil
FAX: 0055 51 33598117 - e-mail: edcapp@ufrgs.br
!
! 34
RESUMO
Introdução: o carcinoma epidermoide invasor (CE) de vulva é uma doença rara, que
corresponde a cerca de 3-5% dos tumores malignos do trato genital feminino e a
90% de todas as neoplasias primárias da vulva. Existem duas vias para o
desenvolvimento de neoplasias intraepiteliais (NIVs) e CE vulvar: uma via não
relacionada ao papilomavírus humano (HPV) e outra relacionada ao HPV, com
características clínicas, patológicas e epidemiológicas distintas. Objetivos: estudar
as duas vias da carcinogênese vulvar, realizando correlação da expressão imuno-
histoquímica do p53 com a histologia. Métodos: foi realizado estudo retrospectivo
de caso-controle com 76 casos. Esses foram reclassificados conforme a
terminologia da Sociedade Internacional para o Estudo das Doenças Vulvares
(ISSVD, 2004), tendo sido realizada imuno-histoquímica para p53 e revisão de
dados clínicos. Resultados: foram identificados 26 casos normais, 15 casos da via
associada ao HPV (12 de NIV usual; 3 de CE condilomatoso) e 13 casos da via não
associada ao HPV (5 de NIV diferenciada; 8 de CE queratinizante). A expressão do
p53 nas vias carcinogênicas apresentou diferenças significativas: na via não
associada ao HPV o p53 apresentou maior percentagem de células coradas (>25%,
p<0,001), padrão basal com extensão ao terço médio para as NIV diferenciadas e
difuso ou infiltrativo para os CE (p<0,001). A via carcinogênica associada ao HPV
apresentou marcação de p53 menos extensa (até 10% das células, p<0,001), com
padrão basal para as NIV usuais, sendo negativo para p53 nos CE condilomatosos
(p<0,001). Encontramos diferenças entre as idades (p<0,05), sendo que as
pacientes da via não associada ao HPV apresentaram média de 66 anos e as da via
associada, média de 44 anos. Conclusão: existe um padrão característico, baseado
na histologia e expressão do p53, que separa as lesões vulvares em duas vias
carcinogênicas distintas. Propomos o uso rotineiro imuno-histoquímico do p53
simultâneo ao diagnóstico histológico em todos os casos de NIV e CE vulvar, pois
isso auxiliaria na definição da via carcinogênica, permitindo um melhor
acompanhamento clínico das pacientes.
!
!
! 35
INTRODUÇÃO
!
!
! 36
!
!
! 37
p53. Nesses casos, uma deleção de função pode ser o mecanismo inicial. O
anticorpo imuno-histoquímico anti-p53 reage tanto com o tipo selvagem quanto com
as formas mutantes. Ocorre uma baixa expressão de p53 no epitélio vulvar normal.
Casos de p53 negativo podem ocorrer por mutações negativas (“null mutations”)
verdadeiras ou pela rápida degradação do p53 ligado à proteína E6 do HPV (24);
assim, a via carcinogênica associada ao HPV apresenta menor expressão ou
negatividade para p53. A via carcinogênica não associada ao HPV apresenta maior
expressão do p53 devido a acúmulos celulares da proteína mutada (9). Esse
marcador poderia ser utilizado para confirmação do diagnóstico histológico (9).
MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS
!
!
! 38
!
!
! 39
RESULTADOS
Foram encontrados no total 162 casos de 2007 a 2011. Entre esses, 12%
(n=20) receberam originalmente diagnóstico de CE, 17% (n=28) lesão escamosa
intraepitelial de baixo grau (incluindo condiloma acuminado), 11% (n=18) de NIV alto
grau, 1% (n=2) melanomas, 28% (n=45) diagnósticos benignos específicos
(incluindo líquen escleroso, herpes, molusco contagioso, cisto de Bartholin, entre
outros), 29% (n=46) benignos descritivos inespecíficos, apenas 1% (n=2) material
insuficiente para diagnóstico e 1% (n=1) mucosa sem alterações.
!
!
! 40
benigna. Esse caso foi negativo para p53. Entre os demais, 85% apresentaram
expressão de p53 em até 10% das células (n=22), entre os quais 7 foram negativos
e 15 apresentaram marcação de 1-10%. Todos os casos com positividade até 10%
apresentaram padrão basal. Quatro casos apresentaram intensidade 3, padrão
extenso de coloração e percentagem superior a 26% das células (com 2
apresentando mais de 50% das células positivas).
!
!
! 41
positividade de até 10%, enquanto 17% (n= 2) de até 25% e 8% (n=1) até 50%
(figura 1).
!
!
! 42
DISCUSSÃO
!
!
! 43
!
!
! 44
CONCLUSÕES
!
!
! 45
feita de forma simples no dia a dia do laboratório com o uso rotineiro do p53
simultâneo ao diagnóstico histológico em nos casos de NIV e CE.
BIBLIOGRAFIA
1. Nogueira MC, Guedes Neto EDP, Rosa MW, Zettler E, Zettler CG.
Immunohistochemical expression of p16 and p53 in vulvar intraepithelial
neoplasia and squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Pathology oncology
research POR [Internet]. 2006;12(3):153–7. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dop
t=Citation&list_uids=16998595
2. Bodelon C, Madeleine MM, Voigt LF, Weiss NS. Is the incidence of invasive
vulvar cancer increasing in the United States? Cancer causes & control!: CCC
[Internet]. 2009 Nov [cited 2013 Apr 14];20(9):1779–82. Available from:
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2868506&tool=pmce
ntrez&rendertype=abstract
!
!
! 46
4. Van De Nieuwenhof HP, Van Kempen LCLT, De Hullu JA, Bekkers RLM,
Bulten J, Melchers WJG, et al. The etiologic role of HPV in vulvar squamous
cell carcinoma fine tuned. Cancer epidemiology biomarkers prevention a
publication of the American Association for Cancer Research cosponsored by
the American Society of Preventive Oncology [Internet]. 2009;18(7):2061–7.
Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dop
t=Citation&list_uids=19567503
8. Van Der Avoort IAM, Shirango H, Hoevenaars BM, Grefte JMM, De Hullu JA,
De Wilde PCM, et al. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma is a multifactorial
disease following two separate and independent pathways. International
journal of gynecological pathology official journal of the International Society of
Gynecological Pathologists [Internet]. 2006;25(1):22–9. Available from:
http://content.wkhealth.com/linkback/openurl?sid=WKPTLP:landingpage&an=0
0004347-200601000-00002
9. Hoevenaars BM, Van der Avoort IAM, De Wilde PCM, Massuger LFAG,
Melchers WJG, De Hullu JA, et al. A panel of p16(INK4A), MIB1 and p53
proteins can distinguish between the 2 pathways leading to vulvar squamous
cell carcinoma. International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer
[Internet]. 2008 Dec 15 [cited 2013 Mar 9];123(12):2767–73. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18798277
10. Crum, C.P., M.R. Nucci and KRL. Diagnostic Gynecologic and Obstetric
Pathology. Elsevier Health Sciences.; 2011.
11. Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: historical aspects and current status.
International journal of gynecological pathology official journal of the
International Society of Gynecological Pathologists [Internet]. 2001;20(1):16–
30. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11192069
!
!
! 47
13. Van De Nieuwenhof HP, Van Der Avoort IAM, De Hullu JA. Review of
squamous premalignant vulvar lesions. Critical reviews in oncologyhematology
[Internet]. 2008;68(2):131–56. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18406622
15. Yang B, Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia of the simplex (differentiated)
type: a clinicopathologic study including analysis of HPV and p53 expression.
The American journal of surgical pathology [Internet]. 2000;24(3):429–41.
Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dop
t=Citation&list_uids=10716158
16. Fox H, Wells M. Recent advances in the pathology of the vulva. Histopathology
[Internet]. 2003;42(3):209–16. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12605639
19. Oren M. Decision making by p53: life, death and cancer. Cell death and
differentiation [Internet]. 2003 Apr [cited 2013 Feb 28];10(4):431–42. Available
from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12719720
!
!
! 48
21. Scheffner M, Werness BA, Huibregtse JM, Levine AJ, Howley PM. The E6
oncoprotein encoded by human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 promotes the
degradation of p53. Cell [Internet]. 1990 Dec [cited 2013 Apr 21];63(6):1129–
36. Available from:
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0092867490904098
23. Finlay CA, Hinds PW, Tan TH, Eliyahu D, Oren M, Levine AJ. Activating
mutations for transformation by p53 produce a gene product that forms an
hsc70-p53 complex with an altered half-life. Molecular and cellular biology
[Internet]. 1988 Feb [cited 2013 Apr 21];8(2):531–9. Available from:
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=363177&tool=pmcen
trez&rendertype=abstract
26. Heller DS. Report of a new ISSVD classification of VIN. Journal of lower genital
tract disease [Internet]. 2007 Jan [cited 2013 Apr 14];11(1):46–7. Available
from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17194951
29. Van der Avoort IAM, Van de Nieuwenhof HP, Otte-Höller I, Nirmala E, Bulten J,
Massuger LFAG, et al. High levels of p53 expression correlate with DNA
aneuploidy in (pre)malignancies of the vulva. Human pathology [Internet]. 2010
Oct [cited 2013 Apr 24];41(10):1475–85. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20656324
!
!
! 49
!
!
! 50
Legendas
Tabela 2. Expressão do p53 nas lesões. NIV Difer: NIV diferenciada; Ca querat: CE
queratinizante;Ca “warty”: CE condilomatoso/”warty”; Bas: basal; BasExt: basal com
extensão ao terço médio; Infiltr: infiltrante; Dif:difuso; Aus:ausente K-W: Teste de
Kruskal-Wallis; Fischer: Teste Exato de Fisher.
Tabela 4. Expressão do p53 nas vias carcingênicas. NIV Difer: NIV diferenciada; Ca
querat: CE queratinizante;Ca “warty”: CE condilomatoso/”warty”; Bas: basal; BasExt:
basal com extensão ao terço médio; Infiltr: infiltrante; Dif:difuso; Aus:ausente M-W:
Teste de Mann Whitney; Fischer: Teste Exato de Fisher
Figura 1. NIV usual. A) Displasia com falha de maturação e atipias em dois terços do
epitélio. HE, 100X; B) Marcação basal. p53, 100 X.
!
!
! 51
Tabela 1
Coloração Intensidade
Nenhuma zero
Fraca 1
Média 2
Forte 3
!
!
! 52
Tabela 2
!
!
! 53
Tabela 3
!
!
! 54
Tabela 4
!
!
! 55
Figura 1
A! B!
!
!
! 56
Figura 2
A! B!
!
!
! 57
Figura 3
A! B!
!
!
! 58
Figura 4
A! B!
!
!
Raquel Camara Rivero1, Deborah Garcia2, Luciano Serpa Hammes3, Lúcia Maria
Kliemann4, Edison Capp5
1
Master’s Candidate, Graduate Program in Medicine: Medical Sciences, UFRGS
School of Medicine. Staff pathologist, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA).
2
Student, UFRGS School of Nursing.
3
Superintendent for Education, Research and Social Responsibility, Hospital Moinhos
de Vento.
4
Professor, Department of Pathology, UFRGS School of Medicine. Preceptor,
Medical Residency Program in Pathology, HCPA.
5
Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Graduate Program in
Medicine: Medical Sciences, UFRGS School of Medicine. Preceptor, Medical
Residency Program in Gynecology, HCPA.
Corresponding author:
Prof. Dr. Edison Capp
Serviço de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia - Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre
Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350/11º andar - Porto Alegre, RS 90035-903, Brazil
FAX: 0055 51 33598117 - e-mail: edcapp@ufrgs.br
!
!
! 60
ABSTRACT
!
!
! 61
INTRODUCTION
Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the vulva is a rare disease, accounting for
approximately 3-5% of all malignant tumors of the female genital tract and for 90% of
all primary vulvar neoplasms (1). The incidence of vulvar SCC has been increasing in
the United States (2) and Europe (3). The rate observed in Brazil is among the
highest in the world, and the city of Porto Alegre, state of Rio Grande do Sul, is one
of the state capitals with the largest number of cases (1). Vulvar carcinogenesis is
not as directly associated with HPV as cervical carcinogenesis, which is
approximately 100% HPV-mediated (4). Approximately 40% of vulvar SCCs are
HPV-associated (5,6), and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) is found adjacent to
SCCs in 50-70% of cases (7). Strong evidence suggests that two distinct
etiopathogenetic pathways exist for the development of VIN and vulvar SCC, one
HPV-independent and one HPV-related (8,9), with different clinical, pathological, and
epidemiological features (7). The HPV-independent pathway is found in older women
and leads to keratinizing SCC, often against a background of lichen sclerosus and
differentiated VIN. The HPV-associated pathway occurs in younger women, leads to
basaloid or warty SCC, and is associated with usual VIN (8,9).
!
!
! 62
!
!
! 63
epithelium is low. Complete p53 negativity may be the result of true null mutations or
of rapid degradation of HPV E6 protein-bound p53 (24); therefore, p53 expression is
low or absent in the HPV-associated carcinogenesis pathway. In the HPV-
independent pathway, p53 expression is greater due to intracellular buildup of the
mutated protein (9). This marker can be used for confirmation of histological
diagnosis (9).
The objective of the present study was to assess the two pathways of vulvar
carcinogenesis by correlating immunohistochemical expression of p53 with
histopathological findings and clinical data.
Surgical specimens labeled as being from the anatomical region of the vulva
and sent for histopathological examination at the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto
Alegre (HCPA) Pathology Service between January 2007 and December 2011 were
selected from the HCPA electronic medical records system. The charts for each
selected case were reviewed for data such as patient age and presence of single or
multiple lesions, the latter recorded as presence of noncontinuous lesions in the
vulva, cervix, vagina, or perianal region. Cases were reviewed by a pathologist
blinded to the original diagnosis and classified in accordance with the International
Society for the Study of Vulvovaginal Disease (ISSVD) Terminology as follows:
benign, lichen sclerosus, condyloma acuminata, usual VIN, differentiated VIN,
keratinizing SCC, basaloid SCC, or warty SCC. Immunohistochemical staining for
p53 was performed on all selected specimens. Cases of VIN and carcinoma were
separated into two groups: HPV-associated pathway and HPV-independent pathway
(5,7,9,12,14,25,26).
!
!
! 64
molluscum contagiosum – were excluded, as were specimens that did not yield
sufficient material for immunohistochemical examination and those for which
archived paraffin blocks were unavailable.
Statistical analysis: the results were entered into Microsoft Excel 2010
(Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA) spreadsheets. Data were analyzed in IBM
SPSS Statistics 20 (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY). The distribution of diagnoses
and agreement between original and revised diagnoses were expressed as
descriptive statistics (percentages and means). The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to
assess p53 staining intensity and percentage of p53-positive cells. Between-group
comparisons were then carried out by means of the Bonferroni–Dunn method. A Z-
test with Bonferroni correction was used for multiple comparisons. For comparative
statistical analysis of the two pathways of vulvar carcinogenesis, the t-test was used
for analysis of patient age, whereas Fisher’s exact test was used for comparison of
!
!
! 65
single versus multiple lesions. Fisher’s test was also used for analysis of p53 staining
patterns, and the Mann–Whitney U test for assessment of percent staining intensity.
The significance level was set at p<0.05.
RESULTS
Overall, 162 cases were identified between 2007 and 2011. Of these, 12%
(n=20) were originally diagnosed as SCC, 17% (n=28) as low-grade squamous
intraepithelial lesions (including condyloma acuminata), 11% (n=18) as high-grade
VIN, 1% (n=2) as melanoma, 28% (n=45) as specific benign lesions (including lichen
sclerosus, herpes, molluscum contagiosum, Bartholin’s cyst, etc.), and 29% (n=46)
as nonspecific benign lesions, and 1% as unchanged normal mucosa. Only 1% of
specimens (n=2) yielded insufficient material for diagnosis.
SCC accounted for 90% of all vulvar malignancies in the HCPA sample, which
is consistent with the literature (7). The nomenclature used by Brazilian pathologists
is heterogeneous; the same criteria used for diagnosis of cervical lesions are
employed for assessment of invasive neoplasms and intraepithelial lesions of the
vulva. Overall agreement with the nomenclature after review and application of the
ISSVD classification was 57.9%; in diagnoses of VIN and SCC, there was 0%
agreement. After separating cases as benign or malignant, without taking
nomenclature into account, there was 94.7% agreement regarding morphological
criteria for dysplasia and invasion.
!
!
! 66
Eight cases of lichen sclerosus were identified, accounting for 12% of all
diagnoses. There was no diagnostic disagreement. Mean patient age was 61 ± 15
years and all patients had a single lesion. Immunohistochemical staining showed a
basal pattern and up to 10% positive cells in seven of eight cases (87.5%); one case
was negative for p53. Staining intensity was grade 2 in five of the eight cases and
grade 3 in the remaining three cases.
Seventeen cases of VIN were diagnosed, accounting for 22% of all diagnoses.
Of these, 12 were diagnosed only after review of specimens (16% of all cases and
71% of VINs). Mean patient age was 45 ± 17 years, 67% (n=8) had single lesions,
25% (n=3) had multiple lesions, and 8% (n=1) had no available date on number of
lesions. All cases were originally diagnosed as high-grade squamous intraepithelial
lesions (VIN 3), which led to a 100% rate of disagreement with the latest
nomenclature, despite agreement with the criteria for diagnosis of dysplasia. Staining
for p53 was restricted to the basal layer in 100% of specimens. Staining intensity was
grade 2 in 75% of cases (n=9), grade 3 in 17% (n=2), and grade 1 in 8% (n=1) (Table
2). The percentage of p53-positive cells was 10% or less in 75% of cases (n=9), up
to 25% in 17% of cases (n=2), and up to 50% in only 8% of cases (n=1) (Figure 1).
!
!
! 67
cases had p53 staining extending suprabasally, strong staining intensity, and a high
percentage of positive cells (26-50%).
Eleven cases of SCC were diagnosed, accounting for 14% of all diagnoses.
The ISSVD proposed nomenclature was not used in any case, but there was no
disagreement with the latest criteria for malignancy. Of the 11 cases of SCC, eight
were classified as keratinizing SCC (Figure 3), which thus accounted for 73% of all
carcinomas and 10% of all diagnoses. Mean patient age was 75 ± 5 years and all
patients had single lesions. Three cases has comorbid differentiated VIN, and two of
these had adjacent lichen sclerosus as well. All were positive for p53 with maximum
staining intensity and at least 10% positive cells; in 75% of cases (n=6), over 26% of
cells were positive. The staining pattern was never basal, and the diffuse or
infiltrating patterns were found in 75% of cases.
Three cases of warty (condylomatous) SCC were diagnosed (Figure 4), thus
accounting for 27% of SCCs and 4% of all diagnoses. Mean patient age was 44 ± 20
years and 67% of specimens (n=2) were negative for p53. The sole positive
specimen had a small percentage of stained cells (<10%). No cases of basaloid SCC
were diagnosed in the study sample.
By stratifying cases of VIN and SCC into the HPV-associated and HPV-
independent pathways, we found 15 cases in the former and 13 cases in the latter. In
the HPV-associated pathway, the mean patient age was 44 ± 16 years, versus 66 ±
16 years in the HPV-independent pathway (p<0.05). There were no differences
between the pathway in the number of lesions (single or multiple) (p=0.341) (Table
3).
!
!
! 68
DISCUSSION
!
!
! 69
Usual VIN was detected in patients with a mean age of 45 ± 17 years, which is
consistent with the mean age described in the literature (40 years) (10).
Approximately 40% of patients reported in the literature have multicentric disease,
whereas in the sample reported herein, 25% of patients had involvement of other
sites of the genital tract (10).
Differentiated VIN accounted for 6% of all cases in our sample; mean age was
57 ± 22 years and single lesions were predominant, which is consistent with the
literature (13,14). We could not assess whether the clinical appearance
corresponded to the limited area of skin involved, as described in the literature (9),
because no information on lesion size was available from patients’ electronic medical
records. In the present study, 40% of differentiated VINs were found adjacent to SCC
margins, as reported in a previous study (13). All cases of SCC associated with
differentiated VIN were of the keratinizing type, as expected, since VIN is considered
a precursor of this specific subtype of vulvar SCC (14). Differentiated VIN has
received little attention from pathologists (16); accordingly, none of the cases
detected in this sample had originally been diagnosed as such. Only five cases were
identified after a review of slides, which confirms the rarity of this diagnosis. As well
as posing a diagnostic challenge on histopathological examination, differentiated VIN
has a very brief intraepithelial phase, progressing quickly to invasive carcinoma,
which would further hinder its detection (16,17). In cases associated with keratinizing
SCC, concomitant occurrence of differentiated VIN and lichen sclerosus has also
!
!
! 70
been observed (7,9,10) The hypothesis that differentiated VIN is often misdiagnosed
as benign changes or even as normal epithelium (15,16) was not borne out in this
study, as the patients with this condition had originally received a diagnosis of grade
3 VIN. A recent review (30) assessed 60 cases diagnosed as lichen sclerosus
progressing to SCC (minimum 10-year follow-up), 42% of which (25 of 60) were
reclassified as differentiated VIN. The absence of cases of lichen sclerosus
reclassified as differentiated VIN in the present sample may be due to the small
sample size. Differentiated VIN was associated with suprabasal extension and a high
percentage of p53 positivity, whereas usual VIN was associated with a basal staining
pattern and a low percentage of positive cells (p<0.05), which is in agreement with
the literature (7).
The mean age of patients with warty SCC was 44 ± 20 years, and that of
patients with keratinizing SCC (p<0.05), 66 ± 5 years, which was consistent with the
literature (8,9). The HPV-associated pathway was expected to account for
approximately 40% of SCCs (12); the actual figure in our sample was 27%.
Furthermore, two of the three patients with warty SCC had multicentric lesions, with
concomitant cervical lesions. As expected, keratinizing carcinoma accounted for
most cases of SCC (12).
CONCLUSIONS
Comparison of diagnoses of VIN and vulvar SCC shows that these conditions
can be separated by histological findings, immunohistochemistry, and by significantly
different distributions of patient age at diagnosis into two pathways of carcinogenesis.
Hence, stratification of cases by pathway of carcinogenesis can easily be
accomplished in the daily practice of the clinical pathology laboratory by incorporating
routine use of p53 staining simultaneously with histological diagnosis for all cases of
VIN and vulvar SCC.
The findings presented herein confirm the paradox (6,7,11) that most
precursor lesions are in the HPV-associated pathway, whereas most SCCs belong to
the HPV-independent pathway. This low incidence of carcinomas in the HPV-
associated pathway, despite the large number of precursor lesions, might be
explained by a more liberal use of biopsy, which would contribute to early diagnosis
!
!
! 71
and treatment of lesions that would otherwise progress to SCC (13). Another relevant
factor is the ease of establishing a histological diagnosis of usual VIN as compared
with differentiated VIN.
REFERENCES
1. Nogueira MC, Guedes Neto EDP, Rosa MW, Zettler E, Zettler CG.
Immunohistochemical expression of p16 and p53 in vulvar intraepithelial
neoplasia and squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Pathology oncology
research POR [Internet]. 2006;12(3):153–7. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dop
t=Citation&list_uids=16998595
2. Bodelon C, Madeleine MM, Voigt LF, Weiss NS. Is the incidence of invasive
vulvar cancer increasing in the United States? Cancer causes & control": CCC
[Internet]. 2009 Nov [cited 2013 Apr 14];20(9):1779–82. Available from:
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2868506&tool=pmce
ntrez&rendertype=abstract
4. Van De Nieuwenhof HP, Van Kempen LCLT, De Hullu JA, Bekkers RLM,
Bulten J, Melchers WJG, et al. The etiologic role of HPV in vulvar squamous
cell carcinoma fine tuned. Cancer epidemiology biomarkers prevention a
publication of the American Association for Cancer Research cosponsored by
the American Society of Preventive Oncology [Internet]. 2009;18(7):2061–7.
Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dop
t=Citation&list_uids=19567503
!
!
! 72
8. Van Der Avoort IAM, Shirango H, Hoevenaars BM, Grefte JMM, De Hullu JA,
De Wilde PCM, et al. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma is a multifactorial
disease following two separate and independent pathways. International
journal of gynecological pathology official journal of the International Society of
Gynecological Pathologists [Internet]. 2006;25(1):22–9. Available from:
http://content.wkhealth.com/linkback/openurl?sid=WKPTLP:landingpage&an=0
0004347-200601000-00002
9. Hoevenaars BM, Van der Avoort IAM, De Wilde PCM, Massuger LFAG,
Melchers WJG, De Hullu JA, et al. A panel of p16(INK4A), MIB1 and p53
proteins can distinguish between the 2 pathways leading to vulvar squamous
cell carcinoma. International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer
[Internet]. 2008 Dec 15 [cited 2013 Mar 9];123(12):2767–73. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18798277
10. Crum, C.P., M.R. Nucci and KRL. Diagnostic Gynecologic and Obstetric
Pathology. Elsevier Health Sciences.; 2011.
11. Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: historical aspects and current status.
International journal of gynecological pathology official journal of the
International Society of Gynecological Pathologists [Internet]. 2001;20(1):16–
30. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11192069
13. Van De Nieuwenhof HP, Van Der Avoort IAM, De Hullu JA. Review of
squamous premalignant vulvar lesions. Critical reviews in oncologyhematology
!
!
! 73
15. Yang B, Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia of the simplex (differentiated)
type: a clinicopathologic study including analysis of HPV and p53 expression.
The American journal of surgical pathology [Internet]. 2000;24(3):429–41.
Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dop
t=Citation&list_uids=10716158
16. Fox H, Wells M. Recent advances in the pathology of the vulva. Histopathology
[Internet]. 2003;42(3):209–16. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12605639
19. Oren M. Decision making by p53: life, death and cancer. Cell death and
differentiation [Internet]. 2003 Apr [cited 2013 Feb 28];10(4):431–42. Available
from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12719720
21. Scheffner M, Werness BA, Huibregtse JM, Levine AJ, Howley PM. The E6
oncoprotein encoded by human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 promotes the
degradation of p53. Cell [Internet]. 1990 Dec [cited 2013 Apr 21];63(6):1129–
36. Available from:
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0092867490904098
!
!
! 74
23. Finlay CA, Hinds PW, Tan TH, Eliyahu D, Oren M, Levine AJ. Activating
mutations for transformation by p53 produce a gene product that forms an
hsc70-p53 complex with an altered half-life. Molecular and cellular biology
[Internet]. 1988 Feb [cited 2013 Apr 21];8(2):531–9. Available from:
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=363177&tool=pmcen
trez&rendertype=abstract
26. Heller DS. Report of a new ISSVD classification of VIN. Journal of lower genital
tract disease [Internet]. 2007 Jan [cited 2013 Apr 14];11(1):46–7. Available
from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17194951
29. Van der Avoort IAM, Van de Nieuwenhof HP, Otte-Höller I, Nirmala E, Bulten J,
Massuger LFAG, et al. High levels of p53 expression correlate with DNA
aneuploidy in (pre)malignancies of the vulva. Human pathology [Internet]. 2010
Oct [cited 2013 Apr 24];41(10):1475–85. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20656324
!
!
! 75
Figure Legends
Table 2. Patterns of p53 expression in the examined lesions. Basal/Ext: basal pattern
of expression extending into the middle layer.
Figure 2. Differentiated VIN. A) Atypias, spongiosis, and fusion of rete ridges. H&E
stain, 100x original magnification. B) Immunohistochemical staining showing
suprabasal extension. p53 stain, 100x original magnification.
!
!
! 76
Table 1
Staining Intensity
None zero
Weak 1
Medium 2
Strong 3
!
!
! 77
Table 2
!
!
! 78
Table 3
!
!
! 79
Table 4
!
!
! 80
Figure 1
A! B!
!
!
! 81
Figure 2
A! B!
!
!
! 82
Figure 3
A! B!
!
!
! 83
Figure 4
A! B!
!
!
7. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS