Algebra Linear Profmat

Introdução à Álgebra Linear
Abramo Hefez
Cecília de Souza Fernandez
Sumário
Capítulo 1: Sistemas Lineares e Matrizes
1 O que é Álgebra Linear? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Corpos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 3
1.2 Espaços Vetoriais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 4
1.3 Sistemas de Equações Lineares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Matrizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1 A Definição de Matriz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Operações com Matrizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Matriz Inversa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Capítulo 2: Transformação de Matrizes e Resolução de Sistemas
1 Transformação de Matrizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 30
1.1 Transformações Elementares de Matrizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
1.2 Forma Escalonada de uma Matriz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.3 Matrizes Elementares e Aplicações . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2 Resolução de Sistemas Lineares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Capítulo 3: Espaços Vetoriais
1 Subespaços Vetoriais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.1 Caracterização dos Subespaços Vetoriais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
1.2 Operações com Subespaços . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.3 Subespaços Gerados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
2 Dependência e Independência Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
3 Bases e Dimensão . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
3.1 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2 Dimensão . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4 Espaço Linha de uma Matriz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Capítulo 4: O Espaço Vetorial R3
1 Retas e Planos em R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.1 Retas em R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
1.2 Planos em R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
2 Posições Relativas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3 Determinantes e Geometria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
3.1 Determinantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.2 O Produto Vetorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Capítulo 5: Transformações Lineares
1 O que são as Transformações Lineares? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

2 Núcleo e Imagem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130
2.1 O Núcleo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.2 A Imagem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
2.3 O Teorema do Núcleo e da Imagem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3 Operações com Transformações Lineares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Capítulo 6: Transformações Lineares e Matrizes

1 Matriz de uma Transformação Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2 Operações com Transformações Lineares e Matrizes . . . . . . . 158
3 Operadores Lineares em R2 e em R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
4 Mudança de Base e Matrizes Semelhantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Capítulo 7: Espaços com Produto Interno
1 Produto Interno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2 Ângulos entre Vetores e Ortogonalidade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
3 Bases Ortonormais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.1 Conjuntos Ortogonais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
3.2 Ortogonalização de Gram-Schmidt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4 Operadores em Espaços com Produto Interno . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
4.1 O Operador Adjunto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
4.2 Operadores Ortogonais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Capítulo 8: Determinantes
1 Propriedades dos Determinantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1.1 Propriedades Características . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
1.2 Propriedades Adicionais das Funções D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1.3 Propriedade Multiplicativa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
2 Existência de Determinantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
3 Matriz Adjunta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4 Regra de Cramer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
Capítulo 9: Diagonalização de Operadores
1 Autovalores e Autovetores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
2 Polinômio Característico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
3 Diagonalização de Operadores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
4 O Teorema Espectral para Operadores Simétricos . . . . . . . . . .251
5 Reconhecimento de Cônicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Capítulo 10: Soluções e Respostas
✶
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✶✿ ❙✐,$❡♠❛, ▲✐♥❡❛1❡, ❡ ▼❛$1✐③❡,
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ ❖ "✉❡ % ➪❧❣❡❜*❛ ▲✐♥❡❛*❄ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷
✶✳✶ ❈♦$♣♦& ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸
✶✳✷ ❊&♣❛+♦& ❱❡.♦$✐❛✐& ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹
✶✳✸ ❙✐&.❡♠❛& ❞❡ ❊4✉❛+6❡& ▲✐♥❡❛$❡& ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾
✷ ▼❛3*✐③❡5 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹
✷✳✶ ❆ ❉❡✜♥✐+=♦ ❞❡ ▼❛.$✐③ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹
✷✳✷ ❖♣❡$❛+6❡& ❝♦♠ ▼❛.$✐③❡& ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✻
✷✳✸ ▼❛.$✐③ ■♥✈❡$&❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸
✶
✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
✶ ❖ "✉❡ % ➪❧❣❡❜*❛ ▲✐♥❡❛*❄

❖" ❡"♣❛&♦" ❡♠ )✉❡ +,❛❜❛❧❤❛,❡♠♦" "0♦ ♦" Rn ✱ ❝♦♠ n ≥ 2✱ ✐"+♦ 4✱ ♦ ♣,♦❞✉+♦
❝❛,+❡"✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ n ❝7♣✐❛" ❞❛ ,❡+❛ ,❡❛❧ R✳ 9❛,❛ n ≥ 4✱ ❡"+❡ ❡"♣❛&♦ ❣❡♥❡,❛❧✐③❛
♦ ❡"♣❛&♦ R2 ❞♦" ✈❡+♦,❡" ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡ ♦ ❡"♣❛&♦ R3 ❞♦" ✈❡+♦,❡" ♥♦ ❡"♣❛&♦✳ ❆
❞✐❢❡,❡♥&❛ ❝,✉❝✐❛❧ ❡♥+,❡ ♦" ❝❛"♦" n = 2 ❡ n = 3 ❡ ♦" ❝❛"♦" ❡♠ )✉❡ n ≥ 4
4 )✉❡✱ ♣❛,❛ ❡"+❡" ?❧+✐♠♦"✱ ♥0♦ "❡ ❞✐"♣@❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ,❡♣,❡"❡♥+❛&0♦ ❣❡♦♠4+,✐❝❛✳
❖ ❢❛+♦ ♥0♦ ❞✐♠✐♥✉✐ ❛ ✐♠♣♦,+A♥❝✐❛ ❞❡""❡" ❡"♣❛&♦"✱ ♣♦✐" ❜❛"+❛ ♣❡♥"❛, )✉❡ ♦
R4 4 ♦ ❡"♣❛&♦✲+❡♠♣♦ ❞❛ ❋D"✐❝❛✱ ❡♠ )✉❡ ♦" ♣♦♥+♦" "0♦ )✉❛+❡,♥♦" (x, y, z, t)✱
❝♦♠ ❛" +,E" ♣,✐♠❡✐,❛" ❝♦♦,❞❡♥❛❞❛" ,❡♣,❡"❡♥+❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♣♦"✐&0♦ ♥♦ ❡"♣❛&♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛
♣❛,+D❝✉❧❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❡ ❛ ?❧+✐♠❛ ,❡♣,❡"❡♥+❛♥❞♦ ♦ ✐♥"+❛♥+❡ t ❡♠ )✉❡ ❡"+❛ ♣❛,+D❝✉❧❛
♦❝✉♣❛ +❛❧ ♣♦"✐&0♦✳ 9♦, ♥0♦ ❡①✐"+✐, ✉♠❛ ,❡♣,❡"❡♥+❛&0♦ ❣❡♦♠4+,✐❝❛ ♣❛,❛ ♦"
♣♦♥+♦" ❞❡ Rn ❝♦♠ n ≥ 4✱ "❡,❡♠♦" ♦❜,✐❣❛❞♦" ❛ +,❛+G✲❧♦" ❛❧❣❡❜,✐❝❛♠❡♥+❡✱ "❡♠
♦ ,❡❝✉,"♦ ❞❛ ✈✐"✉❛❧✐③❛&0♦ ❣❡♦♠4+,✐❝❛✱ +0♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥+❛❧ ❡♠ R2 ❡ R3 ✳
9♦,+❛♥+♦✱ +,❛+❛,❡♠♦" ♦" ❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦" ❞❡ Rn ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡+♦,❡"✱ ♦♥❞❡ ❛ "♦♠❛ ❞❡
❞♦✐" ✈❡+♦,❡" (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ❡ (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) 4 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦,
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ),
❡ ❛ ♠✉❧+✐♣❧✐❝❛&0♦ ❞♦ ✈❡+♦, (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ♣❡❧♦ ♥?♠❡,♦ ,❡❛❧ a✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡

❡"❝❛❧❛,✱ 4 ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦,
a(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (ax1 , ax2 , . . . , axn ).
❖" ❡"♣❛&♦" Rn "0♦ ✉+✐❧✐③❛❞♦" ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❡""❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♠ )✉❛"❡ +♦❞♦" ♦" ,❛♠♦"
❞♦ ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐♠❡♥+♦ ❡✱ ♣♦, ❡"+❡ ♠♦+✐✈♦✱ "0♦ ❡"+✉❞❛❞♦" ❡♠ ▼❛+❡♠G+✐❝❛ "♦❜ ♦"
♠❛✐" ✈❛,✐❛❞♦" ♣♦♥+♦" ❞❡ ✈✐"+❛ ❡ ❝♦♠ ❛" ♠❛✐" ❞✐✈❡,"❛" ❡"+,✉+✉,❛"✳ 9♦, ❡①❡♠✲
♣❧♦✱ ♥♦ ❈G❧❝✉❧♦ ❉✐❢❡,❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ "0♦ ❝♦♥"✐❞❡,❛❞♦" ❝♦♠♦ ❡"♣❛&♦" ♥♦,♠❛❞♦"❀ ❡♠
●❡♦♠❡+,✐❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡"♣❛&♦" ❝♦♠ ♣,♦❞✉+♦ ✐♥+❡,♥♦✳
❆ ❡"+,✉+✉,❛ ❞❡ Rn ❡"+✉❞❛❞❛ ❡♠ ➪❧❣❡❜,❛ ▲✐♥❡❛, 4 ❛ ✐♥❞✉③✐❞❛ ♣❡❧❛ ❡"+,✉+✉,❛
❞❡ ❝♦,♣♦ ❞❛ ,❡+❛ ,❡❛❧ R✳ ❊""❛ 4 ❛ ❡"+,✉+✉,❛ ♠D♥✐♠❛ ❛♣,♦♣,✐❛❞❛ ♣❛,❛ "❡ ❡"+✉❞❛,
"✐"+❡♠❛" ❞❡ ❡)✉❛&@❡" ❧✐♥❡❛,❡" ❝♦♠ ✈G,✐❛" ✐♥❝7❣♥✐+❛"✳ ❆❧4♠ ❞✐""♦✱ 4 ❛)✉❡❧❛
"♦❜,❡ ❛ )✉❛❧ "❡ ❝♦♥"+,♦❡♠ ♦ ❈G❧❝✉❧♦ ❉✐❢❡,❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡ ❛ ●❡♦♠❡+,✐❛ ❉✐❢❡,❡♥❝✐❛❧✱
❡♥+,❡ ♦✉+,♦"✳
✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ➱ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘❄ ✸
❈♦♠♦ ❛ ❡&'(✉'✉(❛ ❞❡ ❝♦(♣♦ ❞❡ R ❞❡&❡♠♣❡♥❤❛(/ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥'❛❧✱ ✈❛♠♦&

❞❡✜♥✐( ❢♦(♠❛❧♠❡♥'❡ ❡&'❡ ❝♦♥❝❡✐'♦✳
✶✳✶ ❈♦$♣♦&
❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ K &❡(/ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝♦"♣♦ &❡ ❢♦( ♠✉♥✐❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♦♣❡(❛9:♦
❞❡ ❛❞✐9:♦ (+) ❡ ✉♠❛ ♦♣❡(❛9:♦ ❞❡ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛9:♦ (×)✱ ✈❡(✐✜❝❛♥❞♦ ❛& ❝♦♥❞✐9;❡&
❛ &❡❣✉✐(✳
❆✶ ❆ ❛❞✐9:♦ > ❛&&♦❝✐❛'✐✈❛✿
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)✱ ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦& a, b, c ∈ K ✳
❆✷ ❆ ❛❞✐9:♦ > ❝♦♠✉'❛'✐✈❛✿
a + b = b + a✱ ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦& a, b ∈ K ✳
❆✸ ❆ ❛❞✐9:♦ ♣♦&&✉✐ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦ ♥❡✉'(♦✿
❡①✐&'❡ 0 ∈ K ✱ '❛❧ A✉❡ a + 0 = a✱ ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦ a ∈ K ✳
❆✹ ❆ ❛❞✐9:♦ ♣♦&&✉✐ &✐♠>'(✐❝♦&✿
♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦ a ∈ K ✱ ❡①✐&'❡ −a ∈ K '❛❧ A✉❡ a + (−a) = 0✳
▼✶ ❆ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛9:♦ > ❛&&♦❝✐❛'✐✈❛✿
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c)✱ ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦& a, b, c ∈ K ✳
▼✷ ❆ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛9:♦ > ❝♦♠✉'❛'✐✈❛✿
a × b = b × a✱ ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦& a, b ∈ K ✳
▼✸ ❆ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛9:♦ ♣♦&&✉✐ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦ ♥❡✉'(♦✿
❡①✐&'❡ 1 ∈ K \ {0}✱ '❛❧ A✉❡ a × 1 = a✱ ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦ a ∈ K ✳
▼✹ ❆ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛9:♦ ♣♦&&✉✐ ✐♥✈❡(&♦&✿
♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦ a ∈ K \ {0}✱ ❡①✐&'❡ a−1 ∈ K '❛❧ A✉❡ a × a−1 = 1✳
❆▼ ❆ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛9:♦ > ❞✐&'(✐❜✉'✐✈❛ ❝♦♠ (❡❧❛9:♦ C ❛❞✐9:♦✿
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c✱ ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦& a, b, c ∈ K ✳
D♦('❛♥'♦✱ &:♦ ❝♦(♣♦& ♦& ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦& Q✱ R ❡ C✱ ❝♦♠ ❛& &✉❛& (❡&♣❡❝'✐✈❛&

❛❞✐9;❡& ❡ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛9;❡&✳
❆ ♦♣❡(❛9:♦ ❞❡ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛9:♦ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❝♦(♣♦ ♠✉✐'❛& ✈❡③❡& > ❞❡♥♦'❛❞❛ ♣♦(
(·)✱ ❡&❝(❡✈❡♥❞♦ a · b✱ ♦✉ ♠❡&♠♦ ab✱ ♥♦ ❧✉❣❛( ❞❡ a × b✱ ♥♦'❛9:♦ A✉❡ ❛❞♦'❛(❡♠♦&
❛♦ ❧♦♥❣♦ ❞❡&'❡ ❧✐✈(♦✳
✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❊①✐$%❡♠ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦$ ❞❡ ❝♦-♣♦$ .✉❡ 0 ♣-✐♠❡✐-❛ ✈✐$%❛ ♣❛-❡❝❡♠ ❡①3%✐❝♦$✱ ❝♦♠♦
♦ ❝♦-♣♦ ❞❡ ●❛❧♦✐$✶ F2 ✱ .✉❡ ❝♦♥$✐$%❡ ❞♦$ ❞♦✐$ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦$ 0 ❡ 1 ❝♦♠ ❛$ $❡❣✉✐♥%❡$
♦♣❡-❛89❡$✿
+ 0 1 × 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1
◆♦%❡ .✉❡ ❡$%❡ < ♦ ❝♦-♣♦ ❝♦♠ ♦ ♠❡♥♦- ♥=♠❡-♦ ♣♦$$>✈❡❧ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦$✱
♣♦✐$ %♦❞♦ ❝♦-♣♦ ❞❡✈❡ ♣♦$$✉✐- ♦$ ❞♦✐$ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦$ ❞✐$%✐♥%♦$ 0 ❡ 1✳ ❆♣❡$❛- ❞❡
♣❛-❡❝❡-❡♠ ❛♣❡♥❛$ ❝✉-✐♦$✐❞❛❞❡$✱ ♦$ ❝♦-♣♦$ ❝♦♠ ✉♠ ♥=♠❡-♦ ✜♥✐%♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦$
%B♠ ❛$ ♠❛✐$ ✈❛-✐❛❞❛$ ❛♣❧✐❝❛89❡$ ❡♠ .✉❛$❡ %♦❞❛ ❛ ▼❛%❡♠D%✐❝❛ ❡ $E♦ ❡$$❡♥❝✐❛✐$
♥❛ %❡❝♥♦❧♦❣✐❛ ❡ ♥❛ ❝♦♠♣✉%❛8E♦✳
✶✳✷ ❊$♣❛'♦$ ❱❡+♦,✐❛✐$

❖$ ❡$♣❛8♦$ Rn ✱ ♣♦- $❡-❡♠ ❝♦♥$%✐%✉>❞♦$ ♣♦- ✈❡%♦-❡$ .✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠ $❡- $♦♠❛✲
❞♦$ ❡ ♠✉❧%✐♣❧✐❝❛❞♦$ ♣♦- ❡$❝❛❧❛-❡$✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦$ ❛♥%❡$✱ $E♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦$ ❡!♣❛$♦!
✈❡'♦(✐❛✐!✳
❈♦♠♦ ♦$ ❡$♣❛8♦$ ✈❡%♦-✐❛✐$ $E♦ ♦$ ♦❜❥❡%♦$ ♣-✐♥❝✐♣❛✐$ ❞❡ ❡$%✉❞♦ ❞❛ ➪❧❣❡❜-❛
▲✐♥❡❛-✱ ✈❛♠♦$ ❞❡✜♥✐✲❧♦$ ❢♦-♠❛❧♠❡♥%❡ ❛ $❡❣✉✐-✳
❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ V $❡-D ❞✐%♦ ✉♠ ❡!♣❛$♦ ✈❡'♦(✐❛❧ $♦❜-❡ ✉♠ ❝♦-♣♦ K ✱ $❡ ♣♦$$✉✐
✉♠❛ ❛❞✐8E♦ (+) ❝♦♠ ❛$ ♠❡$♠❛$ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡$ ❞❛ ❛❞✐8E♦ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❝♦-♣♦❀ ♦✉
$❡❥❛✱
❆✶ ❆ ❛❞✐8E♦ < ❛$$♦❝✐❛%✐✈❛✿
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w)✱ ♣❛-❛ %♦❞♦$ u, v, w ∈ V ✳
❆✷ ❆ ❛❞✐8E♦ < ❝♦♠✉%❛%✐✈❛✿
u + v = v + u✱ ♣❛-❛ %♦❞♦$ u, v ∈ V ✳
❆✸ ❆ ❛❞✐8E♦ ♣♦$$✉✐ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ♥❡✉%-♦ ✭❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ③❡-♦✮✿
❡①✐$%❡ 0 ∈ V ✱ %❛❧ .✉❡ v + 0 = v ✱ ♣❛-❛ %♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✳
❊♠ ❤♦♠❡♥❛❣❡♠ ❛ ➱✈❛*✐,-❡ ●❛❧♦✐, ✭❋*❛♥2❛✱ ✶✽✶✶✲✶✽✸✷✮✱ ❝♦♥,✐❞❡*❛❞♦ ✉♠ ❞♦, ❣*❛♥❞❡,
✶
❣=♥✐♦, ❞❛ ▼❛-❡♠?-✐❝❛✳
✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ➱ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘❄ ✺
❆✹ ❆ ❛❞✐%&♦ ♣♦))✉✐ )✐♠,-.✐❝♦)✿

♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✱ ❡①✐)-❡ −v ∈ V -❛❧ 5✉❡ v + (−v) = 0✳
❊ ❛❧,♠ ❞✐))♦✱ ❡①✐)-❡ ✉♠❛ ♦♣❡.❛%&♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠✉❧#✐♣❧✐❝❛()♦ ♣♦+ ❡-❝❛❧❛+

✱ 5✉❡
❛))♦❝✐❛ ❛ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦ a ∈ K ❡ ❛ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦ v ∈ V ✱ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦ av ∈ V ✱
-❛❧ 5✉❡
▼❊✶ a(u + v) = au + av✱ ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦) a ∈ K ❡ u, v ∈ V ✳
▼❊✷ (a + a )v = a v + a v✱ ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦) a , a ∈ K ❡ v ∈ V ✳
1 2 1 2 1 2
▼❊✸ (a a )v = a (a v)✱ ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦) a , a ∈ K ❡ v ∈ V ✳

1 2 1 2 1 2
▼❊✹ 1v = v✱ ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✳

❖) ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦) ❞❡ V )❡.&♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦) ❞❡ ✈❡#♦+❡-
❡ ♦) ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦) ❞❡ K ❞❡
❡-❝❛❧❛+❡-
✳ ❆))✐♠✱ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦ 0 ❞❡ V )❡.; ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✈❡#♦+ ♥✉❧♦
❡ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦
−v ❞❡ ✈❡#♦+ ♦♣♦-#♦❞❡ v ✳
❖ ♣.✐♠❡✐.♦ ♠❛-❡♠;-✐❝♦ ❛ ❞❛. ✉♠❛ ❞❡✜♥✐%&♦ ❛❜)-.❛-❛ ♣❛.❛ ✉♠ ❡)♣❛%♦

✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ ❢♦✐ ●✐✉)❡♣♣❡ A❡❛♥♦ ✭■-;❧✐❛✱ ✶✽✺✽ ✲ ✶✾✸✷✮ ❡♠ )❡✉ ❧✐✈.♦ ❈❛❧❝♦❧♦ ●❡♦✲
♠❡#+✐❝♦ ✱ ❞❡ ✶✽✽✽✳ ◆♦ ❈❛♣M-✉❧♦ ■❳✱ A❡❛♥♦ ❞; ✉♠❛ ❞❡✜♥✐%&♦ ❞♦ 5✉❡ ❡❧❡ ❝❤❛♠❛
❞❡ ✉♠ -✐-#❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛+ ✳ A❛.❛ A❡❛♥♦✱ ✉♠ )✐)-❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❝♦♥)✐)-✐❛ ❞❡ 3✉❛♥#✐❞❛❞❡-
❝♦♠ ♦♣❡.❛%O❡) ❞❡ ❛❞✐%&♦ ❡ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛%&♦ ♣♦. ❡)❝❛❧❛.✳ ❆ ❛❞✐%&♦ ❞❡✈❡.✐❛ )❛-✐)✲
❢❛③❡. ❛) ❧❡✐) ❝♦♠✉-❛-✐✈❛ ❡ ❛))♦❝✐❛-✐✈❛✱ ❡♥5✉❛♥-♦ ❛ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛%&♦ ♣♦. ❡)❝❛❧❛.
❞❡✈❡.✐❛ )❛-✐)❢❛③❡. ❞✉❛) ❧❡✐) ❞✐)-.✐❜✉-✐✈❛)✱ ✉♠❛ ❧❡✐ ❛))♦❝✐❛-✐✈❛ ❡ ❛ ❧❡✐ ❞❡ 5✉❡
1 · v = v ♣❛.❛ -♦❞❛ 5✉❛♥-✐❞❛❞❡ v ✳ ❆❧,♠ ❞✐))♦✱ A❡❛♥♦ ✐♥❝❧✉✐✉ ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛.-❡ ❞❡
)❡✉ )✐)-❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❛①✐♦♠❛) ❛ ❡①✐)-Q♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ 5✉❛♥-✐❞❛❞❡ 0 ✭ ③❡+♦
✮ )❛-✐)❢❛③❡♥❞♦
v + 0 = v ✱ ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦ v ✱ ❛))✐♠ ❝♦♠♦ v + (−1)v = 0 ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦ v ✳ A❡❛♥♦
-❛♠❜,♠ ❞❡✜♥✐✉ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥-)♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ )✐)-❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ♠;①✐♠♦ ♥R♠❡.♦ ❞❡
5✉❛♥-✐❞❛❞❡) ❧✐♥❡❛.♠❡♥-❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥-❡) ❞♦ )✐)-❡♠❛ ✭✈❡❥❛ ❡)-❛ ♥♦%&♦ ♥❛ ❙❡%&♦
✷ ❞♦ ❈❛♣M-✉❧♦ ✸✮✳ A❡❛♥♦ ✈❡.✐✜❝♦✉ 5✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ❞❛) ❢✉♥%O❡) ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐❛✐) ❡♠
✉♠❛ ✈❛.✐;✈❡❧ ❢♦.♠❛ ✉♠ )✐)-❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛.✱ ♠❛) ♥&♦ ❡①✐)-✐❛ ✉♠ -❛❧ ♥R♠❡.♦ ♠;✲
①✐♠♦ ❞❡ 5✉❛♥-✐❞❛❞❡) ❧✐♥❡❛.♠❡♥-❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥-❡)✱ ♣♦.-❛♥-♦✱ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥)&♦ ❞❡)-❡
)✐)-❡♠❛ ❞❡✈❡.✐❛ )❡. ✐♥✜♥✐-♦✳
❖ ❢❛-♦ ❛ )❡❣✉✐. ❞❡❝♦..❡ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐%&♦ ❞❡ ❡)♣❛%♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧✳ A❛.❛ a ∈ K ❡

✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
v ∈ V ✱ "❡♠✲&❡ '✉❡
a = 0 ou v = 0 ⇐⇒ av = 0.
❉❡ ❢❛"♦✱ &❡❥❛♠ a ∈ K ❡ 0 ∈ V ✳ ❈♦♠♦ 0 + 0 = 0✱ ♣❡❧❛ ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡ ▼❊✶✱

&❡❣✉❡✲&❡ '✉❡
a 0 = a(0 + 0) = a 0 + a 0.
❙♦♠❛♥❞♦ ♦ &✐♠;"2✐❝♦ −a 0 ❞❡ a 0 ❛ ❛♠❜♦& ♦& ❧❛❞♦& ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❡

✉"✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❛& ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡& ❆✹✱ ❆✶ ❡ ❆✸✱ "❡♠♦& '✉❡
0 = a 0 + (−a 0) = (a 0 + a 0) + (−a 0) = a 0 + [a 0 + (−a 0)] = a 0 + 0 = a 0.
❉❡ ♠♦❞♦ &❡♠❡❧❤❛♥"❡✱ ♠♦&"2❛✲&❡ ✭❢❛D❛✲♦✮ '✉❡ ♣❛2❛ 0 ∈ K ❡ v ∈ V "❡♠✲&❡

0 v = 0✱ ♦♥❞❡ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ 0 ❞❛ ❞✐2❡✐"❛ ; ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ ③❡2♦ ❞❡ V ✳
❘❡❝✐♣2♦❝❛♠❡♥"❡✱ &✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦& '✉❡ av = 0 ❡ a 6= 0✱ ❡♥"G♦✱ ♠✉❧"✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦
❛♠❜♦& ♦& ❧❛❞♦& ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛ ♣❡❧♦ ❡&❝❛❧❛2 a−1 ✱ "❡♠♦& '✉❡
0 = a−1 0 = a−1 (av) = (a−1 a)v = 1v = v.
❉♦✐& ✈❡"♦2❡& u ❡ v ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡&♣❛D♦ ✈❡"♦2✐❛❧ V &❡2G♦ ❞✐"♦& ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛'❡(✱ &❡

❡①✐&"✐2 ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ a ❡♠ K "❛❧ '✉❡ v = au✳ J♦2"❛♥"♦✱ &G♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛2❡& ♦&
✈❡"♦2❡& u ❡ au✱ ♣❛2❛ "♦❞♦ a ∈ K ✳ ◆♦"❡ '✉❡ ♦ ✈❡"♦2 0 ; ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛2 ❝♦♠ '✉❛❧'✉❡2
✈❡"♦2 v ✱ ♣♦✐& 0 = 0v ✳
➱ ✉♠ ❡①❡2❝M❝✐♦ ❢N❝✐❧ ♠♦&"2❛2 '✉❡ Rn ; ✉♠ ❡&♣❛D♦ ✈❡"♦2✐❛❧ &♦❜2❡ ♦ ❝♦2♣♦

R✱ ❝♦♠ ❛& ♦♣❡2❛DO❡& ❞❡ ❛❞✐DG♦ ❞❡ ✈❡"♦2❡& ❡ ❛ ♠✉❧"✐♣❧✐❝❛DG♦ ♣♦2 ❡&❝❛❧❛2❡&
'✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦& ❛♥"❡2✐♦2♠❡♥"❡✱ ♦♥❞❡ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ ③❡2♦ ; ♦ ✈❡"♦2 (0, 0, . . . , 0) ❡ ♦
&✐♠;"2✐❝♦ ❞❡ (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ; ♦ ✈❡"♦2
−(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (−x1 , −x2 , . . . , −xn ).
❖❜&❡2✈❡ '✉❡ ♥G♦ ❤N ♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❡&♣❡❝✐❛❧ &♦❜2❡ ♦& 2❡❛✐&✱ ❛❧;♠ ❞❡ &✉❛ ❡&"2✉"✉2❛
❞❡ ❝♦2♣♦ ♣❛2❛ '✉❡ Rn &❡❥❛ ✉♠ ❡&♣❛D♦ ✈❡"♦2✐❛❧ &♦❜2❡ R✳ ▼❛✐& ❣❡2❛❧♠❡♥"❡✱
❞❛❞♦ ✉♠ ❝♦2♣♦ '✉❛❧'✉❡2 K ✱ ♦ ❡&♣❛D♦ K n ; ✉♠ ❡&♣❛D♦ ✈❡"♦2✐❛❧ &♦❜2❡ K ✱ ❝♦♠
✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ➱ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘❄ ✼
♦♣❡$❛&'❡( (❡♠❡❧❤❛♥-❡( .( ❞❡ ❛❞✐&1♦ ❞❡ ✈❡-♦$❡( ❡ ❞❡ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛&1♦ ❞❡ ✈❡-♦$❡(

♣♦$ ❡(❝❛❧❛$❡( 5✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦( ♥♦ ❝❛(♦ ❡♠ 5✉❡ K = R✳
8♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♦( ❡(♣❛&♦( ✈❡-♦$✐❛✐( Fn2 (♦❜$❡ F2 ✱ ♣♦$ ♠❛✐( ✐♥<❝✉♦( 5✉❡
♣♦((❛♠ ♣❛$❡❝❡$✱ (1♦ ❞❡ ❡①-$❡♠❛ ✉-✐❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❡♠ ✈=$✐❛( ❛♣❧✐❝❛&'❡(✱ ❞❡♥-$❡ ❡❧❛(
♥❛ ❝♦♥(-$✉&1♦ ❞❡ ❝<❞✐❣♦( ❝♦$$❡-♦$❡( ❞❡ ❡$$♦( ✭✈❡❥❛ ❛ $❡❢❡$B♥❝✐❛ ❬✸❪ ♣❛$❛ ♠❛✐♦$❡(
❞❡-❛❧❤❡( (♦❜$❡ ❡(-❛ -❡♦$✐❛✮✳
❖✉-$♦( ❡①❡♠♣❧♦( ✐♠♣♦$-❛♥-❡( ❞❡ ❡(♣❛&♦( ✈❡-♦$✐❛✐( (1♦ ♦( ❡(♣❛&♦( R ❡ C
(♦❜$❡ ♦ ❝♦$♣♦ Q ❡ ♦ ❡(♣❛&♦ C (♦❜$❡ ♦ ❝♦$♣♦ R✳
❈♦♠♦ (✉❝❡❞❡ ❝♦♠ ❢$❡5✉B♥❝✐❛ ❡♠ ▼❛-❡♠=-✐❝❛✱ ❛♦ ✐♥-$♦❞✉③✐$ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❝❡✐-♦
♣❛$❛ ❧✐❞❛$ ❝♦♠ ❞❡-❡$♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣$♦❜❧❡♠❛✱ ❝$✐❛✲(❡ ✉♠ ✐♥(-$✉♠❡♥-♦ 5✉❡ ♠✉✐-❛(
✈❡③❡( -$❛♥(❝❡♥❞❡ ♦ ♣$♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❡ (❡ ❝♦♥(-✐-✉✐ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❝❡✐-♦ ❝❡♥-$❛❧ ❡♠
✈=$✐♦( ♦✉-$♦( ❝♦♥-❡①-♦(✳ ■(-♦ ♦❝♦$$❡✉ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♥♦&1♦ ❞❡ ❡(♣❛&♦ ✈❡-♦$✐❛❧✱ 5✉❡
✐♥✐❝✐❛❧♠❡♥-❡ ❢♦✐ ✐♥-$♦❞✉③✐❞❛ ♣❛$❛ -$❛-❛$ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥( -✐♣♦( ❞❡ ♣$♦❜❧❡♠❛( ❡♠ Rn ✱
❝♦♠♦ ❛ $❡(♦❧✉&1♦ ❞❡ (✐(-❡♠❛( ❞❡ ❡5✉❛&'❡( ❧✐♥❡❛$❡( ❝✉❥❛ ❞✐(❝✉((1♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛$❡♠♦(
♥❛ ♣$<①✐♠❛ (✉❜(❡&1♦✱ ❡ (❡ ❞❡(❡♥✈♦❧✈❡✉ ❡♠ ✉♠❛ -❡♦$✐❛ ❝♦♠ ✈✐❞❛ ♣$<♣$✐❛✳
8♦❞❡✲(❡ (✐♥-❡-✐❝❛♠❡♥-❡ ❞✐③❡$ 5✉❡ ❛ ➪❧❣❡❜$❛ ▲✐♥❡❛$ O ❛ ♣❛$-❡ ❞❛ ▼❛-❡♠=-✐❝❛
5✉❡ (❡ ❞❡❞✐❝❛ ❛♦ ❡(-✉❞♦ ❞♦( ❡(♣❛&♦( ✈❡-♦$✐❛✐( ❡ ❞❡ ❝❡$-❛( ❢✉♥&'❡( ❡♥-$❡ ❡((❡(
❡(♣❛&♦(✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛( ❞❡ -$❛♥(❢♦$♠❛&'❡( ❧✐♥❡❛$❡(✳
❊♠❜♦$❛ ♠✉✐-❛( ❞❛( ❢❡$$❛♠❡♥-❛( ❜=(✐❝❛( ❞❛ ➪❧❣❡❜$❛ ▲✐♥❡❛$✱ ♣❛$-✐❝✉❧❛$✲
♠❡♥-❡ ❛( 5✉❡ ❡(-1♦ $❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛( ❝♦♠ (✐(-❡♠❛( ❧✐♥❡❛$❡(✱ ❞❛-❡♠ ❞❛ ❛♥-✐❣✉✐✲
❞❛❞❡✱ ♦ ❛((✉♥-♦ ❝♦♠❡&♦✉ ❛ -♦♠❛$ (✉❛ ❢♦$♠❛ ❛-✉❛❧ ❡♠ ♠❡❛❞♦( ❞♦( (O❝✉❧♦
❳■❳✳ ❆ ♣❛$-✐$ ❞❡(-❛ O♣♦❝❛✱ ♠✉✐-❛( ♥♦&'❡( ❡(-✉❞❛❞❛( ❡♠ (O❝✉❧♦( ❛♥-❡$✐♦$❡(
❢♦$❛♠ ❛❜(-$❛S❞❛( ❡ ♠✉✐-♦( ♠O-♦❞♦( ❣❡♥❡$❛❧✐③❛❞♦(✳
❆ ➪❧❣❡❜$❛ ▲✐♥❡❛$ -❡♠ ✈=$✐❛( ❛♣❧✐❝❛&'❡( ❢♦$❛ ❞❛ ▼❛-❡♠=-✐❝❛✳ 8♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱
❝✐-❛♠♦( ❛ -❡♦$✐❛ ❞❛ $❡❧❛-✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ❡ ❛ ♠❡❝T♥✐❝❛ 5✉T♥-✐❝❛ ♥❛ ❋S(✐❝❛ ❡ ❛ -❡♦$✐❛
❞❡ ❛♥=❧✐(❡ ❞❡ $❡❣$❡((1♦ ♥❛ ❊(-❛-S(-✐❝❛✳
❆ (❡❣✉✐$✱ ❞❛$❡♠♦( ❛❧❣✉♥( ❡①❡♠♣❧♦( ❞✐❢❡$❡♥-❡( ❞❡ Rn ♣❛$❛ ✐❧✉(-$❛$ (✐-✉❛&'❡(
♦♥❞❡ ❛♣❛$❡❝❡♠ ♦( ❡(♣❛&♦( ✈❡-♦$✐❛✐( ❡ 5✉❡✱ ♠✉✐-❛( ✈❡③❡(✱ 5✉❛♥❞♦ -$❛-❛❞❛(
❞❡((❛ ❢♦$♠❛ ❣❛♥❤❛♠ ❝❧❛$❡③❛✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ❞❛( ❢✉♥&'❡( ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ♥1♦ ✈❛③✐♦ A ❡♠ R
❢♦$♠❛ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛&♦ ✈❡-♦$✐❛❧ (♦❜$❡ R✱ ♦♥❞❡ ❛ (♦♠❛ O ❛ (♦♠❛ ✉(✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❢✉♥&'❡(
✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❝♦♠ ✈❛❧♦'❡) '❡❛✐)
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), ♣❛'❛ ,♦❞♦ x ∈ A,
❡ ❛ ♠✉❧,✐♣❧✐❝❛/0♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥/0♦ f ♣♦' ✉♠ ❡)❝❛❧❛' a ∈ R 3 ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

)❡♥❞♦
(a f )(x) = a f (x), ♣❛'❛ ,♦❞♦ x ∈ A.
❊♠ ♣❛',✐❝✉❧❛'✱ )❡ I = [a, b] 3 ✉♠ ✐♥,❡'✈❛❧♦ ❡♠ R✱ )❛❜❡✲)❡ ❞♦ ❈:❧❝✉❧♦ ❉✐❢❡✲
'❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡ ■♥,❡❣'❛❧ >✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ ❞❛) ❢✉♥/@❡) ❝♦♥,A♥✉❛)✱ ❜❡♠ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦
❞❛) ❢✉♥/@❡) ✐♥,❡❣':✈❡✐)✱ ❞❡ I ❡♠ R✱ )0♦ ❡)♣❛/♦) ✈❡,♦'✐❛✐) )♦❜'❡ R✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷ ❉❡ ❛❝♦'❞♦ ❝♦♠ ♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ S ❞❛) )❡>✉E♥❝✐❛) ❞❡
♥F♠❡'♦) '❡❛✐)✱ ✐),♦ 3✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ ❞❛) ❢✉♥/@❡) ❞❡ N \ {0} ❡♠ R 3 ✉♠ ❡)♣❛/♦
✈❡,♦'✐❛❧ )♦❜'❡ R✳ ➱ ❢:❝✐❧ ✈❡'✐✜❝❛' ✭❧❡✐,♦'✱ ❢❛/❛✲♦✮ >✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ R(a, b) ❞❛)
)❡>✉E♥❝✐❛) (un ) ❡♠ S >✉❡ )❛,✐)❢❛③❡♠ ❛ '❡❝♦''E♥❝✐❛
un+1 = aun + bun−1 , n ≥ 2,
♦♥❞❡ a ❡ b )0♦ ❞♦✐) ♥F♠❡'♦) '❡❛✐) ✜①❛❞♦)✱ 3 ✉♠ ❡)♣❛/♦ ✈❡,♦'✐❛❧ )♦❜'❡ R✳ ❊♠

♣❛',✐❝✉❧❛'✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ R(1, 1)✱ >✉❡ ❝♦♥,3♠ ❛ )❡>✉E♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❋✐❜♦♥❛❝❝✐ ✷ ✭❛>✉❡❧❛
♣❛'❛ ❛ >✉❛❧ u1 = u2 = 1✮✱ 3 ✉♠ ❡)♣❛/♦ ✈❡,♦'✐❛❧✳ ❱❡'❡♠♦) ♥♦ ❈❛♣A,✉❧♦ ✺
❝♦♠♦ ❡),❛ ✐♥❢♦'♠❛/0♦ ♥♦) ❛❥✉❞❛': ❛ ❛❝❤❛' ,♦❞❛) ❛) )❡>✉E♥❝✐❛) ❡♠ R(1, 1)✱
❞❡,❡'♠✐♥❛♥❞♦ )✉❛) ❢O'♠✉❧❛) ❢❡❝❤❛❞❛)✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸ ✭P❡❛♥♦✮ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ K[x] ❞♦) ♣♦❧✐♥R♠✐♦) ❝♦♠ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥,❡) ❡♠
✉♠ ❝♦'♣♦ K ❢♦'♠❛ ✉♠ ❡)♣❛/♦ ✈❡,♦'✐❛❧ )♦❜'❡ K ✳ P❛'❛ n ∈ N✱ ♦) ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦)
K[x]n = {p(x) ∈ K[x] ; ❣'❛✉✭p(x)✮ ≤ n} ∪ {0}
,❛♠❜3♠ )0♦ ❡)♣❛/♦) ✈❡,♦'✐❛✐) )♦❜'❡ K ✳ ❊♠ ♣❛',✐❝✉❧❛'✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦
R[x]2 = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 ; a0 , a1 , a2 ∈ R}
3 ✉♠ ❡)♣❛/♦ ✈❡,♦'✐❛❧ )♦❜'❡ R✳

❆♣❡❧✐❞♦ ❞❡ ▲❡♦♥❛*❞♦ ❞❡ +✐,❛ ✭■/0❧✐❛✱ ∼ ✶✶✼✵ ✲ ∼ ✶✷✺✵✮✳ ❋♦✐ ♦ ♣*✐♠❡✐*♦ ❣*❛♥❞❡ ♠❛/❡✲
✷
♠0/✐❝♦ ❡✉*♦♣❡✉ ❞❛ ■❞❛❞❡ ▼@❞✐❛✳

✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ➱ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘❄ ✾
✶✳✸ ❙✐%&❡♠❛% ❞❡ ❊,✉❛./❡% ▲✐♥❡❛2❡%

❉❡#❞❡ ❛ ❛♥'✐❣✉✐❞❛❞❡✱ ❡♠ ❞✐✈❡.#❛# /.❡❛# ❞♦ ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐♠❡♥'♦✱ ♠✉✐'♦# ♣.♦✲
❜❧❡♠❛# #7♦ ♠♦❞❡❧❛❞♦# ♠❛'❡♠❛'✐❝❛♠❡♥'❡ ♣♦. #✐#'❡♠❛# ❞❡ ❡8✉❛9:❡# ❧✐♥❡❛.❡#✳
❉❛♠♦# ❛ #❡❣✉✐. ✉♠ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ #✐#'❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡8✉❛9:❡# ❧✐♥❡❛.❡#✿
(
x + y = 36
✭✶✮
x − y = 2,
♦♥❞❡ #❡ #✉❜❡♥'❡♥❞❡ 8✉❡ ❡#'❛♠♦# ❜✉#❝❛♥❞♦ ❞♦✐# ♥A♠❡.♦# .❡❛✐# ❝✉❥❛ #♦♠❛
✈❛❧❡ 36 ❡ ❝✉❥❛ ❞✐❢❡.❡♥9❛ ✈❛❧❡ 2✳ D♦.'❛♥'♦✱ ❛# #♦❧✉9:❡# ♣.♦❝✉.❛❞❛# ♣♦❞❡♠ #❡.
.❡♣.❡#❡♥'❛❞❛# ♣♦. ♣❛.❡# ❞❡ ♥A♠❡.♦# .❡❛✐# (a, b) '❛✐# 8✉❡✱ #❡ #✉❜#'✐'✉E.♠♦# x
♣♦. a ❡ y ♣♦. b✱ ♥❛# ❡8✉❛9:❡#✱ ❡❧❛# #❡ '♦.♥❛♠ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡# ❞❡ ❢❛'♦✳ D♦. ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱
♦ ♣❛. (x, y) = (19, 17) F ✉♠❛ #♦❧✉97♦✱ ♣♦✐# ♦❜'❡♠♦# ❛# ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡#✿
(
19 + 17 = 36
19 − 17 = 2.
❖# #✐#'❡♠❛# ❝♦♠ ❞✉❛# ❡8✉❛9:❡# ❧✐♥❡❛.❡#✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ❥/ ❡.❛♠ ❝♦♥#✐✲

❞❡.❛❞♦# ♣❡❧♦# ❜❛❜✐❧H♥✐♦# ♣♦. ✈♦❧'❛ ❞❡ ✶✽✵✵ ❛✳❈✳ ❡ .❡#♦❧✈✐❞♦# ♣♦. ✉♠ ♠F'♦❞♦
8✉❡ ❝❤❛♠❛♠♦# ❤♦❥❡ ❞❡ ♠F'♦❞♦ ❞❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛97♦ ❣❛✉##✐❛♥❛ ✸ ✳
D♦. ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛.❛ .❡#♦❧✈❡. ♦ #✐#'❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡8✉❛9:❡# ✭✶✮✱ ❛♦ #♦♠❛.♠♦# ❛
#❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡8✉❛97♦ L ♣.✐♠❡✐.❛✱ ♦ '.❛♥#❢♦.♠❛♠♦# ♥♦ ✏#✐#'❡♠❛ ❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥'❡✑✱
(
2x = 38
x − y = 2,
8✉❡ #❡❣✉✐♠♦# '.❛♥#❢♦.♠❛♥❞♦ ❛'F ♦❜'❡.♠♦# ✉♠ #✐#'❡♠❛ ♦♥❞❡ ❛# #♦❧✉9:❡# #7♦

'.✐✈✐❛❧♠❡♥'❡ ❡♥❝♦♥'.❛❞❛#✿
( ( ( (
2x = 38 x = 19 x = 19 x = 19
⇔ ⇔ ⇔
x−y =2 x−y =2 x − y − x = 2 − 19 y = 17.
❊♠ ❤♦♠❡♥❛❣❡♠ ❛ ❈❛)❧ ❋)✐❡❞)✐❝❤ ●❛✉11 ✭❆❧❡♠❛♥❤❛✱ ✶✼✼✼ ✲ ✶✽✺✺✮✱ ❝♦♥1✐❞❡)❛❞♦ ✉♠ ❞♦1

✸
♠❛✐♦)❡1 ♠❛;❡♠<;✐❝♦1 ❞❡ ;♦❞♦1 ♦1 ;❡♠♣♦1✳

✶✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❊##❡ ♠&'♦❞♦ #❡*+ ❣❡♥❡*❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡ #✐#'❡♠❛'✐③❛❞♦ ♣❛*❛ ✐ "❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡'✉❛)*❡
❧✐♥❡❛-❡ ❝♦♠ m ❡4✉❛67❡# ❡ n ✐♥❝8❣♥✐'❛# ❞♦ '✐♣♦


 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1


 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
✳✳ ✭✷✮


 ✳

 a x + a x + ··· + a x = b ,
m1 1 m2 2 mn n m
♦♥❞❡ ♦# aij ✬# ❡ ♦# bi ✬#✱ ♣❛*❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ #?♦ ♥@♠❡*♦# *❡❛✐# ❞❛❞♦#✱

♦✉✱ ♠❛✐# ❣❡*❛❧♠❡♥'❡✱ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦# ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦*♣♦ K ❞❛❞♦✳
❙❡❥❛
S = {(c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) ∈ Rn ; ai1 c1 + ai2 c2 + · · · + ain cn = bi , 1 ≤ i ≤ m}.
❊##❡ #✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ ❞❡ Rn & ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥"♦ ♦❧✉)1♦ ❞♦ #✐#'❡♠❛ ✭✷✮✳ ➱

♣*❡❝✐#❛♠❡♥'❡ ❡#'❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ 4✉❡ 4✉❡*❡♠♦# ❞❡'❡*♠✐♥❛* ♦✉ ❞❡#❝*❡✈❡* ♦ ♠❛✐#
❡①♣❧✐❝✐'❛♠❡♥'❡ ♣♦##H✈❡❧✳
◆♦'❡ 4✉❡ ♣❛*❛ *❡#♦❧✈❡* ♦ #✐#'❡♠❛ ✭✶✮✱ ❞♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦ ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛♠♦#

❣*❛❞❛'✐✈❛♠❡♥'❡✱ ♣♦* ♠❡✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ #❡4✉K♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ "-❛♥ ❢♦-♠❛)*❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"❛-❡ ✱
❡♠ ✉♠ #✐#'❡♠❛ ♠❛✐# #✐♠♣❧❡# ❞❡ *❡#♦❧✈❡*✱ ♦♥❞❡ ♣♦* '*❛♥#❢♦*♠❛6?♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'❛*
❞❡ ✉♠ #✐#'❡♠❛ ❡♥'❡♥❞❡♠♦# ✉♠❛ ❞❛# #❡❣✉✐♥'❡# '*❛♥#❢♦*♠❛67❡#✿
✶✮ ❚*♦❝❛* ❛ ♣♦#✐6?♦ *❡❧❛'✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❞✉❛# ❡4✉❛67❡# ❞♦ #✐#'❡♠❛❀
✷✮ ❚*♦❝❛* ✉♠❛ ❡4✉❛6?♦ ♣❡❧❛ #♦♠❛ ♠❡♠❜*♦ ❛ ♠❡♠❜*♦ ❞❛ ♣*8♣*✐❛ ❡4✉❛6?♦
❝♦♠ ✉♠ ♠@❧'✐♣❧♦ ❞❡ ♦✉'*❛❀
✸✮ ❚*♦❝❛* ✉♠❛ ❡4✉❛6?♦ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦* ✉♠ ❞❡ #❡✉# ♠@❧'✐♣❧♦# ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❛ ❡4✉❛6?♦ ♦❜'✐❞❛
♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❛♠❜♦# ♦# ♠❡♠❜*♦# ❞❛ ❡4✉❛6?♦ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦* ✉♠ ♥@♠❡*♦ *❡❛❧ ♥?♦
♥✉❧♦✮✳
❉✐*❡♠♦# 4✉❡ ❞♦✐# #✐#'❡♠❛# ❞❡ ❡4✉❛67❡# ❧✐♥❡❛*❡# #?♦ ✐ "❡♠❛ ❡'✉✐✈❛❧❡♥"❡ ✱
#❡ ♣✉❞❡*♠♦# ♦❜'❡* ✉♠ #✐#'❡♠❛ ❞♦ ♦✉'*♦ ❛ ♣❛*'✐* ❞❡ ✉♠❛ #❡4✉K♥❝✐❛ ✜♥✐'❛ ❞❡
'*❛♥#❢♦*♠❛67❡# ❡❧❡♠❡♥'❛*❡#✳
❊#'❛ *❡❧❛6?♦ ❡♥'*❡ #✐#'❡♠❛# & ❡❢❡'✐✈❛♠❡♥'❡ ✉♠❛ *❡❧❛6?♦ ❞❡ ❡4✉✐✈❛❧K♥❝✐❛✳
❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ ❡❧❛ & ❝❧❛*❛♠❡♥'❡ *❡✢❡①✐✈❛✱ ♣♦✐# ❜❛#'❛ ♠✉❧'✐♣❧✐❝❛* ✉♠❛ ❞❛# ❡4✉❛67❡#
✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ➱ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘❄ ✶✶
❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛ ♣♦* 1❀ , %*❛♥#✐%✐✈❛✱ ♣♦✐# ❜❛#%❛ ❝♦♥❝❛%❡♥❛* ✉♠❛ #❡3✉4♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ %*❛♥#✲

❢♦*♠❛78❡# ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛*❡# ❝♦♠ ✉♠❛ ♦✉%*❛❀ ❡ , #✐♠,%*✐❝❛✱ ♣♦✐# ♣♦❞❡♠♦# ❞❡#❢❛③❡*
✉♠❛ %*❛♥#❢♦*♠❛7;♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛* ❝♦♠ ♦✉%*❛✳
❆##✐♠✱ , ✐♠❡❞✐❛%♦ ✈❡*✐✜❝❛* 3✉❡✿
❙✐"#❡♠❛" ❞❡ ❡(✉❛*+❡" ❧✐♥❡❛.❡" ❡(✉✐✈❛❧❡♥#❡" ♣♦""✉❡♠ ♠❡"♠♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥#♦ "♦❧✉*4♦✳
❉❡♥%*❡ ♦# #✐#%❡♠❛# ❞❡ ❡3✉❛78❡# ❧✐♥❡❛*❡#✱ ♦❝✉♣❛♠ ❧✉❣❛* ❞❡ ❞❡#%❛3✉❡ ♦#
"✐"#❡♠❛" ❤♦♠♦❣8♥❡♦" ✱ ♦✉ #❡❥❛✱ ❛3✉❡❧❡# #✐#%❡♠❛# ❝♦♠♦ ❡♠ ✭✷✮✱ ♣♦*,♠ ❝♦♠ ♦#
bi ✬# %♦❞♦# ♥✉❧♦#✿

 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0



 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0
✳✳ ✭✸✮


 ✳

 a x + a x + · · · + a x = 0.
m1 1 m2 2 mn n
❊##❡# #✐#%❡♠❛# ♣♦##✉❡♠ ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛*✐❞❛❞❡# ♥;♦ ❝♦♠♣❛*%✐❧❤❛❞❛# ♣❡❧♦# #✐#%❡♠❛#

♠❛✐# ❣❡*❛✐#✳ J♦* ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♦ ✈❡%♦* (0, 0, . . . , 0) ♣❡*%❡♥❝❡ ❛♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ Sh ❞❡
#♦❧✉78❡# ❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛✳ ❆❧,♠ ❞✐##♦✱ #❡ ♦# ✈❡%♦*❡# u = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) ❡ u′ =
(c′1 , c′2 , . . . , c′n ) #;♦ #♦❧✉78❡# ❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛✱ ❡ #❡ a ∈ R✱ ❡♥%;♦ ♦# ✈❡%♦*❡#
u + u′ = (c1 + c′1 , c2 + c′2 , . . . , cn + c′n ) ❡ au = (ac1 , ac2 , . . . , acn )
%❛♠❜,♠ #;♦ #♦❧✉78❡# ❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛ ✭✸✮ ✭❧❡✐%♦*✱ ✈❡*✐✜3✉❡✮✳

❆##✐♠✱ *❡#✉❧%❛ 3✉❡ ♦ ❡#♣❛7♦ Sh ❞❛# #♦❧✉78❡# ❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛ ✭✸✮ , ✉♠ ❡#♣❛7♦
✈❡%♦*✐❛❧ #♦❜*❡ R ❉❡ ❢❛%♦✱ ❛# ♣*♦♣*✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❆✶ ❡ ❆✷ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐7;♦ #;♦ #❛%✐#❢❡✐%❛#
♣❛*❛ %♦❞♦# ♦# ✈❡%♦*❡# ❞❡ Rn ❡ ❡♠ ♣❛*%✐❝✉❧❛* ♣❛*❛ ♦# ❞❡ Sh ✳ J♦* ♦✉%*♦ ❧❛❞♦✱
(0, 0, . . . , 0) ∈ Sh ❡ #❡ (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) ∈ Sh ✱ ❡♥%;♦
−1(c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) = (−c1 , −c2 , . . . , −cn ) ∈ Sh ,
♦ 3✉❡ ♠♦#%*❛ 3✉❡ ❛ ❛❞✐7;♦ ❡♠ Sh ♣♦##✉✐ %❛♠❜,♠ ❛# ♣*♦♣*✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❆✸ ❡ ❆✹✳

❆❧,♠ ❞✐##♦✱ ❛# ♣*♦♣*✐❡❞❛❞❡# ▼❊✶✕▼❊✹ ❞❛ ♠✉❧%✐♣❧✐❝❛7;♦ ♣♦* ❡#❝❛❧❛* #;♦ ❢❛✲
❝✐❧♠❡♥%❡ ✈❡*✐✜❝❛❞❛# ♣❛*❛ Sh ✳
◆♦%❡ 3✉❡ ♦ 3✉❡ ❤P ❞❡ ❡##❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♠ ✉♠ #✐#%❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡3✉❛78❡# ❧✐♥❡❛*❡#
✭✷✮ #;♦ ♦# ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥%❡# ❞❛# ❡3✉❛78❡# 3✉❡ ♦ ❢♦*♠❛♠ ❛❧,♠ ❞♦# ♥Q♠❡*♦# 3✉❡
✶✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❝♦♠♣&❡♠ ♦( (❡❣✉♥❞♦( ♠❡♠❜.♦( ❞❛( ❡0✉❛1&❡(✳ ❈♦♥(✐❞❡.❡♠♦( ♦( ✈❡6♦.❡(
(ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain , bi ) ❞❡ Rn+1 0✉❡ .❡♣.❡(❡♥6❛♠ ♦( ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥6❡( ❞❛( ❡0✉❛1&❡( ❞♦
(✐(6❡♠❛ ✭✷✮ ❛❝.❡(❝✐❞♦( ❞♦( (❡❣✉♥❞♦( ♠❡♠❜.♦( ❡ ♦( ♦.❣❛♥✐③❡♠♦( ❝♦♠♦ ❧✐♥❤❛(
❞❡ ✉♠❛ 6❛❜❡❧❛✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛"#✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞♦ (✐(6❡♠❛ ✭✷✮✱ ❝♦♠♦ (❡❣✉❡✿
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 
 a21 a22 . . . a2n b2 
 ✳
 ✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ .
✳✳  ✭✹✮
 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm
◗✉❛♥❞♦ ♦ (✐(6❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡0✉❛1&❡( A ❤♦♠♦❣B♥❡♦✱ ❛ ❡❧❡ ❛((♦❝✐❛♠♦( ❛ ♠❛6.✐③

 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
,
 ✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
 ✳
 ✳ ✳ ✳ 
am1 am2 · · · amn
❡❧✐♠✐♥❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ ③❡.♦( ❞❛ ❞✐.❡✐6❛ ♥❛ ♠❛6.✐③ ✭✹✮✳

❆( ♠❛6.✐③❡( (✉.❣✐.❛♠ ♣♦. ✈♦❧6❛ ❞♦ ❛♥♦ ✷✵✵ ❛✳❈✳ ❝♦♠ ♦( ❝❤✐♥❡(❡(✱ ♠♦6✐✈❛✲
❞♦( ♣❡❧♦ ✐♥6❡.❡((❡ ❡♠ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛. (♦❧✉1&❡( ❞❡ (✐(6❡♠❛( ❝♦♠ ♠❛✐( ❞❡ 0✉❛6.♦ ❡0✉❛✲
1&❡( ❧✐♥❡❛.❡(✳ ❉❡ ❢❛6♦✱ ♥♦ ❈❛♣H6✉❧♦ ✽ ❞♦ 6❡①6♦ ✐♥6✐6✉❧❛❞♦ ❏✐✉③❤❛♥❣ .✉❛♥.❤✉
✱ ❞❡
❛✉6♦. ❞❡(❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞♦✱ 0✉❡ (✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ ✏◆♦✈❡ ❝❛♣H6✉❧♦( (♦❜.❡ ❛ ❆.6❡ ▼❛6❡♠N6✐❝❛✧ ✱
✜❝❛ ❝❧❛.♦ 0✉❡ ♦ ♣.♦❝❡❞✐♠❡♥6♦ ❞❡ .❡(♦❧✉1P♦ ❞❡ (✐(6❡♠❛( ❧✐♥❡❛.❡( ✉(❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦(
❝❤✐♥❡(❡( A (❡♠❡❧❤❛♥6❡ ❛♦ ♠A6♦❞♦ ❞❡ ❡(❝❛❧♦♥❛♠❡♥6♦✱ 0✉❡ ❞✐(❝✉6✐.❡♠♦( ❛✐♥❞❛
♥❡(6❡ ❝❛♣H6✉❧♦✱ ❡ A ❛♣.❡(❡♥6❛❞♦ ♥❛ ❢♦.♠❛ ❞❡ ♠❛6.✐③❡(✳ ❈❛❜❡ ♦❜(❡.✈❛. 0✉❡ ♦(
❝❤✐♥❡(❡( (Q ❝♦♥(✐❞❡.❛✈❛♠ (✐(6❡♠❛( ❧✐♥❡❛.❡( ❝♦♠ ♦ ♠❡(♠♦ ♥R♠❡.♦ ❞❡ ❡0✉❛✲
1&❡( ❡ ✐♥❝Q❣♥✐6❛(✱ ♥P♦ ❝♦♥(6❛♥❞♦ ❡♠ (❡✉( ❡(❝.✐6♦( ♦ ♠♦6✐✈♦ ❞❡((❡( (✐(6❡♠❛(
♣.♦❞✉③✐.❡♠ (❡♠♣.❡ ✉♠❛ R♥✐❝❛ (♦❧✉1P♦ ❡ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❛❧❣♦.✐6♠♦ ❝❤✐♥B( ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛✈❛✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✶✳✶ ❱❡.✐✜0✉❡ 0✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦ ❞❛( ❢✉♥1&❡( ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦ ♥P♦ ✈❛③✐♦ A ♥♦(
.❡❛✐( A ✉♠ ❡(♣❛1♦ ✈❡6♦.✐❛❧ (♦❜.❡ R✱ ❝♦♠ ❛( ♦♣❡.❛1&❡( ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛( ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ➱ ➪▲●❊❇❘❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘❄ ✶✸
✶✳ ❱❡%✐✜(✉❡ *❛♠❜.♠ (✉❡✱ ♣❛%❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛% ❞❡ ♥4♠❡%♦6 %❡❛✐6 (a, b)✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦
❞❛6 %❡❝♦%%8♥❝✐❛6 R(a, b)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✱ . ✉♠ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡*♦%✐❛❧ 6♦❜%❡
R✳
✶✳✷ ❙❡❥❛ v ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ♥@♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡*♦%✐❛❧ V 6♦❜%❡ R✳ ▼♦6*%❡

(✉❡ . ✐♥❥❡*♦%❛ ❛ ❢✉♥=@♦
R → V
t 7→ tv.
✶✳✸ ❙❡❥❛♠ v1 ❡ v2 ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦6 ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡*♦%✐❛❧ V 6♦❜%❡ R✳ ▼♦6*%❡ (✉❡ ❛

❢✉♥=@♦
R2 → V
(a1 , a2 ) 7→ a1 v1 + a2 v2
. ✐♥❥❡*♦%❛ 6❡✱ ❡ 6♦♠❡♥*❡ 6❡✱ v1 ❡ v2 ♥@♦ 6@♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛%❡6✳
✶✳✹ ❉✐❣❛✱ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛6♦✱ ♣♦% (✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ❝♦♠ ❛6 ♦♣❡%❛=E❡6 ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞❛6 ♥@♦
6❛*✐6❢❛③ G ❞❡✜♥✐=@♦ ❞❡ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡*♦%✐❛❧✱ ♦♥❞❡ a ∈ R✳
❛✮ R2 ✱ ❝♦♠ ❛6 ♦♣❡%❛=E❡6✿
(x, y) + (x′ , y ′ ) = (x + x′ , y + y ′ ) ❡ a(x, y) = (3ax, 3ay)✳
❜✮ R2 ✱ ❝♦♠ ❛6 ♦♣❡%❛=E❡6✿
(x, y) + (x′ , y ′ ) = (xx′ , yy ′ ) ❡ a(x, y) = (ax, 0)✳
❝✮ R3 ✱ ❝♦♠ ❛6 ♦♣❡%❛=E❡6✿
(x, y, z) + (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) = (0, 0, 0) ❡ a(x, y, z) = (ax, ay, az)✳
✶✳✺ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W ❞♦✐6 ❡6♣❛=♦6 ✈❡*♦%✐❛✐6 6♦❜%❡ ✉♠ ❝♦%♣♦ K ✳ ❈♦♥6✐❞❡%❡ ♦

♣%♦❞✉*♦ ❝❛%*❡6✐❛♥♦ V = U × W ❞❡66❡6 ❞♦✐6 ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦6✳ ❉❡✜♥❛ ❛6 6❡❣✉✐♥*❡6
♦♣❡%❛=E❡6 ❡♠ V ✿
(u1 , w1 ) + (u2 , w2 ) = (u1 + u2 , w1 + w2 ) e a(u1 , w1 ) = (au1 , aw1 ),
♦♥❞❡ u1 , u2 ∈ U ✱ w1 , w2 ∈ W ❡ a ∈ K ✳ ▼♦6*%❡ (✉❡ V ❝♦♠ ❛6 ♦♣❡%❛=E❡6 ❞❡

❛❞✐=@♦ ❡ ❞❡ ♠✉*✐♣❧✐❝❛=@♦ ♣♦% ❡6❝❛❧❛%✱ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛6✱ . ✉♠ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡*♦%✐❛❧
6♦❜%❡ K ✳ ❊6*❡ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡*♦%✐❛❧ . ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❡!♣❛$♦ ♣&♦❞✉)♦ ❞❡ U ♣♦% W ✳
✶✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
✷ ▼❛#$✐③❡(
❆# ♠❛&'✐③❡# #+♦ ❢❡''❛♠❡♥&❛# ❜0#✐❝❛# ❞❛ ➪❧❣❡❜'❛ ▲✐♥❡❛'✱ ♣♦✐# ❛❧9♠ ❞❡ ❢♦'✲
♥❡❝❡'❡♠ ♠❡✐♦# ♣❛'❛ ❛ '❡#♦❧✉<+♦ ❞♦# #✐#&❡♠❛# ❞❡ ❡=✉❛<>❡# ❧✐♥❡❛'❡#✱ ❡❧❛# &❛♠✲
❜9♠ '❡♣'❡#❡♥&❛'+♦ ❛# &'❛♥#❢♦'♠❛<>❡# ❧✐♥❡❛'❡# ❡♥&'❡ ❡#♣❛<♦# ✈❡&♦'✐❛✐#✱ ❝♦♠♦
✈❡'❡♠♦# ♥♦ ❈❛♣A&✉❧♦ ✻✳
✷✳✶ ❆ ❉❡✜♥✐)*♦ ❞❡ ▼❛/0✐③

❉❛❞♦# m ❡ n ❡♠ N \ {0}✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦# ✉♠❛ ♠❛"#✐③ #❡❛❧ ❞❡ ♦#❞❡♠
m n✱ ♣♦#
♦✉ #✐♠♣❧❡#♠❡♥&❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ m ♣♦' n ✭❡#❝'❡✈❡✲#❡ m × n✮✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ &❛❜❡❧❛
❢♦'♠❛❞❛ ♣♦' ❡❧❡♠❡♥&♦# ❞❡ R ❞✐#&'✐❜✉A❞♦# ❡♠ m ❧✐♥❤❛# ❡ n ❝♦❧✉♥❛#✳ ❊#&❡#
❡❧❡♠❡♥&♦# ❞❡ R #+♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦# ❡♥"#❛❞❛,
❞❛ ♠❛&'✐③✹ ✳ J♦' ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ♠❛&'✐③
[3] 9 ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ 1 × 1✱ ❛♦ ♣❛##♦ =✉❡
" #
2 1 0
−1 −2 4
9 ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ 2 × 3✳ ❆# ❡♥&'❛❞❛# ❞❛ ♣'✐♠❡✐'❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛ ♠❛&'✐③ #+♦ ❞❛❞❛# ♣❡❧♦#

♥L♠❡'♦# '❡❛✐# ✷✱ ✶ ❡ ✵ ❡ ❛# ❡♥&'❛❞❛# ❞❛ #❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛ ♠❛&'✐③ #+♦ ❞❛❞❛#
♣❡❧♦# ♥L♠❡'♦# '❡❛✐# −1✱ −2 ❡ ✹✳
➱ ✉#✉❛❧ ✐♥❞✐❝❛'♠♦# ❛# ❡♥&'❛❞❛# ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ❛'❜✐&'0'✐❛ A ♣❡❧♦# #A♠✲
❜♦❧♦# Aij ✱ ♦✉ ❛✐♥❞❛ aij ✱ ♦♥❞❡ ♦# A♥❞✐❝❡# ✐♥❞✐❝❛♠✱ ♥❡##❛ ♦'❞❡♠✱ ❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❡ ❛
❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❡ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥&♦ #❡ ❡♥❝♦♥&'❛✳ ❆##✐♠✱ ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ m × n 9 ✉#✉❛❧♠❡♥&❡
'❡♣'❡#❡♥&❛❞❛ ♣♦'
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
A=
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ,
✳✳ 
 ✳ ✳ ✳ 
am1 am2 . . . amn
❆! ❡♥$%❛❞❛! ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$%✐③ ♥,♦ ♣%❡❝✐!❛♠ !❡% ♥❡❝❡!!❛%✐❛♠❡♥$❡ ♥0♠❡%♦! %❡❛✐!✱ ♣♦❞❡♠
✹
!❡% ♥0♠❡%♦! ❝♦♠♣❧❡①♦! ♦✉✱ ♠❛✐! ❣❡%❛❧♠❡♥$❡✱ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦! ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦%♣♦ K ✳

✷✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✶✺
♦✉ ♣♦% A = [aij ]m×n ✱ ♦✉ '✐♠♣❧❡'♠❡♥-❡ ♣♦% A = [aij ]✱ .✉❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♦%❞❡♠ ❞❛

♠❛-%✐③ ❡'-✐✈❡% '✉❜❡♥-❡♥❞✐❞❛✳ ❖ '6♠❜♦❧♦ M(m, n) ❞❡♥♦-❛ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ❞❛'
♠❛-%✐③❡' m × n✳
❉❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❞♦ ❞♦' ✈❛❧♦%❡' ❞❡ m ❡ n✱ ✉♠❛ ♠❛-%✐③ m × n %❡❝❡❜❡ ✉♠ ♥♦♠❡
❡'♣❡❝✐❛❧✳ ❉❡ ❢❛-♦✱ -♦❞❛ ♠❛-%✐③ 1 × n ; ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛"#✐③ ❧✐♥❤❛
❡ -♦❞❛
♠❛-%✐③ m × 1 ; ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛"#✐③ ❝♦❧✉♥❛
✳ ❯♠❛ ♠❛-%✐③ n × n ; ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛
❞❡♠❛"#✐③ ,✉❛❞#❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦#❞❡♠ ✳ n >♦% ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ♠❛-%✐③
h i
1 −3 1 0 4
; ✉♠❛ ♠❛-%✐③ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ ♦%❞❡♠ 1 × 5 ❡ ❛ ♠❛-%✐③
 
2 −1 0
 
0 1 2
3 1 4
; ✉♠❛ ♠❛-%✐③ .✉❛❞%❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦%❞❡♠ ✸✳

❙❡ A = [aij ] ; ✉♠❛ ♠❛-%✐③ .✉❛❞%❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦%❞❡♠ n✱ ❛' ❡♥-%❛❞❛' aii ✱ ❝♦♠
1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ ❢♦%♠❛♠ ❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣#✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞❡ A✳
❯♠❛ ♠❛"#✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ♦#❞❡♠ n ; ✉♠❛ ♠❛-%✐③ .✉❛❞%❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦%❞❡♠ n ❡♠
.✉❡ ♦' ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦' .✉❡ ♥B♦ ♣❡%-❡♥❝❡♠ C ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣%✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ 'B♦ ✐❣✉❛✐' ❛ ③❡%♦✿
 
a11 0 . . . 0
 
 0 a22 . . . 0 
.
 ✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
 ✳
 ✳ ✳ ✳ 
0 0 . . . ann
❆ ♠❛-%✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ♦%❞❡♠ n ❝✉❥❛' ❡♥-%❛❞❛' ❞❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣%✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ 'B♦

✐❣✉❛✐' ❛♦ ♥G♠❡%♦ %❡❛❧ ✶✱  
1 0 ... 0
 
0 1 . . . 0
,
✳ ✳ ✳✳ 
✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳
0 0 ... 1
; ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ♠❛"#✐③ ✐❞❡♥"✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♦#❞❡♠ n ❡ ❞❡♥♦-❛❞❛ ✉'✉❛❧♠❡♥-❡ ♣♦% In ✳ ❊♠
❛❧❣✉♥' ❝❛'♦'✱ %❡♣%❡'❡♥-❛%❡♠♦' ♣♦% '✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞❡ In ❛♣❡♥❛' ♣♦% I✳
✶✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❯♠❛ ♠❛"#✐③ "#✐❛♥❣✉❧❛# *✉♣❡#✐♦# ❞❡ ♦#❞❡♠n % ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ +✉❛❞(❛❞❛ ❞❡
♦(❞❡♠ n ❡♠ +✉❡ '♦❞♦/ ♦/ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦/ ❛❜❛✐①♦ ❞❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣(✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ /7♦ ✐❣✉❛✐/
❛ ③❡(♦✿  
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 
 0 a22 . . . a2n 
.
 ✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
 ✳
 ✳ ✳ ✳ 
0 0 . . . ann
:♦('❛♥'♦✱ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ +✉❛❞(❛❞❛ A = [aij ] ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ n % '(✐❛♥❣✉❧❛( /✉♣❡(✐♦(

/❡ aij = 0 /❡♠♣(❡ +✉❡ i > j ✳
❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥'❡✱ ✉♠❛ ♠❛"#✐③ "#✐❛♥❣✉❧❛# ✐♥❢❡#✐♦# ❞❡ ♦#❞❡♠
n % ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③
+✉❛❞(❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ n ❡♠ +✉❡ '♦❞♦/ ♦/ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦/ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❞❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣(✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
/7♦ ✐❣✉❛✐/ ❛ ③❡(♦✿
 
a11 0 . . . 0
 
 a21 a22 . . . 0 
.
 ✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
 ✳
 ✳ ✳ ✳ 
an1 an2 . . . ann
:♦('❛♥'♦✱ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ +✉❛❞(❛❞❛ A = [aij ] ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ n % '(✐❛♥❣✉❧❛( ✐♥❢❡(✐♦( /❡

aij = 0 /❡♠♣(❡ +✉❡ i < j ✳
❯♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ m × n ❝✉❥❛/ ❡♥'(❛❞❛/ /7♦ '♦❞❛/ ✐❣✉❛✐/ ❛ ③❡(♦ % ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡
✉♠❛ ♠❛"#✐③ ♥✉❧❛
✳ :♦( ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ♠❛'(✐③
" #
0 0 0
0 0 0
% ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ ♥✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ 2 × 3✳
✷✳✷ ❖♣❡%❛'(❡) ❝♦♠ ▼❛.%✐③❡)

❉✐③❡♠♦/ +✉❡ ❞✉❛/ ♠❛'(✐③❡/ A = [aij ]m×n ❡ B = [bij ]m×n ✱ ❞❡ ♠❡/♠❛ ♦(❞❡♠✱
/7♦ ✐❣✉❛✐*
✱ ❡/❝(❡✈❡♥❞♦ A = B ✱ +✉❛♥❞♦ aij = bij ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ ♣❛(❛
'♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✳
✷✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✶✼
"♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ +❡ x ❡ y ❞❡♥♦.❛♠ ♥0♠❡$♦+ $❡❛✐+✱ .❡♠♦+ 2✉❡ ❛+ ♠❛.$✐③❡+

" # " #
x 0 −1 0
❡
1 y 1 2
+5♦ ✐❣✉❛✐+ 2✉❛♥❞♦ x = −1 ❡ y = 2✳
❉❡✜♥✐♠♦+ ❛ +❡❣✉✐$ ✉♠❛ ♦♣❡#❛%&♦ ❞❡ ❛❞✐%&♦ ♥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ M(m, n) ❞❛+
♠❛.$✐③❡+ m × n✳
❙❡ A = [aij ] ❡ B = [bij ] +5♦ ❞✉❛+ ♠❛.$✐③❡+ ❞❡ ♠❡+♠❛ ♦$❞❡♠ m × n✱ ❛
)♦♠❛ ❞❡ A ❡ B ✱ ❞❡♥♦.❛❞❛ A + B ✱ = ❛ ♠❛.$✐③ C = [cij ] ❞❡ ♦$❞❡♠ m × n .❛❧
2✉❡ cij = aij + bij ♣❛$❛ .♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ ♣❛$❛ .♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✳
"♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱
" # " # " #
2 3 −1 −2 −3 1 0 0 0
+ = .
0 −2 1 0 2 −1 0 0 0
❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛.$✐③ A = [aij ]✱ ❞❡✜♥❡✲+❡ ❛ ♠❛+#✐③ ♦♣♦)+❛ ❞❡ A✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ♠❛.$✐③
−A = [−aij ]✳
❆ ❛❞✐@5♦ ❞❡ ♠❛.$✐③❡+ .❡♠ ♣$♦♣$✐❡❞❛❞❡+ +❡♠❡❧❤❛♥.❡+ B ❛❞✐@5♦ ♥♦+ ♥0♠❡$♦+
$❡❛✐+✱ ♦✉ B ❛❞✐@5♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦+ ❡♠ ❡+♣❛@♦+ ✈❡.♦$✐❛✐+✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♠♦+.$❛ ♦ $❡+✉❧.❛❞♦
❛ +❡❣✉✐$✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✶✳✷✳✶✳ ❙❡ A✱ B ❡ C )&♦ ♠❛+#✐③❡) ❞❡ ♠❡)♠❛ ♦#❞❡♠✱ ❡♥+&♦ ✿
✭✐✮ A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C ✭❛))♦❝✐❛+✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ❛❞✐%&♦ ✮❀
✭✐✐✮ A + B = B + A ✭❝♦♠✉+❛+✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ❛❞✐%&♦ ✮❀
✭✐✐✐✮ A + 0 = A✱ ♦♥❞❡ 0 ❞❡♥♦+❛ ❛ ♠❛+#✐③ ♥✉❧❛ m × n ✭❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦ ♥❡✉+#♦✮❀
✭✐✈✮ A + (−A) = 0✳
❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ ❆+ ♣$♦♣$✐❡❞❛❞❡+ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❞❡❝♦$$❡♠ ❞✐$❡.❛♠❡♥.❡ ❞❛+ ❞❡✜♥✐✲

@G❡+ ❞❡ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❡ ❛❞✐@5♦ ❞❡ ♠❛.$✐③❡+✳ "♦$ ❡+.❛ $❛③5♦✱ ♣$♦✈❛$❡♠♦+ ❛♣❡♥❛+
♦ ✐.❡♠ ✭✐✮ ❡ ❞❡✐①❛$❡♠♦+ ✭✐✐✮✱ ✭✐✐✐✮ ❡ ✭✐✈✮ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡$❝H❝✐♦ ✭✈❡❥❛ "$♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✮✳
✭✐✮✿ ❙❡ A = [aij ]✱ B = [bij ] ❡ C = [cij ]✱ ❡♥.5♦
A + (B + C) = [aij ] + [bij + cij ] = [aij + (bij + cij )] =
[(aij + bij ) + cij ] = [aij + bij ] + [cij ] = (A + B) + C,

✶✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
♦♥❞❡ ✉'❛♠♦' ❛ ❛''♦❝✐❛,✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ❛❞✐./♦ ❞❡ ♥0♠❡1♦' 1❡❛✐'✳
❯♠❛ ♦✉,1❛ ♦♣❡1❛./♦ ✐♠♣♦1,❛♥,❡ ❝♦♠ ♠❛,1✐③❡' 6 ❛ ♠✉❧#✐♣❧✐❝❛()♦ ♣♦+ ❡-✲
❝❛❧❛+ ✳ ❉❛❞❛ ❛ ♠❛,1✐③ A = [aij ]m×n ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦' ♦ ♣+♦❞✉#♦ ❞❡ A ♣❡❧♦ ♥1♠❡+♦
+❡❛❧ a✱ ❝♦♠♦ aA = [aaij ]m×n ✳
:♦1 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱    
2 0 −6 0
   
−3 1 1  = −3 −3 .
0 −1 0 3
❚❡♥❞♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❛' ♦♣❡1❛.>❡' ❞❡ ❛❞✐./♦ ❡ ♠✉❧,✐♣❧✐❝❛./♦ ♣♦1 ❡'❝❛❧❛1 ❡♠
M(m, n)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦' ❛ ♦♣❡1❛./♦ ❞❡ -✉❜#+❛()♦
❞❛ ♠❛♥❡✐1❛ ✉'✉❛❧✿ ❞❛❞❛ ❛'
♠❛,1✐③❡' A ❡ B ❡♠ M(m, n)✱
A − B = A + (−B).
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✶✳✷✳✷✳ ❆- -❡❣✉✐♥#❡- ♣+♦♣+✐❡❞❛❞❡- -❡ ✈❡+✐✜❝❛♠ ♣❛+❛ 7✉❛✐-7✉❡+ A

❡ B ∈ M(m, n)✱ ❡ a, a′ ∈ R✿
✭✐✮ a(A + B) = aA + aB ❀
✭✐✐✮ (a + a′ )A = aA + a′ A❀
✭✐✐✐✮ a(a′ A) = (aa′ )A❀
✭✐✈✮ 1A = A✳
❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ :1♦✈❛1❡♠♦' ❛♣❡♥❛' ✭✐✮ ❡ ❞❡✐①❛1❡♠♦' ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥',1❛./♦ ❞❛'

❞❡♠❛✐' ♣1♦♣1✐❡❞❛❞❡' ❛♦ ❧❡✐,♦1 ✭✈❡❥❛ :1♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✮✳
✭✐✮✿ ❉❡ ❢❛,♦✱ '❡❥❛♠ A = [aij ]✱ B = [bij ] ❡❧❡♠❡♥,♦' ❞❡ M(m, n) ❡ a ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥,♦
❞❡ R✱ ❡♥,/♦
a(A + B) = a[aij + bij ] = [a(aij + bij )] = [aaij + abij ] =
[aaij ] + [abij ] = a[aij ] + a[bij ] = aA + aB,
♦♥❞❡ ✉'❛♠♦' ❛ ❞✐',1✐❜✉,✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ♠✉❧,✐♣❧✐❝❛./♦ ❡♠ 1❡❧❛./♦ H ❛❞✐./♦ ❞❡ ♥0✲

♠❡1♦' 1❡❛✐'✳
✷✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✶✾
❆##✐♠✱ ❝♦♠ ❛# *+♦♣♦#✐-.❡# ✶✳✷✳✶ ❡ ✶✳✷✳✷✱ ♣+♦✈❛♠♦# 3✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥7♦ M(m, n)

8 ✉♠ ❡#♣❛-♦ ✈❡7♦+✐❛❧ #♦❜+❡ R✳
❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥7♦ ❞❛# ♠❛7+✐③❡# 7❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❡#7+✉7✉+❛ ♠✉✐7♦ ♠❛✐# +✐❝❛ ❞♦ 3✉❡ ❛ ❞❡
#✐♠♣❧❡# ❡#♣❛-♦ ✈❡7♦+✐❛❧✱ ♦❜7✐❞❛ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♥♦->♦ ❞❡ ♣+♦❞✉7♦ ❞❡ ♠❛7+✐③❡#✱ ♥♦->♦
❡#7❛✱ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥7❛❧ ♣❛+❛ ❛ +❡#♦❧✉->♦ ❞❡ #✐#7❡♠❛# ❞❡ ❡3✉❛-.❡# ❧✐♥❡❛+❡# ❝♦♠ ♦
✉#♦ ❞❡ ♠❛7+✐③❡#✳
◆♦##♦ ♣+A①✐♠♦ ♦❜❥❡7✐✈♦ 8✱ ♣♦+7❛♥7♦✱ ❞❡✜♥✐+ ❛ ♠✉❧#✐♣❧✐❝❛()♦ ❞❡ ♠❛#-✐③❡/
❡
♠♦#7+❛+ ❛❧❣✉♠❛# ❞❡ #✉❛# ♣+♦♣+✐❡❞❛❞❡#✳ ❆ ❞❡✜♥✐->♦ ❞❡ ♣+♦❞✉7♦ ❞❡ ♠❛7+✐③❡#
❢♦✐ ❛♣+❡#❡♥7❛❞❛ ♣♦+ ❆+7❤✉+ ❈❛②❧❡② ✭■♥❣❧❛7❡++❛✱ ✶✽✷✶✲✶✽✾✺✮✱ ♥♦ 7+❛❜❛❧❤♦ ✐♥7✐✲
7✉❧❛❞♦ ✏❆ ▼❡♠♦✐+ ♦♥ 7❤❡ ❚❤❡♦+② ♦❢ ▼❛7+✐❝❡#✑✱ ♣✉❜❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♠ ✶✽✺✽ ♥❛ +❡✈✐#7❛
0❤✐❧♦/♦♣❤✐❝❛❧ ❚-❛♥/❛❝#✐♦♥/ ♦❢ #❤❡ ❘♦②❛❧ ❙♦❝✐❡#② ♦❢ ▲♦♥❞♦♥ ✳ ◆❡#7❡ 7+❛❜❛❧❤♦✱
❈❛②❧❡② ♥♦7♦✉ 3✉❡ ❛ ♠✉❧7✐♣❧✐❝❛->♦ ❞❡ ♠❛7+✐③❡#✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❢♦✐ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✱ #✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛
❡♠ ♠✉✐7♦ ♦ ❡#7✉❞♦ ❞❡ #✐#7❡♠❛# ❞❡ ❡3✉❛-.❡# ❧✐♥❡❛+❡#✳ ❚❛♠❜8♠ ♦❜#❡+✈♦✉ 3✉❡
❡#7❛ ♠✉❧7✐♣❧✐❝❛->♦ ❞❡✐①❛✈❛ ❞❡ ❛♣+❡#❡♥7❛+ ♣+♦♣+✐❡❞❛❞❡# ✐♠♣♦+7❛♥7❡#✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛
❝♦♠✉7❛7✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ❡ ❛ ❧❡✐ ❞♦ ❝♦+7❡✱ ❡ 3✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛7+✐③ ♥>♦ ♥✉❧❛ ♥>♦ 8 ♥❡❝❡##❛+✐❛✲
♠❡♥7❡ ✐♥✈❡+7R✈❡❧✳
❙❡❥❛♠ A = [aij ]m×n ❡ B = [bij ]n×p ❞✉❛# ♠❛7+✐③❡#✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦# ♦ ♣-♦❞✉#♦
AB ❞❡ ♣♦-
A B ✱ ❞❡♥♦7❛❞♦ ♣♦+ AB ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ♠❛7+✐③ C = [cij ]m×p 7❛❧ 3✉❡
n
X
cij = aik bkj = ai1 b1j + · · · + ain bnj
k=1
♣❛+❛ 7♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ ♣❛+❛ 7♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ p✳
❱❛♠♦# ❡①♣❧✐❝❛+ ❡#7❛ ❢A+♠✉❧❛ ♣❛+❛ ♦❜7❡+ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥7♦ ❞❛ ♠❛7+✐③ AB 3✉❡ #❡

❡♥❝♦♥7+❛ ♥❛ i✲8#✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❡ j ✲8#✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛✿
◆❛ ♠❛7+✐③ A✱ ❞❡#7❛3✉❡ ❛ i✲8#✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛✱ ❡ ♥❛ ♠❛7+✐③ B ✱ ❛ j ✲8#✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛✳
❋❡✐7♦ ✐#7♦✱ ♠✉❧7✐♣❧✐3✉❡ ♦+❞❡♥❛❞❛♠❡♥7❡ ♦ ♣+✐♠❡✐+♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥7♦ ❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❝♦♠ ♦
♣+✐♠❡✐+♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥7♦ ❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛✱ ♦ #❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥7♦ ❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❝♦♠ ♦ #❡❣✉♥❞♦
❡❧❡♠❡♥7♦ ❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛✱ ❡7❝✳✱ ♦ X❧7✐♠♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥7♦ ❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❝♦♠ ♦ X❧7✐♠♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥7♦
❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❡ ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥7❡ #♦♠❡ ❡##❡# ♥X♠❡+♦# 7♦❞♦#✳
✷✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
"♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱
     
2 4 " # 2(−1) + 4(1) 2(1) + 4(−1) 2 −2
  −1 1    
 0 0 =  0(−1) + 0(1) 0(1) + 0(−1)  = 0 0 .
1 −1
−1 3 −1(−1) + 3(1) −1(1) + 3(−1) 4 −4
◆♦,❡ -✉❡ ♣❛$❛ ♦ ♣$♦❞✉,♦ ❞❡ A ♣♦$ B ❡1,❛$ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✱ ♦ ♥5♠❡$♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❧✉♥❛1

❞❡ A ❞❡✈❡ 1❡$ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛♦ ♥5♠❡$♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛1 ❞❡ B ✳ ❆11✐♠✱ 1❡ A ❡ B 1<♦ ♠❛,$✐③❡1
2 × 3 ❡ 3 × 1✱ $❡1♣❡❝,✐✈❛♠❡♥,❡✱ ♦ ♣$♦❞✉,♦ AB ❡1,> ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡ ? ✉♠❛ ♠❛,$✐③
2 × 1✳ "♦$?♠✱ ♦ ♣$♦❞✉,♦ BA ♥<♦ ❡1,> ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳ ❯♠❛ ❝♦♥❞✐A<♦ ♥❡❝❡11>$✐❛
♣❛$❛ -✉❡ AB = BA ? -✉❡ A ❡ B 1❡❥❛♠ ♠❛,$✐③❡1 -✉❛❞$❛❞❛1 ❞❡ ♠❡1♠❛ ♦$❞❡♠✳
❈♦♥,✉❞♦✱ ❡1,❛ ❝♦♥❞✐A<♦ ♥<♦ ? 1✉✜❝✐❡♥,❡✳ "♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛1 ♠❛,$✐③❡1
" # " #
0 1 0 1
A= ❡ B=
2 0 1 0
1<♦ ♠❛,$✐③❡1 -✉❛❞$❛❞❛1 ❞❡ ♦$❞❡♠ ✷✱ ♠❛1 AB 6= BA✳ ❆11✐♠✱ ✈❡♠♦1 -✉❡ ❛
♠✉❧,✐♣❧✐❝❛A<♦ ❞❡ ♠❛,$✐③❡1 ♥<♦ ♣♦11✉✐ ❛ ♣$♦♣$✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❝♦♠✉,❛,✐✈❛✳
❖❜1❡$✈❡ -✉❡ " # " #
1 1 1 1
= 0,
1 1 −1 −1
1❡♠ -✉❡ ♥❡♥❤✉♠❛ ❞❛1 ❞✉❛1 ♠❛,$✐③❡1 1❡❥❛ ♥✉❧❛✳ "♦$,❛♥,♦✱ ♥❛ ♠✉❧,✐♣❧✐❝❛A<♦ ❞❡
♠❛,$✐③❡1✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦1 ,❡$ AB = 0 1❡♠ -✉❡ ♥❡❝❡11❛$✐❛♠❡♥,❡ A ♦✉ B 1❡❥❛ ♥✉❧❛✳
▲❡♠❜$❡♠♦1 -✉❡ ✐1,♦ ♥<♦ ♦❝♦$$❡ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♠✉❧,✐♣❧✐❝❛A<♦ ❞❡ ♥5♠❡$♦1 $❡❛✐1✱ ♣♦✐1
❞❛❞♦1 ❞♦✐1 ♥5♠❡$♦1 $❡❛✐1 x ❡ y ,❛✐1 -✉❡ xy = 0✱ ,❡♠✲1❡ ♦❜$✐❣❛,♦$✐❛♠❡♥,❡ -✉❡
x = 0 ♦✉ y = 0✳
❖1 1✐1,❡♠❛1 ❧✐♥❡❛$❡1 ❝♦♠♦ ❡♠ ✭✷✮ ❞❛ ❙❡A<♦ ✶ 1❡ ❡①♣$❡11❛♠ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ♣❡$✲
❢❡✐,♦ ♣❡❧❛ ❡-✉❛A<♦ ♠❛,$✐❝✐❛❧
AX = B,
♦♥❞❡
     
a11 a12 . . . a1n x1 b1
     
 a21 a22 . . . a2n   x2  b 
A= X=  e B =  ✳2  .
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ,
✳✳  ✳✳  ✳ 
 ✳ ✳ ✳  ✳  ✳ 
am1 am2 . . . amn xn bm
✷✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✷✶
❆# ♠❛&'✐③❡# A✱ X ❡ B #,♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛#✱ '❡#♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡✱ ❞❡ ♠❛"#✐③ ❞♦(

❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥"❡(
❞♦ #✐#&❡♠❛✱ ♠❛"#✐③ ❞❛( ✐♥❝-❣♥✐"❛( ♠❛"#✐③ ❞♦( "❡#♠♦( ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥✲
❡
❞❡♥"❡(
✳
◆❛ #❡❣✉✐♥&❡ ♣'♦♣♦#✐8,♦ ❛♣'❡#❡♥&❛♠♦# ❛❧❣✉♠❛# ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❞❛ ♠✉❧&✐♣❧✐✲
❝❛8,♦ ❞❡ ♠❛&'✐③❡#✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✶✳✷✳✸✳ ❉❡(❞❡ 2✉❡ ❛( ♦♣❡#❛45❡( (❡❥❛♠ ♣♦((7✈❡✐(✱ "❡♠♦(✿
✭✐✮ A(B + C) = AB + AC (❞✐("#✐❜✉"✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ < ❡(2✉❡#❞❛ ❞❛ ♠✉❧"✐♣❧✐❝❛4>♦
❡♠ #❡❧❛4>♦ < ❛❞✐4>♦)❀
✭✐✐✮ (A + B)C = AC + BC (❞✐("#✐❜✉"✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ < ❞✐#❡✐"❛ ❞❛ ♠✉❧"✐♣❧✐❝❛4>♦ ❡♠
#❡❧❛4>♦ < ❛❞✐4>♦)❀
✭✐✐✐✮ (AB)C = A(BC) (❛((♦❝✐❛"✐✈✐❞❛❞❡)❀
✭✐✈✮ A I = I A = A (❡①✐("A♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ ✐❞❡♥"✐❞❛❞❡ )✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ='♦✈❛'❡♠♦# ❛ ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭✐✐✐✮ ❡ ❞❡✐①❛'❡♠♦# ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥#✲

&'❛8,♦ ❞❛# ❞❡♠❛✐# ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❛♦ ❧❡✐&♦' ✭✈❡❥❛ ='♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✮✳
✭✐✐✐✮✿ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦# D✉❡ ❛# ♠❛&'✐③❡# A✱ B ❡ C #❡❥❛♠ ❞❡ ♦'❞❡♥# n × r✱ r × s ❡
s × m✱ '❡#♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡✳ ❚❡♠♦# D✉❡
P P Pr
(AB)C ij = sk=1 (AB)ik ckj = sk=1 l=1 ail blk ckj =
Pr Ps Pr
l=1 ail k=1 blk ckj = l=1 ail (BC)lj = A(BC))ij .
■#&♦ ♠♦#&'❛ D✉❡ ❛ ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭✐✐✐✮ G ✈H❧✐❞❛✳
❚❡♥❞♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❛ ♠✉❧&✐♣❧✐❝❛8,♦ ❞❡ ♠❛&'✐③❡#✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦# ❛ ♣♦"❡♥❝✐❛4>♦ ❞❛
♠❛♥❡✐'❛ ✉#✉❛❧✿ ❞❛❞♦# A ❡♠ M(n, n) ❡ k ∈ N \ {0}✱
A0 = In ❡ Ak = A · · · A} .
| A{z
k ❢❛"♦$❡&
❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ A = [aij ]m×n ✱ ❝❤❛♠❛♠♦# ❞❡ "#❛♥(♣♦("❛ ❞❡ A✱ ❡ ❞❡♥♦&❛✲

♠♦# ♣♦' At ✱ ❛ ♠❛&'✐③ [bij ]n×m ✱ ♦♥❞❡
bij = aji ,
✷✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
♣❛#❛ $♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ n ❡ ♣❛#❛ $♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ m✳
)♦# ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱
 t
−4 0 " #
  −4 −1 0
−1 2 = .
0 2 3
0 3
❯♠❛ ♠❛$#✐③ 1✉❛❞#❛❞❛ A 3 ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ✐♠#$%✐❝❛ 6❡ At = A ❡ ❛♥$✐ ✐♠#$%✐❝❛

6❡ At = −A✳
)♦# ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❞❛❞❛6 ❛6 ♠❛$#✐③❡6
   
2 −1 3 0 1 −3
   
A = −1 1 0 e B = −1 0 2 ,
3 0 5 3 −2 0
❛ ♠❛$#✐③ A 3 6✐♠3$#✐❝❛ ❡ B 3 ❛♥$✐66✐♠3$#✐❝❛✳

❚❡#♠✐♥❛♠♦6 ❡6$❛ 6❡9:♦ ❛♣#❡6❡♥$❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❝❡✐$♦ ❞❡ ♠❛$#✐③ ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦6✳
❯♠❛ ♠❛$#✐③ A 3 ❞✐$❛ 6❡# ✉♠❛ ♠❛$%✐③ ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦ 6❡ A ❡6$< 6✉❜❞✐✈✐❞✐❞❛ ❡♠ ♠❛✲
$#✐③❡6 ♠❡♥♦#❡6✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛6 ❜❧♦❝♦ ✳ ❊6$❛ 6✉❜❞✐✈✐6:♦ 3✱ ❣❡#❛❧♠❡♥$❡✱ ❛♣#❡6❡♥$❛❞❛
♣♦# ❧✐♥❤❛6 ❤♦#✐③♦♥$❛✐6 ❡✴♦✉ ❧✐♥❤❛6 ✈❡#$✐❝❛✐6✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♠♦6$#❛ ♦ 6❡❣✉✐♥$❡ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✿
" # " #
2 1 1 0 2 1 | 1 0
= .
6 4 0 1 6 4 | 0 1
❯♠❛ ♠❛$#✐③ ♣♦❞❡ 6❡# 6✉❜❞✐✈✐❞✐❞❛ ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦6 ❞❡ ✈<#✐❛6 ♠❛♥❡✐#❛6✳ )♦#

❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱
   
  0 1 | 0 2 0 | 1 | 0 2
0 1 0 2    
   1 4 | 2 1  −− −− −− −− −− −−
.
1 4 2 1 = 

=
 
−− −− −− −− −−  1 | 4 | 2 1 

0 0 5 3
0 0 | 5 3 0 | 0 | 5 3
❯♠❛ ♣#♦♣#✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✐♥$❡#❡66❛♥$❡ ❞❛ ♣❛#$✐9:♦ ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦6 3 1✉❡ ♦6 #❡6✉❧$❛❞♦6

❞❛6 ♦♣❡#❛9C❡6 ❞❡ ❛❞✐9:♦ ❡ ♠✉❧$✐♣❧✐❝❛9:♦ ❝♦♠ ♠❛$#✐③❡6 ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦6 ♣♦❞❡♠ 6❡#
♦❜$✐❞♦6 ❡❢❡$✉❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❝<❧❝✉❧♦ ❝♦♠ ♦6 ❜❧♦❝♦6✱ ❝♦♠♦ 6❡ ❡❧❡6 ❢♦66❡♠ 6✐♠♣❧❡6♠❡♥$❡
❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦6 ❞❛6 ♠❛$#✐③❡6✳
✷✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✷✸
✷✳✸ ▼❛%&✐③ ■♥✈❡&-❛

❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ +✉❛❞(❛❞❛ A ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ n✱ ❝❤❛♠❛♠♦1 ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡$%❛ ❞❡ A ❛
✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ +✉❛❞(❛❞❛ B ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ n '❛❧ +✉❡
AB = BA = In .
3♦( ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❞❛❞❛ ❛ ♠❛'(✐③

" #
2 5
A= ,
1 3
'❡♠♦1 +✉❡ ❛ ♠❛'(✐③ " #

3 −5
B=
−1 2
6 ✉♠❛ ✐♥✈❡(1❛ ❞❡ A✱ ❥: +✉❡ AB = BA = I2 ✳
◆♦'❡ +✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③" +✉❛❞(❛❞❛
# ♥=♦ ♣♦11✉✐ ♥❡❝❡11❛(✐❛♠❡♥'❡
" ✉♠❛#✐♥✈❡(1❛✳
0 0 a b
3♦( ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ 1❡❥❛ A = ✳ ❉❛❞❛ +✉❛❧+✉❡( ♠❛'(✐③ B = ✱ '❡♠♦1
0 0 c d
+✉❡ " # " # " #
0 0 a b 0 0
AB = = 6= I2 .
0 0 c d 0 0
▲♦❣♦✱ A ♥=♦ '❡♠ ✐♥✈❡(1❛✳
▼❡1♠♦ +✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③" ♥=♦# 1❡❥❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ❡❧❛ ♣♦❞❡ ♥=♦ '❡( ✐♥✈❡(1❛✳ 3♦(
1 1
❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ♠❛'(✐③ A = ♥=♦ ♣♦11✉✐ ✐♥✈❡(1❛✱ ❥: +✉❡ ♥=♦ ❡①✐1'❡ ✉♠❛
1 1
♠❛'(✐③ +✉❛❞(❛❞❛ B ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ ✷ '❛❧ +✉❡ AB = I2 ✭✈❡(✐✜+✉❡✮✳
❯♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ +✉❛❞(❛❞❛ A 6 ❞✐'❛ ✐♥✈❡$'(✈❡❧ 1❡ A ❛❞♠✐'❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ ✐♥✈❡(1❛✳

❙❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ A ♣♦11✉✐ ✉♠❛ ✐♥✈❡(1❛✱ ❡♥'=♦ ❡11❛ ✐♥✈❡(1❛ 6 F♥✐❝❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱
1✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦1 +✉❡ B ❡ C 1=♦ ❞✉❛1 ✐♥✈❡(1❛1 ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ A ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ n × n✳
❊♥'=♦ AB = In ❡ CA = In ✳ ❆11✐♠✱ ♣♦( ✭✐✐✐✮ ❡ ✭✐✈✮ ❞❛ 3(♦♣♦1✐J=♦ ✶✳✷✳✸✱
C = C In = C(AB) = (CA)B = In B = B.
✷✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❏# $✉❡ ❛ ✐♥✈❡+,❛✱ ♥♦ ❝❛,♦ ❞❡ ❡①✐,2✐+✱ 3 4♥✐❝❛✱ ❡,❝+❡✈❡♠♦, A−1 ♣❛+❛ ❞❡♥♦2❛+ ❛
✐♥✈❡+,❛ ❞❡ A✳ ❙❡ k ∈ N \ {0} ❡ A 3 ✉♠❛ ♠❛2+✐③ ✐♥✈❡+2:✈❡❧✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦, A−k ♣♦+✿
A−k = A −1 −1 −1
| A {z· · · A } .
k ❢❛"♦$❡&
❱❡❥❛♠♦, ❛❧❣✉♠❛, ♣+♦♣+✐❡❞❛❞❡, ❞❛, ♠❛2+✐③❡, ✐♥✈❡+,❛,✳

!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✶✳✷✳✹✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ♠❛%&✐③❡) *✉❛❞&❛❞❛) ❞❡ ♦&❞❡♠ n✳
✭✐✮ ❙❡ A / ✐♥✈❡&%2✈❡❧✱ ❡♥%5♦ A−1 / %❛♠❜/♠ ✐♥✈❡&%2✈❡❧ ❡ (A−1 )−1 = A✳

✭✐✐✮ ❙❡ A ❡ B )5♦ ✐♥✈❡&%2✈❡✐)✱ ❡♥%5♦ AB %❛♠❜/♠ / ✐♥✈❡&%2✈❡❧ ❡
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 ✳
❉❡✐①❛♠♦, ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥,2+❛DE♦ ❞❡,2❛ ♣+♦♣♦,✐DE♦ ❛♦ ❧❡✐2♦+ ✭✈❡❥❛ F+♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✷✮✱

❜❡♠ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ❣❡♥❡+❛❧✐③❛DE♦ ❞♦ ✐2❡♠ ✭✐✐✮ ♣❛+❛ ✉♠ ♥4♠❡+♦ ❛+❜✐2+#+✐♦ ❞❡ ❢❛2♦+❡,✳
❖ ✐♥2❡+❡,,❡ ❞❛, ♠❛2+✐③❡, ✐♥✈❡+2:✈❡✐, +❡,✐❞❡ ♥♦ ❢❛2♦ ❞❡ $✉❡ ❞❛❞♦ ✉♠ ,✐,2❡♠❛
❧✐♥❡❛+ ❞❡ ❡$✉❛DK❡, ❝♦♠ n ❡$✉❛DK❡, ❡ n ✐♥❝L❣♥✐2❛,✱ AX = B ✱ ,❡ ,♦✉❜❡+♠♦,
$✉❡ ❛ ♠❛2+✐③ A 3 ✐♥✈❡+2:✈❡❧ ❡ ,♦✉❜❡+♠♦, ❝♦♠♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛+ ,✉❛ ✐♥✈❡+,❛✱ ❡♥2E♦ ♦
,✐,2❡♠❛ ,❡ +❡,♦❧✈❡ ❡❢❡2✉❛♥❞♦ ❛♣❡♥❛, ❛ ♠✉❧2✐♣❧✐❝❛DE♦ ❞❛ ♠❛2+✐③ A−1 ❝♦♠ B ✱
♣♦✐,
AX = B =⇒ X = (A−1 A)X = A−1 (AX) = A−1 B.
❱✐♠♦, $✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛2+✐③ $✉❛❞+❛❞❛ ♥E♦ ♥✉❧❛ ♥E♦ ♣♦,,✉✐ ♥❡❝❡,,❛+✐❛♠❡♥2❡
✐♥✈❡+,❛✳ ❯♠❛ ♣❡+❣✉♥2❛ ♥❛2✉+❛❧ 3 ,❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦, ❝❛+❛❝2❡+✐③❛+ ❛, ♠❛2+✐③❡, $✉❛✲
❞+❛❞❛, ✐♥✈❡+2:✈❡✐,✱ ♦✉ ,❡❥❛✱ ,❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦, ❛♣+❡,❡♥2❛+ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥❞✐DE♦ ♥❡❝❡,,#+✐❛
❡ ,✉✜❝✐❡♥2❡ ♣❛+❛ $✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛2+✐③ $✉❛❞+❛❞❛ ,❡❥❛ ✐♥✈❡+2:✈❡❧✳ ❚❛♠❜3♠ ❡,2❛✲
♠♦, ✐♥2❡+❡,,❛❞♦, ❡♠ ♦❜2❡+ ✉♠ ♠32♦❞♦ ♣❛+❛ ♦ ❝#❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❛ ✐♥✈❡+,❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛
♠❛2+✐③ ✐♥✈❡+2:✈❡❧✳ ◆♦ ♣+L①✐♠♦ ❝❛♣:2✉❧♦✱ ❛♣+❡,❡♥2❛+❡♠♦, ✉♠❛ ❝❛+❛❝2❡+✐③❛DE♦
❞❡ ♠❛2+✐③❡, ✐♥✈❡+2:✈❡✐, ❡ ✉♠ ♠32♦❞♦ ♣❛+❛ ✐♥✈❡+,E♦ ❞❡ ♠❛2+✐③❡, $✉❡ ✉2✐❧✐③❛ ❛,
2+❛♥,❢♦+♠❛DK❡, ❡❧❡♠❡♥2❛+❡, ♥❛, ❧✐♥❤❛, ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛2+✐③ ❡ ❛ ❢♦+♠❛ ❡,❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳
◆♦ ❈❛♣:2✉❧♦ ✽✱ F+♦♣♦,✐DE♦ ✽✳✸✳✶✭✐✐✐✮✱ ✈❡+❡♠♦, ✉♠ ♦✉2+♦ ♠♦❞♦ ❜❡♠ ❞✐❢❡+❡♥2❡
❞❡ ❛2❛❝❛+ ❡,2❡ ♣+♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣❡❧♦ ✉,♦ ❞♦, ❞❡2❡+♠✐♥❛♥2❡,✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛$
✷✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✷✺
" # " #
1 −2 3 −1 2 0
✷✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ A= ❡ B= ✳
4 1 0 1 −2 0
❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ 2A✱ 3B ❡ 2A−3B ✳
✷✳✷ ❉❡.❡/♠✐♥❡ ♦3 ✈❛❧♦/❡3 ❞❡ x, y ❡ z ❡♠ R ♣❛/❛ 7✉❡ ❛3 ♠❛./✐③❡3 A ❡ B ❞❛❞❛3
3❡❥❛♠ ✐❣✉❛✐3✿
" # " #
x+y 0 13 0
A= ❡ B= ✳
z x − 2y 1 4
✷✳✸ ❉❛❞❛3 ❛3 ♠❛./✐③❡3
 
" # " # 1
−1 4 −2 0 1 −2
❡
 
A= , B= , C = 1 D = [−1 1],
2 0 −1 0 1 −1
3
❞❡.❡/♠✐♥❡✿
✭❛✮ A + B ❀ ✭❜✮ −2C ❀ ✭❝✮ AC ❀ ✭❞✮ CD❀ ✭❡✮ BC ❀ ✭❢✮ DA✳
✷✳✹✯ ❈♦♥3✐❞❡/❡ ❛3 ♠❛./✐③❡3
A = [aij ]4×5 ❝♦♠ aij = i − j,

B = [bij ]5×9 ❝♦♠ bij = j ❡
C = [cij ] ❝♦♠ C = AB.
✭❛✮ ➱ ♣♦33A✈❡❧ ❞❡.❡/♠✐♥❛/ c63 ❄ ❏✉3.✐✜7✉❡ ❛ /❡3♣♦3.❛✳

✭❜✮ ❉❡.❡/♠✐♥❡ c36 ✳
✷✳✺ ❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ ❛3 ❞❡♠♦♥3./❛EF❡3 ❞❛3 G/♦♣♦3✐EF❡3 ✶✳✷✳✶✱ ✶✳✷✳✷ ❡ ✶✳✷✳✸✳
✷✳✻✯ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛./✐③ A✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦3 7✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛./✐③ X ❝♦♠✉$❛ ❝♦♠ A 3❡
AX = XA✳ ❉❡.❡/♠✐♥❡ .♦❞❛3 ❛3 ♠❛./✐③❡3 7✉❡ ❝♦♠✉.❛♠ ❝♦♠
" #
1 0
A= .
0 3
✷✳✼ ❛✮ ▼♦3./❡ 7✉❡ ❛ ♠❛./✐③ c In ✱ ♦♥❞❡ c ∈ R✱ ❝♦♠✉.❛ ❝♦♠ .♦❞❛ ♠❛./✐③ X ∈

M(n, n)✳
✷✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
"
# " #
x y 1 1
❜✮ ❆❝❤❡ (♦❞❛, ❛, ♠❛(.✐③❡, M = 1✉❡ ❝♦♠✉(❛♠ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♠❛(.✐③ .
z t 0 1
✷✳✽ ❱❡.❞❛❞❡✐.♦ ♦✉ ❢❛❧,♦❄ ❏✉,(✐✜1✉❡✳

✭❛✮ ❙❡ A ❡ B ,<♦ ♠❛(.✐③❡, 1✉❛❞.❛❞❛, ❞❡ ♠❡,♠❛ ♦.❞❡♠✱ ❡♥(<♦
(A − B)(A + B) = A2 − B 2 ✳
✭❜✮ ❙❡ A✱ B ❡ C ,<♦ ♠❛(.✐③❡, 1✉❛❞.❛❞❛, ❞❡ ♠❡,♠❛ ♦.❞❡♠ (❛✐, 1✉❡ AB = AC ✱
❡♥(<♦ B = C ✳
✷✳✾ ▼♦,(.❡ 1✉❡ ,❡ A @ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(.✐③ (.✐❛♥❣✉❧❛. ,✉♣❡.✐♦.✱ ❡♥(<♦ A2 (❛♠❜@♠ @

✉♠❛ ♠❛(.✐③ (.✐❛♥❣✉❧❛. ,✉♣❡.✐♦.✳
"#
1 2 3
✷✳✶✵✯ ✭❛✮ ❖❜(❡♥❤❛ At ✱ ♦♥❞❡ A = ✳
0 −1 4
✭❜✮ ❱❡.✐✜1✉❡ 1✉❡ ❛ (.❛♥,♣♦,(❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(.✐③ (.✐❛♥❣✉❧❛. ,✉♣❡.✐♦. @ ✉♠❛
♠❛(.✐③ (.✐❛♥❣✉❧❛. ✐♥❢❡.✐♦.✳
✭❝✮ ▼♦,(.❡ 1✉❡ (A + B)t = At + B t ❡ (kA)t = kAt ✱ ♦♥❞❡ A ❡ B ,<♦ ♠❛(.✐③❡,
❞❡ ♠❡,♠❛ ♦.❞❡♠ ❡ k ∈ R✳
✭❞✮ ❙❡ A @ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(.✐③ m × n ❡ B @ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(.✐③ n × p✱ ♣.♦✈❡ 1✉❡
(AB)t = B t At ✳
✭❡✮ ▼♦,(.❡ 1✉❡ (At )t = A ♣❛.❛ (♦❞❛ ♠❛(.✐③ A ❞❡ ♦.❞❡♠ m × n✳
✷✳✶✶✯ ▼♦,(.❡ 1✉❡ ,❡ B @ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(.✐③ 1✉❛❞.❛❞❛✱ ❡♥(<♦✿

✭❛✮ B + B t ❡ BB t ,<♦ ,✐♠@(.✐❝❛,❀
✭❜✮ B − B t @ ❛♥(✐,,✐♠@(.✐❝❛✳
✭❝✮ ❖❜,❡.✈❛♥❞♦ 1✉❡
B + Bt B − Bt
B= + ,
2 2
❝♦♥❝❧✉❛ 1✉❡ (♦❞❛ ♠❛(.✐③ 1✉❛❞.❛❞❛ ,❡ ❡,❝.❡✈❡ ❝♦♠♦ ,♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(.✐③
,✐♠@(.✐❝❛ ❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(.✐③ ❛♥(✐,,✐♠@(.✐❝❛✳
✷✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✷✼
✭❞✮ ▼♦'()❡ +✉❡ ❛ ❡'❝)✐(❛ ❡♠ ✭❝✮ 1 ♦ 2♥✐❝♦ ♠♦❞♦ ♣♦''5✈❡❧ ❞❡ ❡'❝)❡✈❡) ✉♠❛
♠❛()✐③ +✉❛❞)❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ '♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛()✐③ '✐♠1()✐❝❛ ❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛()✐③ ❛♥✲
(✐''✐♠1()✐❝❛✳
✷✳✶✷ ;)♦✈❡ ❛ ;)♦♣♦'✐<=♦ ✶✳✷✳✹✳
✷✳✶✸ ❉❡♠♦♥'()❡ +✉❡✿
✭❛✮ '❡ A (❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ❡♥(=♦ AB (❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛❀
✭❜✮ '❡ B (❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ❡♥(=♦ AB (❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♥✉❧❛❀
✭❝✮ +✉❛❧+✉❡) ♠❛()✐③ +✉❛❞)❛❞❛ ❝♦♠ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♦✉ ✉♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♥✉❧❛ ♥=♦ 1
✐♥✈❡)(5✈❡❧✳
✷✳✶✹ ▼♦'()❡ +✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛()✐③ A 1 ✐♥✈❡)(5✈❡❧ '❡✱ ❡ '♦♠❡♥(❡ '❡✱ At 1 ✐♥✈❡)(5✈❡❧✳
❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ +✉❡ ❛' ♦♣❡)❛<G❡' ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡)'=♦ ❡ ❞❡ ()❛♥'♣♦'✐<=♦ ❝♦♠✉(❛♠❀ ✐'(♦ 1✱
(At )−1 = (A−1 )t ✱ +✉❛♥❞♦ A 1 ✐♥✈❡)(5✈❡❧✳
✷✳✶✺ ❙❡❥❛♠ a = (a1 , . . . , an ), b = (b1 , . . . , bn ) ∈ Rn ✳ ❉❡✜♥❛♠♦'
 
a1 0 ··· 0
 
 0 a2 ··· 0
Diag(a) = 
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ .
✳✳ 
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
0 0 · · · an
▼♦'()❡ +✉❡✿
✭❛✮ Diag(a) + cDiag(b) = Diag(a + cb) ♦♥❞❡ c ∈ R❀
✭❜✮ Diag(a) · Diag(b) = Diag(b) · Diag(a) = Diag(a1 b1 , . . . , an bn )❀
✭❝✮ Diag(a)m = Diag(am
1 , . . . , an )✱ ♦♥❞❡ m ∈ N \ {0}❀
m
✭❞✮ ❊♠ +✉❡ ❝♦♥❞✐<G❡' ❛ ♠❛()✐③ Diag(a) 1 ✐♥✈❡)(5✈❡❧ ❡ +✉❛❧ 1 ❛ '✉❛ ✐♥✈❡)'❛❄
❊!"❡ ♣%♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♠♦!"%❛ +✉❡ !♦♠❛%✱ ♠✉❧"✐♣❧✐❝❛%✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛% ♣♦"0♥❝✐❛! ❡ ✐♥✈❡%✲

"❡% ♠❛"%✐③❡! ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛✐! 7 ♠✉✐"♦ !✐♠♣❧❡!✳
✷✳✶✻ ❙✉♣♦♥❞♦ +✉❡ ❛' ♠❛()✐③❡' A, B ❡ C '=♦ ♠❛()✐③❡' +✉❛❞)❛❞❛' ❞❡ ♠❡'♠❛
♦)❞❡♠ ❡ ✐♥✈❡)(5✈❡✐'✱ )❡'♦❧✈❛ ❛' '❡❣✉✐♥(❡' ❡+✉❛<G❡' ♠❛()✐❝✐❛✐' ♥❛' +✉❛✐' X 1 ❛
✐♥❝N❣♥✐(❛✿
✷✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
✭❛✮ CX + 2B = 3B ❀ ✭❜✮ CAX t = C ❀ ✭❝✮ ABX = C ✳
" #
a b
✷✳✶✼ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛-.✐③ A = ✱ ♠♦3-.❡ 5✉❡ ✿
c d
❛✮ 3❡ ad − bc 6= 0✱ ❡♥-8♦ A 9 ✐♥✈❡.-;✈❡❧ ❡
" #
1 d −b
A−1 = ;
ad − bc −c a
❜✮ 3❡ ad − bc = 0✱ ❡♥-8♦ A ♥8♦ 9 ✐♥✈❡.-;✈❡❧✳

❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✷
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✷✿ ❚+❛♥-❢♦+♠❛01♦ ❞❡ ▼❛$+✐③❡-

❡ ❘❡-♦❧✉01♦ ❞❡ ❙✐-$❡♠❛-
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ ❚"❛♥%❢♦"♠❛)*♦ ❞❡ ▼❛."✐③❡% ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✵
✶✳✶ ❚#❛♥&❢♦#♠❛*+❡& ❊❧❡♠❡♥/❛#❡& ❞❡ ▼❛/#✐③❡& ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✵
✶✳✷ ❋♦#♠❛ ❊&❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ▼❛/#✐③ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷
✶✳✸ ▼❛/#✐③❡& ❊❧❡♠❡♥/❛#❡& ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛*+❡& ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺
✷ ❘❡%♦❧✉)*♦ ❞❡ ❙✐%.❡♠❛% ▲✐♥❡❛"❡% ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷
✷✾
✸✵❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
❖ ♠$%♦❞♦ ❞❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛-.♦ ❡♠ /✐/%❡♠❛/ ❞❡ ❡0✉❛-2❡/ ❧✐♥❡❛3❡/ ❝♦♥/✐/%❡ ❡♠ ❡✲
❢❡%✉❛3 3❡♣❡%✐❞❛♠❡♥%❡ %3❛♥/❢♦3♠❛-2❡/ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛3❡/ /♦❜3❡ ✉♠ /✐/%❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡0✉❛✲
-2❡/ ❧✐♥❡❛3❡/✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛ ✐3 ♦❜%❡♥❞♦ /✐/%❡♠❛/ ❡0✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡/✱ ❛%$ 3❡❞✉③✐3 ♦ /✐/✲
%❡♠❛ ♦3✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❛ ✉♠ /✐/%❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❢=❝✐❧ 3❡/♦❧✉-.♦✳ ◆❡/%❡ ❝❛♣@%✉❧♦✱ 3❡✐♥%❡3♣3❡%❛✲
3❡♠♦/ ♥❛ ♠❛%3✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❛//♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♠ /✐/%❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡0✉❛-2❡/ ❧✐♥❡❛3❡/ ❛/
%3❛♥/❢♦3♠❛-2❡/ 0✉❡ /❡ ❡❢❡%✉❛♠ ♥♦/ /✐/%❡♠❛/ ❞❡ ❡0✉❛-2❡/ ❛♦ ❧♦♥❣♦ ❞♦ ♣3♦❝❡//♦
❞❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛-.♦✱ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐%❛♥❞♦ /❡✉ ❝❛3=%❡3 ❛❧❣♦3@%♠✐❝♦✱ ♦✉ /❡❥❛✱ ❞❡ ♣3♦❝❡❞✐♠❡♥%♦
/✐/%❡♠=%✐❝♦ ❡ ❡❢❡%✐✈♦✳ ❊//❡ ♠$%♦❞♦ $ ❡//❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥%❡ ❞❡✈✐❞♦ ❛ ●❛✉// ❡ ❢♦✐
❛♣❡3❢❡✐-♦❛❞♦ ♣♦3 ❈❛♠✐❧❧❡ ❏♦3❞❛♥ ✭❋3❛♥-❛✱ ✶✽✸✽ ✲ ✶✾✷✷✮ ❡✱ ♣♦3 ❡/%❡ ♠♦%✐✈♦✱ $
❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛&'♦ ❞❡ ●❛✉,,✲❏♦/❞❛♥ ✳
✶ ❚"❛♥%❢♦"♠❛)*♦ ❞❡ ▼❛."✐③❡%
✶✳✶ ❚#❛♥&❢♦#♠❛*+❡& ❊❧❡♠❡♥/❛#❡& ❞❡ ▼❛/#✐③❡&
❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛%3✐③ m × n✳ P❛3❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ m✱ ❞❡♥♦%❡♠♦/ ♣♦3 Li ❛
i✲$/✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ A✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦/ ❛/ 0/❛♥,❢♦/♠❛&2❡, ❡❧❡♠❡♥0❛/❡, ♥❛, ❧✐♥❤❛, ❞❛
♠❛%3✐③ A ❝♦♠♦ /❡ /❡❣✉❡✿
✶✮ P❡3♠✉%❛-.♦ ❞❛/ ❧✐♥❤❛/ Li ❡ Lj ✱ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦3 Li ↔ Lj ✳
✷✮ ❙✉❜/%✐%✉✐-.♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ Li ♣❡❧❛ ❛❞✐-.♦ ❞❡/%❛ ♠❡/♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❝♦♠ c

✈❡③❡/ ✉♠❛ ♦✉%3❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ Lj ✱ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦3 Li → Li + cLj ✳
✸✮ ▼✉❧%✐♣❧✐❝❛-.♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ Li ♣♦3 ✉♠ ♥U♠❡3♦ 3❡❛❧ c ♥.♦ ♥✉❧♦✱ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞❛

♣♦3 Li → cLi ✳
P♦3 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ✈❛♠♦/ ❡❢❡%✉❛3 ❛❧❣✉♠❛/ %3❛♥/❢♦3♠❛-2❡/ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛3❡/ ♥❛/ ❧✐✲

♥❤❛/ ❞❛ ♠❛%3✐③
 
2 1 2 3
2 1 4 0 .
 
0 −1 2 3
✶✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✸✶
❚❡♠♦&
   
2 1 2 3 0 −1 2 3
 −→ 
2 1 4 0 2 1 4 0 ,
 
L1 ↔ L3
0 −1 2 3 2 1 2 3
   
2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3
−→
2 1 4 0 1 1/2 2 0
   
L2 → 12 L2
0 −1 2 3 0 −1 2 3
❡
   
2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3
−→
2 1 4 0 0 0 2 −3 .
   
L2 → L2 − L1

0 −1 2 3 0 −1 2 3
❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ♠❛*+✐③❡& ❞❡ ♦+❞❡♠ m × n✳ ❆ ♠❛*+✐③ A 1 ❞✐*❛ &❡+ ❡!✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡

♣♦+ ❧✐♥❤❛- 2 ♠❛*+✐③ B &❡ B ♣♦❞❡ &❡+ ♦❜*✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ♣❡❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛78♦ &✉❝❡&&✐✈❛ ❞❡
✉♠ ♥<♠❡+♦ ✜♥✐*♦ ❞❡ *+❛♥&❢♦+♠❛7?❡& ❡❧❡♠❡♥*❛+❡& &♦❜+❡ ❧✐♥❤❛&✳
A♦+ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛& ♠❛*+✐③❡&
   
1 0 1 0
 2 1 e 0 1 
   
−2 3 0 0
&8♦ ❡D✉✐✈❛❧❡♥*❡& ♣♦+ ❧✐♥❤❛& ❥E D✉❡

       
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
−→ −→ −→
 2 1 L 0 1 0 1 0 1 .
       
2 → L2 − 2L1 L3 → L3 + 2L1 L3 → L3 − 3L2
 
−2 3 −2 3 0 3 0 0
❖❜&❡+✈❡ D✉❡ ❛ ♥♦78♦ ❞❡ ❡D✉✐✈❛❧G♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♠❛*+✐③❡& ♣♦+ ❧✐♥❤❛& ❝♦++❡&♣♦♥❞❡

2 ♥♦78♦ ❞❡ ❡D✉✐✈❛❧G♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ &✐&*❡♠❛& ❧✐♥❡❛+❡& D✉❛♥❞♦ &❡ ❡❢❡*✉❛♠ ❛& +❡&♣❡❝✲
*✐✈❛& *+❛♥&❢♦+♠❛7?❡& &♦❜+❡ ❛& ❡D✉❛7?❡&✳ ❉❡ ❢❛*♦✱ ❛ &✐&*❡♠❛& ❡D✉✐✈❛❧❡♥*❡&✱
❝♦++❡&♣♦♥❞❡♠ ♠❛*+✐③❡& ❛&&♦❝✐❛❞❛& ❡D✉✐✈❛❧❡♥*❡&✱ ❡ ✈✐❝❡✲✈❡+&❛✳
✸✷❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
◆♦$❡ &✉❡ (❡ A ) ❡&✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡ ♣♦0 ❧✐♥❤❛( ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$0✐③ B ✱ ❡♥$5♦ B ) ❡&✉✐✈❛✲
❧❡♥$❡ ♣♦0 ❧✐♥❤❛( 7 ♠❛$0✐③ A✱ ❥9 &✉❡ $♦❞❛ $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛<5♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛0 (♦❜0❡ ❧✐♥❤❛(
) 0❡✈❡0(>✈❡❧✳ ▼❛✐( ♣0❡❝✐(❛♠❡♥$❡✱ (❡ e 0❡♣0❡(❡♥$❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛( $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛<B❡(
❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛0❡( ♥❛( ❧✐♥❤❛( ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$0✐③ A ❞❡ ♦0❞❡♠ m×n✱ ❞❡♥♦$❛♥❞♦ ♣♦0 e(A)
❛ ♠❛$0✐③ ♦❜$✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦✲❧❤❡ ❛ $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛<5♦ e✱ $❡♠♦( ♦ 0❡(✉❧$❛❞♦ ❛
(❡❣✉✐0✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✷✳✶✳✶✳ ❚♦❞❛ $%❛♥'❢♦%♠❛*+♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛% e ♥❛' ❧✐♥❤❛' ❞❡ ♠❛$%✐✲
③❡' ❡♠ M(m, n) 2 %❡✈❡%'4✈❡❧✱ ♥♦ '❡♥$✐❞♦ ❞❡ 6✉❡ ❡①✐'$❡ ✉♠❛ $%❛♥'❢♦%♠❛*+♦
❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛% e′ $❛❧ 6✉❡ e′(e(A)) = A ❡ e(e′ (A)) = A✱ ♣❛%❛ $♦❞♦ A ∈ M(m, n)✳
❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ ❙❡ e ) ✉♠❛ $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛<5♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛0 ❞♦ $✐♣♦ Li ↔ Lj ✱ $♦♠❡
e = e✳ ❙❡ e ) ✉♠❛ $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛<5♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛0 ❞♦ $✐♣♦ Li → cLi ✱ $♦♠❡ e′ ❝♦♠♦
′
❛ $0❛♥❢♦0♠❛<5♦ Li → 1c Li ✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥$❡✱ (❡ e ) ✉♠❛ $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛<5♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛0

❞♦ $✐♣♦ Li → Li + cLj ✱ $♦♠❡ e′ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ $0❛♥❢♦0♠❛<5♦ Li → Li − cLj ✳
◆5♦ ) ❞✐❢>❝✐❧ ♦ ❧❡✐$♦0 (❡ ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝❡0 ❞❡ &✉❡✱ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛(♦ ♥❛ ❞❡♠♦♥($0❛✲
<5♦ ❛♥$❡0✐♦0✱ e′ ) ❛ F♥✐❝❛ $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛<5♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛0 ❝♦♠ ❛ ♣0♦♣0✐❡❞❛❞❡ &✉❡
e′ (e(A)) = A ♣❛0❛ $♦❞❛ ♠❛$0✐③ A ∈ M(m, n)✳
❙❡ A ) ✉♠❛ ♠❛$0✐③ ❡&✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡ ♣♦0 ❧✐♥❤❛( ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$0✐③ B ✭❡✱ ❡♥$5♦✱ B )
❡&✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡ ♣♦0 ❧✐♥❤❛( ❛ A✮✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦( (✐♠♣❧❡(♠❡♥$❡ &✉❡ A ❡ B (5♦ ♠❛$%✐③❡'
❡6✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡'✳
✶✳✷ ❋♦%♠❛ ❊)❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ▼❛1%✐③

◆❡($❛ (✉❜(❡<5♦ ♠♦($0❛0❡♠♦( &✉❡ $♦❞❛ ♠❛$0✐③ ♣♦❞❡ (❡0 $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛❞❛ ♣♦0
♠❡✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ (❡&✉I♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ $0❛♥(❢♦0♠❛<B❡( ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛0❡( (♦❜0❡ ❧✐♥❤❛( ♥✉♠❛
♠❛$0✐③ ❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❢♦0♠❛ ♠✉✐$♦ ❡(♣❡❝✐❛❧✱ ❛ ❢♦%♠❛ ❡'❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ &✉❡ (❡09 ✉$✐❧✐③❛❞❛
♥❛ ♣0J①✐♠❛ (❡<5♦ ♣❛0❛ 0❡(♦❧✈❡0 (✐($❡♠❛( ❞❡ ❡&✉❛<B❡( ❧✐♥❡❛0❡(✳
❯♠❛ ♠❛$0✐③ m × n (❡09 ❞✐$❛ ❡($❛0 ♥❛ ❢♦%♠❛ ❡'❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ (❡ ❢♦0 ♥✉❧❛✱ ♦✉ (❡✿
✶✮ ♦ ♣0✐♠❡✐0♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦ ♥5♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥5♦ ♥✉❧❛ ) 1❀
✷✮ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ &✉❡ ❝♦♥$)♠ ♦ ♣0✐♠❡✐0♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦ ♥5♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛
$❡♠ $♦❞♦( ♦( (❡✉( ♦✉$0♦( ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦( ✐❣✉❛✐( ❛ ③❡0♦❀
✶✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✸✸
✸✮ "♦❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛ ♦❝♦,,❡ ❛❜❛✐①♦ ❞❡ "♦❞❛0 ❛0 ❧✐♥❤❛0 ♥1♦ ♥✉❧❛0❀
✹✮ 0❡ L1 , . . . , Lp 01♦ ❛0 ❧✐♥❤❛0 ♥1♦ ♥✉❧❛0✱ ❡ 0❡ ♦ ♣,✐♠❡✐,♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ ♥1♦ ♥✉❧♦

❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ Li ♦❝♦,,❡ ♥❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ki ✱ ❡♥"1♦ k1 < k2 < · · · < kp ✳
8♦, ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ♠❛",✐③

 
0 1 2 0 1
0 0 0 1 3
 
0 0 0 0 0
❡0": ♥❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ♣♦✐0 "♦❞❛0 ❛0 ❝♦♥❞✐<=❡0 ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐<1♦ ❛♥"❡,✐♦, 01♦
0❛"✐0❢❡✐"❛0✱ ♠❛0 ❛0 ♠❛",✐③❡0
   
1 0 0 0 0 3 1
0 1 −2 0 e 1 0 −1
   
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
♥1♦ ❡0"1♦ ♥❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ♣♦✐0 ❛ ♣,✐♠❡✐,❛ ♥1♦ 0❛"✐0❢❛③ ❛ ❝♦♥❞✐<1♦ ✷✱
❡♥@✉❛♥"♦ ❛ 0❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♥1♦ 0❛"✐0❢❛③ ❛ ❝♦♥❞✐<1♦ ✶ ✭♦❜0❡,✈❡ @✉❡ ❡❧❛ "❛♠❜E♠ ♥1♦
0❛"✐0❢❛③ ❛ ❝♦♥❞✐<1♦ ✹✮✳
❈❛❜❡ ❛@✉✐ ✉♠❛ ♦❜0❡,✈❛<1♦ ❛❝❡,❝❛ ❞❛ "❡,♠✐♥♦❧♦❣✐❛ @✉❡ ✉"✐❧✐③❛♠♦0✳ ❯0✉✲

❛❧♠❡♥"❡✱ ♥❛ ❧✐"❡,❛"✉,❛✱ ♦ "❡,♠♦ ✏❢♦,♠❛ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛",✐③✑ ,❡❢❡,❡✲0❡
❛ ✉♠❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ♠❡♥♦0 ❡0♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❞♦ @✉❡ ❛ ♥♦00❛✱ ❛ @✉❛❧ ✈:,✐♦0 ❛✉"♦,❡0 ❝❤❛♠❛♠
❞❡ ❢♦,♠❛ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ,❡❞✉③✐❞❛✳ ❆ ♥♦00❛ ❥✉0"✐✜❝❛"✐✈❛ ♣❛,❛ ♦ ✉0♦ ❞❡00❛ "❡,✲
♠✐♥♦❧♦❣✐❛ E @✉❡ ♥1♦ ❤: ,❛③1♦ ♣❛,❛ ❛❞❥❡"✐✈❛,♠♦0 ❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ♣♦✐0
✉"✐❧✐③❛,❡♠♦0 ❛♣❡♥❛0 ✉♠❛ ❞❡00❛0 ♥♦<=❡0✳
❖ ,❡0✉❧"❛❞♦ @✉❡ ❛♣,❡0❡♥"❛,❡♠♦0 ❛ 0❡❣✉✐, ♥♦0 ❣❛,❛♥"✐,: @✉❡ "♦❞❛ ♠❛",✐③ E

❡@✉✐✈❛❧❡♥"❡ ♣♦, ❧✐♥❤❛0 ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛",✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ❖ ✐♥"❡,❡00❡ ❞❡00❡
,❡0✉❧"❛❞♦ ,❡0✐❞❡ ♥♦ ❢❛"♦ @✉❡ ❛♦ ,❡❞✉③✐, ❛ ♠❛",✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❛00♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♠
❞❛❞♦ 0✐0"❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡@✉❛<=❡0 ❧✐♥❡❛,❡0 N ❢♦,♠❛ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ❡♥❝♦♥",❛♠♦0 ✉♠ ♦✉",♦
0✐0"❡♠❛ ❡@✉✐✈❛❧❡♥"❡ ❛♦ 0✐0"❡♠❛ ❞❛❞♦ @✉❡ 0❡ ❡♥❝♦♥",❛ ❡♠ 0✉❛ ❡①♣,❡001♦ ♠❛✐0
0✐♠♣❧❡0✳ ◗✉❛♥❞♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❛♦0 0✐0"❡♠❛0 ❞❡ ❡@✉❛<=❡0 ❧✐♥❡❛,❡0✱ ❡0"❡ ,❡0✉❧"❛❞♦
E ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♣!♦❝❡%%♦ ❞❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛,-♦ ❞❡ ●❛✉%%✲❏♦!❞❛♥ ✳
✸✹❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
❱❡❥❛♠♦( ❛❣♦*❛ ✉♠ ❛❧❣♦*✐.♠♦ /✉❡ ❡❞✉③ ♣♦ ❧✐♥❤❛, ✉♠❛ ♠❛.*✐③ ❞❛❞❛ ♥3♦
♥✉❧❛ /✉❛❧/✉❡* ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛.*✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦*♠❛ ❡(❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ❖ .❡*♠♦ *❡❞✉③✐* ♣♦* ❧✐♥❤❛(
(✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ .*❛♥(❢♦*♠❛* ✉♠❛ ♠❛.*✐③ ✉(❛♥❞♦ ❛( .*❛♥(❢♦*♠❛;<❡( ❡❧❡♠❡♥.❛*❡( (♦❜*❡
❧✐♥❤❛(✳ ❊(.❡ ♣*♦❝❡((♦ ? .❛♠❜?♠ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❡,❝❛❧♦♥❛♠❡♥/♦ ❞❡ ♠❛.*✐③❡(✳
❛""♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ k1 ❛ ♣*✐♠❡✐*❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❛ ♠❛.*✐③ ❞❛❞❛ ❝♦♠ ❛❧❣✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦ ♥3♦
♥✉❧♦✳ ❚*♦/✉❡ ❛( ❧✐♥❤❛( ❡♥.*❡ (✐ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ /✉❡ ❡((❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦ ♥3♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❛♣❛*❡;❛
♥❛ ♣*✐♠❡✐*❛ ❧✐♥❤❛✱ ✐(.♦ ?✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ /✉❡ ♥❛ ♥♦✈❛ ♠❛.*✐③ a1k1 6= 0✳
❛""♦ ✷✳ D❛*❛ ❝❛❞❛ i > 1✱ *❡❛❧✐③❡ ❛ .*❛♥(❢♦*♠❛;3♦
aik1
Li → L i − L1 .
a1k1
❘❡♣✐.❛ ♦( D❛((♦( ✶ ❡ ✷ ♥❛ ♠❛.*✐③ ❛((✐♠ ♦❜.✐❞❛✱ ✐❣♥♦*❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♣*✐♠❡✐*❛ ❧✐♥❤❛✳
◆♦✈❛♠❡♥.❡✱ *❡♣✐.❛ ♦( D❛((♦( ✶ ❡ ✷ ♥❡((❛ ♥♦✈❛ ♠❛.*✐③✱ ✐❣♥♦*❛♥❞♦ ❛( ❞✉❛(
♣*✐♠❡✐*❛( ❧✐♥❤❛( ❡.❝✳✱ ❛.? ❛❧❝❛♥;❛* ❛ I❧.✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥3♦ ♥✉❧❛✳
❛""♦ ✸✳ ❙❡ L1, . . . , Lp (3♦ ❛( ❧✐♥❤❛( ♥3♦ ♥✉❧❛( ❞❛ ♠❛.*✐③ ♦❜.✐❞❛ ❛♣J( .❡*♠✐✲
♥❛* ♦ ♣*♦❝❡((♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❡ (❡ ki ? ❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♥❛ /✉❛❧ ❛♣❛*❡❝❡ ♦ ♣*✐♠❡✐*♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦
♥3♦ ♥✉❧♦ aiki ❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ Li ✱ ❛♣❧✐/✉❡ ❛( .*❛♥(❢♦*♠❛;<❡(
1
Li → Li ♣❛*❛ .♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ p.
aiki
❛""♦ ✹✳ ❘❡❛❧✐③❡ ♥❛ ♠❛.*✐③ ♦❜.✐❞❛ ❛.? ❡♥.3♦ ❛( .*❛♥(❢♦*♠❛;<❡(
Lℓ → Lℓ − aℓki Li , ℓ = 1, . . . , i − 1,
♣❛*❛ i = 2✳ ❉❡♣♦✐( ♣❛*❛ i = 3✱ ❡ ❛((✐♠ ♣♦* ❞✐❛♥.❡✱ ❛.? i = p✳ ❉❡((❛ ❢♦*♠❛✱
♦❜.❡*❡♠♦( ✉♠❛ ♠❛.*✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦*♠❛ ❡(❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ /✉❡ ? ❡/✉✐✈❛❧❡♥.❡ ♣♦* ❧✐♥❤❛( M
♠❛.*✐③ ❞❛❞❛✳
❊(.❛❜❡❧❡❝❡♠♦( ❛((✐♠ ♦ (❡❣✉✐♥.❡ *❡(✉❧.❛❞♦✿
❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✷✳ ❚♦❞❛ ♠❛/ ✐③ 1 ❡2✉✐✈❛❧❡♥/❡ ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛/ ✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦ ♠❛ ❡,❝❛❧♦✲
♥❛❞❛✳
D♦* ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ♠❛.*✐③
 
1 2 −3 0
0 0 4 2 
 
0 0 0 1/2
✶✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✸✺
" #$❛♥'❢♦$♠❛❞❛ ♥✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦$♠❛ ❡'❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♠ ❛ '❡❣✉✐♥#❡ '❡3✉4♥❝✐❛

❞❡ #$❛♥'❢♦$♠❛56❡' '♦❜$❡ '✉❛' ❧✐♥❤❛'✿
     
1 2 −3 0 1 2 −3 0 1 2 −3 0
 −→   −→ 
0 0 4 2  0 0 1 1/2 0 0 1 1/2
 
L2 → 14 L2 L3 → 2L3
0 0 0 1/2 0 0 0 1/2 0 0 0 1
   
1 2 0 3/2 −→ 1 2 0 0
−→
0 0 1 1/2 L1 → L1 − 32 L3 0 0 1 0 .
   
L1 → L1 + 3L2 1
0 0 0 1 L2 → L2 − 2 L3 0 0 0 1
:❡❧♦ ❛❧❣♦$✐#♠♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ❞❡❞✉③✐♠♦' 3✉❡ 3✉❛❧3✉❡$ ♠❛#$✐③ " ❡3✉✐✈❛❧❡♥#❡ ❛ ♣❡❧♦
♠❡♥♦' ✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦$♠❛ ❡'❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛''♦ ❞♦ ❛❧❣♦$✐#♠♦
#❡♠♦' ❝❡$#❛ ♠❛$❣❡♠ ❞❡ ❡'❝♦❧❤❛' ❞❡ #$❛♥'❢♦$♠❛56❡' ❡❧❡♠❡♥#❛$❡' '♦❜$❡ ❛' ❧✐✲
♥❤❛' ❞❛ ♠❛#$✐③✱ ♥A♦ ❤B ❛♣❛$❡♥#❡♠❡♥#❡ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ♠♦#✐✈♦ ♣❛$❛ ♣♦❞❡$ ❛✜$♠❛$
3✉❡ ❛ ❢♦$♠❛ ❡'❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♠❛#$✐③ '❡❥❛ E♥✐❝❛✳ ❋❛#♦ " 3✉❡✱ ♥A♦
✐♠♣♦$#❛♥❞♦ 3✉❛❧ ❛ '❡3✉4♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ #$❛♥'❢♦$♠❛56❡' ❡❧❡♠❡♥#❛$❡' 3✉❡ ❡❢❡#✉❡♠♦'
♥❛' ❧✐♥❤❛' ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♠❛#$✐③✱ ♥♦ ✜♥❛❧ ❞♦ ♣$♦❝❡''♦ ❝❤❡❣❛♠♦' ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❡$♠❛
♠❛#$✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦$♠❛ ❡'❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ 3✉❡ " ❡3✉✐✈❛❧❡♥#❡ G ♠❛#$✐③ ❞❛❞❛✳ ❊'#❡ $❡'✉❧#❛❞♦
'❡$B ♣$♦✈❛❞♦ ♥❛ E❧#✐♠❛ '❡5A♦ ❞♦ ❝❛♣I#✉❧♦
✶✳✸ ▼❛%&✐③❡* ❊❧❡♠❡♥%❛&❡* ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛23❡*

❯♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛& ❞❡ ♦&❞❡♠ n " ✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ 3✉❛❞$❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦$❞❡♠ n
♦❜#✐❞❛ ❞❛ ♠❛#$✐③ ✐❞❡♥#✐❞❛❞❡ In ❛ ♣❛$✐$ ❞❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛5A♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ #$❛♥'❢♦$♠❛5A♦
❡❧❡♠❡♥#❛$✱ ✐'#♦ "✱ #$❛#❛✲'❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ ❞❛ ❢♦$♠❛
E = e(In ),
♦♥❞❡ e " ✉♠❛ #$❛♥'❢♦$♠❛5A♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥#❛$✳ :♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ♠❛#$✐③ ✐❞❡♥#✐❞❛❞❡ "
✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥#❛$ ❡ ❛' ♠❛#$✐③❡'
" #
0 1
e(I2 ) = , ♦♥❞❡ e : L1 ↔ L2 ,
1 0
✸✻❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
❡  
1 1 0
e(I3 ) = 0 1 0 , ♦♥❞❡ e : L1 → L 1 + L 2 ,
 
0 0 1
&'♦ ♠❛*+✐③❡& ❡❧❡♠❡♥*❛+❡& ❞❡ ♦+❞❡♠ ✷ ❡ ❞❡ ♦+❞❡♠ ✸✱ +❡&♣❡❝*✐✈❛♠❡♥*❡✳
❙❡❥❛♠ A ∈ M(m, n) ❡ e ✉♠❛ *+❛♥&❢♦+♠❛9'♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥*❛+✳ ❖ ♣+;①✐♠♦ +❡✲
&✉❧*❛❞♦✱ ❝✉❥❛ ❞❡♠♦♥&*+❛9'♦ ✜❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡+❝?❝✐♦ ♣❛+❛ ♦ ❧❡✐*♦+ ✭✈❡❥❛ A+♦❜❧❡♠❛
✶✳✸✮✱ ♥♦& ❞✐③ E✉❡ ❛ ♠❛*+✐③ e(A) ♣♦❞❡ &❡+ ♦❜*✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ♣+♦❞✉*♦ ❞❛ ♠❛*+✐③
❡❧❡♠❡♥*❛+ e(Im ) ♣❡❧❛ ♠❛*+✐③ A✳ A♦+ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❝♦♥&✐❞❡+❡♠♦&
 
1 2
A = 0 1  .
 
2 1
❙❡ e1 : L1 ↔ L2 ✱ e2 : L1 → 2L1 ❡ e3 : L1 → L1 + 2L2 ✱ ✉♠❛ +F♣✐❞❛ ✈❡+✐✜❝❛9'♦

♥♦& ♠♦&*+❛ E✉❡ e1 (A) = e1 (I3 )A✱ e2 (A) = e2 (I3 )A ❡ e3 (A) = e3 (I3 )A✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✸✳ ❙❡❥❛ e ✉♠❛ &'❛♥)❢♦'♠❛,-♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛' )♦❜'❡ ♠❛&'✐③❡) ❞❡

M(m, n)✳ ❈♦♥)✐❞❡'❡ ❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛' E = e(Im )✳ ❊♥&-♦
e(A) = EA✱ ♣❛'❛ &♦❞♦ A ∈ M(m, n)✳
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥&❡E✉H♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ ❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✸✱ *❡♠♦&
❈♦#♦❧,#✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✹✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ❡♠ M(m, n)✳ ❊♥&-♦✱ A 8 ❡9✉✐✈❛❧❡♥&❡ ❛ B

)❡✱ ❡ )♦♠❡♥&❡ )❡✱ ❡①✐)&❡♠ ♠❛&'✐③❡) ❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛'❡) E1 , . . . , Es ❞❡ ♦'❞❡♠ m &❛✐)
9✉❡
Es · · · E2 E1 A = B ✳
❉❡♠♦♥12#❛34♦ A♦+ ❞❡✜♥✐9'♦✱ A J ❡E✉✐✈❛❧❡♥*❡ ❛ B E✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐&*❡♠ *+❛♥&✲
❢♦+♠❛9K❡& ❡❧❡♠❡♥*❛+❡& e1 , . . . , es *❛✐& E✉❡
es (. . . (e2 (e1 (A))) . . . ) = B.
▼❛&✱ ♣❡❧♦ *❡♦+❡♠❛ ❛♥*❡+✐♦+✱ ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❡E✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛
Es · · · E2 E1 A = B,
✶✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✸✼
♦♥❞❡ Ei = ei (Im )✱ ♣❛)❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ s✳

❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✺✳ ❚♦❞❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛& , ✐♥✈❡&%.✈❡❧ ❡ /✉❛ ✐♥✈❡&/❛ %❛♠❜,♠
, ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛&✳
❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ ❙❡❥❛ E ✉♠❛ ♠❛0)✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥0❛)✳ ❙❡❥❛ e ❛ 0)❛♥4❢♦)♠❛67♦
❡❧❡♠❡♥0❛) 0❛❧ 8✉❡ E = e(I)✳ ❙❡ e′ 9 ❛ 0)❛♥4❢♦)♠❛67♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥0❛) ✐♥✈❡)4❛ ❞❡ e ❡
4❡ E ′ = e′ (I)✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✸ 0❡♠♦4
I = e′ (e(I)) = e′ (E) = e′ (I)E = E ′ E
❡
I = e(e′ (I)) = e(E ′ ) = e(I)E ′ = E E ′ .
▲♦❣♦✱ E 9 ✐♥✈❡)0@✈❡❧ ❡ E −1 = E ′ ✳
A❡❧♦ ❈♦)♦❧C)✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✺ 4❛❜❡♠♦4 ❝♦♠♦ ✐♥✈❡)0❡) ✉♠❛ ♠❛0)✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥0❛)✳ A♦)
❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ 4❡ ❝♦♥4✐❞❡)❛)♠♦4 ❛4 ♠❛0)✐③❡4
   
0 1 0 1 2 0
A =  1 0 0 ❡ B =  0 1 0 ,
   
0 0 1 0 0 1
♣♦❞❡♠♦4 ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐) 8✉❡ A ❡ B 47♦ ✐♥✈❡)0@✈❡✐4✱ ❥C 8✉❡ A ❡ B 47♦ ♠❛0)✐③❡4

❡❧❡♠❡♥0❛)❡4✳ ❉❡ ❢❛0♦✱ A = e1 (I3 ) ❝♦♠ e1 : L1 ↔ L2 ❡ B = e2 (I3 ) ❝♦♠
e2 : L1 → L1 + 2L2 ✳ A❡❧♦ ❈♦)♦❧C)✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✺✱ A−1 = e′1 (I3 )✱ ♦♥❞❡ e′1 9 ❛ 0)❛♥4✲
❢♦)♠❛67♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥0❛) ✐♥✈❡)4❛ ❞❡ e1 ❡ B −1 = e′2 (I3 )✱ ♦♥❞❡ e′2 9 ❛ 0)❛♥4❢♦)♠❛67♦
❡❧❡♠❡♥0❛) ✐♥✈❡)4❛ ❞❡ e2 ✳ ▼❛✐4 ♣)❡❝✐4❛♠❡♥0❡✱
   
0 1 0 1 −2 0
A−1 = 1 0 0 ❡ B −1 = 0 1 0 .
   
0 0 1 0 0 1
❆ 4❡❣✉✐)✱ ❛♣)❡4❡♥0❛♠♦4 ♦ )❡4✉❧0❛❞♦ ❝❡♥0)❛❧ ❞❡40❛ 4❡67♦ 8✉❡ ❝❛)❛❝0❡)✐③❛ ❛4

♠❛0)✐③❡4 ✐♥✈❡)0@✈❡✐4✳
❚❡♦"❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✻✳ 2❛&❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ 3✉❛❞&❛❞❛ A ❞❡ ♦&❞❡♠ n✱ /5♦ ❡3✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡/
❛/ /❡❣✉✐♥%❡/ ❛✜&♠❛89❡/✿
✭✐✮ A , ✐♥✈❡&%.✈❡❧❀
✸✽❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
✭✐✐✮ ❙❡ B " ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦'♠❛ ❡-❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❡1✉✐✈❛❧❡♥&❡ ❛ A✱ ❡♥&4♦ B = In ❀
✭✐✐✐✮ A " ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛' ♦✉ ✉♠ ♣'♦❞✉&♦ ❞❡ ♠❛&'✐③❡- ❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛'❡-✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ❱❛♠♦) ❝♦♠❡,❛- ♣-♦✈❛♥❞♦ ❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛,3♦ ✭✐✮ ⇒ ✭✐✐✮✳ ❈♦♠

❡❢❡✐7♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ B 9 ❡:✉✐✈❛❧❡♥7❡ ❛ A✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❈♦-♦❧<-✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✹✱ ❡①✐)7❡♠ ♠❛7-✐③❡)
❡❧❡♠❡♥7❛-❡) E1 , E2 , . . . , Es 7❛✐) :✉❡
Es · · · E2 E1 A = B.
❈♦♠♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❈♦-♦❧<-✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✺✱ ❝❛❞❛ Ei 9 ✐♥✈❡-7C✈❡❧ ❡ A✱ ♣♦- ❤✐♣E7❡)❡✱ 9 ✐♥✈❡-✲

7C✈❡❧✱ 7❡♠♦) :✉❡ B 9 ✐♥✈❡-7C✈❡❧ ✭❝❢✳ G-♦♣♦)✐,3♦ ✶✳✷✳✹✮✳ G♦- ♦✉7-♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ♣❡❧♦
G-♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✼✱ 7❡♠♦) :✉❡ B = In ✳
❆ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛,3♦ ✭✐✐✮ ⇒ ✭✐✐✐✮ 9 ❡✈✐❞❡♥7❡✱ ❥< :✉❡ A = E1−1 E2−1 · · · Es−1 B ✱ ♦♥❞❡
B = In ❡ ❝❛❞❛ Ei−1 9 ✉♠❛ ♠❛7-✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥7❛- ✭❝❢✳ ❈♦-♦❧<-✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✺✮✳
❆ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛,3♦ ✭✐✐✐✮ ⇒ ✭✐✮ 9 ❡✈✐❞❡♥7❡✱ ♣♦✐) ♠❛7-✐③❡) ❡❧❡♠❡♥7❛-❡) )3♦ ✐♥✈❡-7C✈❡✐)
❡ ♣-♦❞✉7♦) ❞❡ ♠❛7-✐③❡) ✐♥✈❡-7C✈❡✐) )3♦ ✐♥✈❡-7C✈❡✐) ✭❝❢✳ G-♦♣♦)✐,3♦ ✶✳✷✳✹✮✳
❖❜)❡-✈❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡❝♦--M♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ -❡)✉❧7❛❞♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ :✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛7-✐③ :✉❛❞-❛❞❛

✐♥✈❡-7C✈❡❧ 9 ❡:✉✐✈❛❧❡♥7❡ ❛ ✉♠❛ N♥✐❝❛ ♠❛7-✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦-♠❛ ❡)❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ✭❛ ♠❛7-✐③
✐❞❡♥7✐❞❛❞❡✮✱ ✜❝❛♥❞♦ ❡)7❛❜❡❧❡❝✐❞❛✱ ♥❡)7❡ ❝❛)♦✱ ❛ ✉♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ❢♦-♠❛ ❡)❝❛❧♦✲
♥❛❞❛✳
❋✐♥❛❧✐③❛♠♦) ❡)7❛ )❡,3♦ ❛♣-❡)❡♥7❛♥❞♦ ✉♠ ♠97♦❞♦ ♣❛-❛ ✐♥✈❡-)3♦ ❞❡ ♠❛7-✐✲

③❡) ♣♦- ♠❡✐♦ ❞❡ 7-❛♥)❢♦-♠❛,Q❡) ❡❧❡♠❡♥7❛-❡)✳
+'♦♣♦%✐)*♦ ✷✳✶✳✼✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ✐♥✈❡'&9✈❡❧ ❡ e , . . . , e

1 s ✉♠❛ -❡1✉:♥✲
❝✐❛ ❞❡ &'❛♥-❢♦'♠❛<=❡- ❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛'❡- &❛✐- 1✉❡ es (. . . (e2 (e1 (A))) . . . ) = I✱ ♦♥❞❡
I " ❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ✐❞❡♥&✐❞❛❞❡✳ ❊♥&4♦ ❡--❛ ♠❡-♠❛ -❡1✉:♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ &'❛♥-❢♦'♠❛<=❡-
❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛'❡- ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ I ♣'♦❞✉③ A−1 ❀ ✐-&♦ "✱ es (. . . (e2 (e1 (I))) . . . ) = A−1 ✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ G❛-❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ s✱ )❡❥❛ Ei ❛ ♠❛7-✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥7❛- ❝♦--❡)✲
♣♦♥❞❡♥7❡ R 7-❛♥)❢♦-♠❛,3♦ ei ✳ ❊♥73♦
Es · · · E2 E1 A = I .
❆))✐♠✱
(Es · · · E2 E1 I)A A−1 = I A−1 ✱
✶✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✸✾
❞♦♥❞❡
Es · · · E2 E1 I = A−1 ✳

'❛)❛ ✐❧✉-.)❛)♠♦- ♦ ✉-♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✻ ❡ ❞❛ ')♦♣♦-✐56♦ ✷✳✶✳✼✱ ❝♦♥-✐❞❡✲

)❡♠♦- ❛ ♠❛.)✐③  
1 0 2
A = 2 −1 3 .
 
4 1 8
❙❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛)♠♦- ✉♠❛ -❡=✉>♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ .)❛♥-❢♦)♠❛5@❡- ❡❧❡♠❡♥.❛)❡- ❡♠ A ❛.A ♦❜.❡)✲
♠♦- ✉♠❛ ♠❛.)✐③ B ♥❛ ❢♦)♠❛ ❡-❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✻✱ A A ✐♥✈❡).D✈❡❧
-❡✱ ❡ -♦♠❡♥.❡ -❡✱ B = I3 ✳ ❙❡ B = I3 ✱ ♣❡❧❛ ')♦♣♦-✐56♦ ✷✳✶✳✼✱ ❡--❛ ♠❡-♠❛
-❡=✉>♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ .)❛♥-❢♦)♠❛5@❡- ❡❧❡♠❡♥.❛)❡- ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ I3 )❡-✉❧.❛)E ❡♠ A−1 ✳ ❆-✲
-✐♠✱ ✈❛♠♦- ❢♦)♠❛) ❛ ♠❛.)✐③ ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦- A | I3 ❡ ✈❛♠♦- )❡❞✉③✐) ❡-.❛ ♠❛.)✐③

3 × 6 ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛.)✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦)♠❛ ❡-❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛.♦✱
   
1 0 2 | 1 0 0 −→ 1 0 2 | 1 0 0

A | I3 = 2 −1 3 | 0 1 0 L2 → L2 − 2L1 0 −1 −1 | −2 1 0
  
4 1 8 | 0 0 1 L3 → L3 − 4L1 0 1 0 | −4 0 1
   
1 0 2 | 1 0 0 1 0 2 | 1 0 0
−→ −→
0 1 1 | 2 −1 0 0 1 1 | 2 −1 0
   
L2 → −L2 L3 → L3 − L2
0 1 0 | −4 0 1 0 0 −1 | −6 1 1
   
1 0 2 | 1 0 0 −→ 1 0 0 | −11 2 2
−→
0 1 1 | 2 −1 0  L1 → L1 − 2L3 0 1 0 | −4 0 1 .
   
L3 → −L3
0 0 1 | 6 −1 −1 L 2 → L 2 − L 3 0 0 1 | 6 −1 −1
❈♦♠♦ ♦❜.❡♠♦- ✉♠❛ ♠❛.)✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦)♠❛ I3 | C ✱ .❡♠♦- =✉❡ A A ✐♥✈❡).D✈❡❧ ❡

C = A−1 ✳ ❆--✐♠✱  
−11 2 2
A−1 =  −4 0 1 .
 
6 −1 −1
✹✵❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
❈♦♥%✐❞❡)❡♠♦% ❛❣♦)❛ ❛ ♠❛-)✐③
 
1 0 1
A =  0 2 1 .
 
3 0 3
❆♦ )❡❞✉③✐)♠♦% ❛ ♠❛-)✐③ ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦% A | I3 ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛-)✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦)♠❛ ❡%❝❛✲

 
1 0 1
❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ♦❜-❡♠♦% ❛ ♠❛-)✐③ B | C ✱ ♦♥❞❡ B = 0 1 1/2 ❡✱ ♣♦)-❛♥-♦✱
 
0 0 0
❞✐❢❡)❡♥-❡ ❞❡ I3 ✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ A ♥:♦ ; ✐♥✈❡)-=✈❡❧ ♣♦) %❡) ❡>✉✐✈❛❧❡♥-❡ ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛-)✐③
❝♦♠ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛ ✭❝❢✳ A)♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✼✮✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
" #
✶✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ A = 2 1
✳
−1 3
✭❛✮ ❖❜-❡♥❤❛ ❛ ❢♦)♠❛ ❡%❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ A✳
✭❜✮ A ; ✐♥✈❡)-=✈❡❧❄ ❏✉%-✐✜>✉❡✳
✭❝✮ ❙❡ A ❢♦) ✐♥✈❡)-=✈❡❧✱ ❡%❝)❡✈❛ ❛ ♠❛-)✐③ A−1 ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠ ♣)♦❞✉-♦ ❞❡ ♠❛-)✐③❡%
❡❧❡♠❡♥-❛)❡%✳
✶✳✷ ❉❡-❡)♠✐♥❡
"
❛ ♠❛-)✐③ ✐♥✈❡)%❛ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛% ♠❛-)✐③❡% ❞❛❞❛%✿
#
12 7
✭❛✮ A= ❀
5 3
 
−2 3 −1
✭❜✮ B =  1 −3 1 ❀
 
−1 2 −1
 
−2 −1 0 2
 3 1 −2 −2
✭❝✮ C =  ✳
 
−4 −1 2 3
3 1 −1 −2
✶✳✸ ❉❡♠♦♥%-)❡ ♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✸✳
✶✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✹✶
✶✳✹ ❉❡$❡%♠✐♥❡ ❛ ❢♦%♠❛ ❡,❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❛, ♠❛$%✐③❡,✿

   
0 1 3 −2 1 2 −1 2 1
✭❛✮ A = 2 1 −4 3 ❀ ✭❜✮ B = 2 4 1 −2 3❀
   
2 3 2 −1 3 6 2 −6 5
 
1 3 −1 2
0 11 −5 3
✭❝✮ C =  ✳
 
2 −5 3 1
4 1 1 5
✶✳✺ ❯♠❛ ❝❡%$❛ ,❡8✉:♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ $%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛;<❡, ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛%❡, ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛, ❛ ✉♠❛

♠❛$%✐③ A ♣%♦❞✉③ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$%✐③ B ✳ ❆ ♠❡,♠❛ ,❡8✉:♥❝✐❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ AB ♣%♦❞✉③✐%?
8✉❡ ♠❛$%✐③❄ ❏✉,$✐✜8✉❡ ,✉❛ %❡,♣♦,$❛✳
✶✳✻ ❉❡,❝%❡✈❛ $♦❞❛, ❛, ♣♦,,D✈❡✐, ♠❛$%✐③❡, 2×2 8✉❡ ❡,$E♦ ♥❛ ❢♦%♠❛ ❡,❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳
✶✳✼ ❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛$%✐③ 8✉❛❞%❛❞❛ ♥❛ ❢♦%♠❛ ❡,❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ▼♦,$%❡ 8✉❡ ,E♦
❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡, ❛, ,❡❣✉✐♥$❡, ❛,,❡%;<❡,✿
✭❛✮ ❆ ♠❛$%✐③ A ♥E♦ $❡♠ ❧✐♥❤❛, ♥✉❧❛,✳
✭❜✮ A K ❛ ♠❛$%✐③ ✐❞❡♥$✐❞❛❞❡✳
✭❝✮ A K ✐♥✈❡%$D✈❡❧✳
❙✉❣❡*+,♦ ❯,❡ ♦ L%♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✸✭❝✮✱ ❞♦ ❈❛♣D$✉❧♦ ✶✳
✶✳✽✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ♠❛$%✐③❡, 8✉❛❞%❛❞❛, ❞❡ ♠❡,♠❛ ♦%❞❡♠✳
✭❛✮ ▼♦,$%❡ 8✉❡✱ ,❡ AB = I✱ ❡♥$E♦ A K ✐♥✈❡%$D✈❡❧ ❡ A−1 = B ✳ ❆,,✐♠ AB = I
,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥$❡ ,❡✱ BA = I✳
✭❜✮ ▼♦,$%❡ 8✉❡ AB K ✐♥✈❡%$D✈❡❧ ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥$❡ ,❡ A ❡ B ,E♦ ✐♥✈❡%$D✈❡✐,✳
♦" ❞❡✜♥✐()♦✱ ✉♠❛ ♠❛."✐③ 0✉❛❞"❛❞❛ A 1 ✐♥✈❡".3✈❡❧ 0✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐6.❡ ✉♠❛
♠❛."✐③ 0✉❛❞"❛❞❛ B .❛❧ 0✉❡ AB = I ❡ BA = I✳ ◆♦ ❡♥.❛♥.♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ♣"♦❜❧❡♠❛
❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♥♦ ❝♦♥.❡①.♦ ❞❛6 ♠❛."✐③❡6 0✉❛❞"❛❞❛6✱ ❜❛6.❛ ❡♥❝♦♥."❛" B .❛❧ 0✉❡ AB = I
♦✉ .❛❧ 0✉❡ BA = I ♣❛"❛ 0✉❡ A 6❡❥❛ ✐♥✈❡".3✈❡❧✳ ❖✉ 6❡❥❛✱ 6❡ ✉♠❛ ❞❛6 ❞✉❛6
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡6 1 6❛.✐6❢❡✐.❛✱ ❡♥.)♦ ❛ ♦✉."❛ 1 ❛✉.♦♠❛.✐❝❛♠❡♥.❡ 6❛.✐6❢❡✐.❛ ✳
✶✳✾ ❙❡❥❛♠ E1 ✱ E2 ❡ E3 ❛, ♠❛$%✐③❡, ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛%❡, ❞❡ ♦%❞❡♠ n ♦❜$✐❞❛, ❞❛ ✐❞❡♥$✐✲
❞❛❞❡ ♣❡❧❛, $%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛;<❡, ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛%❡, Li ↔ Lj ✱ Li → Li + kLj ❡ Li → cLi ✱
✹✷❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
♦♥❞❡ j 6= i✱ '❡(♣❡❝+✐✈❛♠❡♥+❡✳ ▼♦(+'❡ 2✉❡ E1t = E1 ✱ E2t = E2′ ❡ E3t = E3 ✱
♦♥❞❡ E2′ 4 ❛ ♠❛+'✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥+❛' ♦❜+✐❞❛ ❞❛ ✐❞❡♥+✐❞❛❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥+❡ ❛ +'❛♥(❢♦'♠❛✲
:;♦ Lj → Lj + kLi ✳
✷ ❘❡#♦❧✉'(♦ ❞❡ ❙✐#,❡♠❛# ▲✐♥❡❛1❡#

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥+❡✱ ♥❡(+❛ (❡:;♦✱ ♣♦'❡♠♦( ❡♠ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛♠❡♥+♦ ❛ ♠❛2✉✐♥='✐❛ ❞❡(❡♥✲
✈♦❧✈✐❞❛ ❝♦♠ ❛( ♠❛+'✐③❡( ♣❛'❛ ❛ '❡(♦❧✉:;♦ ❞❡ (✐(+❡♠❛( ❞❡ ❡2✉❛:>❡( ❧✐♥❡❛'❡(✱
❝✉❧♠✐♥❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♠ ♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ❞♦ @♦(+♦✳ ❚'❛+❛✲(❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ '❡(✉❧+❛❞♦ ❝❡♥+'❛❧
❞❡((❛ +❡♦'✐❛ 2✉❡ ❞❡(❝'❡✈❡ ❛ '❡(♦❧✉❜✐❞❛❞❡ ❞♦( (✐(+❡♠❛( ❞❡ ❡2✉❛:>❡( ❧✐♥❡❛'❡(
❣❡'❛✐(✳ ❊(+❡ +❡♦'❡♠❛ 4 +❛♠❜4♠ ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞♦ ♥♦ ❊♥(✐♥♦ ▼4❞✐♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ❞❡
❘♦✉❝❤4✲❈❛♣❡❧❧✐✱ ❡♠ ❤♦♠❡♥❛❣❡♠ ❛♦( ♠❛+❡♠=+✐❝♦( ❊✉❣F♥❡ ❘♦✉❝❤4 ✭❋'❛♥:❛✱
✶✽✸✷✕✶✾✶✾✮ ❡ ❆❧❢'❡❞♦ ❈❛♣❡❧❧✐ ✭■+=❧✐❛✱ ✶✽✺✺✕✶✾✶✵✮✳
◗✉❛♥+♦ ❛ (✉❛( (♦❧✉:>❡(✱ ✉♠ (✐(+❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛' (❡ ❝❧❛((✐✜❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✐♠♣♦((T✲
✈❡❧✱ ♦✉ ♣♦((T✈❡❧ ❡ ❞❡+❡'♠✐♥❛❞♦✱ ♦✉ ♣♦((T✈❡❧ ❡ ✐♥❞❡+❡'♠✐♥❛❞♦✳ ❯♠ (✐(+❡♠❛
❧✐♥❡❛' 4 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ✐♠♣♦$$%✈❡❧ ✱ 2✉❛♥❞♦ ♥;♦ +❡♠ (♦❧✉:;♦✱ ♣♦$$%✈❡❧ ❡ ❞❡*❡+♠✐✲
♥❛❞♦ ✱ 2✉❛♥❞♦ +❡♠ ✉♠❛ V♥✐❝❛ (♦❧✉:;♦ ❡ ♣♦$$%✈❡❧ ❡ ✐♥❞❡*❡+♠✐♥❛❞♦ ✱ 2✉❛♥❞♦
+❡♠ ♠❛✐( ❞❡ ✉♠❛ (♦❧✉:;♦✳ ✳
❏= ❢♦✐ ♦❜(❡'✈❛❞♦ ❛♥+❡'✐♦'♠❡♥+❡ 2✉❡ ✉♠ (✐(+❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❤♦♠♦❣X♥❡♦ ❝♦♠ n

✐♥❝Y❣♥✐+❛( 4 (❡♠♣'❡ ♣♦((T✈❡❧✱ ♣♦✐( ❛❞♠✐+❡ ❝♦♠♦ (♦❧✉:;♦ ❛ n✲✉♣❧❛ (0, 0, . . . , 0)✱
✷✳ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✹✸
❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ♦❧✉$%♦ &'✐✈✐❛❧ ✳ ◗✉❛❧+✉❡- ♦✉/-❛ 0♦❧✉12♦✱ 0❡ ❡①✐0/✐-✱ 6 ❞✐/❛ ♦❧✉$%♦

♥%♦ &'✐✈✐❛❧ ❞♦ 0✐0/❡♠❛✳
❉❛❞♦ ✉♠ 0✐0/❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- AX = B ✱ ♦ 0✐0/❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- AX = 0 6 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦
❞❡ ✐ &❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❤♦♠♦❣0♥❡♦ ❛ ♦❝✐❛❞♦ ✳ ❆ -❡❧❛12♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥/❛❧ ❡♥/-❡ ✉♠
0✐0/❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❡ 0❡✉ 0✐0/❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❤♦♠♦❣<♥❡♦ ❛00♦❝✐❛❞♦ 6 ❛♣-❡0❡♥/❛❞❛ ♥❛
♣-♦♣♦0✐12♦ ❛ 0❡❣✉✐-✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✷✳✷✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛AX = B ✉♠ ✐ &❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛'✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦ 7✉❡ X1
❡❥❛ ✉♠❛ ♦❧✉$%♦ ❞♦ ✐ &❡♠❛ AX = B ❡ 7✉❡ Sh ❡❥❛ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ ♦❧✉$%♦ ❞♦
✐ &❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❤♦♠♦❣0♥❡♦ ❛ ♦❝✐❛❞♦ AX = 0✳ ❊♥&%♦
S = {X1 + Z ; Z ∈ Sh } ✭✶✮
9 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ ♦❧✉$%♦ ❞♦ ✐ &❡♠❛ AX = B ✳

❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ A❛-❛ ❞❡♠♦♥0/-❛-♠♦0 ✭✶✮✱ ✉0❛-❡♠♦0 ❛❧❣✉♠❛0 ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡0
❥C ✈✐0/❛0 ❞❛ ❛❞✐12♦ ❡ ❞❛ ♠✉❧/✐♣❧✐❝❛12♦ ♣♦- ❡0❝❛❧❛- ❞❡ ♠❛/-✐③❡0✳
❉❡ ❢❛/♦✱ 0❡ X2 ∈ S ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦0 ❡0❝-❡✈❡- X2 = X1 + Z ❝♦♠ Z ∈ Sh ✳ ❈♦♠♦
X1 6 ✉♠❛ 0♦❧✉12♦ ♣❛-/✐❝✉❧❛- ❞❡ AX = B ❡ Z ∈ Sh ✱ 0❡❣✉❡ +✉❡ AX1 = B ❡
AZ = 0✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
AX2 = A(X1 + Z) = AX1 + AZ = B + 0 = B,
♠♦0/-❛♥❞♦ +✉❡ X2 6 ✉♠❛ 0♦❧✉12♦ ❞♦ 0✐0/❡♠❛ AX = B ✳

A♦- ♦✉/-♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ /♦♠❡♠♦0 ✉♠❛ 0♦❧✉12♦ X2 ❞♦ 0✐0/❡♠❛ AX = B ❡ ❞❡✜♥❛✲
♠♦0 Z = X2 − X1 ✳ ❚❡♠♦0✱ ❡♥/2♦✱ +✉❡
AZ = A(X2 − X1 ) = AX2 − AX1 = B − B = 0;
❧♦❣♦ Z = X2 − X1 ∈ Sh ✳ A♦-/❛♥/♦✱ X2 = X1 + Z ∈ S ✳
❖❜0❡-✈❛♠♦0 +✉❡ ♦ -❡0✉❧/❛❞♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ 6 ❛♣❡♥❛0 ❞❡ ✐♥/❡-❡00❡ /❡M-✐❝♦✱ ♣♦✐0 ♥2♦
♥♦0 ❛❥✉❞❛ ❛ ♦❜/❡- ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ 0♦❧✉12♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ 0✐0/❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛-✳ ❯♠ ♠6/♦❞♦ ❜❡♠
❡✜❝❛③ ♣❛-❛ 0❡ -❡0♦❧✈❡- ✉♠ 0✐0/❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- 6 ♦ ♠9&♦❞♦ ❞♦ ❡ ❝❛❧♦♥❛♠❡♥&♦ ✳ ❊0/❡
❝♦♥0✐0/❡ ❡♠ 0❡ /♦♠❛- ❛ ♠❛/-✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ 0✐0/❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛- ✉♠❛
0❡+✉<♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ /-❛♥0❢♦-♠❛1P❡0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥/❛-❡0 ❛ ❡0/❛ ♠❛/-✐③✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛ ♦❜/❡-♠♦0
✹✹❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
✉♠❛ ♠❛$%✐③ ❡)✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡ )✉❡ -❡❥❛ ❛ ♠❛$%✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ -✐-$❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛%
✏❢3❝✐❧✑ ❞❡ -❡ %❡-♦❧✈❡%✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❘❡-♦❧✈❛♠♦- ♦ -✐-$❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛%

x + y − 2z + 3w = 4



2x + 3y + 3z − w = 3 ✭✷✮


5x + 7y + 4z + w = 5 .

❖❜-❡%✈❡♠♦- )✉❡
 
1 1 −2 3 | 4 −→
2 3 3 −1 | 3 L2 → L2 − 2L1
 
5 7 4 1 | 5 L3 → L3 − 5L1
   
1 1 −2 3 | 4 1 1 −2 3 | 4
−→
0 1 7 −7 | −5 0 1 7 −7 | −5 ,
   
L3 → L3 − 2L2
0 2 14 −14 | −15 0 0 0 0 | −5
✭✸✮
-❡♥❞♦ )✉❡ ❡-$❛ ?❧$✐♠❛ ♠❛$%✐③ @ ❛ ♠❛$%✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞♦ -✐-$❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛%

x + y − 2z + 3w = 4



y + 7z − 7w = −5 ✭✹✮


0x + 0y + 0z + 0w = −5 .

◆♦$❡ )✉❡ ♦ -✐-$❡♠❛ ✭✹✮ @ ✐♠♣♦--B✈❡❧✳ ❆ ♣❡%❣✉♥$❛ )✉❡ ❢❛③❡♠♦- @✿ )✉❛❧

❛ %❡❧❛FG♦ ❞♦ -✐-$❡♠❛ ✭✹✮ ❝♦♠ ♦ ♦%✐❣✐♥❛❧♠❡♥$❡ ♣%♦♣♦-$♦❄ ❆ %❡-♣♦-$❛ @ )✉❡
❡❧❡- $I♠ ♦ ♠❡-♠♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ -♦❧✉FG♦✱ ❥3 )✉❡ ✭✷✮ ❡ ✭✹✮ $I♠ ♠❛$%✐③❡- ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛-
❡)✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡-✳ ▼❛✐- ♣%❡❝✐-❛♠❡♥$❡✱ $❡♠♦- ♦ %❡-✉❧$❛❞♦ ❛ -❡❣✉✐%✳
)*♦♣♦+✐-.♦ ✷✳✷✳✷✳ ❉♦✐# #✐#$❡♠❛# ❧✐♥❡❛*❡# ❝♦♠ ♠❛$*✐③❡# ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛# ❡/✉✐✈❛✲
❧❡♥$❡# $3♠ ♦ ♠❡#♠♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ #♦❧✉56♦ ✳
❉❡♠♦♥+2*❛-.♦ ➱ -M ❧❡♠❜%❛% )✉❡ ❡❢❡$✉❛% $%❛♥-❢♦%♠❛FN❡- ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛%❡- -♦❜%❡
❛- ❧✐♥❤❛- ❞❛ ♠❛$%✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞♦ -✐-$❡♠❛✱ ❡)✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ❡❢❡$✉❛% $%❛♥-❢♦%♠❛FN❡-
❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛%❡- ♥♦ -✐-$❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡)✉❛FN❡-✱ ♦❜$❡♥❞♦ ✉♠ -✐-$❡♠❛ ❡)✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡✳
✷✳ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✹✺
❆ ♠❛%&✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞♦ -✐-%❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛& ✭✷✮ ♣♦❞❡&✐❛ %❡& -✐❞♦ &❡❞✉③✐❞❛ ♣♦&
❧✐♥❤❛- ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦&♠❛ ❡-❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ 8♦&9♠✱ ❛ ❡;✉❛<=♦
0x + 0y + 0z + 0w = −5
♦❜%✐❞❛ ❞❛ ?❧%✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ✜♥❛❧ ❡♠ ✭✸✮ ❥C ❣❛&❛♥%❡✱ ♣❡❧❛ 8&♦♣♦-✐<=♦
✷✳✷✳✷✱ ;✉❡ ♦ -✐-%❡♠❛ ✭✷✮ 9 ✐♠♣♦--E✈❡❧✳ ❉❡ ❢❛%♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ ✉♠ -✐-%❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛& ♥❛- ✐♥✲
❝I❣♥✐%❛- x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ✱ -❡ ❛♣I- ✉♠❛ -❡;✉J♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ %&❛♥-❢♦&♠❛<K❡- ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛&❡-
♦❝♦&&❡& ✉♠❛ ❡;✉❛<=♦ ❞❛ ❢♦&♠❛
0x1 + 0x2 + · · · + 0xn = b, ❝♦♠ b 6= 0✱
❡♥%=♦ ♦ -✐-%❡♠❛ 9 ✐♠♣♦--E✈❡❧❀ ♦✉ -❡❥❛✱ ♥=♦ %❡♠ -♦❧✉<=♦✳
◗✉❛♥❞♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛&♠♦- ❛ 8&♦♣♦-✐<=♦ ✷✳✷✳✷ ❛ ✉♠ -✐-%❡♠❛ ❤♦♠♦❣J♥❡♦ ♥=♦ 9 ♥❡✲
❝❡--C&✐♦ %♦♠❛& ❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛✱ ❜❛-%❛ ❝♦♥-✐❞❡&❛& ❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❞♦- ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥%❡-
❞♦ -✐-%❡♠❛✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❉❡%❡&♠✐♥❡♠♦- ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ -♦❧✉<=♦ ❞♦ -✐-%❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛& ❤♦♠♦❣J♥❡♦


 x + 2y + 3z − 5w = 0

 2x + 4y + z + 2w = 0


 x + 3y + 4z = 0
3x + 5y + 8z − 10w = 0.

❖&❛✱ ❜❛-%❛ ❝♦♥-✐❞❡&❛&♠♦- ❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❞♦- ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥%❡- ❞♦ -✐-%❡♠❛✳ ❆--✐♠✱
     
1 2 3 −5 −→ 1 2 3 −5 1 2 3 −5
2 4 1 2  L2 → L2 − 2L1 0 0 −5 12  −→ 0 0 −5 12 
   
,
 
4 0  L3 → L3 − L1  0 1 5  L4 → L4 + L3  0
    
1 3 1 1 1 5
3 5 8 −10 L4 → L4 − 3L1 0 −1 −1 5 0 0 0 10
-❡♥❞♦ ❡-%❛ ?❧%✐♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③✱ ❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❞♦- ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥%❡- ❞♦ -✐-%❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛& ❤♦♠♦✲
❣J♥❡♦ 

 x + 2y + 3z − 5w = 0

 −5z + 12w = 0


 y + z + 5w = 0
10w = 0,

✹✻❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
"✉❡ ❛❞♠✐)❡ ❛♣❡♥❛, ❛ ,♦❧✉/0♦ (0, 0, 0, 0)✳ ❆,,✐♠✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ,♦❧✉/0♦ ❞♦ ,✐,)❡♠❛
♦6✐❣✐♥❛❧♠❡♥)❡ ❞❛❞♦ 8 S = {(0, 0, 0, 0)}✳
9❛6❛ ❛♣6❡,❡♥)❛6♠♦, ♦ 6❡,✉❧)❛❞♦ ❝❡♥)6❛❧ ❞❡,)❡ ❝❛♣:)✉❧♦✱ ♥❡❝❡,,✐)❛6❡♠♦, ❞❡
❛❧❣✉♥, 6❡,✉❧)❛❞♦, "✉❡ ❡,)❛❜❡❧❡❝❡6❡♠♦, ❛ ,❡❣✉✐6✳
▲❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✸✳ ❙❡❥❛ ❞❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ A = [A′ | A′′ ] ♥❛ ❢♦(♠❛ ❡.❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ♦♥❞❡
A′ 2 ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ m × (n − 1) ❡ A′′ 2 ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ m × 1✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ k1 , . . . , kp ❛.
♣♦.✐56❡. ❞❛. ❝♦❧✉♥❛. ❞❡ A ♦♥❞❡ ♦❝♦((❡♠ ♦. ♣(✐♠❡✐(♦. ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦. ♥7♦ ♥✉❧♦. ❞❛.
❧✐♥❤❛. ♥7♦ ♥✉❧❛. L1 , . . . , Lp ✱ (❡.♣❡❝'✐✈❛♠❡♥'❡✳ ❖ .✐.'❡♠❛ A′ X = A′′ ❛❞♠✐'❡
.♦❧✉57♦ .❡✱ ❡ .♦♠❡♥'❡ .❡✱ kp 6= n✳
❉❡♠♦♥*+,❛-.♦ ❖❜,❡6✈❡ "✉❡ ❝♦♠♦ A ❡,)> ♥❛ ❢♦6♠❛ ❡,❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ❛ ♠❛)6✐③
A′ )❛♠❜8♠ ❡,)> ♥❛ ❢♦6♠❛ ❡,❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳
❙❡ kp = n✱ ❡♥)0♦ ❛ p✲8,✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛ ♠❛)6✐③ A 8 (0 0 · · · 0 1)✳ ❆,,✐♠✱
♦ ,✐,)❡♠❛ A′ X = A′′ )❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❡"✉❛/0♦ ❞❛ ❢♦6♠❛ 0x1 + · · · + 0xn−1 = 1✱ "✉❡
♥0♦ )❡♠ ,♦❧✉/0♦✳
❙❡ kp 6= n✱ )❡♠♦, "✉❡ p ≤ kp < n✳ ❆,,✐♠✱ ,❡ ♦, ai ✬, ,0♦ ❛, ❡♥)6❛❞❛, ❞❡
A′′ ✱ )❡♠♦, "✉❡ ap+1 = · · · = am = 0✳ ❙❡ ❞❡♥♦)❛6♠♦, ♣♦6 Ai ❛ i✲8,✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛
❞❛ ♠❛)6✐③ A✱ )❡♠♦, "✉❡
     
1 0 0
0 1 0
     
✳ ✳ ✳
 ✳✳   ✳✳   ✳✳ 
A′k1 = Ak1 =  , A′k2 = Ak2 =  , ... , A′kp = Akp =  ,
     
0 0 1
 ✳✳   ✳✳   ✳✳ 
     
✳ ✳ ✳
0 0 0
♦♥❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♠❛)6✐③ ❛❝✐♠❛ )❡♠ ❛, E❧)✐♠❛, m − r ❡♥)6❛❞❛, ♥✉❧❛,✳ ❖ ,✐,)❡♠❛

A′ X = A′′ ,❡ ❡,❝6❡✈❡✱ ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦,✱ ❞❛ ,❡❣✉✐♥)❡ ❢♦6♠❛✿
a = [A1 | A2 | . . . | An−1 ]X = A1 x1 + A2 x2 + · · · + An−1 xn−1 .
9❛6❛ ❛❝❤❛6 ✉♠❛ ,♦❧✉/0♦ ❞♦ ,✐,)❡♠❛ ❜❛,)❛ )♦♠❛6 xki = ai ❡ xj = 0✱ ,❡ j 6= ki ✱

♣❛6❛ )♦❞♦ i = 1, . . . , p✳
✷✳ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✹✼
❆ #❡❣✉✐(✱ ❞❛(❡♠♦# ❛ ♣(♦✈❛ ❞❛ ✉♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ❢♦(♠❛ ❡#❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛

♠❛4(✐③✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✹✳ ✭❯♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ❢♦#♠❛ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✮ ❊①✐#$❡ ✉♠❛ )♥✐❝❛

♠❛$,✐③ ♥❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ❡#❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❡2✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡ ♣♦, ❧✐♥❤❛# ❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♠❛$,✐③✳
❉❡♠♦♥04#❛56♦ ❇❛#4❛ ♠♦#4(❛( 8✉❡ ❞❛❞❛# ❞✉❛# ♠❛4(✐③❡# A ❡ B ♥❛ ❢♦(♠❛
❡#❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❡ ❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥4❡# ♣♦( ❧✐♥❤❛#✱ ❡♥4:♦ A = B ✭❥✉#4✐✜8✉❡✮✳ ❖ (❡#✉❧4❛❞♦
#❡(@ ♣(♦✈❛❞♦ ♣♦( ✐♥❞✉A:♦ #♦❜(❡ ♦ ♥C♠❡(♦ n ❞❡ ❝♦❧✉♥❛# ❞❛ ♠❛4(✐③✳ D❛(❛ n = 1✱
❛# C♥✐❝❛# ♠❛4(✐③❡# ♥❛ ❢♦(♠❛ ❡#❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ #:♦
   
0 1
0 0
   
✳ ❡ ✳ .
✳ ✳
✳ ✳
0 0
❈♦♠♦ 8✉❛❧8✉❡( 4(❛♥#❢♦(♠❛A:♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ F# ❧✐♥❤❛# ❞❛ ♣(✐♠❡✐(❛ ♠❛4(✐③ ♥:♦ ❛

❛❧4❡(❛✱ ❛# ❞✉❛# ♠❛4(✐③❡# ❛❝✐♠❛ ♥:♦ #:♦ ❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥4❡#✱ ❞❛G ❞❡❝♦((❡ ❛ ✉♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡✱
♥❡##❡ ❝❛#♦✳
❆❞♠✐4❛♠♦# ♦ (❡#✉❧4❛❞♦ ✈❡(❞❛❞❡✐(♦ ♣❛(❛ ♠❛4(✐③❡# ❝♦♠ n − 1 ❝♦❧✉♥❛#✱ ♦♥❞❡
n ≥ 2✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ❞✉❛# ♠❛4(✐③❡# m × n✱ ❛♠❜❛# ♥❛ ❢♦(♠❛ ❡#❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❡
❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥4❡#✳ ❊#❝(❡✈❛♠♦# A = [A′ | A′′ ] ❡ B = [B ′ | B ′′ ]✱ ♦♥❞❡ A′ ❡ B ′ #:♦ ♦#
❜❧♦❝♦# ❢♦(♠❛❞♦# ❝♦♠ ❛# n − 1 ❝♦❧✉♥❛# ❞❡ A ❡ ❞❡ B ✱ ❡ A′′ ❡ B ′′ #:♦ ❛# C❧4✐♠❛#
❝♦❧✉♥❛# ❞❡ A ❡ ❞❡ B ✱ (❡#♣❡❝4✐✈❛♠❡♥4❡✳ ➱ ✐♠❡❞✐❛4♦ ✈❡(✐✜❝❛( ♣❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐A:♦
8✉❡ A′ ❡ B ′ ❡#4:♦ ♥❛ ❢♦(♠❛ ❡#❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛❀ ❡ 8✉❡ A′ L ❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥4❡ ❛ B ′ ✱ ♣♦✐# ❛#
♠❡#♠❛# ♦♣❡(❛AM❡# ❡❧❡♠❡♥4❛(❡# 8✉❡ 4(❛♥#❢♦(♠❛♠ A ❡♠ B ✱ 4(❛♥#❢♦(♠❛♠ A′
❡♠ B ′ ✳ D♦(4❛♥4♦✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❤✐♣N4❡#❡ ❞❡ ✐♥❞✉A:♦✱ 4❡♠♦# 8✉❡ A′ = B ′ ✳ ❊#4❛♠♦#
❡♥4:♦ (❡❞✉③✐❞♦# ❛ ❞✉❛# ♠❛4(✐③❡# A = [A′ | A′′ ] ❡ B = [A′ | B ′′ ] ♥❛ ❢♦(♠❛
❡#❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❡ ❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥4❡#✳ ❱❛♠♦# ❞❡#❞♦❜(❛( ❛ ♥♦##❛ ❛♥@❧✐#❡ ❡♠ ❞♦✐# ❝❛#♦#✳
❈❛#♦ ✶✮ ❆ ♠❛4(✐③ A L 4❛❧ 8✉❡ kp = n✳ ❆##✐♠✱ ❛ ♠❛4(✐③ A′ 4❡♠ ❛# ♣(✐♠❡✐(❛#
p − 1 ❧✐♥❤❛# ♥:♦ ♥✉❧❛# ❡ ❛ p✲L#✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛ ❡ ❛# ❡♥4(❛❞❛# ai ❞❡ A′′ #:♦
4❛✐# 8✉❡ ai = 0✱ #❡ i 6= p ❡ ap = 1✳ D❡❧♦ ▲❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✸✱ ♦ #✐#4❡♠❛ A′ X = A′′
♥:♦ 4❡♠ #♦❧✉A:♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛# ♠❛4(✐③❡# A = [A′ | A′′ ] ❡ B = [A′ | B ′′ ] #:♦
❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥4❡#✱ ♣❡❧❛ D(♦♣♦#✐A:♦ ✷✳✷✳✷✱ ♦# #✐#4❡♠❛# A′ X = A′′ ❡ A′ X = B ′′
✹✽❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
"#♦ %❛♠❜)♠ ❡+✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡"✱ ♦ +✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ +✉❡ ♦ "❡❣✉♥❞♦ "✐"%❡♠❛ %❛♠❜)♠ ♥#♦
❛❞♠✐%❡ "♦❧✉6#♦✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ♥♦✈❛♠❡♥%❡ ♦ ▲❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✸ ❛♦ "✐"%❡♠❛ A′ X = B ′′ ✱
%❡♠♦" +✉❡ bp = 1 ❡ bi = 0✱ "❡ i 6= p✱ ♦ +✉❡ ♥♦" ❞✐③ +✉❡ A′′ = B ′′ ✳
❈❛"♦ ✷✮ ❆ ♠❛%?✐③ A ) %❛❧ +✉❡ kp 6= n✳ @❡❧♦ ▲❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✸ %❡♠✲"❡ +✉❡ ♦ "✐"%❡♠❛
A′ X = A′′ %❡♠ ✉♠❛ "♦❧✉6#♦ X0 ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♦" "✐"%❡♠❛" "#♦ ❡+✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡"✱ %❡♠♦"
+✉❡ X0 ) "♦❧✉6#♦ ❞♦ "✐"%❡♠❛ A′ X = B ′′ ✱ ❧♦❣♦ A′′ = A′ X0 = B ′′ ✳
❆ ❞❡♠♦♥"%?❛6#♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦?❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✹✱ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ❢♦✐ ✐♥"♣✐?❛❞❛ ❡♠ ❬✶❪✱ ♦ +✉❛❧
?❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛♠♦" ♣❛?❛ ❡"%✉❞♦" ♠❛✐" ❛✈❛♥6❛❞♦" ❞❡ ➪❧❣❡❜?❛ ▲✐♥❡❛?✳
❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛%?✐③ ❞❡ ♦?❞❡♠ m × n✳ @❡❧♦ ❚❡♦?❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✹✱ A ) ❡+✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡

❛ ✉♠❛ J♥✐❝❛ ♠❛%?✐③ Ã✱ ❞❡ ♦?❞❡♠ m×n✱ ♥❛ ❢♦?♠❛ ❡"❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦" +✉❡ Ã
) ❛ ❢♦#♠❛ ❡&❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ A✳ @♦?%❛♥%♦✱ ❢❛③ "❡♥%✐❞♦ ❞❡✜♥✐? ♦ ♣♦&,♦ p ❞❛ ♠❛%?✐③
A ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ♥J♠❡?♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛" ♥#♦ ♥✉❧❛" ❞❡ "✉❛ ❢♦?♠❛ ❡"❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ Ã✳
@♦? ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ "❡  
1 2 1 0
A = −1 0 3 5 ,
 
1 −2 1 1
"✉❛ ❢♦?♠❛ ❡"❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ) ❛ ♠❛%?✐③
 
1 0 0 −7/8
Ã = 0 1 0 −1/4 .
 
0 0 1 11/8
@♦?%❛♥%♦✱ ♦ ♣♦"%♦ p ❞❡ A ) ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✸✱ ♣♦✐" ♦ ♥J♠❡?♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛" ♥#♦ ♥✉❧❛" ❞❡

Ã ) ✸✳
@❛?❛ ♠❛%?✐③❡" +✉❛❞?❛❞❛" %❡♠♦" ♦ "❡❣✉✐♥%❡ ?❡"✉❧%❛❞♦✿
❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✷✳✷✳✺✳ ❯♠❛ ♠❛,#✐③ 0✉❛❞#❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦#❞❡♠ n 2 ✐♥✈❡#,4✈❡❧ &❡✱ ❡ &♦✲

♠❡♥,❡ &❡✱ ❡❧❛ ,❡♠ ♣♦&,♦ n✳
❉❡♠♦♥-."❛01♦ ❙❡ ❛ ♠❛%?✐③ ) ✐♥✈❡?%P✈❡❧✱ ❡♥%#♦ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦?❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✻✱ "✉❛
❢♦?♠❛ ❡"❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ) In ✱ ❧♦❣♦ %❡♠ ♣♦"%♦ n✳
❘❡❝✐♣?♦❝❛♠❡♥%❡✱ "❡❥❛ ❞❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%?✐③ +✉❛❞?❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦?❞❡♠ n ❡ "❡❥❛ Ã "✉❛
❢♦?♠❛ ❡"❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ❙❡ A %❡♠ ♣♦"%♦ n✱ ❡♥%#♦ Ã ♥#♦ %❡♠ ❧✐♥❤❛" ♥✉❧❛"✱ ❧♦❣♦✱
✷✳ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✹✾
♣❡❧♦ &'♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✼✱ Ã = In ✳ &❡❧♦ ❈♦'♦❧0'✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✹✱ 3❡♠♦4 5✉❡
A = Es . . . E1 Ã = Es . . . E1 ,
♦♥❞❡ E1 , . . . , Es 49♦ ♠❛3'✐③❡4 ❡❧❡♠❡♥3❛'❡4✱ ❧♦❣♦ ✐♥✈❡'3=✈❡✐4 ✭❝❢✳ ❈♦'♦❧0'✐♦

✷✳✶✳✺✮✳ ❉❛= ❞❡❝♦''❡ 5✉❡ A D ✐♥✈❡'3=✈❡❧ ♣♦' 4❡' ♣'♦❞✉3♦ ❞❡ ♠❛3'✐③❡4 ✐♥✈❡'✲
3=✈❡✐4 ✭❝❢✳ &'♦♣♦4✐F9♦ ✶✳✷✳✹✭✐✐✮✮✳
❖❜4❡'✈❡ 5✉❡ ♦ ▲❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✸ ♣♦❞❡ 4❡' '❡✐♥3❡'♣'❡3❛❞♦ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♥♦F9♦ ❞❡ ♣♦43♦
❞♦ 4❡❣✉✐♥3❡ ♠♦❞♦✿
❯♠ "✐"$❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡(✉❛*+❡" ❧✐♥❡❛.❡" AX = B ❛❞♠✐$❡ "♦❧✉*0♦ "❡✱ ❡ "♦♠❡♥$❡
"❡✱ ♦ ♣♦"$♦ ❞❛ ♠❛$.✐③ ❛✉♠❡♥$❛❞❛ [A | B] ❞♦ "✐"$❡♠❛ $✐✈❡. ♣♦"$♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛♦ ❞❛
♠❛$.✐③ A ❞♦ "✐"$❡♠❛✳
❉❡ ❢❛3♦✱ ♦ 5✉❡ ♠♦43'❛♠♦4 ❢♦✐ 5✉❡ ♦ 4✐43❡♠❛ ♣♦44✉✐ 4♦❧✉F9♦ 4❡✱ ❡ 4♦♠❡♥3❡ 4❡✱
❛ K❧3✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥9♦ ♥✉❧❛ ❞❛ ❢♦'♠❛ ❡4❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❛ ♠❛3'✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞♦ 4✐43❡♠❛
♥9♦ ❢♦' ❞❛ ❢♦'♠❛ (0 0 . . . 0 1)✳
■43♦ D ♣❛'3❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘♦✉❝❤D✲❈❛♣❡❧❧✐✱ '❡4✉❧3❛❞♦ ❝❡♥3'❛❧ ❞❡43❡ ❝❛♣=✲
3✉❧♦ ❡ 5✉❡ ❛♣'❡4❡♥3❛♠♦4 ♥❛ =♥3❡❣'❛ ❛ 4❡❣✉✐'✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳✻✳ ✭❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ❞♦ +♦,-♦✮ ❈♦♥"✐❞❡.❡♠♦" ✉♠ "✐"$❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛.

❝♦♠ m ❡(✉❛*+❡" ❡ n ✐♥❝9❣♥✐$❛" AX = B ✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ pAB ♦ ♣♦"$♦ ❞❛ ♠❛$.✐③
❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞♦ "✐"$❡♠❛ ❡ pA ♦ ♣♦"$♦ ❞❛ ♠❛$.✐③ ❞♦" ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥$❡" ❞♦ "✐"$❡♠❛✳
❊♥$0♦
✭✐✮ ❖ "✐"$❡♠❛ ? ♣♦""@✈❡❧ "❡✱ ❡ "♦♠❡♥$❡ "❡✱ pAB = pA✳
✭✐✐✮ ❖ "✐"$❡♠❛ ? ♣♦""@✈❡❧ ❡ ❞❡$❡.♠✐♥❛❞♦ "❡ pAB = pA = n✳
✭✐✐✐✮ ❖ "✐"$❡♠❛ ? ♣♦""@✈❡❧ ❡ ✐♥❞❡$❡.♠✐♥❛❞♦ "❡ pAB = pA < n✳ ◆❡"$❡ ❝❛"♦✱
n − pA ? ♦ ♥B♠❡.♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝P❣♥✐3❛4 ❧✐✈'❡4 ❞♦ "✐"$❡♠❛✱ ♦✉ "❡❥❛✱ ✐♥❝9❣♥✐$❛"
(✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠ ❛""✉♠✐. (✉❛❧(✉❡. ✈❛❧♦. .❡❛❧✳
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛12♦ ❙❡❥❛ AX = B ✉♠ 4✐43❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❝♦♠ n ✐♥❝P❣♥✐3❛4✳ ❙❡❥❛
C = [A | B] ❛ ♠❛3'✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞♦ 4✐43❡♠❛ ❡ 4❡❥❛ C̃ = [Ã | B̃] ❛ ❢♦'♠❛
❡4❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ C ✳ ❉❡♥♦3❛'❡♠♦4 Ã = [ãij ] ❡ B̃ = [b̃i ]✳
✺✵❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
❈❧❛%❛♠❡♥)❡ Ã * ❛ ❢♦%♠❛ ❡-❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ A ❡ ❝♦♠♦ Ã * ✉♠ ❜❧♦❝♦ ❞❡ C̃ ✱
)❡♠♦- 3✉❡
pA = pÃ < pC̃ = pAB ♦✉ pA = pÃ = pC̃ = pAB .
❱❛♠♦- ❝♦♥-✐❞❡%❛% ♦- ❞♦✐- ❝❛-♦- ❛♥)❡%✐♦%❡- -❡♣❛%❛❞❛♠❡♥)❡✳
❈❛"♦ ✶✳ ❙❡ pA < pAB ✱ ❡♥)9♦ C̃ )❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞♦ )✐♣♦
(0 · · · 0 0 1).
;♦%)❛♥)♦✱ ♦ -✐-)❡♠❛ ÃX = B̃ * ✐♠♣♦--<✈❡❧ ❡✱ ❡♥)9♦✱ ♣❡❧❛ ;%♦♣♦-✐>9♦ ✷✳✷✳✷✱

AX = B * ✐♠♣♦--<✈❡❧✳
❈❛"♦ ✷✳ ❙❡ pA = pAB ✱ ❡♥)9♦ C̃ ❡ Ã )@♠ ♦ ♠❡-♠♦ ♥A♠❡%♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛- ♥9♦

♥✉❧❛-✳
❉✐✈✐❞✐%❡♠♦- ❡-)❡ ❝❛-♦ ❡♠ ❞♦✐- -✉❜❝❛-♦-✳
❙✉❜❝❛"♦ ✷✳✶✳ pAB = pA = n.
❙❡♥❞♦ Ã ✉♠❛ ♠❛)%✐③ ❝♦♠ n ❝♦❧✉♥❛-✱ ❝♦♠ pÃ = pA = n✱ ❡ ❡-)❛♥❞♦ Ã ♥❛
❢♦%♠❛ ❡-❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ❡❧❛ * ✉♠❛ ♠❛)%✐③ ❡♠ ❜❧♦❝♦- ❞❛ ❢♦%♠❛
" #
In
Ã = .
0
❈♦♠♦ pA = pAB = n✱ -❡❣✉❡ 3✉❡ B̃ * )❛❧ 3✉❡ bn+1 = · · · = bm = 0✳

;♦%)❛♥)♦✱ ÃX = B̃ * ♣♦--<✈❡❧ ❡ ❞❡)❡%♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♠ ❛ A♥✐❝❛ -♦❧✉>9♦ x1 =
b̃1 , . . . , xn = b̃n ✳ ❈♦♥-❡3✉❡♥)❡♠❡♥)❡✱ AX = B )❛♠❜*♠ * ❞❡)❡%♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♠
♠❡-♠❛ -♦❧✉>9♦✳
❙✉❜❝❛"♦ ✷✳✷✳ pA = pAB < n✳

;♦♥❤❛♠♦- p = pA = pAB ✳ ◆❡-)❡ ❝❛-♦✱ Ã ✭❛--✐♠ ❝♦♠♦ C̃ ✮ )❡♠ p ❧✐♥❤❛-
♥9♦ ♥✉❧❛- L1 , . . . , Lp ✱ )❛✐- 3✉❡ ♦ ♣%✐♠❡✐%♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥)♦ ♥9♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ Li ❡-)H ♥❛
❝♦❧✉♥❛ ki ❡ k1 < · · · < kp ✳ ❆❧*♠ ❞✐--♦✱ )❡♠♦- b̃p+1 = · · · = b̃m = 0✳
✷✳ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✺✶
❚❡♠♦& ❡♥()♦ *✉❡ ❛ ❡*✉❛-)♦ ÃX = B̃ &❡ ❡&❝/❡✈❡ ❝♦♠♦

   
xk1 + ã1k1 +1 xk1 +1 + · · · + ã1n xn b̃1
   
xk2 + ã2k2 +1 xk2 +1 + · · · + ã2n xn  b̃2 
✳✳   ✳✳ 
   
✳  ✳


   
xk + ãpk +1 xk +1 + · · · + ãpn xn  = b̃p  .
 p p p   
0  0
   


 ✳
✳✳
 ✳
  ✳✳ 
   
0 0
❆ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ♠❛(/✐❝✐❛❧ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ❥✉♥(❛♠❡♥(❡ ❝♦♠ ♦ ❢❛(♦ ❞❛ ♠❛(/✐③ Ã ❡&(❛/ ♥❛

❢♦/♠❛ ❡&❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✱ ♥♦& ❢♦/♥❡❝❡ ♦ &✐&(❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡*✉❛-;❡&
♦♥❞❡ ã1ki = 0, &❡ i > 1,

P
x k1 = − j>k1 ã1j xj + b̃1 ,
♦♥❞❡ ã2ki = 0, &❡ i > 2,
P
x k2 = − j>k2 ã2j xj + b̃2 ,
...
xkp−1 = − j>kp−1 ãp−1,j xj + b̃p−1 , ♦♥❞❡ ãp−1,ki = 0, &❡ i = kp ,
P
P
x kp = − j>kp ãpj xj + b̃p .
■&(♦ ♠♦&(/❛ *✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦& ❡&❝♦❧❤❡/ ❛/❜✐(/❛/✐❛♠❡♥(❡ ✈❛❧♦/❡& ♣❛/❛ ❛& ✐♥❝@✲
❣♥✐(❛& ♥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦
{x1 , . . . , xn } \ {xk1 , . . . , xkp } ✭✺✮
❡ ❝♦♠ ❡&&❡& ❞❡(❡/♠✐♥❛/ ✈❛❧♦/❡& ♣❛/❛ xk1 , . . . , xkp ✳
❈♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦ ❡♠ ✭✺✮ (❡♠ n − p ❡❧❡♠❡♥(♦&✱ ♦ &✐&(❡♠❛ ÃX = B̃ (❡♠
n − p ✐♥❝@❣♥✐(❛& ❧✐✈/❡& ❡✱ ❝♦♥&❡*✉❡♥(❡♠❡♥(❡✱ ♦ ♠❡&♠♦ ♦❝♦//❡ ♣❛/❛ ♦ &✐&(❡♠❛
AX = B ✳
E❛/(✐❝✉❧❛/✐③❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❚❡♦/❡♠❛ ❞♦ E♦&(♦ ♣❛/❛ ♦& &✐&(❡♠❛& ❤♦♠♦❣F♥❡♦&✱ ♦❜✲
(❡♠♦& ♦ ❝♦/♦❧G/✐♦ ❛ &❡❣✉✐/✳
❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✷✳✷✳✼✳ ❙❡❥❛ ❞❛❞♦ ✉♠ (✐(*❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❤♦♠♦❣0♥❡♦ ❝♦♠ m ❡2✉❛34❡(
❡ n ✐♥❝5❣♥✐*❛( AX = 0✳
✭✐✮ ❙❡ A *❡♠ ♣♦(*♦ n✱ ❡♥*9♦ ♦ (✐(*❡♠❛ ♣♦((✉✐ ❛♣❡♥❛( ❛ (♦❧✉39♦ ♥✉❧❛✳ ❊♠

♣❛-*✐❝✉❧❛-✱ ✐(*♦ ♦❝♦--❡ 2✉❛♥❞♦ m = n ❡ A ; ✐♥✈❡-*=✈❡❧✳
✺✷❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
✭✐✐✮ ❙❡ A "❡♠ ♣♦&"♦ p < n✱ ❡♥")♦ ♦ &✐&"❡♠❛ ♣♦&&✉✐ ✐♥✜♥✐"❛& &♦❧✉/0❡&✳ ❊♠
♣❛3"✐❝✉❧❛3✱ ✐&"♦ &❡♠♣3❡ ♦❝♦33❡ 5✉❛♥❞♦ m < n✳
❆ &❡❣✉✐*✱ ❞❛*❡♠♦& ✉♠ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛45♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ❞♦ 7♦&8♦✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ ❈♦♠ ♦ ❛✉①;❧✐♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ❞♦ 7♦&8♦✱ *❡&♦❧✈❛♠♦& ♦ &✐&8❡♠❛

❧✐♥❡❛* 
x + 2y − 2z + 3w = 2



2x + 4y − 3z + 4w = 5


5x + 10y − 8z + 11w = 12 .

❖*❛✱
   
1 2 −2 3 | 2 −→ 1 2 −2 3 | 2
2 4 −3 4 | 5L2 → L2 − 2L1 0 0 1 −2 | 1
   
5 10 −8 11 | 12 L3 → L3 − 5L1 0 0 2 −4 | 2
 
−→ 1 2 0 −1 | 4
L1 → L1 + 2L2 0 0 1 −2 | 1 .
 
L3 → L3 − 2L2 0 0 0 0 | 0
❈♦♠♦ pAB = pA = 2 < 4 = n✱ ♦♥❞❡ n ? ♦ ♥@♠❡*♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝A❣♥✐8❛& ❞♦ &✐&8❡♠❛✱

♦ &✐&8❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛* ? ♣♦&&;✈❡❧ ❡ ✐♥❞❡8❡*♠✐♥❛❞♦✳ ❊①✐&8❡♠ ❡♥85♦ ❞✉❛& ✐♥❝A❣♥✐8❛&
❧✐✈*❡&✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦& y ❡ w✱ C& D✉❛✐& ♣♦❞❡♠♦& ❛8*✐❜✉✐* D✉❛✐&D✉❡* ✈❛❧♦*❡& *❡❛✐& a ❡
b✱ *❡&♣❡❝8✐✈❛♠❡♥8❡✳ ❆&&✐♠✱ 8❡♠♦& y = a ❡ w = b✳ ❙✉❜&8✐8✉✐♥❞♦ w = b ♥❛
&❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡D✉❛45♦ ♦❜8❡♠♦& z = 1 + 2b✳ 7♦♥❞♦ y = a✱ z = 1 + 2b ❡ w = b
♥❛ ♣*✐♠❡✐*❛ ❡D✉❛45♦✱ &❡❣✉❡✲&❡ D✉❡ x = 4 − 2a + b✳ 7♦*8❛♥8♦✱ ❛& &♦❧✉4H❡& ❞♦
&✐&8❡♠❛ &5♦ ♦& ❡❧❡♠❡♥8♦& ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥8♦
{(4 − 2a + b, a, 1 + 2b, b) ; a, b ∈ R}.
❖❜&❡*✈❛♠♦& D✉❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ❞♦ 7♦&8♦✱ ♦ ♥7♠❡3♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝A❣♥✐8❛& ❧✐✈*❡&

❡&8J ❜❡♠ ❞❡8❡*♠✐♥❛❞♦✳ 7♦*?♠✱ ❛& ✐♥❝A❣♥✐8❛& ❧✐✈*❡& ♣♦❞❡♠ &❡* ❡&❝♦❧❤✐❞❛& ❝♦♠
❛❧❣✉♠❛ ❧✐❜❡*❞❛❞❡✳ ◆♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥8❡*✐♦*✱ ❡&❝♦❧❤❡♠♦& y ❡ w ❝♦♠♦ ✐♥❝A❣♥✐8❛&
❧✐✈*❡&✱ ♠❛&✱ ♣♦❞❡*;❛♠♦& 8❡* ❡&❝♦❧❤✐❞♦ x ❡ t ❝♦♠♦ ✐♥❝A❣♥✐8❛& ❧✐✈*❡&✳
✷✳ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✺✸
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✷✳✶✯ ❘❡$♦❧✈❛ ♦ $✐$*❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❤♦♠♦❣0♥❡♦



 y + 3z − 2t = 0

2x + y − 4z + 3t = 0



 2x + 3y + 2z − t = 0


−4x − 3y + 5z − 4t = 0 .

✷✳✷✯ ◗✉❡ ❝♦♥❞✐56❡$ ❞❡✈❡♠ $❡- ✐♠♣♦$*❛$ ❛ m, n ❡ p ♣❛-❛ 8✉❡ ♦ $✐$*❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛-

x + 2y − 3z = m



2x + 6y − 11z = n


x − 2y + 7z = p

*❡♥❤❛ $♦❧✉59♦❄
✷✳✸ ❉❡*❡-♠✐♥❡ X *❛❧ 8✉❡ AX − B = C ✱ ♦♥❞❡
" # " # " #
1 3 2 2 −1 8 4 3
A= , B= ❡ C= .
1 4 3 0 1 10 8 2
✷✳✹ ❘❡$♦❧✈❛ ♦ $✐$*❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛-

   
1 2 1   2
3 x
1 −2   1
 
 y  =   .
 

4 −3 −1 3
z
2 4 2 4
✷✳✺ ❉❛❞❛$ ❛$ ♠❛*-✐③❡$

     
1 2 1 0 2 1
A = −1 0 3 5 , B1 =  1  ❡ B 2 = 2 ,
     
1 −2 1 1 0 1
-❡$♦❧✈❛✿
✺✹❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
✭❛✮ ♦& &✐&(❡♠❛& AX = B1 ❡ AX = B2 ❀
✭❜✮ ♦ &✐&(❡♠❛ AX = 3B1 −B2 ✱ ✉(✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ &♦❧✉34❡& ♣❛6(✐❝✉❧❛6❡& ❥9 ❡♥❝♦♥(6❛❞❛&
♥♦ ✐(❡♠ ✭❛✮✳
✷✳✻ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(6✐③ A ❞❡ ♦6❞❡♠ m × n✱ 6❛❝✐♦❝✐♥❡ ❝♦♠ ❛ ❢♦6♠❛ ❡&❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛
♣❛6❛ ♠♦&(6❛6 =✉❡✿
✭❛✮ ❛ ❡=✉❛3?♦ AC = I ♣♦❞❡ &❡6 6❡&♦❧✈✐❞❛ ⇔ ♦ &✐&(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛6 AX = B (❡♠
&♦❧✉3?♦ ♣❛6❛ =✉❛❧=✉❡6 B ⇔ ♣♦&(♦ ❞❡ A A m❀
✭❜✮ ❛ ❡=✉❛3?♦ CA = I ♣♦❞❡ &❡6 6❡&♦❧✈✐❞❛ ⇔ ♦ &✐&(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛6 AX = 0 (❡♠
&♦❧✉3?♦ B♥✐❝❛ ⇔ ♣♦&(♦ ❞❡ A A n✳
✷✳✼ ◆❛ ♠❛(6✐③ A ❞❡ ♦6❞❡♠ 5 × 5 (❡♠♦& ❛ &❡❣✉✐♥(❡ 6❡❧❛3?♦ ❡♥(6❡ ❛& ❧✐♥❤❛&✿
L1 + L2 − 2L4 + 3L5 = 0.
❊♥❝♦♥(6❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(6✐③ C ✱ ❞❡ ♣♦&(♦ ✸✱ (❛❧ =✉❡ CA (❡♥❤❛ ❧✐♥❤❛& L1 ✱ L4 ✱ 0✳

✷✳✽ ❈♦♠♦ ❞❡✈❡♠ &❡6 ❡&❝♦❧❤✐❞♦& ♦& ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥(❡& a, b ❡ c ♣❛6❛ =✉❡ ♦ &✐&(❡♠❛

ax + by − 3z = −3



−2x − by + cz = −1


ax + 3y − cz = −3

(❡♥❤❛ ❛ &♦❧✉3?♦ x = 1✱ y = −1 ❡ z = 2❄
✷✳✾ ❉❡(❡6♠✐♥❡ ♦& ✈❛❧♦6❡& ❞❡ k ∈ R ♣❛6❛ =✉❡ ♦& &✐&(❡♠❛& ❛❜❛✐①♦
  
x + y + kz = 2 kx + y + z = 1 x + kz = 0

 
 

  
(a) 3x + 4y + 2z = k , (b) x + ky + z = 1 , (c) y = 0

 
 

2x + 3y − z = 1
 x + y + kz = 1
 kx + z = 0

(❡♥❤❛♠✿
✭✐✮ &♦❧✉3?♦ B♥✐❝❛❀
✭✐✐✮ ♥❡♥❤✉♠❛ &♦❧✉3?♦❀
✭✐✐✐✮ ♠❛✐& ❞❡ ✉♠❛ &♦❧✉3?♦✳
❉❡(❡6♠✐♥❡ ❛ &♦❧✉3?♦ ❞♦ &✐&(❡♠❛ =✉❛♥❞♦ ❡&(❛ ❡①✐&(✐6✳
✷✳ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✺✺
✷✳✶✵ ◗✉❡ ❝♦♥❞✐)*❡+ ❞❡✈❡♠ +❡. ✐♠♣♦+0❛+ ❛ a, b ❡ c ♣❛.❛ 2✉❡ ♦ +✐+0❡♠❛ ❛❜❛✐①♦
♥❛+ ✐♥❝5❣♥✐0❛+ x, y ❡ z 0❡♥❤❛ +♦❧✉)9♦❄

x + 2y − 3z = a



2x + 6y − 11z = b


x − 2y + 7z = c .

✷✳✶✶ ❉❡0❡.♠✐♥❡ ♦+ ✈❛❧♦.❡+ ❞❡ a✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ 2✉❡ ♦ +❡❣✉✐♥0❡ +✐+0❡♠❛ ♥❛+ ✐♥❝5❣♥✐✲

0❛+ x, y ❡ z 0❡♥❤❛✿ ✭❛✮ ♥❡♥❤✉♠❛ +♦❧✉)9♦✱ ✭❜✮ ♠❛✐+ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ +♦❧✉)9♦✱ ✭❝✮ ✉♠❛
A♥✐❝❛ +♦❧✉)9♦✿ 
x + y − z = 1



2x + 3y + az = 3


x + ay + 3z = 2 .

✷✳✶✷ ❈♦♥+✐❞❡.❡ ♦ +✐+0❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛. 2 × 2 ♥❛+ ✐♥❝5❣♥✐0❛+ x ❡ y ✿


ax + by = e
cx + dy = f.
▼♦+0.❡ 2✉❡✿
a b
✭❛✮ +❡ 6= ✱ ✐+0♦ D✱ +❡ ad − bc 6= 0✱ ❡♥09♦ ♦ +✐+0❡♠❛ 0❡♠ +♦❧✉)9♦ A♥✐❝❛
c d
de − bf af − ce
x= ❡ y= ;
ad − bc ad − bc
a b e
✭❜✮ +❡ = 6= ✱ ❡♥09♦ ♦ +✐+0❡♠❛ ♥9♦ 0❡♠ +♦❧✉)9♦❀
c d f
a b e
✭❝✮ +❡ = = ✱ ❡♥09♦ ♦ +✐+0❡♠❛ 0❡♠ ♠❛✐+ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ +♦❧✉)9♦✳
c d f
✷✳✶✸ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛ '✉❡✱ ♥✉♠ +✐+-❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❤♦♠♦❣1♥❡♦✱ ♦+ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥-❡+ ❞❡ ✉♠❛
❞❛+ ✐♥❝5❣♥✐-❛+ +6♦ -♦❞♦+ ✐❣✉❛✐+ ❛ ③❡/♦✳ ▼♦+-/❡ '✉❡ ♦ +✐+-❡♠❛ -❡♠ +♦❧✉:6♦ ♥6♦
♥✉❧❛✳
✺✻❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙❖▲❯➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙
✷✳✶✹ ❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛()✐③ ,✉❛❞)❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦)❞❡♠ n✳ 0)♦✈❡ ,✉❡ ❛2 2❡❣✉✐♥(❡2
❛✜)♠❛67❡2 28♦ ❡,✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡2✿
✭❛✮ A = ✐♥✈❡)(>✈❡❧❀
✭❜✮ ❖ 2✐2(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❤♦♠♦❣C♥❡♦ AX = 0 2D ❛❞♠✐(❡ ❛ 2♦❧✉68♦ ()✐✈✐❛❧❀
✭❝✮ 0❛)❛ (♦❞❛ ♠❛()✐③ B ❞❡ ♦)❞❡♠ n × 1✱ ♦ 2✐2(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛) AX = B = ♣♦22>✈❡❧
❡ ❞❡(❡)♠✐♥❛❞♦✳
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✸
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✸✿ ❊+♣❛,♦+ ❱❡$♦/✐❛✐+
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ ❙✉❜❡%♣❛(♦% ❱❡+♦,✐❛✐% ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✽
✶✳✶ ❈❛$❛❝&❡$✐③❛*+♦ ❞♦. ❙✉❜❡.♣❛*♦. ❱❡&♦$✐❛✐. ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✽
✶✳✷ ❖♣❡$❛*8❡. ❝♦♠ ❙✉❜❡.♣❛*♦. ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✶
✶✳✸ ❙✉❜❡.♣❛*♦. ●❡$❛❞♦. ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✸
✷ ❉❡♣❡♥❞5♥❝✐❛ ❡ ■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞5♥❝✐❛ ▲✐♥❡❛, ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✾
✸ ❇❛%❡% ❡ ❉✐♠❡♥%>♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✺
✸✳✶ ❇❛.❡. ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✺
✸✳✷ ❉✐♠❡♥.+♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✷
✹ ❊%♣❛(♦ ▲✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ▼❛+,✐③ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✻
✺✼
✺✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
◆❡$%❡ ❝❛♣)%✉❧♦✱ ❞❡$❡♥✈♦❧✈❡1❡♠♦$ ♦ ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦ ❞❡ ❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧ 5✉❡ ✐♥%1♦✲
❞✉③✐♠♦$ ♥♦ ❈❛♣)%✉❧♦ ✶✳ ■♥%✐♠❛♠❡♥%❡ ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞❛$ < ♥♦4=♦ ❞❡ ❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧
❡$%=♦ ❛$ ♥♦4>❡$ ❞❡ $✉❜❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧✱ ❞❡ ❜❛$❡ ❡ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥$=♦✱ ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦$ ❡$$❡$
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥%❛✐$ 5✉❡ ✐♥%1♦❞✉③✐1❡♠♦$ ♥❡$%❡ ❝❛♣)%✉❧♦ ❡ 5✉❡ ♥♦$ ♣❡1♠✐%✐1=♦ ❡♥%❡♥✲
❞❡1 ♠❡❧❤♦1 ❛ ❡$%1✉%✉%❛ ❞❡$$❡$ ❡$♣❛4♦$✳ ❆ ❡$%1✉%✉1❛ ❞❡ ❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧ ❡$%C
♣1❡$❡♥%❡ ❡♠ ❡$♣❛4♦$ ✐♠♣♦1%❛♥%❡$ ❞❛ ❆♥C❧✐$❡ ▼❛%❡♠C%✐❝❛ ❡ ❞❛ ●❡♦♠❡%1✐❛ ❉✐✲
❢❡1❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦$ ❡$♣❛4♦$ ❞❡ ❇❛♥❛❝❤ ❡ ♦$ ❡$♣❛4♦$ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡1%✱ 5✉❡ ♣♦$$✉❡♠
♠✉✐%❛$ ❛♣❧✐❝❛4>❡$ ♥❛ ❋)$✐❝❛ ♠♦❞❡1♥❛✱ ❡♥%1❡ ♦✉%1♦$✳
◆❡$%❡ %❡①%♦ ❡♥❢❛%✐③❛1❡♠♦$ ♦$ ❡$♣❛4♦$ ✈❡%♦1✐❛✐$ $♦❜1❡ ♦ ❝♦1♣♦ R ❞♦$ ♥K✲
♠❡1♦$ 1❡❛✐$✳ ❆♣❡$❛1 ❞♦ ❢❛%♦ ❞❡ ♠✉✐%♦$ ❞♦$ 1❡$✉❧%❛❞♦$ 5✉❡ ♦❜%❡1❡♠♦$ $❡1❡♠
✈C❧✐❞♦$ ♥♦ ❝♦♥%❡①%♦ ♠❛✐$ ❣❡1❛❧ ❞♦$ ❡$♣❛4♦$ ✈❡%♦1✐❛✐$ $♦❜1❡ ❝♦1♣♦$ ❛❜✐%1C1✐♦$✱
♥♦$ 1❡$%1✐♥❣✐1❡♠♦$ ❛♦$ ❡$♣❛4♦$ ✈❡%♦1✐❛✐$ 1❡❛✐$✳
✶ ❙✉❜❡%♣❛(♦% ❱❡+♦,✐❛✐%
◆❛ ❙✉❜$❡4=♦ ✶✳✸ ❞♦ ❈❛♣)%✉❧♦ ✶✱ ✈✐♠♦$ 5✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ $♦❧✉4=♦ Sh ❞❡
✉♠ $✐$%❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡5✉❛4>❡$ ❧✐♥❡❛1❡$ ❤♦♠♦❣P♥❡♦ ❝♦♠ n ✐♥❝Q❣♥✐%❛$ ❢♦1♠❛ ✉♠
❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧ ❝♦♥%✐❞♦ ♥♦ ❡$♣❛4♦ Rn ✳ ❊$%❛ S ✉♠❛ $✐%✉❛4=♦ %)♣✐❝❛ ❞❛ ♥♦4=♦
❞❡ $✉❜❡$♣❛4♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧✱ 5✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐1❡♠♦$ ❛ $❡❣✉✐1 ❝♦♠ ♠❛✐♦1
❣❡♥❡1❛❧✐❞❛❞❡✳
✶✳✶ ❈❛$❛❝&❡$✐③❛*+♦ ❞♦. ❙✉❜❡.♣❛*♦. ❱❡&♦$✐❛✐.

❙❡❥❛♠ V ✉♠ ❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧ ❡ W ✉♠ $✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ ♥=♦ ✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❉✐③❡✲
♠♦$ 5✉❡ W S ✉♠ ✉❜❡ ♣❛&♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧ ❞❡ V ✱ ♦✉ $✐♠♣❧❡$♠❡♥%❡ ✉♠ ✉❜❡ ♣❛&♦ ❞❡
V ✱ $❡ W ✱ ❝♦♠ ❛$ ♦♣❡1❛4>❡$ ❞❡ ❛❞✐4=♦ ❡♠ V ❡ ❞❡ ♠✉❧%✐♣❧✐❝❛4=♦ ❞❡ ✈❡%♦1❡$ ❞❡
V ♣♦1 ❡$❝❛❧❛1❡$✱ S ✉♠ ❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧✳
U❛1❛ ♠♦$%1❛1 5✉❡ ✉♠ $✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ ♥=♦ ✈❛③✐♦ W ❞❡ V S ✉♠ $✉❜❡$♣❛4♦
❞❡ V S ♣1❡❝✐$♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧♠❡♥%❡ ✈❡1✐✜❝❛1 $❡ ❛$ ♦♣❡1❛4>❡$ ❞❡ ❛❞✐4=♦ ❞❡ ✈❡%♦1❡$ ❡
❞❡ ♠✉❧%✐♣❧✐❝❛4=♦ ❞❡ ✈❡%♦1❡$ ♣♦1 ❡$❝❛❧❛1❡$ ❡♠ V ❡$%=♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛$ ❡♠ W ✳ ❊♠
$❡❣✉✐❞❛✱ $❡1✐❛ ♥❡❝❡$$C1✐♦ ✈❡1✐✜❝❛1 ❛$ ♣1♦♣1✐❡❞❛❞❡$ ❆✶✕❆✹ ❡ ▼❊✶✕▼❊✹ ❞❛
❞❡✜♥✐4=♦ ❞❡ ❡$♣❛4♦ ✈❡%♦1✐❛❧ 5✉❡ ❞❡♠♦$ ♥❛ ❙✉❜$❡4=♦ ✶✳✷ ❞♦ ❈❛♣)%✉❧♦ ✶✳ ◆♦
✶✳ ❙❯❇❊❙&❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙ ✺✾
❡♥$❛♥$♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ W * ♣❛,$❡ ❞❡ V ✱ .✉❡ ❥1 2❛❜❡♠♦2 2❡, ✉♠ ❡2♣❛4♦ ✈❡$♦,✐❛❧✱ ❡♥$8♦

❛❧❣✉♠❛2 ❞❛2 ♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡2 ❛♥$❡,✐♦,❡2 ♥8♦ ♣,❡❝✐2❛♠ 2❡, $❡2$❛❞❛2 ❡♠ W ✳ ;♦,
❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♥8♦ ♣,❡❝✐2❛♠♦2 $❡2$❛, 2❡ ❛ ❛❞✐48♦ ❡♠ W * ❛22♦❝✐❛$✐✈❛ ♥❡♠ 2❡ *
❝♦♠✉$❛$✐✈❛✱ ♣♦✐2 ❡22❛2 ♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡2 28♦ 2❛$✐2❢❡✐$❛2 ♣♦, $♦❞♦2 ♦2 ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦2 ❞❡
V ❡✱ ❝♦♥2❡.✉❡♥$❡♠❡♥$❡✱ ♣♦, $♦❞♦2 ♦2 ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦2 ❞❡ W ✳ ;❡❧♦ ♠❡2♠♦ ♠♦$✐✈♦✱ ❛2
❝♦♥❞✐4>❡2 ▼❊✶✕▼❊✹ ♥8♦ ♣,❡❝✐2❛♠ 2❡, $❡2$❛❞❛2 ❡♠ W ✳ ❆22✐♠✱ ♣❛,❛ ♠♦2$,❛,
.✉❡ ✉♠ 2✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ ♥8♦ ✈❛③✐♦ W ❞❡ V * ✉♠ 2✉❜❡2♣❛4♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡2♣❛4♦ ✈❡$♦,✐❛❧
V ✱ ♣,❡❝✐2❛,❡♠♦2 2♦♠❡♥$❡ ✈❡,✐✜❝❛, 2❡ ❆✸ ❡ ❆✹ 28♦ 2❛$✐2❢❡✐$❛2✳ ❖ ,❡2✉❧$❛❞♦
❛ 2❡❣✉✐, ♠♦2$,❛ .✉❡✱ ❞❡ ❢❛$♦✱ ❜❛2$❛ ♠♦2$,❛, .✉❡ ❛2 ♦♣❡,❛4>❡2 ❞❡ V ❡2$8♦
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛2 ❡♠ W ✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✸✳✶✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ V ✉♠ ❡&♣❛(♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❡ W ✉♠ &✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ♥2♦
✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❊♥+2♦✱ W 8 ✉♠ &✉❜❡&♣❛(♦ ❞❡ V &❡✱ ❡ &♦♠❡♥+❡ &❡✱ ❛& &❡❣✉✐♥+❡&
❝♦♥❞✐(:❡& &2♦ &❛+✐&❢❡✐+❛&✿
✭✐✮ &❡ u, v ∈ W ✱ ❡♥+2♦ u + v ∈ W ❀
✭✐✐✮ &❡ a ∈ R ❡ u ∈ W ✱ ❡♥+2♦ au ∈ W ✳
❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ ❙❡ W * ✉♠ 2✉❜❡2♣❛4♦ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥$8♦ ❝❧❛,❛♠❡♥$❡ ❛2 ❝♦♥❞✐4>❡2
✭✐✮ ❡ ✭✐✐✮ 28♦ ✈❡,✐✜❝❛❞❛2✳
❘❡❝✐♣,♦❝❛♠❡♥$❡✱ 2✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦2 .✉❡ W ♣♦22✉❛ ❛2 ♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡2 ✭✐✮ ❡ ✭✐✐✮✳
;❛,❛ ♠♦2$,❛, .✉❡ W * 2✉❜❡2♣❛4♦ ❞❡ V ✱ ♣,❡❝✐2❛♠♦2 2♦♠❡♥$❡ ✈❡,✐✜❝❛, .✉❡
♦2 ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦2 ❞❡ W ♣♦22✉❡♠ ❛2 ♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡2 ❆✸ ❡ ❆✹✳ ❚♦♠❡ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦
.✉❛❧.✉❡, u ❞❡ W ✱ ♦ .✉❡ * ♣♦22O✈❡❧ ♣♦✐2 W 6= ∅✳ ;❡❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐48♦ ✭✐✐✮✱ au ∈ W
♣❛,❛ $♦❞♦ a ∈ R✳ ❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ a = 0✱ 2❡❣✉❡✲2❡ .✉❡ 0u = 0 ∈ W ❡✱ $♦♠❛♥❞♦
a = −1✱ 2❡❣✉❡✲2❡ .✉❡ (−1)u = −u ∈ W ✳
❆ ;,♦♣♦2✐48♦ ✸✳✶✳✶ ❛✜,♠❛ .✉❡ ✉♠ 2✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ ♥8♦ ✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡2♣❛4♦

✈❡$♦,✐❛❧ V * ✉♠ 2✉❜❡2♣❛4♦ ❞❡ V 2❡✱ ❡ 2♦♠❡♥$❡ 2❡✱ ❛ ❛❞✐48♦ ❡ ❛ ♠✉❧$✐♣❧✐❝❛48♦
♣♦, ❡2❝❛❧❛, 28♦ ❢❡❝❤❛❞❛2 ❡♠ W ✳ ❆ ;,♦♣♦2✐48♦ ✸✳✶✳✶ ♣♦❞❡ 2❡, ,❡❡2❝,✐$❛ ❞❛
2❡❣✉✐♥$❡ ❢♦,♠❛✿
❈♦!♦❧3!✐♦ ✸✳✶✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ V ✉♠ ❡&♣❛(♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❡ W ✉♠ &✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ♥2♦
✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❚❡♠♦& ?✉❡ W 8 ✉♠ &✉❜❡&♣❛(♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❞❡ V &❡✱ ❡ &♦♠❡♥+❡ &❡✱
u + av ∈ W ✱ ♣❛,❛ +♦❞♦ a ∈ R ❡ ♣❛,❛ +♦❞♦& u, v ∈ W ✳
✻✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
❆ ❞❡♠♦♥()*❛,-♦ ❞♦ *❡(✉❧)❛❞♦ ❛♥)❡*✐♦* 1 ❞❡✐①❛❞❛ ♣❛*❛ ♦ ❧❡✐)♦* ✭✈❡❥❛ 7*♦✲
❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✮✳ ❱❡❥❛♠♦( ❛❣♦*❛ ❛❧❣✉♥( ❡①❡♠♣❧♦( ❞❡ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦( ✈❡)♦*✐❛✐(✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡(♣❛,♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧✳ ❊♥)-♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ {0}✱ ❝♦♥()✐)✉C❞♦

❛♣❡♥❛( ❞♦ ✈❡)♦* ♥✉❧♦✱ ❡ )❛♠❜1♠ )♦❞♦ ♦ ❡(♣❛,♦ V (-♦ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦( ❞❡ V ✳ ❖
❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ {0} 1 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❡!♣❛$♦ ✈❡'♦(✐❛❧ ♥✉❧♦ ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ V = Rn ❡ (❡❥❛♠ i1 , i2 , . . . , ir ♥F♠❡*♦( ♥❛)✉*❛✐( )❛✐( G✉❡

0 < i1 < i2 < · · · < ir ≤ n✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦
W = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ; xi1 = xi2 = · · · = xir = 0}
1 ✉♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧ ❞❡ Rn ✳ ❊♠ ♣❛*)✐❝✉❧❛*✱ W1 = {(0, y, z) ; y, z ∈ R} ❡

W2 = {(0, y, 0) ; y ∈ R} (-♦ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦( ✈❡)♦*✐❛✐( ❞❡ R3 ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ ◆❛ ❙✉❜(❡,-♦ ✶✳✸ ❞♦ ❈❛♣C)✉❧♦ ✶✱ ✈✐♠♦( G✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ (♦❧✉,-♦

Sh ❞❡ ✉♠ (✐()❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡G✉❛,K❡( ❧✐♥❡❛*❡( ❤♦♠♦❣L♥❡❛( ❡♠ n ✐♥❝M❣♥✐)❛( ❢♦*♠❛
✉♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧ ❞❡ Rn ✳ ❖( (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦( ❞♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷ ♣♦❞❡♠ (❡* ✈✐()♦(
(♦❜ ❡()❛ M)✐❝❛✱ ♣♦✐( ♦ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦ W ✱ ❞♦ *❡❢❡*✐❞♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣♦❞❡ (❡* ❞❡(❝*✐)♦
❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❡(♣❛,♦ (♦❧✉,-♦ ❞♦ (✐()❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡G✉❛,K❡( ❧✐♥❡❛*❡( ❤♦♠♦❣L♥❡❛(
xi 1 = x i 2 = · · · = xi r = 0✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳ ◆♦ ❡(♣❛,♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧ ❞❛( ♠❛)*✐③❡( M(n, n)✱ ♦( ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦( ❞❛( ♠❛✲
)*✐③❡( )*✐❛♥❣✉❧❛*❡( (✉♣❡*✐♦*❡(✱ )*✐❛♥❣✉❧❛*❡( ✐♥❢❡*✐♦*❡( ❡ ❞❛( ♠❛)*✐③❡( ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛✐(✱
(-♦ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦( ✈❡)♦*✐❛✐(✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳ ◆♦ ❡(♣❛,♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧ S ❞❛( (❡G✉L♥❝✐❛( *❡❛✐(✱ ❛( *❡❝♦**L♥❝✐❛( ❧✐♥❡✲

❛*❡( ❞♦ )✐♣♦ R(a, b) ✭❝❢✳ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✱ ❙❡,-♦ ✶✱ ❈❛♣C)✉❧♦ ✶✮ ❢♦*♠❛♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦(
✈❡)♦*✐❛✐(✳ ▼❛✐( ❣❡*❛❧♠❡♥)❡✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ R(a1 , a2 , . . . , ar ) ❞❛( (❡G✉L♥❝✐❛( G✉❡
(-♦ (♦❧✉,K❡( ❞❛ *❡❝♦**L♥❝✐❛ ❧✐♥❡❛*
un = a1 un−1 + a2 un−2 + · · · + ar un−r
1 ✉♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧ ❞❡ S ✭✈❡*✐✜G✉❡✮✳
✶✳ ❙❯❇❊❙&❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙ ✻✶
✶✳✷ ❖♣❡&❛()❡* ❝♦♠ ❙✉❜❡*♣❛(♦*

❈♦♠♦✱ ❛♥(❡* ❞❡ ♠❛✐* ♥❛❞❛✱ ❡*♣❛.♦* ✈❡(♦0✐❛✐* *1♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦*✱ 5 ❜❛*(❛♥(❡
♥❛(✉0❛❧ ♣❡0❣✉♥(❛0✲*❡ *❡ ❛ ✉♥✐1♦ ❡ ❛ ✐♥(❡0*❡.1♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦* ♣0❡*❡0✈❛♠ ❛
♣0♦♣0✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ❡*♣❛.♦ ✈❡(♦0✐❛❧✳
❉❛❞♦* U = {(x, y) ∈ R2 ; x + y = 0} ❡ W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 ; x − y = 0}✱
*✉❜❡*♣❛.♦* ❞❡ R2 ✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦ U ∪ W ♥1♦ 5 ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛(♦✱
(❡♠♦* =✉❡ u = (1, 1) ∈ U ∪ W ❡ w = (1, −1) ∈ U ∪ W ✱ ♠❛* u + w = (2, 0) ∈
/
U ∪ W✳
❊*(❡ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ♠♦*(0❛ =✉❡ ❛ ✉♥✐$♦ ❞❡ ❞♦✐( (✉❜❡(♣❛+♦( ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛+♦ ✈❡.♦/✐❛❧
V ♥$♦ 1 ♥❡❝❡((❛/✐❛♠❡♥.❡ ✉♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛+♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❆ ♣0A①✐♠❛ ♣0♦♣♦*✐.1♦ ♠♦*(0❛
=✉❡ ❛ ✐♥(❡0*❡.1♦ ❞❡ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦* 5 *❡♠♣0❡ ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✸✳✶✳✸✳ ❆ ✐♥.❡/(❡+$♦ ❞❡ ❞♦✐( (✉❜❡(♣❛+♦( ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛+♦ ✈❡.♦/✐❛❧
V 1 ✉♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛+♦ ❞❡ V ✳
❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦* ❞❡ V ✳ C❛0❛ ✈❡0✐✜❝❛0♠♦* =✉❡
U ∩ W 5 (❛♠❜5♠ ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦ ❞❡ V ✱ ✈❛♠♦* ❢❛③❡0 ✉*♦ ❞♦ ❈♦0♦❧F0✐♦ ✸✳✶✳✷
C❛0❛ ✐*(♦✱ ♣0✐♠❡✐0❛♠❡♥(❡ ♥♦(❡ =✉❡ U ∩ W 5 ✉♠ *✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦ ♥1♦ ✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡
V ✱ ♣♦✐* 0 ∈ U ❡ 0 ∈ W ✱ ❥F =✉❡ ❛♠❜♦* U ❡ W *1♦ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦* ❞❡ V ✳ ❆❣♦0❛✱
(♦♠❡♠♦* a ∈ R ❡ u, v ∈ U ∩ W ✳ ❈♦♠♦ u, v ∈ U ❡ u, v ∈ W ✱ *❡❣✉❡ ❞♦
❈♦0♦❧F0✐♦ ✸✳✶✳✷ =✉❡ u + av ∈ U ❡ u + av ∈ W ✱ ♦✉ *❡❥❛✱ u + av ∈ U ∩ W ✳
◆♦✈❛♠❡♥(❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❈♦0♦❧F0✐♦ ✸✳✶✳✷✱ *❡❣✉❡ =✉❡ U ∩ W 5 ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦ ❞❡ V ✳
❖❜*❡0✈❡♠♦* =✉❡ ♦ ♣0✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ♣0♦❜❧❡♠❛ =✉❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥*✐❞❡0❛♠♦* ❛ ✉♥✐1♦ ❞❡
*✉❜❡*♣❛.♦* 5 =✉❡ *❡ (♦♠❛♠♦* ✉♠ ✈❡(♦0 ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦✱ ❛ *♦♠❛ ❞❡❧❡*
♣♦❞❡ ♥1♦ ♣❡0(❡♥❝❡0 K ✉♥✐1♦✳ ❙❡0✐❛✱ ❡♥(1♦✱ ♥❛(✉0❛❧ ❝♦♥*✐❞❡0❛0♠♦* ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦
*♦♠❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❛ *❡❣✉✐0✳
❉❛❞♦* U ❡ W *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦* ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡*♣❛.♦ ✈❡(♦0✐❛❧ V ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦* ❛ (♦♠❛ ❞❡
U ❡ W ✱ ❞❡♥♦(❛❞❛ ♣♦0 U + W ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦
U + W = {u + w ; u ∈ U ❡ w ∈ W }.
❈♦♠ ✐*(♦✱ =✉❛♥❞♦ *♦♠❛♠♦* ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥(♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦ ❝♦♠ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥(♦
❞♦ ♦✉(0♦✱ ❛✉(♦♠❛(✐❝❛♠❡♥(❡✱ ❛ *♦♠❛ ❞❡*(❡* ❡❧❡♠❡♥(♦* ❡*(F ♥❛ *♦♠❛ ❞♦* *✉❜✲
❡*♣❛.♦*✳
✻✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
❈♦♠♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❝♦♥,✐❞❡/❡♠♦, U = {(x, y) ∈ R2 ; x + y = 0} ❡ W =
{(x, y) ∈ R2 ; x − y = 0}✳ ❚❡♠♦, 2✉❡ U + W = R2 ✱ ❡✱ ❝♦♥,❡2✉❡♥4❡♠❡♥4❡✱
U + W 5 ✉♠ ,✉❜❡,♣❛8♦ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛4♦✱ ,❡ (x, y) ∈ R2 ❡♥4;♦

x−y y−x x+y x+y
(x, y) = , + , ,
2 2 2 2
♦ 2✉❡ ♠♦,4/❛ 2✉❡ 4♦❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥4♦ ❞❡ R2 ,❡ ❡,❝/❡✈❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ,♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥4♦
❞❡ U ❡ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥4♦ ❞❡ W ✳ ❊,4❡ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ✐❧✉,4/❛ ♦ /❡,✉❧4❛❞♦ ❛ ,❡❣✉✐/✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✸✳✶✳✹✳ ❆ !♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❞♦✐! !✉❜❡!♣❛+♦! U ❡ W ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡!♣❛+♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧
V 0 ✉♠ !✉❜❡!♣❛+♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❊!-❡ 0 ♦ ♠❡♥♦. !✉❜❡!♣❛+♦ ❞❡ V 4✉❡ ❝♦♥-0♠ ❝❛❞❛
✉♠ ❞♦! !✉❜❡!♣❛+♦!✱ ♥♦ !❡♥-✐❞♦ 4✉❡ !❡ ✉♠ !✉❜❡!♣❛+♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ L ❞❡ V 0 -❛❧ 4✉❡
U ⊂ L ❡ W ⊂ L✱ ❡♥-7♦ U + W ⊂ L✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W ,✉❜❡,♣❛8♦, ❞❡ V ✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦, a ∈ R ❡ v1 , v2 ∈
U + W ✳ ❈♦♠♦ v1 , v2 ∈ U + W ✱ ❡①✐,4❡♠ u1 ❡ u2 ❡❧❡♠❡♥4♦, ❞❡ U ❡ ❡①✐,4❡♠ w1
❡ w2 ❡❧❡♠❡♥4♦, ❞❡ W 4❛✐, 2✉❡
v1 = u1 + w 1 ❡ v 2 = u2 + w 2 ✳
❊♥4;♦✱
v1 + av2 = (u1 + w1 ) + a(u2 + w2 ) = (u1 + au2 ) + (w1 + aw2 ) ∈ U + W ✳
❆,,✐♠✱ ♣/♦✈❛♠♦, 2✉❡ U + W 5 ✉♠ ,✉❜❡,♣❛8♦ ❞❡ V ✳
B❛/❛ ♠♦,4/❛/ 2✉❡ U + W 5 ♦ ♠❡♥♦/ ,✉❜❡,♣❛8♦ ✈❡4♦/✐❛❧ ❞❡ V 2✉❡ ❝♦♥45♠
U ❡ W ✱ ,❡❥❛ L ✉♠ ,✉❜❡,♣❛8♦ ❞❡ V 2✉❡ ❝♦♥45♠ U ❡ W ✳ B❛/❛ 4♦❞♦, u ∈ U ❡
w ∈ W ✱ 4❡♠♦, 2✉❡ u, w ∈ L✱ ❧♦❣♦ u + w ∈ L✳ ■,4♦ ♠♦,4/❛ 2✉❡ U + W ⊂ L✳

❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W ,✉❜❡,♣❛8♦, ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡,♣❛8♦ ✈❡4♦/✐❛❧ V ✳ ❖ ❡,♣❛8♦ ✈❡4♦/✐❛❧
V 5 ❞✐4♦ ,❡/ ❛ !♦♠❛ ❞✐.❡-❛ ❞❡ U ❡ W ✱ ❡ /❡♣/❡,❡♥4❛❞♦ ♣♦/ V = U ⊕ W ✱ ,❡
V = U + W ❡ U ∩ W = {0}✳
❈♦♠♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ,♦♠❛ ❞✐/❡4❛✱ ❝♦♥,✐❞❡/❡♠♦, ♥♦✈❛♠❡♥4❡ ♦, ,✉❜❡,♣❛✲
8♦, U = {(x, y) ∈ R2 ; x + y = 0} ❡ W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 ; x − y = 0}✳ ❱✐♠♦,
❛♥4❡/✐♦/♠❡♥4❡ 2✉❡ R2 = U +W ✳ ❈♦♠♦ U ∩W = {0}✱ ,❡❣✉❡ 2✉❡ R2 = U ⊕W ✳
❖ ♣/G①✐♠♦ /❡,✉❧4❛❞♦ ♠♦,4/❛ ✉♠❛ ✐♠♣♦/4❛♥4❡ ♣/♦♣/✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❞❛, ,♦♠❛, ❞✐✲
/❡4❛,✳
✶✳ ❙❯❇❊❙&❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙ ✻✸
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✸✳✶✳✺✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W %✉❜❡%♣❛)♦% ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡%♣❛)♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ V ✳ ❚❡♠♦%

3✉❡ V = U ⊕ W %❡✱ ❡ %♦♠❡♥-❡ %❡✱ -♦❞♦ ✈❡-♦. v ❡♠ V %❡ ❡%❝.❡✈❡ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦
7♥✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ v = u + w✱ ♦♥❞❡ u ∈ U ❡ w ∈ W ✳
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦* V = U ⊕ W ✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦* v ∈ V ✳ ❈♦♠♦ V =
U + W ✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐45♦ ❞❡ *♦♠❛ ❞❡ *✉❜❡*♣❛4♦*✱ ❡①✐*8❡♠ u ∈ U ❡ w ∈ W 8❛✐*
9✉❡
v = u + w✳
❱❡❥❛♠♦* 9✉❡ ❛ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦*✐45♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ = >♥✐❝❛ ♥♦ *❡♥8✐❞♦ ❞❡ 9✉❡ *❡
v = u′ + w ′ ✱
❝♦♠ u′ ∈ U ❡ w′ ∈ W ✱ ❡♥85♦ u = u′ ❡ w = w′ ✳ ❖@❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ v = u + w ❡
v = u′ + w′ ✱ ❡♥85♦
u − u′ = −(w − w′ )✳
❈♦♠♦ ♦ ❧❛❞♦ ❡*9✉❡@❞♦ ♣❡@8❡♥❝❡ ❛ U ❡ ♦ ❧❛❞♦ ❞✐@❡✐8♦ ❛ W ✱ ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡
❛♥8❡@✐♦@ ❞❡❝♦@@❡ 9✉❡ u − u′ ∈ U ∩ W ❡ w − w′ ∈ U ∩ W ✳ ❈♦♠♦ U ∩ W = {0}✱
*❡❣✉❡ ❡♥85♦ 9✉❡ u = u′ ❡ w = w′ ✳ ❘❡❝✐♣@♦❝❛♠❡♥8❡✱ *✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦* 9✉❡ 8♦❞♦
✈❡8♦@ ❞❡ V *❡ ❡*❝@❡✈❡ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ >♥✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ *♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡8♦@ ❞❡ U ❡ ❞❡
✉♠ ✈❡8♦@ ❞❡ W ✳ ❈❧❛@❛♠❡♥8❡✱ ❡♥85♦✱ V = U + W ✳ ❙❡ U ∩ W 6= {0}✱ ❡①✐*8✐@✐❛
✉♠ ✈❡8♦@ ♥5♦ ♥✉❧♦ v ❡♠ U ∩ W ✳ ❈♦♠♦ v ∈ W ❡ W = ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛4♦✱ ❡♥85♦
−v ∈ W 8❛♠❜=♠✳ ❈♦♥*❡9✉❡♥8❡♠❡♥8❡✱ 8❡@D❛♠♦* 0 = 0 + 0✱ ❝♦♠ 0 ∈ U ❡
0 ∈ W ✱ ❡ 0 = v + (−v)✱ ❝♦♠ v ∈ U ❡ −v ∈ W ✳ ❈♦♠♦ v 6= 0✱ 8❡@D❛♠♦* ❞✉❛*
❡*❝@✐8❛* ❞✐*8✐♥8❛* ♣❛@❛ ✉♠ ♠❡*♠♦ ✈❡8♦@ ❞❡ V ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✐*8♦ ♥5♦ ♦❝♦@@❡✱ 8❡♠♦*
❞❡ ❢❛8♦ 9✉❡ U ∩ W = {0}✳
✶✳✸ ❙✉❜❡'♣❛*♦' ●❡-❛❞♦'

❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡*♣❛4♦ ✈❡8♦@✐❛❧ ❡ *❡❥❛♠ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✈❡8♦@❡* ❞❡ V ✳ ❉✐@❡♠♦*
9✉❡ ✉♠ ✈❡8♦@ v ❞❡ V = ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛)8♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❞❡ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr *❡ ❡①✐*8✐@❡♠
♥>♠❡@♦* @❡❛✐* a1 , a2 , . . . , ar 8❛✐* 9✉❡
v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ar vr . ✭✶✮
✻✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
"♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♦ ✈❡,♦$ (1, 6, 0) ❡♠ R3 - ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛45♦ ❧✐♥❡❛$ ❞♦7 ✈❡,♦$❡7
v1 = (1, 2, 0) ❡ v2 = (−1, 2, 0)✱ ❥9 :✉❡ v = 2v1 + 1v2 ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛,♦✱ ❛ ❡:✉❛45♦
(1, 6, 0) = a1 (1, 2, 0) + a2 (−1, 2, 0)
❡:✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛♦ 7✐7,❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡:✉❛4>❡7 ❧✐♥❡❛$❡7
a1 − a2 = 1

2a1 + 2a2 = 6 ,
❝✉❥❛ 7♦❧✉45♦ - ?♥✐❝❛ ❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦$ a1 = 2 ❡ a2 = 1✳ ❏9 ♦ ✈❡,♦$ w = (2, −2, 6)

♥5♦ - ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛45♦ ❧✐♥❡❛$ ❞❡ v1 ❡ v2 ✱ ♣♦✐7 ♥5♦ ❡①✐7,❡♠ ♥?♠❡$♦7 $❡❛✐7 a1
❡ a2 ,❛✐7 :✉❡ w = a1 v1 + a2 v2 ✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐,♦✱ ❛ ❡:✉❛45♦
(2, −2, 6) = a1 (1, 2, 0) + a2 (−1, 2, 0)
❡:✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛♦ 7✐7,❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡:✉❛4>❡7 ❧✐♥❡❛$❡7
a1 − a2 = 2, 2a1 + 2a2 = −2, 0a1 + 0a2 = 6 ,
♠♦7,$❛♥❞♦ :✉❡ ♦ 7✐7,❡♠❛ - ✐♠♣♦77B✈❡❧✳

❙❡ r = 1 ❡♠ ✭✶✮✱ ❡♥,5♦ v = a1 v1 ✱ ♦✉ 7❡❥❛✱ v - ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛45♦ ❧✐♥❡❛$ ❞❡
✉♠ ?♥✐❝♦ ✈❡,♦$ v1 7❡ ❢♦$ ✉♠ ♠?❧,✐♣❧♦ ♣♦$ ❡7❝❛❧❛$ ❞❡ v1 ✳
❙❡❥❛♠ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✈❡,♦$❡7 ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡7♣❛4♦ ✈❡,♦$✐❛❧ V ✳ ❈♦♥7✐❞❡$❡♠♦7 ♦
❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ W ❞❡ ,♦❞❛7 ❛7 ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛4>❡7 ❧✐♥❡❛$❡7 ❞❡ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✳ ❖ $❡7✉❧,❛❞♦
❛ 7❡❣✉✐$ ♠♦7,$❛ :✉❡ W - ✉♠ 7✉❜❡7♣❛4♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❊7,❡ 7✉❜❡7♣❛4♦ - ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♦
✉❜❡ ♣❛&♦ ❣❡)❛❞♦ ♣♦) v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ❡ ❞✐③❡♠♦7 :✉❡ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ❣❡)❛♠ W ♦✉
:✉❡ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } - ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ❣❡)❛❞♦) ❞❡ W ✳ "❛$❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛$♠♦7 :✉❡ W -
♦ ❡7♣❛4♦ ❣❡$❛❞♦ ♣♦$ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✱ ❡7❝$❡✈❡♠♦7
W = G(v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ).
"♦$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ G((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)) = R3 ✳

!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✸✳✶✳✻✳ ❙❡❥❛ W = G(v1 , v2 , . . . , vr )✱ ♦♥❞❡ v 1 , v2 , . . . , v r 2♦ ✈❡/♦✲
)❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡ ♣❛&♦ ✈❡/♦)✐❛❧ V ✳ ❱❛❧❡♠ ❛ ❡❣✉✐♥/❡ ❛✜)♠❛&:❡ ✿
✶✳ ❙❯❇❊❙&❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙ ✻✺
✭✐✮ W ✉♠ #✉❜❡#♣❛(♦ ❞❡ V ❀
✭✐✐✮ W ♦ ♠❡♥♦- #✉❜❡#♣❛(♦ ❞❡ V ❝♦♥/❡♥❞♦
v1 , v2 . . . . , vr ✱ ♥♦ #❡♥/✐❞♦ ❞❡ 2✉❡ 2✉❛❧2✉❡- #✉❜❡#♣❛(♦ ❞❡ V 2✉❡ ❝♦♥/ ♠ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr

/❛♠❜ ♠ ❝♦♥/ ♠ W ✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ✭✐✮✿ ❚♦♠❡♠♦* a ∈ R ❡ u, v ∈ W ✳ ❊♥./♦ ❡①✐*.❡♠ ♥1♠❡2♦*
2❡❛✐* a1 , a2 , . . . , ar ❡ b1 , b2 , . . . , br .❛✐* 4✉❡
u = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ar vr ,
v = b 1 v1 + b2 v 2 + · · · + br v r .
6♦2.❛♥.♦✱ u + av = (a1 + ab1 )v1 + (a2 + ab2 )v2 + · · · + (ar + abr )vr ✳ ❆**✐♠✱
u+av 9 ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛</♦ ❧✐♥❡❛2 ❞❡ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ❡ ❝♦♥*❡4✉❡♥.❡♠❡♥.❡ ♣❡2.❡♥❝❡
❛ W ✳ 6❡❧♦ ❈♦2♦❧A2✐♦ ✸✳✶✳✷✱ W 9 ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛<♦ ❞❡ V ✳
✭✐✐✮✿ ❈❛❞❛ ✈❡.♦2 vi 9 ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛</♦ ❧✐♥❡❛2 ❞❡ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✱ ♣♦✐* ♣♦❞❡♠♦*
❡*❝2❡✈❡2
vi = 0v1 + 0v2 + · · · + 1vi + · · · + 0vr .
■*.♦ ♠♦*.2❛ 4✉❡ ♦ *✉❜❡*♣❛<♦ W ❝♦♥.9♠ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠ ❞♦* ✈❡.♦2❡* v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✳
❙❡❥❛ W ′ ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛<♦ 4✉❛❧4✉❡2 ❞❡ V ❝♦♥.❡♥❞♦ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✳ 6❡❧♦ ❈♦2♦❧A2✐♦
✸✳✶✳✷✱ ❡**❡ *✉❜❡*♣❛<♦ ❝♦♥.9♠ .♦❞❛* ❛* ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛<I❡* ❧✐♥❡❛2❡* ❞❡*.❡* ✈❡.♦2❡*✳
❆**✐♠✱ W ⊂ W ′ ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳ ❖ ❡*♣❛<♦ ❣❡2❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦ ✈❡.♦2 v = (1, 1, 2) ❡♠ R3 9 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦
W = {a(1, 1, 2) ; a ∈ R}✱ ❥A 4✉❡ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛</♦ ❧✐♥❡❛2 ❞❡ v 9 ✉♠ ♠1❧.✐♣❧♦
❡*❝❛❧❛2 ❞❡ v ✳
❉✐③❡♠♦* 4✉❡ ✉♠ ✈❡.♦2 w = av 9 ✉♠❛ ❞✐❧❛/❛(5♦✱ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥/-❛(5♦✱ ♦✉ ✉♠❛
✐♥✈❡-#5♦✱ ❞❡ v ✱ *❡ a ≥ 1✱ 0 ≤ a < 1✱ ♦✉ a < 0✱ 2❡*♣❡❝.✐✈❛♠❡♥.❡✳
❆**✐♠✱ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦ ❞♦ *✉❜❡*♣❛<♦ W ✱ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ 9 ✉♠❛ ❞✐❧❛.❛</♦✱ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥✲
.2❛</♦ ♦✉ ✉♠❛ ✐♥✈❡2*/♦ ❞❡ v ✭✈❡❥❛ ❋✐❣✉2❛ ✶✮✳
✻✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳ ❱❛♠♦% ❡♥❝♦♥)*❛* ♦ %✉❜❡%♣❛.♦ ❞❡ R3 ❣❡*❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦% ✈❡)♦*❡% v1 =

(1, −2, −1) ❡ v2 = (2, 1, 1)✳ ❙❡❥❛ W = G(v1 , v2 )✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦% v = (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ✳
❚❡♠♦% 7✉❡ v ∈ W %❡✱ ❡ %♦♠❡♥)❡ %❡✱ ❡①✐%)❡♠ ♥;♠❡*♦% *❡❛✐% a1 ❡ a2 )❛✐% 7✉❡
v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 ,
♦✉✱ ❡7✉✐✈❛❧❡♥)❡♠❡♥)❡✱ %❡✱ ❡ %♦♠❡♥)❡ %❡✱ ♦ %✐%)❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛*


a1 + 2a2 = x



−2a1 + a2 = y ✭✷✮


−a1 + a2 = z

)❡♠ %♦❧✉.?♦✳ ❆ ♠❛)*✐③ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ❞♦ %✐%)❡♠❛ ✭✷✮ B ❡7✉✐✈❛❧❡♥)❡ C ♠❛)*✐③

 
1 2 x
0 1 (x + z)/3  .
 
0 0 (x + 3y − 5z)/3
D♦*)❛♥)♦✱ ✭✷✮ )❡♠ %♦❧✉.?♦ %❡✱ ❡ %♦♠❡♥)❡ %❡✱ x + 3y − 5z = 0✳ ❆%%✐♠✱

W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ; x + 3y − 5z = 0}✳
D❛*❛ ❣❡*❛*♠♦% ✉♠ ♠❡%♠♦ ❡%♣❛.♦✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦% ✉%❛* ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦% ❣❡*❛❞♦*❡% ❞✐%✲
)✐♥)♦%✳ D♦* ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ %❡ ❝♦♥%✐❞❡*❛*♠♦% ✉♠ ✈❡)♦* ♥?♦ ♥✉❧♦ w 7✉❛❧7✉❡* ❡♠
W ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✻ )❡♠♦% 7✉❡ G(v) = G(w)✳ ❆ %❡❣✉✐♥)❡ ♣*♦♣♦%✐.?♦✱ ❝✉❥❛ ❞❡✲
♠♦♥%)*❛.?♦ B ❞❡✐①❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡*❝G❝✐♦ ❛♦ ❧❡✐)♦* ✭✈❡* D*♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✹✮✱ ♥♦% ❞J
✶✳ ❙❯❇❊❙&❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙ ✻✼
✉♠❛ ❝♦♥❞✐*+♦ ♥❡❝❡--./✐❛ ❡ -✉✜❝✐❡♥1❡ ♣❛/❛ 3✉❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦- ❞✐-1✐♥1♦- ❞❡ ✈❡1♦/❡-

❣❡/❡♠ ✉♠ ♠❡-♠♦ ❡-♣❛*♦✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✸✳✶✳✼✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } ❡ β = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wm } ❞♦✐(
❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦( ❞❡ ✈❡,♦.❡( ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛0♦ ✈❡,♦.✐❛❧ V ✳ ❆( (❡❣✉✐♥,❡( ❛✜.♠❛06❡( (7♦
❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥,❡(✿
✭❛✮ G(v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ) = G(w1 , w2 , . . . , wm )❀
✭❜✮ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡,♦. ❡♠ α ; ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛07♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❞♦( ✈❡,♦.❡( ❞❡ β ❡ ❝❛❞❛
✈❡,♦. ❡♠ β ; ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛07♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❞♦( ✈❡,♦.❡( ❞❡ α✳
❙❡❥❛ W ✉♠ -✉❜❡-♣❛*♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡-♣❛*♦ ✈❡1♦/✐❛❧ V ✳ ❉❛/ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦ ❞❡
❣❡/❛❞♦/❡- w1 , . . . , wr ❞❡ W > ♦ ♠❡-♠♦ 3✉❡ ❞❛/ ✉♠❛ ✏♣❛/❛♠❡1/✐③❛*+♦✑ ♣❛/❛ ♦
❡-♣❛*♦ W ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛1♦✱ ❝♦♥-✐❞❡/❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛*+♦
ϕ: Rr → V
(a1 , . . . , ar ) 7→ a1 w1 + · · · + ar wr
1❡♠♦- 3✉❡ W ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♠ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ ϕ✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛$
✶✳✶✯ ❉❡♠♦♥-1/❡ ♦ ❈♦/♦❧./✐♦ ✸✳✶✳✷✳
✶✳✷ ❱❡/✐✜3✉❡✱ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛-♦✱ -❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦ W > ✉♠ -✉❜❡-♣❛*♦ ✈❡1♦/✐❛❧ ❞❡
R✿2
✭❛✮ W = {(x, y) ; x + y = 0}❀

✭❜✮ W = {(x, y) ; x + y = 1}❀
✭❝✮ W = {(x, y) ; x2 = y}❀
✭❞✮ W = {(x, y) ; −x + 3y = 0}✳
✶✳✸ ❱❡/✐✜3✉❡✱ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛-♦✱ -❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦ W > ✉♠ -✉❜❡-♣❛*♦ ✈❡1♦/✐❛❧ ❞❡ R3✿
✭❛✮ W = {(x, y, z) ; x = 0}❀
✭❜✮ W = {(x, y, z) ; x + y + z ≥ 0}❀
✭❝✮ W = {(x, y, z) ; z = 3x − 2y}❀
✭❞✮ W = {(x, 2x, x) ; x ∈ R}❀
✭❡✮ W = {(4x, y, y − x) ; x, y ∈ R}✳
✻✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
✶✳✹ ❱❡$✐✜'✉❡✱ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛.♦✱ .❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥2♦ W 3 ✉♠ .✉❜❡.♣❛6♦ ✈❡2♦$✐❛❧ ❞❡
M(3, 3)✿
✭❛✮ W = {[aij ] ; a11 + a22 + a33 = 0}❀
✭❜✮ W = {[aij ] ; aij = aji ♣❛$❛ 2♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 3}❀
✭❝✮ W = {[aij ] ; aij = 0 .❡ i 6= j}❀
✭❞✮ W = {A ; A2 = A}❀
✭❡✮ W = {A ; A 3 ✐♥✈❡$2=✈❡❧}✳
✶✳✺ ❱❡$✐✜'✉❡✱ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛.♦✱ .❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥2♦ W 3 ✉♠ .✉❜❡.♣❛6♦ ✈❡2♦$✐❛❧ ❞❡

R[x]✿
✭❛✮ W = {p(x) = a + bx + cx2 ; a, b, c ∈ Z}❀
✭❜✮ W = {p(x) = a + bx + cx2 ; a = c = 0}❀
✭❝✮ W = {p(x) = a + bx + cx2 ; c = a + b}❀
✭❞✮ W = {p(x) = a + bx + cx2 ; c ≥ 0}✳
✶✳✻ ❉❡2❡$♠✐♥❡✱ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛.♦✱ V ∩ W ❡ V + W ✿
✭❛✮ V = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ; x = y} ❡ W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ; x = y = z}❀
✭❜✮ V ={[aij ]2×2 ; a11 =a22 ❡ a12 =a21 } ❡ W ={[aij ]2×2 ; a11 =a21 ❡ a12 =a22 }❀
✭❝✮ V = {(x, y, −x − 3y) ; x, y ∈ R} ❡ W = {(0, 0, z) ; z ∈ R}❀
✭❞✮ V = {(x, y, z, w) ∈ R4 ; x + 2y − w = 0} ❡ W = {(x, x, x, x) ; x ∈ R}❀
✭❡✮ V = {(x, x, x) ; x ∈ R} ❡ W = {(0, 0, z) ; z ∈ R}✳
◗✉❛✐. ❞❛. .♦♠❛. ❛♥2❡$✐♦$❡. .A♦ .♦♠❛. ❞✐$❡2❛.❄
✶✳✼ ❙❡❥❛ V = M(3, 3)✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W ♦. .✉❜❡.♣❛6♦. ❞❡ V ❞❛. ♠❛2$✐③❡.

2$✐❛♥❣✉❧❛$❡. .✉♣❡$✐♦$❡. ❡ ✐♥❢❡$✐♦$❡.✱ $❡.♣❡❝2✐✈❛♠❡♥2❡✳ ▼♦.2$❡ '✉❡ V 6= U ⊕W ✳
❈♦♥.2$✉❛ .✉❜❡.♣❛6♦. U ′ ❡ W ′ ❞❡ V 2❛✐. '✉❡ V = U ⊕ W ′ ❡ V = U ′ ⊕ W ✳
✶✳✽ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W .✉❜❡.♣❛6♦. ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡.♣❛6♦ ✈❡2♦$✐❛❧ V ✳ ▼♦.2$❡ '✉❡✿

✭❛✮ U ❡ W ❡.2A♦ ❛♠❜♦. ❝♦♥2✐❞♦. ❡♠ U + W ❀
✭❜✮ U ∩ W 3 ♦ ♠❛✐♦$ .✉❜❡.♣❛6♦ ❝♦♥2✐❞♦ ❡♠ U ❡ ❡♠ W ❀
✭❝✮ W + W = W ✳
✶✳✾ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W .✉❜❡.♣❛6♦. ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡.♣❛6♦ ✈❡2♦$✐❛❧ V ✳ I$♦✈❡ '✉❡✿

✭❛✮ U ∪ W 3 .✉❜❡.♣❛6♦ ✈❡2♦$✐❛❧ .❡✱ ❡ .♦♠❡♥2❡ .❡✱ U ⊆ W ♦✉ W ⊆ U ❀
✭❜✮ U + W = U ∪ W .❡✱ ❡ .♦♠❡♥2❡ .❡✱ U = W ✳
✷✳ ❉❊$❊◆❉✃◆❈■❆ ❊ ■◆❉❊$❊◆❉✃◆❈■❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘ ✻✾
✶✳✶✵ ❙❡❥❛♠ U1 ✱ U2 ✱ W1 ❡ W2 (✉❜❡(♣❛,♦( ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛,♦ ✈❡0♦1✐❛❧ V ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦

4✉❡ V = U1 ⊕ W1 = U2 ⊕ W2 ✳ ❙❡ U1 ⊂ U2 ❡ W1 ⊂ W2 ✱ ♣1♦✈❡ 4✉❡ U1 = U2 ❡
W 1 = W2 ✳
✶✳✶✶✯ ❉❡0❡1♠✐♥❡ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥❞✐,9♦ 4✉❡ a✱ b ❡ c ❞❡✈❡♠ (❛0✐(❢❛③❡1 ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ 4✉❡
(a, b, c) (❡❥❛ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛,9♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 ❞❡ u = (2, −6, 4) ❡ v = (2, −1, 1)✳
✶✳✶✷✯ ❈♦♥(✐❞❡1❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ α = {(−1, 3, 1), (1, −2, 4)} ❡ ❞❡0❡1♠✐♥❡✿
✭❛✮ ♦ ❡(♣❛,♦ ❣❡1❛❞♦ ♣♦1 α❀
✭❜✮ ♦ ✈❛❧♦1 ❞❡ k ∈ R ♣❛1❛ 4✉❡ v = (5, k, 11) ♣❡10❡♥,❛ ❛♦ ❡(♣❛,♦ ❣❡1❛❞♦ ♣♦1
α✳
✶✳✶✸ ❊♥❝♦♥01❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ❞❡ ❣❡1❛❞♦1❡( ♣❛1❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❡(♣❛,♦ ❛❜❛✐①♦✿
✭❛✮ V = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ; x − 2y + 3z = 0}❀
✭❜✮ V = {(x, y, z, t) ∈ R4 ; x − y = 0 ❡ x + t = 0}❀
b
✭❝✮ V = {p(x) = a + bx + cx2 ∈ R[x]2 ; a − = c}❀
" # 2
a b
✭❞✮ V = ∈ M(2, 2) ; a + c = d ❡ b = 0 ✳
c d
✶✳✶✹ D1♦✈❡ ❛ D1♦♣♦(✐,9♦ ✸✳✶✳✼✳
✶✳✶✺ ◗✉❛✐( ❞♦( (❡❣✉✐♥0❡( ✈❡0♦1❡(
✭❛✮ (0, 2, 2, 2)✱ ✭❜✮ (1, 4, 5, 2)✱ ✭❝✮ (0, 0, 0, 0)✱ ✭❞✮ (0, 3, 1, 5)
(9♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛,I❡( ❧✐♥❡❛1❡( ❞❡ u = (0, 0, 2, −2) ❡ v = (0, 1, 3, −1)❄
✶✳✶✻ ❊①♣1❡((❡ ♦( (❡❣✉✐♥0❡( ♣♦❧✐♥K♠✐♦(
✭❛✮ 2 + 5x✱ ✭❜✮ −x + 2x2 ✱ ✭❝✮ 3 + 3x + 5x2
❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛,9♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 ❞❡
p1 (x) = 2 + x + 4x2 , p2 (x) = 1 − x + 3x2 , p3 (x) = 3 + 2x + 5x2 .
✷ ❉❡♣❡♥❞&♥❝✐❛ ❡ ■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞&♥❝✐❛ ▲✐♥❡❛,

❱✐♠♦( ♥❛ (❡,9♦ ❛♥0❡1✐♦1✱ 4✉❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ✜♥✐0♦ ❞❡ ✈❡0♦1❡( α ❣❡1❛ ✉♠
❞❛❞♦ ❡(♣❛,♦ ✈❡0♦1✐❛❧ V (❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡0♦1 ❡♠ V ♣♦❞❡ (❡1 ❡(❝1✐0♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠✲
❜✐♥❛,9♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 ❞♦( ✈❡0♦1❡( ❞❡ α✳ ❊♠ ❣❡1❛❧✱ ♣♦❞❡ ❤❛✈❡1 ♠❛✐( ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛♥❡✐1❛
✼✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
❞❡ ❡①♣&❡''❛& ✉♠ ✈❡,♦& ❡♠ V ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛23♦ ❧✐♥❡❛& ❞❡ ✈❡,♦&❡' ❞❡ ✉♠
❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ ❣❡&❛❞♦&✳ 8♦& ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ R3 = G(v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 )✱ ♦♥❞❡ v1 = (1, 1, 1)✱
v2 = (1, 1, 0)✱ v3 = (0, 1, 1) ❡ v4 = (1, 0, 1)✳ ◆♦,❡ ;✉❡
(4, 2, 1) = 1v1 + 2v2 − 1v3 + 1v4
❡ ,❛♠❜<♠ ;✉❡
(4, 2, 1) = −1v1 + 2v2 + 0v3 + 2v4 .
❖❜'❡&✈❛♠♦' ♥❡''❡ ♣♦♥,♦ ;✉❡ < ♣♦''>✈❡❧ ,&❛❜❛❧❤❛& ❝♦♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦' ❛&❜✐,&@✲
&✐♦' ✭✐♥✜♥✐,♦'✮ ❞❡ ❣❡&❛❞♦&❡'✱ ♠❛' ♥3♦ ♦ ❢❛&❡♠♦' ❛;✉✐✱ ♣♦✐' ♥❡❝❡''✐,❛&>❛♠♦'
✐♥,&♦❞✉③✐& ♥♦✈❛' ❢❡&&❛♠❡♥,❛' ♠❛✐' '♦✜',✐❝❛❞❛'✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ▲❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❩♦&♥✱ ♦✉ ♦
❆①✐♦♠❛ ❞❛ ❊'❝♦❧❤❛ ✭❝❢✳ ❬✶❪✮✳
◆❡',❛ '❡23♦✱ ❡',✉❞❛&❡♠♦' ❝♦♥❞✐2N❡' '♦❜ ❛' ;✉❛✐' ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡,♦& ❞❡ V ♣♦❞❡
'❡& ❡'❝&✐,♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ O♥✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡✐&❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛23♦ ❧✐♥❡❛& ❞♦' ❡❧❡♠❡♥,♦' ❞❡
✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ ❣❡&❛❞♦&✳ ◆❛ ♣&P①✐♠❛ '❡23♦ ✈❡&❡♠♦' ;✉❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦' ❣❡&❛❞♦&❡'
❝♦♠ ❡',❛ ♣&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❞❡'❡♠♣❡♥❤❛♠ ✉♠ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥,❛❧ ♥♦ ❡',✉❞♦ ❞♦'
❡'♣❛2♦' ✈❡,♦&✐❛✐'✳
❙❡❥❛♠ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✈❡,♦&❡' ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛2♦ ✈❡,♦&✐❛❧ V ✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦' ;✉❡ ♦'
✈❡,♦&❡' v1 , v2 , . . . , vr '3♦ ❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥'❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡* ✱ ♦✉ '✐♠♣❧❡'♠❡♥,❡ ✐♥❞❡✲
♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡* ✱ '❡ ❛ ❡;✉❛23♦
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ar vr = 0
< '❛,✐'❢❡✐,❛ '♦♠❡♥,❡ ;✉❛♥❞♦ a1 = a2 = · · · = ar = 0✳ ❈❛'♦ ❡①✐',❛ ❛❧❣✉♠

ai 6= 0✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦' ;✉❡ ♦' ✈❡,♦&❡' v1 , v2 , . . . , vr '3♦ ❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥'❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡* ✱ ♦✉
'✐♠♣❧❡'♠❡♥,❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡*✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } < ❞✐,♦ '❡& ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡
♦✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡ '❡ ♦' ✈❡,♦&❡' v1 , v2 , . . . , vr '3♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥,❡' ♦✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥,❡'✱
&❡'♣❡❝,✐✈❛♠❡♥,❡✳
❖❜'❡&✈❡♠♦' ;✉❡ '❡ ✉♠ ❞♦' ✈❡,♦&❡' v1 , v2 , . . . , vr < ♦ ✈❡,♦& ♥✉❧♦✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦'
v1 = 0✱ ❡♥,3♦ ♦' ✈❡,♦&❡' '3♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥,❡'✱ ♣♦✐'
1v1 + 0v2 + · · · + 0vr = 1 · 0 + 0 + · · · + 0 = 0

✷✳ ❉❊$❊◆❉✃◆❈■❆ ❊ ■◆❉❊$❊◆❉✃◆❈■❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘ ✼✶
❡ ♦ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥(❡ ❞❡ v1 ♥*♦ + 0✳ -♦. ♦✉(.♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ 3✉❛❧3✉❡. ✈❡(♦. ♥*♦ ♥✉❧♦ v +✱

♣♦. 6✐ 67✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡✱ ♣♦✐6 6❡ av = 0✱ ❡♥(*♦ a = 0✳ ❆ 6❡❣✉✐.✱ ❛♣.❡6❡♥(❛♠♦6
♦✉(.♦6 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦6 ❞❡ ✈❡(♦.❡6 ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡6 ❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡6✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❖6 ✈❡(♦.❡6 e1 = (1, 0, 0)✱ e2 = (0, 1, 0) ❡ e3 = (0, 0, 1) 6*♦
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡6✱ ♣♦✐6 ❛ ❡3✉❛=*♦
a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 a3 = 0,
❡3✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡ > ❡3✉❛=*♦
a1 (1, 0, 0) + a2 (0, 1, 0) + a3 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0),
+ 6❛(✐6❢❡✐(❛ 6♦♠❡♥(❡ 6❡ a1 = a2 = a3 = 0✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❱❛♠♦6 ✈❡.✐✜❝❛. 6❡ ♦6 ✈❡(♦.❡6 v1 = (1, −3, 4)✱ v2 = (3, 2, 1) ❡
v3 = (1, −1, 2) 6*♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡6 ♦✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡6✳
❆ ❡3✉❛=*♦
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 v3 = 0
+ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦.
a1 (1, −3, 4) + a2 (3, 2, 1) + a3 (1, −1, 2) = (0, 0, 0)
♦✉✱ ❡3✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡♠❡♥(❡✱ + ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧♦ 6✐6(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❤♦♠♦❣B♥❡♦


a1 + 3a2 + a3 = 0



−3a1 + 2a2 − a3 = 0 ✭✶✮


4a1 + a2 + 2a3 = 0 .

❆66✐♠✱ ♦6 ✈❡(♦.❡6 v1 ✱ v2 ❡ v3 6*♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡6✱ 6❡ ♦ 6✐6(❡♠❛ ❡♠ ✭✶✮ (✐✈❡.

6♦♠❡♥(❡ ❛ 6♦❧✉=*♦ (.✐✈✐❛❧❀ ♦✉ 6*♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡6✱ 6❡ ♦ 6✐6(❡♠❛ (✐✈❡. ✉♠❛ 6♦❧✉=*♦
♥*♦ (.✐✈✐❛❧✳ ▼❛6✱ ♦ 6✐6(❡♠❛ ❡♠ ✭✶✮ (❡♠ 6♦♠❡♥(❡ ❛ 6♦❧✉=*♦ (.✐✈✐❛❧ 6❡✱ ❡ 6♦♠❡♥(❡
6❡✱ ❛ ♠❛(.✐③ ❞♦6 ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥(❡6
 
1 3 1
A = −3 2 −1
 
4 1 2
✼✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
" ✐♥✈❡'()✈❡❧ ✭❝❢✳ ❈♦'♦❧1'✐♦ ✷✳✷✳✼✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛ ♠❛('✐③ " ❡6✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡ ♣♦' ❧✐♥❤❛: ;
♠❛('✐③ ✭❥✉:(✐✜6✉❡✮  
1 3 1
−3 2 −1 ,
 
0 0 0
❝♦♥❝❧✉)♠♦: 6✉❡ v1 ✱ v2 ❡ v3 :?♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥(❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡:✳
❆ :♦❧✉B?♦ ❞♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥(❡'✐♦' ♠♦(✐✈❛ ♦ ♣'D①✐♠♦ '❡:✉❧(❛❞♦✱ 6✉❡ ♥♦: ♦❢❡✲
'❡❝❡ ✉♠ ♠"(♦❞♦ ♣❛'❛ ✈❡'✐✜❝❛' :❡ n ✈❡(♦'❡: ❞❡ Rn :?♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥(❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥✲
❞❡♥(❡: ♦✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡:✳ ❆ ❞❡♠♦♥:('❛B?♦ " ❞❡✐①❛❞❛ ❛♦ ❝❛'❣♦ ❞♦ ❧❡✐(♦' ✭✈❡❥❛
G'♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✽✮✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✸✳✷✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ✈❡&♦(❡) ❡♠ Rn ✱ ♦♥❞❡✱ ♣❛(❛ ❝❛❞❛ i✱
❝♦♠ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ &❡♠♦) vi =(ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain )✳ ❙❡❥❛ A = [aij ]✳ ❚❡♠♦) 1✉❡
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } 3 ❧✐♥❡❛(♠❡♥&❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡ )❡✱ ❡ )♦♠❡♥&❡ )❡✱ A 3 ✐♥✈❡(&6✈❡❧✳
❊ ❝❛:♦ (❡♥❤❛♠♦: n+1 ✈❡(♦'❡: ❡♠ Rn ❄ ❖ ♣'D①✐♠♦ (❡♦'❡♠❛ ♠♦:('❛ 6✉❡ ✉♠
❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ ❧✐♥❡❛(♠❡♥&❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡ ❡♠ Rn ♣♦❞❡ ❝♦♥&❡( ♥♦ ♠7①✐♠♦ n ✈❡&♦(❡)✳
❚❡♦!❡♠❛ ✸✳✷✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ✈❡&♦(❡) ❡♠ Rn ✳ ❙❡ r > n✱ ❡♥&9♦ ♦)
✈❡&♦(❡) v1 , v2 , . . . , vr )9♦ ❧✐♥❡❛(♠❡♥&❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡)✳
❉❡♠♦♥$2!❛&'♦ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦: 6✉❡✱ ♣❛'❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ r✱ vi = (ai1 , . . . , ain )✳
❈♦♥:✐❞❡'❡♠♦: ❛ ❡6✉❛B?♦
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr = 0.
❊:(❛ ❡6✉❛B?♦ " ❡6✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡ ❛♦ :✐:(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❤♦♠♦❣N♥❡♦




 a11 k1 + a21 k2 + · · · + ar1 kr = 0

a k + a k + · · · + a k = 0

12 1 22 2 r2 r
✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✭✷✮


 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳


a1n k1 + a2n k2 + · · · + arn kr = 0 .

❖ :✐:(❡♠❛ ❞❛❞♦ ❡♠ ✭✷✮ " ✉♠ :✐:(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❤♦♠♦❣N♥❡♦ ❞❡ n ❡6✉❛BO❡: ♥❛: r

✐♥❝D❣♥✐(❛: k1 , k2 , . . . , kr ✳ ❈♦♠♦ r > n✱ :❡❣✉❡ ❞♦ ❈♦'♦❧1'✐♦ ✷✳✷✳✼ 6✉❡ ♦ :✐:(❡♠❛
(❡♠ :♦❧✉BO❡: ♥?♦ ('✐✈✐❛✐:✳ ■:(♦ ♠♦:('❛ 6✉❡ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr :?♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡:✳
✷✳ ❉❊$❊◆❉✃◆❈■❆ ❊ ■◆❉❊$❊◆❉✃◆❈■❆ ▲■◆❊❆❘ ✼✸
❖ #❡%♠♦ ✏❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥#❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥#❡✧ 0✉❣❡%❡ 3✉❡ ♦0 ✈❡#♦%❡0 ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ ♠❛✲

♥❡✐%❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♠ ✉♥0 ❞♦0 ♦✉#%♦0✳ ❖ ♣%7①✐♠♦ %❡0✉❧#❛❞♦ ♠♦0#%❛ 3✉❡ ✐0#♦ %❡❛❧✲
♠❡♥#❡ ♦❝♦%%❡✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✸✳✷✳✸✳ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ ✜♥✐'♦ ❝♦♠ ❞♦✐+ ♦✉ ♠❛✐+ ✈❡'♦/❡+ ❞❡ ✉♠
α
❡+♣❛1♦ ✈❡'♦/✐❛❧ V 3 ❧✐♥❡❛/♠❡♥'❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡ +❡✱ ❡ +♦♠❡♥'❡ +❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ ♠❡♥♦+ ✉♠
❞♦+ ✈❡'♦/❡+ ❞❡ α ♣♦❞❡ +❡/ ❡+❝/✐'♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛16♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❞♦+ ♦✉'/♦+
✈❡'♦/❡+✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ ❙❡❥❛ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } ✉♠ 0✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥#♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡0♣❛=♦
✈❡#♦%✐❛❧ V ✳ ❙❡ α > ❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥#❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥#❡✱ ❡♥#@♦ ❡①✐0#❡♠ ♥A♠❡%♦0 %❡❛✐0
a1 , a2 , . . . , ar ✱ ♥@♦ #♦❞♦0 ♥✉❧♦0✱ #❛✐0 3✉❡ a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ar vr = 0✳ ❙✉♣♦✲
♥❤❛♠♦0 3✉❡ aj 6= 0✳ ❊♥#@♦
a1 aj−1 aj+1 ar
vj = − v1 − · · · − vj−1 − vj+1 − · · · − vr ,
aj aj aj aj
♠♦0#%❛♥❞♦ 3✉❡ vj > ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛=@♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❞♦0 ❞❡♠❛✐0 ✈❡#♦%❡0 ❞❡ α✳ ❙✉♣♦✲
♥❤❛♠♦0 ❛❣♦%❛ 3✉❡ α #❡♠ ❛ ♣%♦♣%✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ 3✉❡ ✉♠ ❞❡ 0❡✉0 ✈❡#♦%❡0✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦0
vi ✱ ♣♦❞❡ 0❡% ❡0❝%✐#♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛=@♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❞♦0 ♦✉#%♦0 ✈❡#♦%❡0 ❞❡ α✳
❖✉ 0❡❥❛✱ 3✉❡ ❡①✐0#❡♠ ♥A♠❡%♦0 %❡❛✐0 b1 , . . . , bi−1 , bi+1 , . . . , br #❛✐0 3✉❡
vi = b1 v1 + · · · + bi−1 vi−1 + bi+1 vi+1 + · · · + br vr .
❆ ❡3✉❛=@♦ ❛♥#❡%✐♦% ❡3✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛
b1 v1 + · · · + bi−1 vi−1 − 1vi + bi+1 vi+1 + · · · + br vr = 0. ✭✸✮
❈♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥#❡ ❞❡ vi ♥❛ ❡3✉❛=@♦ ✭✸✮ ♥@♦ > 0✱ 0❡❣✉❡ 3✉❡ α > ❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥#❡
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥#❡✳
❉♦ %❡0✉❧#❛❞♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ 0❡❣✉❡ ✐♠❡❞✐❛#❛♠❡♥#❡ 3✉❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ ✜♥✐'♦ α ❝♦♠
❞♦✐+ ♦✉ ♠❛✐+ ✈❡'♦/❡+ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡+♣❛1♦ ✈❡'♦/✐❛❧ V 3 ❧✐♥❡❛/♠❡♥'❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡ +❡✱ ❡
+♦♠❡♥'❡ +❡✱ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ❞♦+ ✈❡'♦/❡+ ❞❡ α ♣♦❞❡ +❡/ ❡+❝/✐'♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛16♦
❧✐♥❡❛/ ❞♦+ ♦✉'/♦+ ✈❡'♦/❡+✳
J♦% ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ❞♦0 ✈❡#♦%❡0 ❞❛❞♦0 ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶ ♣♦❞❡ 0❡% ❡0❝%✐#♦
❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛=@♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❞♦0 ❞❡♠❛✐0✳ ❏M✱ ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✱ ♦❜0❡%✈❡♠♦0 3✉❡
5 2
v3 = v1 + v2 ✳
11 11
✼✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✷✳✶✯ ❈♦♥%✐❞❡)❡ ♦ ❡%♣❛,♦ ✈❡.♦)✐❛❧ R[x]✳ ❉❡.❡)♠✐♥❡ %❡ ♦% ♣♦❧✐♥3♠✐♦% f (x)✱
g(x)✱ h(x) %5♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥.❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡%✱ ♦♥❞❡ f (x) = x3 + 4x2 − 2x + 3✱
g(x) = x3 + 6x2 − x + 4 ❡ h(x) = 2x3 + 8x2 − 8x + 7✳
✷✳✷ ❱❡)✐✜8✉❡✱ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛%♦✱ %❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ❞❡ ✈❡.♦)❡% ❞❡ R3 ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦ < ❧✐♥❡❛)✲

♠❡♥.❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡✿
✭❛✮ {(2, −1, 4), (−4, 10, 2)}❀
✭❜✮ {(−3, 0, 4), (5, −1, 2), (1, 1, 3)}❀
✭❝✮ {(1, 0, 2), (3, 1, 5), (−1, 2, 1), (4, 0, 1)}✳
✷✳✸ ◗✉❛✐% ❞♦% %❡❣✉✐♥.❡% ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦% ❞❡ ✈❡.♦)❡% ❡♠ R4 %5♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥.❡ ❞❡♣❡♥✲

❞❡♥.❡%❄
✭❛✮ {(3, 8, 7, −3), (1, −1/2, 1, 3), (1, 4, 0, 3)}❀
✭❜✮ {(0, 0, 1, 1), (2, 2, 0, 0), (3, 3, 0, −3)}❀
✭❝✮ {(1, 0, −1, 2), (0, 2, 3, 1), (0, 1, 1, 0), (−2, 1, 2, 1)}✳
✷✳✹ F❛)❛ 8✉❛✐% ✈❛❧♦)❡% )❡❛✐% ❞❡ a ♦% ✈❡.♦)❡%

v1 = (a, −1, −1), v2 = (−1, a, −1) ❡ v3 = (−1, −1, a)
❢♦)♠❛♠ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥.❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡ ❡♠ R3 ❄
✷✳✺ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡%♣❛,♦ ✈❡.♦)✐❛❧ ❡ %❡❥❛ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)✲

♠❡♥.❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡ ❞❡ ✈❡.♦)❡% ❞❡ V ✳ ▼♦%.)❡ 8✉❡ 8✉❛❧8✉❡) %✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ♥5♦
✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡ α < .❛♠❜<♠ ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥.❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡✳
✷✳✻ ▼♦%.)❡ 8✉❡ %❡ {v1, v2, v3, v4} < ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥.❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡ ❞❡
✈❡.♦)❡% ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡%♣❛,♦ ✈❡.♦)✐❛❧ V ❡ %❡ v5 < ✉♠ ✈❡.♦) 8✉❛❧8✉❡) ❡♠ V ✱ ❡♥.5♦
{v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 } .❛♠❜<♠ < ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥.❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡✳
✷✳✼ ▼♦%.)❡ 8✉❡ %❡ {v1, v2, v3, v4} ❣❡)❛ ✉♠ ❡%♣❛,♦ ✈❡.♦)✐❛❧ V ❡ %❡ v4 < ✉♠❛
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛,5♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞❡ v1 ✱ v2 ❡ v3 ✱ ❡♥.5♦ {v1 , v2 , v3 } ❛✐♥❞❛ ❣❡)❛ V ✳
✷✳✽ ❉❡♠♦♥%.)❡ ❛ F)♦♣♦%✐,5♦ ✸✳✷✳✶✳

✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❊ ❉■▼❊◆❙➹❖ ✼✺
✷✳✾ ▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡ $❡ {v1 , v2 , v3 } * ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡ ❞❡

✈❡%♦&❡$ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡$♣❛5♦ ✈❡%♦&✐❛❧ V ❡ $❡ v4 ∈
/ G(v1 , v2 , v3 )✱ ❡♥%7♦ {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }
* ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡✳
✷✳✶✵ ❉❛❞♦$ ♦$ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦$ v1 , . . . , vr ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡$♣❛5♦ ✈❡%♦&✐❛❧ V ✱ ♠♦$%&❡ (✉❡

❡$$❡$ $7♦ ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡$ $❡✱ ❡ $♦♠❡♥%❡ $❡✱ * ✐♥❥❡%✐✈❛ ❛ $❡❣✉✐♥%❡
❛♣❧✐❝❛57♦✿
ϕ: Rr → V
(a1 , . . . , ar ) 7→ a1 v1 + · · · + ar vr .
✸ ❇❛#❡# ❡ ❉✐♠❡♥#)♦
◆❡$%❛ $❡57♦ ✐♥%&♦❞✉③✐&❡♠♦$ ♦$ ❞♦✐$ ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦$ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥%❛✐$ ♥♦ ❝♦♥%❡①%♦
❞♦$ ❡$♣❛5♦$ ✈❡%♦&✐❛✐$✿ ❜❛$❡ ❡ ❞✐♠❡♥$7♦✳ ❊$$❡$ ❞♦✐$ ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦$ ❡$❝❧❛&❡❝❡♠ ❛
❡$%&✉%✉&❛ ❞❡$$❡$ ❡$♣❛5♦$ ❡ ❛♦ ♠❡$♠♦ %❡♠♣♦ $✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♠ ❛$ ❞❡♠♦♥$%&❛5C❡$ ❞❡
✈D&✐♦$ &❡$✉❧%❛❞♦$ $♦❜&❡ ❡❧❡$✳
✸✳✶ ❇❛%❡%
❙❡❥❛ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ ♦&❞❡♥❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✈❡%♦&❡$ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡$♣❛5♦
✈❡%♦&✐❛❧ V ✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦$ (✉❡ α * ✉♠❛ ❜❛"❡ ❞❡ V $❡ ❛$ $❡❣✉✐♥%❡$ ❝♦♥❞✐5C❡$ $7♦
✈❡&✐✜❝❛❞❛$✿
✭✐✮ α * ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡❀
✭✐✐✮ V = G(α)✳
❱✐♠♦$ ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✱ ❞❛ $❡57♦ ❛♥%❡&✐♦&✱ (✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ α = {e1 , e2 , e3 }

* ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡✳ ❊$%❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ %❛♠❜*♠ ❣❡&❛ R3 ✱ ♣♦✐$ (✉❛❧(✉❡&
✈❡%♦& v = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) ❡♠ R3 ♣♦❞❡ $❡& ❡$❝&✐%♦ ❝♦♠♦ v = a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 ✳
❆$$✐♠✱ α✱ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♦&❞❡♥❛57♦ ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧♦$ L♥❞✐❝❡$✱ * ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ R3 ✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛
❜❛"❡ ❝❛♥&♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❊$%❡ * ✉♠ ❝❛$♦ ♣❛&%✐❝✉❧❛& ❞♦ ♣&N①✐♠♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦$ ♦ "(♠❜♦❧♦ ❞❡ ❑.♦♥❡❝❦❡. ✶ ✱ δij ✱ ♣❛&❛ (i, j) ∈ N2 ✱ ❝♦♠♦

✶ ▲❡♦♣♦❧❞ ❑'♦♥❡❝❦❡' ✭❆❧❡♠❛♥❤❛✱ ✶✽✷✸ ✕ ✶✽✾✶✮ ❢♦✐ ✉♠ ❞♦; ❣'❛♥❞❡; ♠❛=❡♠>=✐❝♦; ❞♦
;?❝✉❧♦ ❳■❳✳ ❆❧?♠ ❞❡ ;✉❛ ❣'❛♥❞❡ ❡ ♣'♦❢✉♥❞❛ ❝♦♥='✐❜✉✐DE♦ F ▼❛=❡♠>=✐❝❛✱ ✜❝♦✉ ❢❛♠♦;♦
✼✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
(
1, "❡ i = j
δij =
0, "❡ i 6= j.
❙❡❥❛ n ∈ N \ {0}✳ (❛)❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ ❞❡♥♦/❡♠♦" ♣♦) ei ♦ ✈❡/♦)
(δi1 , δi2 , . . . , δij , . . . , δin ) = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . 0)
❡♠ Rn ✱ ♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥/❡ 1 ❡♥❝♦♥/)❛✲"❡ ♥❛ i✲4"✐♠❛ ♣♦"✐67♦✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦

α = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } 4 ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥/❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡✱ ♣♦✐" ❛ ❡;✉❛67♦
k1 e 1 + k 2 e 2 + · · · + kn e n = 0
4 "❛/✐"❢❡✐/❛ "♦♠❡♥/❡ "❡ k1 = k2 = · · · = kn = 0✳ ❆❧4♠ ❞✐"/♦✱ ❡"/❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦

/❛♠❜4♠ ❣❡)❛ Rn ✱ ♣♦✐" ;✉❛❧;✉❡) ✈❡/♦) v = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ❡♠ Rn ♣♦❞❡ "❡)
❡"❝)✐/♦ ❝♦♠♦
v = a1 e1 + a2 e2 + · · · + an en .
❆""✐♠✱ α✱ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♦)❞❡♥❛67♦ ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧♦ @♥❞✐❝❡" ❞♦" e′i s 4 ✉♠❛ ❜❛"❡ ❞❡ Rn ✱
❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❜❛"❡ ❝❛♥&♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ Rn ✳
❖ ♣)B①✐♠♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♣)❡"❡♥/❛ ❛ ❜❛"❡ ❝❛♥&♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ M(m, n)✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❙❡❥❛♠
" # " # " # " #
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
M1 = , M2 = , M3 = ❡ M4 = .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ α = {M1 , M2 , M3 , M4 } 4 ✉♠❛ ❜❛"❡ ❞❡ M(2, 2)✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐/♦✱ ♣❛)❛

✈❡)♠♦" ;✉❡ α ❣❡)❛ M(2, 2)✱ ♦❜"❡)✈❡♠♦" ;✉❡ ✉♠ ✈❡/♦) ;✉❛❧;✉❡)
" #
a b
M=
c d
❡♠ M(2, 2) ♣♦❞❡ "❡) ❡"❝)✐/♦ ❝♦♠♦
M = aM1 + bM2 + cM3 + dM4 .

♣❡❧❛ ♣♦❧%♠✐❝❛ ❡♥✈♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ♦, -.❛❜❛❧❤♦, ❞❡ ❈❛♥-♦.✱ ♦ ❝.✐❛❞♦. ❞❛ ❚❡♦.✐❛ ❞♦, ❈♦♥❥✉♥-♦,✱ 6✉❡
❑.♦♥❡❝❦❡. ♥9♦ ❝♦♥,✐❞❡.❛✈❛ ▼❛-❡♠;-✐❝❛✳
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❊ ❉■▼❊◆❙➹❖ ✼✼
!❛#❛ ✈❡#✐✜❝❛#♠♦+ ,✉❡ α . ❧✐♥❡❛#♠❡♥1❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥1❡✱ +✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ,✉❡
a1 M1 + a2 M2 + a3 M3 + a4 M4 = 0,
♦✉ +❡❥❛✱
" # " # " # " # " # " #
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 a1 a2 0 0
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 = = .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 a3 a4 0 0
❙❡❣✉❡✲+❡ ,✉❡ a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 = 0 ❡✱ ♣♦#1❛♥1♦✱ α . ❧✐♥❡❛#♠❡♥1❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥✲

❞❡♥1❡✳ ❆ ❜❛+❡ α . ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❛ ❜❛"❡ ❝❛♥&♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ M(2, 2)✳ ▼❛✐+ ❣❡#❛❧♠❡♥1❡✱ ❛
❜❛"❡ ❝❛♥&♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ M(m, n) . ❢♦#♠❛❞❛ ♣♦# mn ♠❛1#✐③❡+ ❞✐+1✐♥1❛+✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛
❞❛+ ,✉❛✐+ ♣♦++✉✐♥❞♦ ✉♠❛ @♥✐❝❛ ❡♥1#❛❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✶ ❡ 1♦❞❛+ ❛+ ❞❡♠❛✐+ ❡♥1#❛❞❛+
✐❣✉❛✐+ ❛ ✵✱ ♦#❞❡♥❛❞❛+ ❞❡ ❢♦#♠❛ +❡♠❡❧❤❛♥1❡ ❛♦ ,✉❡ ❢♦✐ ❢❡✐1♦ ♥♦ ❝❛+♦ M(2, 2)✳
❆ ♥♦CD♦ ❞❡ ❜❛+❡ . ✉♠❛ ❣❡♥❡#❛❧✐③❛CD♦ ♣❛#❛ ❡+♣❛C♦+ ✈❡1♦#✐❛✐+ ❛#❜✐1#E#✐♦+

❞♦ +✐+1❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦#❞❡♥❛❞❛+ ❡♠ R2 ❡ R3 ❥E ,✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡#❡♠♦+ ❛ +❡❣✉✐#✱ ✉♠❛
❜❛+❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡+♣❛C♦ ✈❡1♦#✐❛❧ V . ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦ ❣❡#❛❞♦# ♥♦ ,✉❛❧ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡1♦# ❞❡
V ♣♦❞❡ +❡# ❡+❝#✐1♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ +♥✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛CD♦ ❧✐♥❡❛# ❞❡++❡+ ✈❡1♦#❡+✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ α = {v1, v2, . . . , vn} ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ♦0❞❡♥❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✈❡/♦0❡"
❞❡ ✉♠ ❡"♣❛3♦ ✈❡/♦0✐❛❧ V ✳ ❆" "❡❣✉✐♥/❡" ❛✜0♠❛39❡" ":♦ ❡;✉✐✈❛❧❡♥/❡"✿
✭✐✮ α = ✉♠❛ ❜❛"❡ ❞❡ V ❀

✭✐✐✮ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡/♦0 v ❡♠ V ♣♦❞❡ "❡0 ❡"❝0✐/♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ +♥✐❝♦ ♥❛ ❢♦0♠❛
v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ,✉❡ α . ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦+ v ∈ V ✳
❈♦♠♦ α ❣❡#❛ V ✱ ❡①✐+1❡♠ ♥@♠❡#♦+ #❡❛✐+ a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1❛✐+ ,✉❡
v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn . ✭✶✮
!❛#❛ ♠♦+1#❛# ,✉❡ ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛CD♦ ❧✐♥❡❛# ❡♠ ✭✶✮ . @♥✐❝❛✱ +✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ,✉❡ ❡①✐+✲
1❡♠
b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ❡♠ R 1❛✐+ ,✉❡
v = b1 v 1 + b2 v 2 + · · · + bn vn . ✭✷✮
✼✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
❉❡ ✭✶✮ ❡ ✭✷✮ (❡❣✉❡ +✉❡
(a1 − b1 )v1 + (a2 − b2 )v2 + · · · + (an − bn )vn = 0. ✭✸✮
❈♦♠♦ α 0 ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥5❡✱ ❛ ❡+✉❛89♦ ✭✸✮ 0 (❛5✐(❢❡✐5❛ (♦♠❡♥5❡ (❡ aj − bj = 0

♣❛;❛ 5♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ ♦✉ (❡❥❛✱ (❡ bj = aj ♣❛;❛ 5♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✳ ❈♦♠♦
v ∈ V ❢♦✐ 5♦♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛;❜✐5;?;✐♦✱ ✭✐✐✮ (❡❣✉❡✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦( ❛❣♦;❛ +✉❡ α
5❡♠ ❛ ♣;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ +✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡5♦; v ❡♠ V ♣♦❞❡ (❡; ❡(❝;✐5♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ D♥✐❝♦
❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛89♦ ❧✐♥❡❛; ❞♦( ❡❧❡♠❡♥5♦( ❞❡ α✳ F❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐89♦ ❞❡ ❡(♣❛8♦ ❣❡;❛❞♦✱
❝❧❛;❛♠❡♥5❡ α ❣❡;❛ V ✳ F❛;❛ ♠♦(5;❛;♠♦( +✉❡ α 0 ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥5❡✱ ❝♦♥(✐❞❡;❡♠♦(
❛ ❡+✉❛89♦
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kn vn = 0.
❈♦♠♦ 0 = 0v1 + 0v2 + · · · + 0vn ❡ ❡(5❛ ❡(❝;✐5❛ 0 D♥✐❝❛✱ (❡❣✉❡ +✉❡ k1 = k2 =
· · · = k n = 0✳
❖( ♥D♠❡;♦( ;❡❛✐( a1 , a2 , . . . , an +✉❡ ❛♣❛;❡❝❡♠ ♥♦ ❚❡♦;❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✶ (9♦ ❝❤❛✲
♠❛❞♦( ❝♦♦"❞❡♥❛❞❛' ❞❡ v ♥❛ ❜❛(❡ α✳ ❆ ♠❛5;✐③ n × 1
 
a1
 a2 
 
 ✳ ,
✳
✳
an
❞❡♥♦5❛❞❛ ♣♦; [v]α ✱ 0 ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❛ ♠❛)"✐③ ❞❛' ❝♦♦"❞❡♥❛❞❛' ❞❡ v ♥❛ ❜❛(❡ α✳ F♦;

❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ (❡ α 0 ❛ ❜❛(❡ ❝❛♥N♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R3 ❡ v = (1, 2, 1)✱ ❡♥59♦
 
1
[v]α = 2 .
 
❚♦♠❡♠♦( ❛❣♦;❛ β = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}✱ +✉❡ 0 ✉♠❛ ❜❛(❡ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❊♥59♦
 
0
[v]β = 1 .
 
1
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❊ ❉■▼❊◆❙➹❖ ✼✾
●❡♦♠❡&'✐❝❛♠❡♥&❡✱ ♦ ✈❡&♦' v .❡ ❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛ ❡♠ ✉♠❛ ♠❡.♠❛ ♣♦.✐34♦ ♥♦ ❡.♣❛3♦ ❝❛'✲

&❡.✐❛♥♦✱ ♣♦'6♠ ♦ ♠♦❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧❡ 6 ❞❡&❡'♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❡.♣❛3♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❛ ❜❛.❡
❝♦♠ ❛ 9✉❛❧ ❡.&❛♠♦. &'❛❜❛❧❤❛♥❞♦✳ ❖. ✈❡&♦'❡. ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ R3 ✭'❡.♣❡❝✲
&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡ R2 ✮ ❡.♣❡❝✐✜❝❛♠ ✉♠ ✐ "❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦)❞❡♥❛❞❛ ♥♦ ❡.♣❛3♦ ❝❛'&❡.✐❛♥♦
✭'❡.♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡ ♥♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝❛'&❡.✐❛♥♦✮✳
❖❜.❡'✈❛♠♦. 9✉❡ ❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ❞❛. ❝♦♦'❞❡♥❛❞❛. ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡&♦' ❡♠ '❡❧❛34♦ ❛ ✉♠❛
❜❛.❡ α ♥4♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❛♣❡♥❛. ❞❡ α✱ ♠❛. &❛♠❜6♠ ❞❛ ♦'❞❡♠ ♥❛ 9✉❛❧ ❡.❝'❡✈❡♠♦.
♦. .❡✉. ✈❡&♦'❡.✱ ❥A 9✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠✉❞❛♥3❛ ♥❛ ♦'❞❡♠ ❞♦. ✈❡&♦'❡. ❞❛ ❜❛.❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
♥✉♠❛ ♠✉❞❛♥3❛ ❝♦''❡.♣♦♥❞❡♥&❡ ❞❛ ♦'❞❡♠ ❞❛. ❡♥&'❛❞❛. ❞❛ ♠❛&'✐③✳ ❉❡..❛
❢♦'♠❛✱ ✉♠❛ ❜❛ ❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡ ♣❛.♦ ✈❡"♦)✐❛❧ ❡)1 ❡♠♣)❡ ❝♦♥ ✐❞❡)❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠
❝♦♥❥✉♥"♦ ♦)❞❡♥❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✈❡"♦)❡ ✳
❖ ♣'D①✐♠♦ &❡♦'❡♠❛ ♠♦.&'❛ 9✉❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ ❣❡'❛❞♦' ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡.♣❛3♦ ✈❡&♦✲

'✐❛❧ V .❡♠♣'❡ ❝♦♥&6♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ V ✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ v1, v2, . . . , vn ✈❡"♦)❡ ♥4♦ ♥✉❧♦ 5✉❡ ❣❡)❛♠ ✉♠ ❡ ♣❛.♦
✈❡"♦)✐❛❧ V✳ ❊♥"4♦✱ ❞❡♥")❡ ❡ "❡ ✈❡"♦)❡ ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦ ❡①")❛✐) ✉♠❛ ❜❛ ❡ ❞❡ V✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ ❈♦♥.✐❞❡'❡♠♦. α0 = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }✳ ❉❡✈❡♠♦. ❡①&'❛✐' ✉♠
❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥&❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡ ❞❡ α0 ✳ ❙❡ α0 6 ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥&❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡✱
❡♥&4♦ α0 6 ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥.&'❛34♦ &❡'♠✐♥❛ ❛9✉✐✳ ❙❡ α0 6 ❧✐♥❡❛'✲
♠❡♥&❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡✱ .❡❣✉❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ✸✳✷✳✸ 9✉❡ ❡①✐.&❡ ✉♠ ✈❡&♦' ❞❡ α0 9✉❡
♣♦❞❡ .❡' ❡.❝'✐&♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❞♦. ❞❡♠❛✐.✳ ❙❡♠ ♣❡'❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡'❛❧✐✲
❞❛❞❡✱ .✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦. 9✉❡ ❡.&❡ ✈❡&♦' .❡❥❛ vn ✱ ♦✉ .❡❥❛✱ 9✉❡ vn 6 ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛34♦
❧✐♥❡❛' ❞❡ v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−1 ✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ α1 = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−1 } ❛✐♥❞❛ ❣❡'❛ V ✳
✭L♦' 9✉M❄ ❱❡❥❛ L'♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✼✮✳ ❙❡ α1 6 ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥&❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡✱ ❡♥&4♦
α1 6 ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❙❡ α1 6 ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥&❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡✱ ❡♥&4♦ ✉♠ ❞♦. ✈❡&♦✲
'❡. ❞❡ α1 ✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦. vn−1 ✱ 6 ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❞♦. ❞❡♠❛✐.✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦
α2 = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−2 } ❛✐♥❞❛ ❣❡'❛ V ✳ ❙❡ α2 6 ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥&❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡✱
❡♥&4♦ α2 6 ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❙❡ α2 6 ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥&❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡✱ ♣'♦..❡❣✉✐♠♦.
❝♦♠♦ ❛♥&❡'✐♦'♠❡♥&❡✳ ❆♣D. ✉♠❛ 9✉❛♥&✐❞❛❞❡ ✜♥✐&❛ ❞❡ ♣❛..♦.✱ ♦❜&❡'❡♠♦. ✉♠
❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ αr ❢♦'♠❛❞♦ ♣♦' n − r ✈❡&♦'❡. (0 ≤ r ≤ n − 1) ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥&❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥✲
❞❡♥&❡. 9✉❡ ❛✐♥❞❛ ❣❡'❛♠ V ✳
✽✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
❖ ♣$%①✐♠♦ $❡+✉❧.❛❞♦ ❣❡♥❡$❛❧✐③❛ ♦ ❚❡♦$❡♠❛ ✸✳✷✳✷✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✸✳ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡&♣❛(♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❣❡,❛❞♦ ♣♦, ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ✜♥✐+♦
❞❡ ✈❡+♦,❡& v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ✳ ❊♥+6♦✱ 8✉❛❧8✉❡, ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❝♦♠ ♠❛✐& ❞❡ n ✈❡+♦,❡&
❞❡ V 9 ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥+❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡✳ (❈♦♥&❡8✉❡♥+❡♠❡♥+❡✱ 8✉❛❧8✉❡, ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❞❡
✈❡+♦,❡& ❞❡ V ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡ +❡♠ ♥♦ ♠;①✐♠♦ n ✈❡+♦,❡&)✳
❉❡♠♦♥*+#❛,-♦ ❈♦♥+✐❞❡$❡♠♦+ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }✳ 9❡❧♦ ❚❡♦$❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✷✱ ♣♦✲
❞❡♠♦+ ❡①.$❛✐$ ❞❡ α ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ +❡♠ ♣❡$❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡$❛❧✐❞❛❞❡
?✉❡ β = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } +❡❥❛ ❡+.❛ ❜❛+❡ ✭♥♦.❡♠♦+ ?✉❡ 1 ≤ r ≤ n✮✳ ❈♦♥+✐❞❡✲
$❡♠♦+ ❛❣♦$❛ w1 , w2 , . . . , wm ✈❡.♦$❡+ ❞❡ V ✱ ❝♦♠ m > n✳ ❱❛♠♦+ ♠♦+.$❛$ ?✉❡
❡+.❡+ ✈❡.♦$❡+ +F♦ ❧✐♥❡❛$♠❡♥.❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡+✳ ❉❡ ❢❛.♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ β I ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡
V ✱ ❡①✐+.❡♠ ♥J♠❡$♦+ $❡❛✐+ aij (1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ r) .❛✐+ ?✉❡


 w1 = a11 v1 + a12 v2 + · · · + a1r vr ,


 w2 = a21 v1 + a22 v2 + · · · + a2r vr ,

✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✭✹✮


 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳


wm = am1 v1 + am2 v2 + · · · + amr vr .

❙❡ x1 w1 + x2 w2 + · · · + xm wm = 0✱ +❡❣✉❡ ❞❡ ✭✹✮ ?✉❡
(a11 x1 + a21 x2 + · · · + am1 xm )v1 + · · · + ✭✺✮

+ (a1r x1 + a2r x2 + · · · + amr xm )vr = 0.
❈♦♠♦ β I ❧✐♥❡❛$♠❡♥.❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡✱ ❛ ❡?✉❛MF♦ ✭✺✮ ♥♦+ ❢♦$♥❡❝❡ ♦ +✐+.❡♠❛

❧✐♥❡❛$ ❤♦♠♦❣N♥❡♦


 a11 x1 + a21 x2 + · · · + am1 xm = 0
✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳

 ✳ ✳ ✳

a1r x1 + a2r x2 + · · · + amr xm = 0

?✉❡ .❡♠ r ❡?✉❛MO❡+ ❡ x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ❝♦♠♦ ✐♥❝%❣♥✐.❛+✳ ❈♦♠♦ r < m✱ ♦ ❈♦$♦✲

❧P$✐♦ ✷✳✷✳✼ ❣❛$❛♥.❡ ?✉❡ ♦ +✐+.❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛$ ❡♠ ?✉❡+.F♦ ❛❞♠✐.❡ ✐♥✜♥✐.❛+ +♦❧✉MO❡+✳
▲♦❣♦✱ ❡❧❡ ❛❞♠✐.❡ ✉♠❛ +♦❧✉MF♦ ♥F♦ .$✐✈✐❛❧✱ ♦✉ +❡❥❛✱ ❡①✐+.❡ ✉♠❛ +♦❧✉MF♦ ❝♦♠
❛❧❣✉♠ xi ♥F♦ ♥✉❧♦✳ 9♦$.❛♥.♦✱ ♦+ ✈❡.♦$❡+ w1 , w2 , . . . , wm +F♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡+✳
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❊ ❉■▼❊◆❙➹❖ ✽✶
❯♠ ❡%♣❛(♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ♥0♦ ♥✉❧♦ V 2 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥%&♦ ✜♥✐)❛ %❡ ❝♦♥✲

+2♠ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ✜♥✐+♦ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ❞❡ ✈❡+♦,❡% 9✉❡ ❝♦♥%+✐+✉✐ ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ❞❡
V ✳ ❙❡ ♥0♦ ❡①✐%+✐, ✉♠ +❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦% 9✉❡ V 2 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥%&♦ ✐♥✜♥✐)❛✳
❈♦♥✈❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦% 9✉❡ ♦ ❡%♣❛(♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ♥✉❧♦ 2 ✉♠ ❡%♣❛(♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥%0♦ ✜♥✐+❛✳
❖ ♣,B①✐♠♦ ,❡%✉❧+❛❞♦✱ 9✉❡ 2 ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥%❡9✉C♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ ❚❡♦,❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✸✱ ♥♦%
❣❛,❛♥+❡ 9✉❡ )♦❞❛% ❛% ❜❛%❡% ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡%♣❛.♦ ✈❡)♦0✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥%&♦ ✜♥✐)❛ )2♠ ♦
♠❡%♠♦ ♥3♠❡0♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥)♦% ✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✹✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } ❡ β = {w1 , w2 , . . . , ws } ❞✉❛%
❜❛%❡% ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡%♣❛.♦ ✈❡)♦0✐❛❧ V ✳ ❊♥)&♦✱ r = s✳ ❆❧:♠ ❞✐%%♦✱ %❡ A = (aij ) ❡
B = (bij ) %&♦ ❛% ♠❛)0✐③❡% ❝♦♠ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥)❡% 0❡❛✐% )❛✐% =✉❡
r
X r
X
vi = aij wj ❡ wj = bjk vk ,
j=1 k=1
❡♥)&♦ AB = I✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ ❈♦♠♦ α ❣❡,❛ V ❡ β 2 ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥✲
❞❡♥+❡✱ %❡❣✉❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦,❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✸ 9✉❡ s ≤ r✳ G♦, ♦✉+,♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ β ❣❡,❛ V ❡ α
2 ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡✱ %❡❣✉❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦,❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✸ 9✉❡ r ≤ s✳
G♦,+❛♥+♦✱ r = s✳
❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B +❛✐% 9✉❡
r
X r
X
vi = aij wj ❡ wj = bjk vk .
j=1 k=1
✳ ▲♦❣♦
Pr Pr Pr
vi = j=1 aij wj = j=1 aij ( k=1 bjk vk )
Pn P
n
= k=1 j=1 aij bjk vk .
❈♦♠♦ ♦% vi ✱ i = 1, . . . , r ❢♦,♠❛♠ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡✱ ✐%+♦
❛❝❛,,❡+❛ ✭❥✉%+✐✜9✉❡✮ 9✉❡
Xr
aij bjk = δik ,
j=1
❧♦❣♦ AB = I✱ ♣,♦✈❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♣❛,+❡ 9✉❡ ❢❛❧+❛✈❛ ❞♦ ,❡%✉❧+❛❞♦✳

✽✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
✸✳✷ ❉✐♠❡♥()♦
❖ ♥$♠❡'♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦, ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡,♣❛1♦ ✈❡+♦'✐❛❧ V ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥,4♦
✜♥✐+❛ 6 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥%&♦ ❞❡ V ❡ ❞❡♥♦+❛❞♦ ♣♦' dim V ✳ ❈♦♥✈❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦,
;✉❡ ,❡ V 6 ♦ ❡,♣❛1♦ ✈❡+♦'✐❛❧ ♥✉❧♦✱ ❡♥+4♦ dim V = 0✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ Rn ❡ M(m, n) ,4♦ ❡,♣❛1♦, ✈❡+♦'✐❛✐, ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥,4♦ ✜♥✐+❛✳ ❆ ❞✐✲

♠❡♥,4♦ ❞❡ Rn 6 n✱ ❥@ ;✉❡ ❛ ❜❛,❡ ❝❛♥A♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ Rn +❡♠ n ❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦, ✭✈❡' ❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✶✮✳ G♦' ❡,+❛ '❛③4♦✱ Rn 6 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❡%♣❛*♦ n✲❞✐♠❡♥%✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❖, ❡,♣❛1♦, ✈❡+♦✲
'✐❛✐, R2 ❡ R3 ,4♦ ✉,✉❛❧♠❡♥+❡ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦, ❞❡ ❡,♣❛1♦, ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥,✐♦♥❛❧ ❡ +'✐❞✐♠❡♥✲
,✐♦♥❛❧✱ '❡,♣❡❝+✐✈❛♠❡♥+❡✳ ❏@ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥,4♦ ❞❡ M(m, n) 6 m · n ✭✈❡' ❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✷✮✳ ❖ ❡,♣❛1♦ ✈❡+♦'✐❛❧ R[x]✱ ✐♥+'♦❞✉③✐❞♦ ♣♦' G❡❛♥♦ ❡ ;✉❡ ❛♣'❡,❡♥+❛♠♦, ♥♦
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸ ❞❛ ❙❡14♦ ✶✱ ❈❛♣L+✉❧♦ ✶✱ 6 ✉♠ ❡,♣❛1♦ ✈❡+♦'✐❛❧ ;✉❡ +❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥,4♦
✐♥✜♥✐+❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛+♦✱ +♦♠❡♠♦, n ∈ N \ {0} ❡ ,✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦, ;✉❡ α = {p1 , . . . , pn } 6
✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡ R[x]✳ ❖❜,❡'✈❡♠♦, ;✉❡ ;✉❛❧;✉❡' ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛14♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❞♦, ❡❧❡♠❡♥✲
+♦, ❞❡ α +❡♠ ❣'❛✉ ♥♦ ♠@①✐♠♦ M ✱ ♦♥❞❡ M = max{❣'❛✉(pi ) ; 1 ≤ i ≤ n}✳
❆,,✐♠✱ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥A♠✐♦ q(x) = xM +1 ❡,+@ ❡♠ R[x]✱ ♠❛, ♥4♦ ♣♦❞❡ ,❡' ❡,❝'✐+♦ ❝♦♠♦
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛14♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❞♦, ❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦, ❞❡ α✳ G♦'+❛♥+♦✱ α ♥4♦ ❢♦'♠❛ ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡
R[x]✳ ❈♦♠♦ n ❢♦✐ +♦♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛'❜✐+'@'✐♦✱ ✈❡♠♦, ;✉❡ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦
✜♥✐+♦ ❞❡ ✈❡+♦'❡, ❡♠ R[x] ❝♦♥,+✐+✉✐ ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ♣❛'❛ ❡,+❡ ❡,♣❛1♦ ✈❡+♦'✐❛❧✳
❱✐♠♦, ♥♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✷ ;✉❡ ❡♠ ❡,♣❛1♦, ✈❡+♦'✐❛✐, V ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥,4♦ ✜♥✐+❛✱

✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❣❡'❛❞♦' ❝♦♥+6♠ ,❡♠♣'❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❆ ,❡❣✉✐'✱ ✈❡'❡♠♦, ;✉❡
✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡ ❡,+@ ❝♦♥+✐❞♦ ❡♠ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡ V ✳
❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✺✳ ◗✉❛❧/✉❡0 %✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥4♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0♠❡♥4❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥4❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡%✲

♣❛*♦ ✈❡4♦0✐❛❧ V ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥%&♦ ✜♥✐4❛ ♣♦❞❡ %❡0 ❝♦♠♣❧❡4❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛ ❢♦0♠❛0
✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ❞❡ V ✳
❉❡♠♦♥/0*❛12♦ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦, dim V = n✳ ❙❡❥❛ α = {w1, w2, . . . , wr } ✉♠
❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❞❡ ✈❡+♦'❡, ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡, ❞❡ V ✳ G❡❧♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✸✱
r ≤ n✳ ❙❡ α ❣❡'❛ V ✱ ❡♥+4♦ α 6 ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥,+'❛14♦ ❛❝❛❜❛
❛;✉✐ ✭♥❡,+❡ ❝❛,♦✱ r = n✮✳ ❙❡ α ♥4♦ ❣❡'❛ V ✱ ❡♥+4♦ ❡①✐,+❡ ✉♠ ✈❡+♦' ❞❡ V
;✉❡ ♥4♦ ♣❡'+❡♥❝❡ ❛♦ ❡,♣❛1♦ ❣❡'❛❞♦ ♣♦' α✳ ❈❤❛♠❡♠♦, ❡,+❡ ✈❡+♦' ❞❡ wr+1 ✳
❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wr+1 } 6 ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡✳ ✭G♦' ;✉R❄ ❱❡❥❛
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❊ ❉■▼❊◆❙➹❖ ✽✸
"#♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✾✮✳ ❙❡ ❡/0❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ❣❡#❛ V ✱ 0❡♠♦/ ❡♥07♦ ✉♠❛ ❜❛/❡ ❞❡ V 9✉❡
❝♦♥0:♠ α✳ ❈❛/♦ ❝♦♥0#<#✐♦✱ ♣#♦//❡❣✉✐♠♦/ ✉/❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❛#❣✉♠❡♥0♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✳ ❈♦♠♦
♥7♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦/ 0❡# ♠❛✐/ ❞♦ 9✉❡ n ✈❡0♦#❡/ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥0❡/ ❡♠ V ✱ ❛♣@/ ✉♠ ♥A♠❡#♦
✜♥✐0♦ ❞❡ ♣❛//♦/ 0❡#❡♠♦/ ♦❜0✐❞♦ ✉♠❛ ❜❛/❡ ❞❡ V 9✉❡ ❝♦♥0:♠ ♦/ ✈❡0♦#❡/ ❞❡ α✳

❚❡#♠✐♥❛♠♦/ ❡/0❛ /❡D7♦ ❛♣#❡/❡♥0❛♥❞♦ ✉♠ #❡/✉❧0❛❞♦ 9✉❡ ❡♥✈♦❧✈❡ ❛ ♥♦D7♦ ❞❡
❞✐♠❡♥/7♦ ♣❛#❛ /✉❜❡/♣❛D♦/✳ ▼❛✐/ ♣#❡❝✐/❛♠❡♥0❡✱ ♠♦/0#❛#❡♠♦/ 9✉❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥/7♦
❞❡ ✉♠ /✉❜❡/♣❛D♦ W ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡/♣❛D♦ ✈❡0♦#✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥/7♦ ✜♥✐0❛ V ♥7♦ ♣♦❞❡
❡①❝❡❞❡# ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥/7♦ ❞❡ V ❡ 9✉❡ ❛ A♥✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡✐#❛ ❞❡ W 0❡# ❛ ♠❡/♠❛ ❞✐♠❡♥/7♦
❞❡ V : /❡♥❞♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ V ✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻✳ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡&♣❛(♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥&1♦ ✜♥✐+❛✳ ❙❡ W 4 ✉♠
&✉❜❡&♣❛(♦ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥+1♦ W +❡♠ +❛♠❜4♠ ❞✐♠❡♥&1♦ ✜♥✐+❛ ❡ dim W ≤ dim V ✳
❆❧4♠ ❞✐&&♦✱ &❡ dim W = dim V ✱ ❡♥+1♦ W = V ✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ ❙❡ W = {0}✱ W 0❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥/7♦ ✜♥✐0❛✳ ❙❡ W 6= {0}✱ 0♦♠❡
w1 ∈ W ❝♦♠ w1 6= 0✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ α1 = {w1 } : ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥0❡✳ ❙❡ α1 ❣❡#❛ W ✱
❡♥07♦ α1 : ✉♠❛ ❜❛/❡ ❞❡ W ✳ ❆//✐♠✱ W 0❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥/7♦ ✜♥✐0❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✶✳ ❙❡ α1
♥7♦ ❣❡#❛ W ✱ ❡①✐/0❡ w2 ∈ W ❝♦♠ w2 ∈ / G(w1 )✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ α2 = {w1 , w2 } :
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥0❡✳ ❙❡ α2 ❣❡#❛ W ✱ ❡♥07♦ W 0❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥/7♦ ✜♥✐0❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✷✳ ❙❡ α2
♥7♦ ❣❡#❛ W ✱ ♣#♦//❡❣✉✐♠♦/ ❝♦♠ ♦ #❛❝✐♦❝J♥✐♦ ❛♥0❡#✐♦#✳ ❈♦♠♦ dim V : ✜♥✐0❛✱
❞✐❣❛♠♦/ n✱ ❡ 9✉❛❧9✉❡# ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥0❡ ❞❡ V 0❡♠ ♥♦ ♠<①✐♠♦ n ✈❡0♦#❡/✱
❡①✐/0❡ m ∈ N \ {0} ❝♦♠ m ≤ n 0❛❧ 9✉❡
αm = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wm }
: ✉♠❛ ❜❛/❡ ❞❡ W ✳ ■/0♦ ♣#♦✈❛ 9✉❡ W 0❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥/7♦ ✜♥✐0❛ ❡ 9✉❡ dim W = m✱
❝♦♠ m ≤ n✳
❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦/ ❛❣♦#❛ 9✉❡ dim W = dim V = n✳ ❙❡❥❛ β = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn }
✉♠❛ ❜❛/❡ ❞❡ W ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦/ 9✉❡ W 6= V ✳ ❈♦♠♦ W ⊂ V ✱ ❡①✐/0❡ ❡♥07♦ ✉♠
✈❡0♦# ❞❡ V 9✉❡ ♥7♦ ❡/0< ❡♠ W ✳ ❈❤❛♠❡♠♦/ ❡/0❡ ✈❡0♦# ❞❡ v ✳ ❈♦♠♦ v ∈ / W✱
♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn , v} : ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ❞❡ ✈❡0♦#❡/ ❞❡ V ❧✐♥❡❛#♠❡♥0❡
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥0❡✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡/0❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ 0❡♠ n + 1 ✈❡0♦#❡/ ❡ dim V = n✱ 0❡♠♦/
✉♠❛ ❝♦♥0#❛❞✐D7♦✳ "♦#0❛♥0♦✱ ❞❡ ❢❛0♦✱ W = V ✳
✽✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
❖❜$❡&✈❡ (✉❡ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥$/&❛01♦ ❞❛ ♣&✐♠❡✐&❛ ♣❛&/❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦&❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻ ♥♦$
❞8 ✉♠ ♠9/♦❞♦ ♣❛&❛ ❛❝❤❛&♠♦$ ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ $✉❜❡$♣❛0♦✳ ❊♠ ♣❛&/✐❝✉❧❛&✱
♠♦$/&❛♠♦$ (✉❡ ♦❞♦ ❡$♣❛'♦ ✈❡ ♦)✐❛❧ ♥-♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥$-♦ ✜♥✐ ❛ ❡♠ ✉♠❛
❜❛$❡ ✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✸✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡$♣❛0♦ ✈❡/♦&✐❛❧ /❛❧ (✉❡ dim V = n✳ A&♦✈❡ (✉❡✿
✭❛✮ n ✈❡/♦&❡$ ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥/❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡$ ❞❡ V ❢♦&♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ V ❀
✭❜✮ n ✈❡/♦&❡$ (✉❡ ❣❡&❛♠ V ❢♦&♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ V ✳
❊♠ ❣❡)❛❧✱ ♣❛)❛ ♠♦$ )❛) 5✉❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥ ♦ ❞❡ ✈❡ ♦)❡$ α 8 ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ ✉♠
❡$♣❛'♦ ✈❡ ♦)✐❛❧ V✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦$ ✈❡)✐✜❝❛) 5✉❡ ♦$ ✈❡ ♦)❡$ ❡♠ α $-♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥ ❡
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❡$ ❡ 5✉❡ ❣❡)❛♠ V✳ ◆♦ ❡♥%❛♥%♦✱ (❡ (♦✉❜❡+♠♦( -✉❡ V %❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥(0♦
n ❡ -✉❡ α %❡♠ n ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦(✱ ❡♥%0♦ ♣❛+❛ -✉❡ α (❡❥❛ ✉♠❛ ❜❛(❡ ❞❡ V✱ ❜❛(%❛
✈❡+✐✜❝❛+ -✉❡ ♦( (❡✉( ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦( (0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥%❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡( ♦✉ -✉❡ ❣❡+❛♠
V✱ ♣♦✐( ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥❞✐80♦ ❛✉%♦♠❛%✐❝❛♠❡♥%❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❛ ♦✉%+❛✳ ❖✉ (❡❥❛✱ ♦ %+❛❜❛❧❤♦
❞❡ ✈❡+✐✜❝❛+ (❡ α ; ✉♠❛ ❜❛(❡ ✜❝❛ (✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞♦ ✦
✸✳✷✯ ❙❡❥❛ V ♦ ❡&♣❛(♦ ✈❡*♦+✐❛❧ ❞❛& ♠❛*+✐③❡& &✐♠1*+✐❝❛& 2 × 2✳ ▼♦&*+❡ 5✉❡
dim V = 3 ❡ ❡①✐❜❛ ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞❡ V✳

✸✳✸✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W ♦& &❡❣✉✐♥*❡& &✉❜❡&♣❛(♦& ❞❡ R4 ✿
U = {(a, b, c, d) ; b + c + d = 0}, W = {(a, b, c, d) ; a + b = 0, c = 2d}.
❆❝❤❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥&>♦ ❞❡
✭❛✮ U✱ ✭❜✮ W✱ ✭❝✮ U ∩ W✱ ✭❞✮ U + W✳

✸✳✹ ❙❡❥❛ α = {v1 , v2 , v3 }✱ ♦♥❞❡ v1 = (1, 1, 0)✱ v2 = (0, 1, −1) ❡ v3 = (2, 0, 2)✳
✭❛✮ α 1 ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡ ♦✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡❄ ❏✉&*✐✜5✉❡ ❛ &✉❛ +❡&♣♦&*❛✳
✭❜✮ ❖❜*❡♥❤❛ β⊂α *❛❧ 5✉❡ β 1 ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡ ❡ 5✉❡ G(β) = G(α)✳

✭❝✮ ◗✉❛❧ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥&>♦ ❞❡ G(α)❄ ❏✉&*✐✜5✉❡✳
✸✳✺ ❙❡❥❛ U ✉♠ &✉❜❡&♣❛(♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡&♣❛(♦ ✈❡*♦+✐❛❧ V ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥&>♦ ✜♥✐*❛✳ ▼♦&*+❡
5✉❡ ❡①✐&*❡ ✉♠ &✉❜❡&♣❛(♦ W ❞❡ V *❛❧ 5✉❡ V = U ⊕ W✳

✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❊ ❉■▼❊◆❙➹❖ ✽✺
✸✳✻ ❉❡$❡%♠✐♥❡ )❡ ❛) ♠❛$%✐③❡)

" # "
# " # " #
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
A= , B= , C= ❡ D=
0 0 1 0 −1 −1 0 −1
❢♦%♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ M(2, 2)✳
✸✳✼ ❉❡$❡%♠✐♥❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥)2♦ ❞♦ ❡)♣❛4♦ ✈❡$♦%✐❛❧ ❞❡ $♦❞❛) ❛) ♠❛$%✐③❡) 3 × 3

$%✐❛♥❣✉❧❛%❡) )✉♣❡%✐♦%❡)✳
✸✳✽ ❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛$%✐③ 3 × 3✳ :♦% ;✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ I ✱ A, A2 , . . . , A9 > ❧✐♥❡❛%✲

♠❡♥$❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥$❡❄
✸✳✾ ❉❡$❡%♠✐♥❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥)2♦ ❞♦ ❡)♣❛4♦ ✈❡$♦%✐❛❧ ❞❡ $♦❞♦) ♦) ♣♦❧✐♥A♠✐♦) p ❞❡

❣%❛✉ ≤ 4 $❛✐) ;✉❡ p(1) = 0✳
✸✳✶✵ ❙❡❥❛ W ♦ )✉❜❡)♣❛4♦ ✈❡$♦%✐❛❧ ❞❡ M(2, 2) ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦%

(" # )
a b
W = ; a=d ❡ c=a+b .
c d
✭❛✮ ◗✉❛❧ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥)2♦ ❞❡ W ❄

✭❜✮ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ (" # " #)
1 −1 2 1
,
0 1 3 4
> ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ W ❄ :♦% ;✉F❄
✸✳✶✶ ❊♥❝♦♥$%❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥)2♦ ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ )♦❧✉42♦ ❞♦) )❡❣✉✐♥$❡)

)✐)$❡♠❛)✿

x + 2y − 2z − t = 0

 
 x + y − 2z + t = 0
✭❛✮ x + y + z + t = 0 ✭❜✮

 2x + 2y − 4z + 2t = 0 .
x + 2y + 3z + 2t = 0 ;

✸✳✶✷ :♦❞❡♠♦) $❡% ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ R[x]n ❢♦%♠❛❞❛ ♣♦% n + 1 ♣♦❧✐♥A♠✐♦) ❞❡ ❣%❛✉
n❄ ❏✉)$✐✜;✉❡ ❛ )✉❛ %❡)♣♦)$❛✳
✸✳✶✸ ❊♥❝♦♥$%❡ ❛) ❝♦♦%❞❡♥❛❞❛) ❞❡✿
✽✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
✭❛✮ u = (1, −1) ❡♠ '❡❧❛)*♦ , ❜❛.❡ {(2, −4), (3, 8)} ❞❡ R2 ❀
✭❜✮ u = (1, −1) ❡♠ '❡❧❛)*♦ , ❜❛.❡ {(1, 1), (0, 2)} ❞❡ R2 ❀
✭❝✮ p(x) = 2 + x − x2 ❡♠ '❡❧❛)*♦ , ❜❛.❡ {1 + x, 1 + x2 , x + x2 } ❞❡ R[x]2 ✳
✸✳✶✹ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡.♣❛)♦ ✈❡8♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥.*♦ ✜♥✐8❛ ❡ .❡❥❛ α ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ V ✳

▼♦.8'❡ =✉❡✿
✭❛✮ [v + w]α = [v]α + [w]α ♣❛'❛ =✉❛✐.=✉❡' v ❡ w ❡♠ V ❀
✭❜✮ [cv]α = c[v]α ♣❛'❛ 8♦❞♦ v ❡♠ V ❡ ♣❛'❛ 8♦❞♦ c ∈ R✳
✸✳✶✺ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ V ❡.♣❛)♦. ✈❡8♦'✐❛✐.✱ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥.@❡. r ❡ s✱ '❡.♣❡❝8✐✈❛♠❡♥8❡✳

▼♦.8'❡ =✉❡ ♦ ❡.♣❛)♦ ✈❡8♦'✐❛❧ U × V ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♥♦ A'♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✺✱ ❞♦ ❈❛♣E8✉❧♦
✶✱ 8❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥.*♦ r + s✳
❙✉❣❡)*+♦ ❙❡ {u1 , . . . , ur } F ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ U ❡ {v1 , . . . , vs } F ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ V ✱
♠♦.8'❡ =✉❡ {(ui , 0); 1 ≤ i ≤ r} ∪ {(0, vj ); 1 ≤ j ≤ s} F ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ U × V ✳
✸✳✶✻ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W .✉❜❡.♣❛)♦. ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡.♣❛)♦ ✈❡8♦'✐❛❧ V 8❛✐. =✉❡ U ∩W = {0}✳

❙❡❥❛♠ {u1 , . . . , ur } ❡ {w1 , . . . , ws }✱ '❡.♣❡❝8✐✈❛♠❡♥8❡✱ ❜❛.❡. ❞❡ U ❡ W ✳ ▼♦.8'❡
=✉❡ {ui ; 1 ≤ i ≤ r} ∪ {wj ; 1 ≤ j ≤ s} F ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ U + W ✳ ❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ =✉❡
dim(U + W ) = dim U + dim W ✳
✹ ❊"♣❛%♦ ▲✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ▼❛01✐③

◆❡.8❛ .❡)*♦ ✈❛♠♦. ❛♣'❡.❡♥8❛' ✉♠ ♠F8♦❞♦ ♣❛'❛ ❡♥❝♦♥8'❛' ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡
.✉❜❡.♣❛)♦. ❞❡ Rn ✱ ✉.❛♥❞♦ ❛. 8'❛♥.❢♦'♠❛)@❡. ❡❧❡♠❡♥8❛'❡. ♥❛. ❧✐♥❤❛. ❞❡ ✉♠❛
♠❛8'✐③✳
A❛'❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛8'✐③ m × n
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
A=
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ,
✳✳ 
 ✳ ✳ ✳ 
am1 am2 . . . amn
✹✳ ❊❙$❆➬❖ ▲■◆❍❆ ❉❊ ❯▼❆ ▼❆❚❘■❩ ✽✼
♦# ✈❡&♦'❡#
v1 = (a11 , a12 , . . . , a1n )

v2 = (a21 , a22 , . . . , a2n )
✳✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳
vm = (am1 , am2 , . . . , amn )
❡♠ Rn ❢♦'♠❛❞♦# ♣❡❧❛# ❧✐♥❤❛# ❞❡ A #2♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦# ♦# ✈❡"♦$❡% ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ A✳ ❖

❡#♣❛5♦ G(v1 , . . . , vm ) ❣❡'❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦# ✈❡&♦'❡# ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ A 7 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❡%♣❛,♦ ❧✐♥❤❛
❞❡ A ❡ ❞❡♥♦&❛❞♦ ♣♦' L(A)✳ ◆♦&❡ 9✉❡ L(A) 7 ✉♠ #✉❜❡#♣❛5♦ ❞❡ Rn ✳
❖ ❡#♣❛5♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ♥2♦ #❡ ❛❧&❡'❛ ❛♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛'♠♦# &'❛♥#❢♦'♠❛5=❡#
❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛'❡#✳ ❉❡ ❢❛&♦✱ #❡ A = [aij ] 7 ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ m × n✱ 7 ❢@❝✐❧ ✈❡'✐✜❝❛' 9✉❡
G(v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vm ) = G(v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vm ),
G(v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vm ) = G(v1 , . . . , kvi , . . . , vm ) (k 6= 0),
G(v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vm ) = G(v1 , . . . , vi + kvj , . . . , vj , . . . , vm ) (k ∈ R).
❊♠ ♦✉&'❛# ♣❛❧❛✈'❛#✱
L(A) = L(B), ♦♥❞❡ B = e(A), ❝♦♠ e : Li ↔ Lj ;

L(A) = L(B), ♦♥❞❡ B = e(A), ❝♦♠ e : Li → kLi (k 6= 0);
L(A) = L(B), ♦♥❞❡ B = e(A), ❝♦♠ e : Li → Li + kLj (k ∈ R).
❉✐#&♦ ❞❡❝♦''❡ ♦ #❡❣✉✐♥&❡ ✐♠♣♦'&❛♥&❡ ❢❛&♦✿
❉✉❛% ♠❛"$✐③❡% ❡1✉✐✈❛❧❡♥"❡% ❣❡$❛♠ ♦ ♠❡%♠♦ ❡%♣❛,♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ✳
❖ ♣'D①✐♠♦ '❡#✉❧&❛❞♦ ♠♦#&'❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♦❜&❡' ✉♠❛ ❜❛#❡ ♣❛'❛ ♦ ❡#♣❛5♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡
✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✸✳✹✳✶✳ ❆% ❧✐♥❤❛% ♥4♦ ♥✉❧❛% ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛"$✐③ Ã✱ ♥❛ ❢♦$♠❛ ❡%❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛
❡ ❡1✉✐✈❛❧❡♥"❡ ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛"$✐③ A✱ ❢♦$♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ♣❛$❛ ♦ ❡%♣❛,♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ A✳
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ m × n ❡ Ã = [ãij ] ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ♥❛
❢♦'♠❛ ❡#❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❡9✉✐✈❛❧❡♥&❡ ❛ A✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦# 9✉❡ Ã &❡♠ p ❧✐♥❤❛# ♥2♦
✽✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
♥✉❧❛% ❡ ❝♦♥%✐❞❡+❡♠♦% ♦% ✈❡.♦+❡%
v1 = (ã11 , . . . , ã1n )
v2 = (ã21 , . . . , ã2n )
✳✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳
vp = (ãp1 , . . . , ãpn )
❢♦+♠❛❞♦% ♣❡❧❛% ❧✐♥❤❛% ♥3♦ ♥✉❧❛% ❞❡ Ã✳ 4❡❧♦ 5✉❡ ✈✐♠♦% ❛♥.❡+✐♦+♠❡♥.❡✱ L(A) =
L(Ã) = G(v1 , v2 , . . . , vp )✱ ❥8 5✉❡ Ã 9 ✉♠❛ ♠❛.+✐③ ❡5✉✐✈❛❧❡♥.❡ ❛ A✳ ❱❛♠♦%
♠♦%.+❛+ 5✉❡ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } 9 ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥.❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡✳ 4❛+❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤
i ≤ p✱ %❡❥❛ ki ❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♥❛ 5✉❛❧ ❛♣❛+❡❝❡ ♦ ♣+✐♠❡✐+♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦ ♥3♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❛
i✲9%✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ Ã✱ ♦✉ %❡❥❛ ãiki = 1 ❡ ãi,l = 0✱ %❡ l < ki ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦% 5✉❡
a1 v1 + · · · + ap vp = 0✱ 5✉❡ +❡❡%❝+❡✈❡♠♦% ❝♦♠♦ %❡❣✉❡✿
a1 (0, . . . , 0, ã1k1 , ⋆, . . . , ⋆, 0 , . . . , 0, . . . , ⋆)
+ a2 (0, . . . , 0, 0 , 0, . . . , 0, ã2k2 , . . . , 0, . . . , ⋆)
✳✳
✳
+ ap (0, . . . , 0, 0 , 0, . . . , 0, 0, . . . , ãpkp , . . . , ⋆)
= (0, . . . , 0, 0 , 0, . . . , 0, 0 , . . . , 0, . . . , 0),
♦♥❞❡ ⋆ +❡♣+❡%❡♥.❛ ✉♠ ♥@♠❡+♦ +❡❛❧✳

▲♦❣♦✱ ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ✈❡.♦+❡%✱ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♥♦% ❢♦+♥❡❝❡ ✉♠ %✐%.❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡5✉❛BC❡%
❧✐♥❡❛+❡% ♥❛% ✐♥❝D❣♥✐.❛% a1 , a2 , . . . , ap ✱ ♦ 5✉❛❧ ❝♦♥.9♠ ❛% ❡5✉❛BC❡%
a1 ã1k1 = · · · = ap ãpkp = 0.
❈♦♠♦ ãiki = 1✱ ♣❛+❛ .♦❞♦ i = 1, . . . , p✱ %❡❣✉❡ 5✉❡ a1 = a2 = · · · = ap = 0✳

4♦+.❛♥.♦✱ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } ❣❡+❛ L(A) ❡ 9 ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥.❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡✱ ♦✉ %❡❥❛✱
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } ❢♦+♠❛ ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ❞❡ L(A)✳
❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✸✳✹✳✷✳ ❖ ♣♦#$♦ pA ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$*✐③ A - ♦ ♥/♠❡*♦ ♠0①✐♠♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛#

❧✐♥❡❛*♠❡♥$❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥$❡# ❞❛ ♠❡#♠❛✳ ▼❛✐# ♣*❡❝✐#❛♠❡♥$❡✱ pA = dim L(A)✳
✹✳ ❊❙$❆➬❖ ▲■◆❍❆ ❉❊ ❯▼❆ ▼❆❚❘■❩ ✽✾
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ❆ ❞✐♠❡♥()♦ ❞♦ ❡(♣❛-♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛12✐③ 4 ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛♦

♥6♠❡2♦ ♠7①✐♠♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛( ❧✐♥❡❛2♠❡♥1❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥1❡( ❞❛ ♠❡(♠❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♦
❡(♣❛-♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛12✐③ 4 ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛♦ ❡(♣❛-♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛12✐③ ❡(❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛
❡<✉✐✈❛❧❡♥1❡ ❛ ❡❧❛✱ (✉❛ ❞✐♠❡♥()♦ 4 ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛♦ ♥6♠❡2♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛( ♥)♦ ♥✉❧❛( ❞❡((❛
6❧1✐♠❛✱ <✉❡ 4 ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛♦ ♣♦(1♦ ❞❛ ♠❛12✐③✳
❖ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛ (❡❣✉✐2 ♥♦( ♠♦(12❛27 ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❚❡♦2❡♠❛ ✸✳✹✳✶ ♣♦❞❡ ♥♦( ❛❥✉❞❛2
❛ ❞❡1❡2♠✐♥❛2 ♦ ❡(♣❛-♦ ❣❡2❛❞♦ ♣♦2 ✈❡1♦2❡( ❡♠ Rn ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❉❡1❡2♠✐♥❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛(❡ ❞♦ ❡(♣❛-♦ ❣❡2❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦( ✈❡1♦2❡( v1 =

(1, −2, 0, 0, 3)✱ v2 = (2, −5, −3, −2, 6)✱ v3 = (0, 5, 15, 10, 0) ❡ v4 = (2, 6, 18, 8, 6)✳
❖ ❡(♣❛-♦ ❣❡2❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦( ✈❡1♦2❡( v1 ✱ v2 ✱ v3 ❡ v4 4 ♦ ❡(♣❛-♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛ ♠❛12✐③
 
1 −2 0 0 3
2 −5 −3 −2 6
A= .
 
0 5 10 10 0
2 6 18 8 6
❘❡❞✉③✐♥❞♦ ❡(1❛ ♠❛12✐③ H ❢♦2♠❛ ❡(❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ♦❜1❡♠♦( ❛ ♠❛12✐③

 
1 0 0 −2 3
0 1 0 −1 0
Ã =  .
 
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
❖( ✈❡1♦2❡( ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥)♦ ♥✉❧♦( ❞❛ ♠❛12✐③ Ã ()♦ ♦( ✈❡1♦2❡( w1 = (1, 0, 0, −2, 3)✱
w2 = (0, 1, 0, −1, 0) ❡ w3 = (0, 0, 1, 1, 0)✳ ❊(1❡( ✈❡1♦2❡( ❢♦2♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛(❡
♣❛2❛ ♦ (✉❜❡(♣❛-♦ ❞❡ R5 ❣❡2❛❞♦ ♣♦2 v1 ✱ v2 ✱ v3 ❡ v4 ✳
❆((✐♠✱ (❡ W = G(v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 )✱ ❡♥1)♦
W = G(w1 , w2 , w3 )
= {xw1 + yw2 + zw3 ; x, y, z ∈ R}
= {(x, y, z, −2x − y + z, 3x) ; x, y, z ∈ R}.
1'♦❜❧❡♠❛%
✾✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆■❙
✹✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ U ♦ '✉❜❡'♣❛+♦ ❞❡ R4 ❣❡.❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦' ✈❡1♦.❡'
u1 = (1, −2, 3, −3), u2 = (2, 3, 1, −4), u3 = (3, 8, −3, −5).
✭❛✮ ❆❝❤❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥':♦ ❞❡ U ✳

✭❜✮ ❊'1❡♥❞❛ ❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ U ❛ ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ 1♦❞♦ ♦ ❡'♣❛+♦ R4 ✳
✹✳✷✯ ❙❡❥❛ U ♦ '✉❜❡'♣❛+♦ ❞❡ R4 ❣❡.❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦' ✈❡1♦.❡'
u1 = (2, 4, −2, 6), u2 = (1, 2, 1/2, −1) ❡ u3 = (3, 6, 3, −7)
❡ '❡❥❛ W ♦ '✉❜❡'♣❛+♦ ❞❡ R ❣❡.❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦' ✈❡1♦.❡'
4
w1 = (1, 2, −4, 11) ❡ w2 = (2, 4, −5, 14)✳

▼♦'1.❡ >✉❡ U = W ✳
✹✳✸ ❉❡1❡.♠✐♥❡ '❡ (1, 1, 1)✱ (1, 2, 3) ❡ (0, 3, 1) ❢♦.♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ R3 ✳
✹✳✹ ❆❝❤❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥':♦ ❞♦ '✉❜❡'♣❛+♦ W ❞❡ R4 ❣❡.❛❞♦ ♣♦.
w1 = (−1, 4, 2, −1), w2 = (1, −3, −1, 2) ❡ w3 = (4, −10, −2, 10).
❊'1❡♥❞❛ ❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ W ❛ ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ 1♦❞♦ R4 ✳

✹✳✺ ❊♥❝♦♥1.❡ ♦' ✈❡1♦.❡' ❞❛ ❜❛'❡ ❝❛♥B♥✐❝❛ >✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠ '❡. ❛❝.❡'❝❡♥1❛❞♦' ❛♦
❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦ {v1 , v2 , v3 } ♣❛.❛ ❢♦.♠❛. ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ R5 ✱ ♦♥❞❡
v1 = (1, −4, 2, −3, 0), v2 = (−3, 8, −4, 6, 0) ❡ v3 = (0, −1, 2, 5, −4).

❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✹
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✹✿ ❖ ❊,♣❛-♦ ❱❡$♦0✐❛❧ R3
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ ❘❡#❛% ❡ &❧❛♥♦% ❡♠ R3 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✸
✶✳✶ ❘❡$❛& ❡♠ R3 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✸
✶✳✷ +❧❛♥♦& ❡♠ R3 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✾
✷ &♦%✐01❡% ❘❡❧❛#✐✈❛% ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✼
✸ ❉❡#❡6♠✐♥❛♥#❡% ❡ ●❡♦♠❡#6✐❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✶✶
✸✳✶ ❉❡$❡0♠✐♥❛♥$❡& ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✶✶
✸✳✷ ❖ +0♦❞✉$♦ ❱❡$♦0✐❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✶✺
✾✶
✾✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
◆❡$%❡ ❈❛♣)%✉❧♦✱ ❛♣❧✐❝❛0❡♠♦$ ♦$ ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦$ ✈✐$%♦$ ♥♦ ❝❛♣)%✉❧♦ ❛♥%❡0✐♦0 4
●❡♦♠❡%0✐❛ ❆♥❛❧)%✐❝❛ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ▼❛✐$ ♣0❡❝✐$❛♠❡♥%❡✱ ✉$❛0❡♠♦$ ♦$ ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦$ ❞❡
$✉❜❡$♣❛;♦ ✈❡%♦0✐❛❧✱ ❜❛$❡ ❡ ❞✐♠❡♥$<♦ ♣❛0❛ ❡$%✉❞❛0 ❛$ ♥♦;=❡$ ❞❡ 0❡%❛$ ❡ ♣❧❛♥♦$
❡♠ R3 ✳ ❯♠❛ ❢❡00❛♠❡♥%❛ ❡$$❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♣❛0❛ ♦ ❡$%✉❞♦ ❞❛ ❣❡♦♠❡%0✐❛ ❡♠ R3 A ❛
♥♦;<♦ ❞❡ ♣0♦❞✉%♦ ❡$❝❛❧❛0 B✉❡ ✐♥%0♦❞✉③✐0❡♠♦$ ❡♠ $❡❣✉✐❞❛✳
❉❛❞♦$ u = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ❡ v = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ❡♠ R3 ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦$ ♦ ♣!♦❞✉%♦ ❡'❝❛❧❛!
❞❡ u ❡ v ✱ ❞❡♥♦%❛❞♦ ♣♦0 u · v ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ♥F♠❡0♦ 0❡❛❧
u · v = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 .
G♦0 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ (1, 2, −1) · (0, 2, 1) = 1.0 + 2.2 + (−1)(1) = 3✳

➱ ❢J❝✐❧ ✈❡0✐✜❝❛0 B✉❡✱ ♣❛0❛ B✉❛✐$B✉❡0 u, v, w ∈ R3 ❡ a ∈ R✱ %❡♠✲$❡
✭✐✮ u · v = v · u✱
✭✐✐✮ u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w✱
✭✐✐✐✮ (au) · v = u · (av) = a(u · v)✳
❉❛❞♦$ ❞♦✐$ ✈❡%♦0❡$ u ❡ v ❡♠ R3 ✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦$ B✉❡ ❡❧❡$ $<♦ ♦!%♦❣♦♥❛✐' ✱ ❡ ❞❡♥♦%❛♠♦$

u ⊥ v ✱ B✉❛♥❞♦ u · v = 0✳
❖ ♣0♦❞✉%♦ ❡$❝❛❧❛0 A ✉♠ ❝❛$♦ ♣❛0%✐❝✉❧❛0 ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❝❧❛$$❡ ❞❡ ♣0♦❞✉%♦$ ❞❡✲
✜♥✐❞♦$ ❡♠ ❡$♣❛;♦$ ✈❡%♦0✐❛✐$ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥$<♦ B✉❛❧B✉❡0✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦$ ❞❡ ♣0♦❞✉%♦$
✐♥%❡0♥♦$✱ B✉❡ $❡0<♦ ❡$%✉❞❛❞♦$ ♥♦ ❈❛♣)%✉❧♦ ✼✳
❆ ♣❛0%✐0 ❞♦ ♣0♦❞✉%♦ ❡$❝❛❧❛0✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦$ ❞❡✜♥✐0 ❛ ♥♦!♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦0 v =

(x, y, z)✱ ❝♦♠♦
√ p
||v|| = v · v = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
◆♦%❡ B✉❡ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐;<♦ $❡❣✉❡✲$❡ ✐♠❡❞✐❛%❛♠❡♥%❡ B✉❡ ||v|| ≥ 0 ❡ B✉❡ ||v|| = 0

$❡✱ ❡ $♦♠❡♥%❡ $❡✱ v = 0✳
●❡♦♠❡%0✐❝❛♠❡♥%❡✱ ❛ ♥♦0♠❛ ❞♦ ✈❡%♦0 v 0❡♣0❡$❡♥%❛ ❛ ❞✐$%Q♥❝✐❛ ❞❛ ♦0✐❣❡♠
❞❡ R3 ❛♦ ♣♦♥%♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♦0❞❡♥❛❞❛$ (x, y, z)✱ ♦✉ $❡❥❛✱ A ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛♦ ♠S❞✉❧♦ ❞♦ ✈❡%♦0
v✳
▼♦$%0❛0❡♠♦$ ❛ $❡❣✉✐0 ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ♥♦;<♦ ❞❡ ♣0♦❞✉%♦ ❡$❝❛❧❛0 ♣❡0♠✐%❡ %❛♠❜A♠
❝❛❧❝✉❧❛0 ♦ Q♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥%0❡ ❞♦✐$ ✈❡%♦0❡$ ❡♠ R3 ✳
✶✳ ❘❊❚❆❙ ❊ '▲❆◆❖❙ ❊▼ R3 ✾✸
▲❡♠❜&❡♠♦( )✉❡ ♦ +♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥/&❡ ❞♦✐( ✈❡/♦&❡( ♥3♦ ♥✉❧♦( u ❡ v ❡♠ R3 4 ♦

+♥❣✉❧♦ θ ❢♦&♠❛❞♦ ♣♦& ❡❧❡( /❛❧ )✉❡ 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ✭❋✐❣✉&❛ ✷✮✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✷
❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❧❡✐ ❞♦( ❝♦((❡♥♦( ♥♦ /&✐+♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❛ ❋✐❣✉&❛ ✷✱ ♦❜/❡♠♦(
||u − v||2 = ||u||2 + ||v||2 − 2||u|| ||v|| cos θ. ✭✶✮
A♦& ♦✉/&♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ (❡❣✉❡ ❞❛( ♣&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭✐✮✱ ✭✐✐✮ ❡ ✭✐✐✐✮ ❞♦ ♣&♦❞✉/♦ ❡(❝❛❧❛& )✉❡
||u − v||2 = (u − v) · (u − v)
=u·u−u·v−v·u+v·v
= ||u||2 − 2u · v + ||v||2 . ✭✷✮
❉❡ ✭✶✮ ❡ ✭✷✮✱ /❡♠♦( )✉❡

u·v
cos θ = · ✭✸✮
||u|| ||v||
✶ ❘❡#❛% ❡ &❧❛♥♦% ❡♠ R3
✶✳✶ ❘❡$❛& ❡♠ R3
❙❡❥❛ v ✉♠ ✈❡/♦& ♥3♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❙❡❥❛ W ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ❞❡ /♦❞❛( ❛( ❝♦♠❜✐✲
♥❛FG❡( ❧✐♥❡❛&❡( ❞❡ v ✱ ♦✉ (❡❥❛✱
W = G(v) = {tv ; t ∈ R}.

✾✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
●❡♦♠❡&'✐❝❛♠❡♥&❡✱ W - ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ ❞❡ &♦❞❛1 ❛1 ❞✐❧❛&❛34❡1✱ ❝♦♥&'❛34❡1 ❡ ✐♥✲
✈❡'14❡1 ❞❡ v ✳ ✭❋✐❣✉'❛ ✸✮✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✸
❚♦♠❡♠♦1 A ✉♠ ♣♦♥&♦ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦1 ❛ ❡"❛ $✉❡ ❝♦♥")♠ A ❡ "❡♠

❞✐ ❡-.♦ v ✱ ❡ ❞❡♥♦&❛♠♦1 r(A, v)✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦
r(A, v) = {A + tv ; t ∈ R} = {A} + W.
❖ ✈❡&♦' v - ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡"♦ ❞✐ ❡"♦ ❞❛ '❡&❛ r(A, v)✳ ◆♦&❡♠♦1 D✉❡✱ ♣❡❧♦
❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ✸✳✶✳✼✱ &♦❞♦ ✈❡&♦' ♥G♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❡♠ G(v) - ✉♠ ✈❡&♦' ❞✐'❡&♦' ❞❡ r(A, v)✳
H❡❧❛ '❡❣'❛ ❞♦ ♣❛'❛❧❡❧♦❣'❛♠♦✱ - ❢J❝✐❧ ❞❡&❡'♠✐♥❛' r(A, v) ❣❡♦♠❡&'✐❝❛♠❡♥&❡✳ ❉❡
❢❛&♦✱ ❛ '❡&❛ r(A, v) - ❞❡&❡'♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣❡❧♦1 ✈❡&♦'❡1 ❞❛❞♦1 ♣❡❧❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ D✉❡
♣❛'&❡ ❞❛ ♦'✐❣❡♠✱ ❞♦ ♣❛'❛❧❡❧♦❣'❛♠♦ ❢♦'♠❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦1 ✈❡&♦'❡1 vA ❡ tv (t ∈ R)
✭❋✐❣✉'❛ ✹✮✱ 1❡♥❞♦ D✉❡ vA - ♦ ✈❡&♦' ❋✐❣✉$❛
❞❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦
✹ ♣♦♥&♦ A✳
❖❜1❡'✈❛♠♦1 D✉❡ G(v)✱ v 6= 0✱ - ❛ '❡&❛ D✉❡ ♣❛11❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦'✐❣❡♠ ❝♦♠ ❞✐'❡3G♦
v ✱ ♦✉ 1❡❥❛✱
G(v) = r(0, v).
H♦'&❛♥&♦✱ &♦❞♦ 1✉❜❡1♣❛3♦ ✈❡&♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥1G♦ ✶ -✱ ❣❡♦♠❡&'✐❝❛♠❡♥&❡✱
✉♠❛ '❡&❛ D✉❡ ♣❛11❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦'✐❣❡♠✳ ❘❡❝✐♣'♦❝❛♠❡♥&❡✱ ✉♠❛ '❡&❛ D✉❡ ♣❛11❛ ♣❡❧❛
♦'✐❣❡♠ - ♦ ❡1♣❛3♦ ❣❡'❛❞♦ ♣♦' ✉♠ ❞❡ 1❡✉1 ✈❡&♦'❡1 ❞✐'❡&♦'❡1 ❡✱ ❝♦♥1❡D✉❡♥&❡✲
♠❡♥&❡✱ - ✉♠ 1✉❜❡1♣❛3♦ ✈❡&♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥1G♦ ✶✳ ❆11✐♠✱ ❝❛'❛❝&❡'✐③❛♠♦1
❣❡♦♠❡&'✐❝❛♠❡♥&❡ &♦❞♦1 ♦1 1✉❜❡1♣❛3♦1 ✈❡&♦'✐❛✐1 ❞❡ R3 ❝♦♠ ❞✐♠❡♥1G♦ ✶✿ ♦0
✶✳ ❘❊❚❆❙ ❊ '▲❆◆❖❙ ❊▼ R3 ✾✺
✉❜❡ ♣❛&♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛✐ ❞❡ R3 ❝♦♠ ❞✐♠❡♥ 0♦ 1 0♦ ❛ *❡)❛ ❡♠ R3 1✉❡ ♣❛ ❛♠

♣❡❧❛ ♦*✐❣❡♠✳
❆ $❡❣✉✐) ❛♣)❡$❡♥-❛♠♦$ ♦$ ❞✐✈❡)$♦$ -✐♣♦$ ❞❡ ❡2✉❛34❡$ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ )❡-❛ ❡♠ R3 ✳
❙❡❥❛ r(A, v) ✉♠❛ )❡-❛ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦$ P ∈ R3 ✳ ❚❡♠♦$ 2✉❡ P ∈ r(A, v)
2✉❛♥❞♦ P = A + tv ♣❛)❛ ❛❧❣✉♠ t ∈ R✳ ❆ ❡2✉❛39♦
P = A + tv, t ∈ R, ✭✶✮
= ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❡1✉❛&0♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧ ❞❛ )❡-❛ r(A, v)✳ ❊$❝)❡✈❡♥❞♦ P = (x, y, z)✱

A = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ❡ v = (a, b, c)✱ ♦❜-❡♠♦$ ❞❡ ✭✶✮ 2✉❡
(x, y, z) = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + t(a, b, c), t ∈ R,
♦ 2✉❡ ❡2✉✐✈❛❧❡ C$ ❡2✉❛34❡$
x = x1 + ta, t ∈ R,
t = y1 + tb, t ∈ R, ✭✷✮
z = z1 + tc, t ∈ R.
❆$ ❡2✉❛34❡$ ❡♠ ✭✷✮ $9♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛$ ❞❡ ❡1✉❛&4❡ ♣❛*❛♠5)*✐❝❛ ❞❡ r(A, v)✳ ❙❡

a 6= 0✱ b 6= 0 ❡ c 6= 0✱ ♦❜-❡♠♦$ ❞❡ ✭✷✮ 2✉❡
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
t= = = ,
a b c
♦✉ $❡❥❛✱
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = · ✭✸✮
a b c
✾✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
❆# ❡%✉❛()❡# ❡♠ ✭✸✮ #.♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛# ❞❡ ❡!✉❛$%❡& &✐♠)*+✐❝❛& ❞❛ 3❡4❛ r(A, v)✳
6♦❞❡♠♦# ❛♣3❡#❡♥4❛3 ❛# ❡%✉❛()❡# ❡♠ ✭✸✮ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♦✉43❛ ❢♦3♠❛✱ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐4❛♥❞♦ ❛#
✈❛3✐?✈❡✐# y ❡ z ❡ ❡①♣3❡##❛♥❞♦✲❛# ❡♠ ❢✉♥(.♦ ❞❡ x✳ ❉❡ ❢❛4♦✱
y − y1 x − x1 b
= ⇐⇒ y − y1 = (x − x1 ) ⇐⇒ y = mx + n,
b a a
♦♥❞❡
a b
m= ❡ n = − x1 + y1 ,
b a
❡
z − z1 x − x1 c
= ⇐⇒ z − z1 = (x − x1 ) ⇐⇒ z = px + q,
c a a
♦♥❞❡
c c
p= ❡ q = − x1 + z 1 .
a a
❆# ❡%✉❛()❡# (
y = mx + n
✭✹✮
z = px + q, x ∈ R,
#.♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛# ❞❡ ❡!✉❛$%❡& +❡❞✉③✐❞❛& ❞❛ 3❡4❛ r(A, v)✳ ❖❜#❡3✈❛♠♦# %✉❡ ❡♠ ✭✹✮ ❛
✈❛3✐?✈❡❧ x ❛♣❛3❡❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛3✐?✈❡❧ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥4❡✳ ❙❡ ❡①♣3❡##❛3♠♦# ❛# ❡%✉❛()❡#
❞❡ ❢♦3♠❛ %✉❡ ❛ ✈❛3✐?✈❡❧ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥4❡ #❡❥❛ y ♦✉ z ✱ ❛# ❡%✉❛()❡# ♦❜4✐❞❛# #.♦
4❛♠❜G♠ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛# ❞❡ ❡%✉❛()❡# 3❡❞✉③✐❞❛#✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❊♥❝♦♥43❡♠♦# ❛# ❡%✉❛()❡# ♣❛3❛♠G43✐❝❛# ❞❛ 3❡4❛ %✉❡ 4❡♠ ❝♦♠♦
✉♠ ✈❡4♦3 ❞✐3❡4♦3 v = (1, 0, 2) ❡ %✉❡ ❝♦♥4G♠ ♦ ♣♦♥4♦ A = (2, 1, −3)✳
❖3❛✱ ❛# ❡%✉❛()❡# ♣❛3❛♠G43✐❝❛# ❞❛ 3❡4❛ r(A, v) #.♦

 x=2+t

y = 1,

z = −3 + 2t; t ∈ R.

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❉❡4❡3♠✐♥❡♠♦# a ❡ b ♣❛3❛ %✉❡ ♦ ♣♦♥4♦ P = (1, a, b) ♣❡34❡♥(❛ J

3❡4❛ ❞❡ ❡%✉❛()❡# 
 x = −2 + t

y = 3 − t,

z = −1 + 2t; t ∈ R.

✶✳ ❘❊❚❆❙ ❊ '▲❆◆❖❙ ❊▼ R3 ✾✼
"❛$❛ %✉❡ P ♣❡$)❡♥+❛ , $❡)❛ ❞❛❞❛✱ ❛/ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥)❡/ ❞❡ P ❞❡✈❡♠ /❛)✐/❢❛③❡$

❛/ ❡%✉❛+7❡/ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦✉ /❡❥❛✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦/ )❡$

 1 = −2 + t

a = 3 − t,

b = −1 + 2t,

♣❛$❛ ❛❧❣✉♠ t ∈ R✳ ❆ /♦❧✉+=♦ ♣$♦❝✉$❛❞❛ > ❡♥)=♦ a = 0 ❡ b = 5✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ ❈♦♥/✐❞❡$❡♠♦/ ❛/ $❡)❛/ r = r(A, v) ❡ s = r(B, w)✱ ♦♥❞❡ A =
(0, 1, 0)✱ B = (1, 0, 0)✱ v = (1, −1, 2) ❡ w = (2, 1, 3)✳ ❱❛♠♦/ ✈❡$✐✜❝❛$ %✉❡
r ∩ s = ∅✳
❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐)♦✱ /❡ P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ r✱ ❡♥)=♦✱ ♣❛$❛ ❛❧❣✉♠ t1 ∈ R✱
x0 = t1 , y0 = 1 − t 1 , z0 = 2t1 . ✭✺✮
❊✱ /❡ P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ s✱ ❡♥)=♦✱ ♣❛$❛ ❛❧❣✉♠ t2 ∈ R✱
x0 = 1 + 2t2 , y0 = t 2 , z0 = 3t2 . ✭✻✮
❉❡ ✭✺✮ /❡❣✉❡✲/❡ %✉❡ P = (x0 , 1 − x0 , 2x0 )✳ ❊✱ ❞❡ ✭✻✮✱ /❡❣✉❡✲/❡ %✉❡ P =

(x0 , x02−1 , 3(x02−1) )✳ ❆//✐♠✱
x0 − 1 2
1 − x0 = e 2x0 = (x0 − 1),
2 3
♦ %✉❡ ♥=♦ ♦❝♦$$❡ ♣❛$❛ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ x0 ❡♠ R✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♥=♦ ❡①✐/)❡ P ∈ r ∩ s✱ ♦✉ /❡❥❛✱
r ∩ s = ∅✳
❙❡❣✉❡ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐+=♦ ❞❡ ✈❡)♦$❡/ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛$❡/ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡/♣❛+♦ ✈❡)♦$✐❛❧ /♦❜$❡ ✉♠
❝♦$♣♦ K ✱ ❞❛❞❛ ♥❛ ❙❡+=♦ ✶ ❞♦ ❈❛♣O)✉❧♦ ✶✱ %✉❡ ❞♦✐/ ✈❡)♦$❡/ v1 ❡ v2 ❡♠ R3 /=♦
❝♦❧✐♥❡❛$❡/ %✉❛♥❞♦ ❡❧❡/ ♣❡$)❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❡/♠❛ $❡)❛ %✉❡ ♣❛//❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦$✐❣❡♠✳
✭❋✐❣✉$❛ ✺✮✳ ❋✐❣✉$❛ ✺
❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦/ %✉❡ v1 ❡ v2 ♣❡$)❡♥+❛♠ , $❡)❛ r(0, v)✳ ❊♥)=♦ ❡①✐/)❡♠ t1 ❡ t2

❡♠ R )❛✐/ %✉❡ v1 = t1 v ❡ v2 = t2 v ✳ ❙❡ v2 > ♦ ✈❡)♦$ ♥✉❧♦✱ {v1 , v2 } > ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥)❡✳
❙❡ v2 ♥=♦ > ♦ ✈❡)♦$ ♥✉❧♦✱ ❡♥)=♦ t2 > ✉♠ ♥Q♠❡$♦ $❡❛❧ ♥=♦ ♥✉❧♦✳ ❆//✐♠✱
t1
v1 − v2 = 0,
t2
✾✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
♠♦$%&❛♥❞♦ *✉❡ {v1 , v2 } - ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡✳ ❘❡❝✐♣&♦❝❛♠❡♥%❡✱ $❡❥❛♠ w1 ❡ w2 ✈❡%♦&❡$

♥6♦ ♥✉❧♦$ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❙❡ {w1 , w2 } - ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡✱ ❡♥%6♦
❡①✐$%❡ t ∈ R %❛❧ *✉❡ w1 = tw2 ✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ w1 ♣❡&%❡♥❝❡ ❛ &❡%❛ r(0, w2 )✳ <♦&%❛♥%♦✱
♦ ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦ ✏ v1 ❡ v2 '(♦ ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥%❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡' ✑ ✭❧✐♥❣✉❛❣❡♠ ❛❧❣-❜&✐❝❛✮ ❡ ♦
❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦ ✏ v1 ❡ v2 '(♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛+❡'✑ ✭❧✐♥❣✉❛❣❡♠ ❣❡♦♠-%&✐❝❛✮ '(♦ ❡/✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡'✳
❖✉ $❡❥❛✱ ♣&♦✈❛♠♦$ ♦ $❡❣✉✐♥%❡ &❡$✉❧%❛❞♦✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✹✳✶✳✶✳ ❉♦✐' ✈❡%♦+❡' v1 ❡ v2 ❡♠ R3 '(♦ ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥%❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡'
'❡✱ ❡ '♦♠❡♥%❡ '❡✱ v1 ❡ v2 '(♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛+❡' ✳
❉✐$❝✉%✐♠♦$ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❛ ♥♦C6♦ ❞❡ ✈❡%♦&❡$ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛&❡$✳ ❊①✐$%❡ %❛♠❜-♠ ❛ ♥♦C6♦
❞❡ ♣♦♥%♦$ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛&❡$✳ ❉✐&❡♠♦$ *✉❡ %&E$ ♣♦♥%♦$ ❞✐$%✐♥%♦$ A, B, C ∈ R3 $6♦
❝♦❧✐♥❡❛+❡' $❡ ❡①✐$%✐& ✉♠❛ &❡%❛ ❡♠ R3 *✉❡ ❝♦♥%❡♥❤❛ ♦$ %&E$ ♣♦♥%♦$✳ ❖$ ❞♦✐$
❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦$ $❡ &❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛♠ ❞❡ ❛❝♦&❞♦ ❝♦♠ ♦ &❡$✉❧%❛❞♦ ❛ $❡❣✉✐&✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✹✳✶✳✷✳ ❚+5' ♣♦♥%♦' ❞✐'%✐♥%♦' A, B, C ∈ R3 '(♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛+❡' '❡✱ ❡
'♦♠❡♥%❡ '❡✱ ♦' ✈❡%♦+❡' v1 = B − A ❡ v2 = C − A '(♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛+❡' ✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦$ *✉❡ A, B ❡ C ♣❡&%❡♥C❛♠ ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❡$♠❛ &❡%❛✳
❈♦♠♦ ♣♦& ❞♦✐$ ♣♦♥%♦$ ❞✐$%✐♥%♦$ ♣❛$$❛ ✉♠❛ ❡ $♦♠❡♥%❡ ✉♠❛ &❡%❛ ✭<&♦❜❧❡♠❛
✶✳✻✮✱ ❛ &❡%❛ ❞❡ ❡*✉❛C6♦ ✈❡%♦&✐❛❧
P = A + v1 t, t∈R
❝♦♥%-♠ A ❡ B ✳ ❈♦♠♦ C ♣❡&%❡♥❝❡ J ♠❡$♠❛ &❡%❛✱ ❡①✐$%❡ t0 ∈ R %❛❧ *✉❡
C = A + v1 t 0 ,
✶✳ ❘❊❚❆❙ ❊ '▲❆◆❖❙ ❊▼ R3 ✾✾
♦✉ #❡❥❛✱ v2 = v1 t0 ✱ ♠♦#)*❛♥❞♦ -✉❡ v1 ❡ v2 #.♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛*❡#✳

❘❡❝✐♣*♦❝❛♠❡♥)❡✱ #✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦# -✉❡ v1 ❡ v2 #❡❥❛♠ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛*❡#✳ ❊♥).♦✱ ❡①✐#)❡
t0 ∈ R )❛❧ -✉❡ v2 = t0 v1 ✱ ♦✉ #❡❥❛
C − A = t0 (B − A).
❈♦♥#✐❞❡*❡ ❛ *❡)❛ ❞❡ ❡-✉❛9.♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧
P = A + t(B − A), t ∈ R.
◆♦)❡ -✉❡ )♦♠❛♥❞♦ t = 0✱ )❡♠♦# P = A ❡ )♦♠❛♥❞♦ t = 1✱ )❡♠♦# P = B ✳

❆##✐♠✱ A ❡ B ♣❡*)❡♥❝❡♠ = *❡)❛✳ ❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ t = t0 ✱ )❡♠♦# P = A+t0 (B −A) =
C ✳ ?♦*)❛♥)♦✱ A✱ B ❡ C ♣❡*)❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❡#♠❛ *❡)❛✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳ ❱❡*✐✜-✉❡♠♦# -✉❡ ♦# ♣♦♥)♦# A = (2, 3, 1)✱ B = (1, 4, −1) ❡
C = (3, 2, 3) #.♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛*❡#✳
?❡❧❛# ?*♦♣♦#✐9B❡# ✹✳✶✳✶ ❡ ✹✳✶✳✷✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦# ✈❡*✐✜❝❛* -✉❡ ♦# ✈❡)♦*❡# v1 =
B −A ❡ v2 = C −A #.♦ ❧✐♥❡❛*♠❡♥)❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥)❡#✳ ❚❡♠♦# -✉❡ v1 = (−1, 1, −2)
❡ v2 = (1, −1, 2)✳ ❈♦♠♦ v1 + v2 = 0✱ )❡♠♦# -✉❡ v1 ❡ v2 #.♦ ❧✐♥❡❛*♠❡♥)❡
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥)❡#✳
✶✳✷ #❧❛♥♦( ❡♠ R3
❙❡❥❛♠ v1 ❡ v2 ❞♦✐# ✈❡)♦*❡# ❧✐♥❡❛*♠❡♥)❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥)❡# ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❙❡❥❛ W ♦
❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ❞❡ )♦❞❛# ❛# ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛9B❡# ❧✐♥❡❛*❡# ❞❡ v1 ❡ v2 ✱ ♦✉ #❡❥❛✱
W = G(v1 , v2 ) = {sv1 + tv2 ; s, t ∈ R}.
❚♦♠❡♠♦# A ✉♠ ♣♦♥)♦ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦# ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ %✉❡ ♣❛((❛ ♣♦) A ❞❡+❡)♠✐♥❛❞♦

♣♦) v1 ❡ v2 ✱ ❡ ♦ ❞❡♥♦)❛♠♦# ♣♦* π(A, v1 , v2 )✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦
π(A, v1 , v2 ) = {A + sv1 + tv2 ; s, t ∈ R} = {A} + W.
❖# ✈❡)♦*❡# v1 ❡ v2 #.♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦# ❞❡ ✈❡+♦)❡( ❜❛(❡ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π(A, v1 , v2 )

✭✈❡* ❋✐❣✉*❛ ✻✮✳ ❋✐❣✉$❛ ✻
✶✵✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
◆♦$❡♠♦' (✉❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦.❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻✱ (✉❛✐'(✉❡. ❞♦✐' ✈❡$♦.❡' ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥$❡'

w1 ✱ w2 ❡♠ G(v1 , v2 ) ❢♦.♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ π(A, v1 , v2 )✱ ♣♦✐' G(w1 , w2 ) ⊂
G(v1 , v2 ) ❡ ❛' ❞✐♠❡♥'9❡' ❞♦' ❞♦✐' ❡'♣❛:♦' ';♦ ✐❣✉❛✐'✳ ❖❜'❡.✈❡♠♦' $❛♠❜>♠
(✉❡ ♦ ❡'♣❛:♦ G(v1 , v2 ) > ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ (✉❡ ♣❛''❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦.✐❣❡♠ ❞❡$❡.♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦. v1 ❡
v2 ✱ ♦✉ '❡❥❛✱
G(v1 , v2 ) = π(0, v1 , v2 ).
@♦.$❛♥$♦✱ $♦❞♦ '✉❜❡'♣❛:♦ ✈❡$♦.✐❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥';♦ ✷ >✱ ❣❡♦♠❡$.✐❝❛♠❡♥$❡✱
✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ (✉❡ ♣❛''❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦.✐❣❡♠✳ ❘❡❝✐♣.♦❝❛♠❡♥$❡✱ ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ (✉❡ ♣❛''❛ ♣❡❧❛
♦.✐❣❡♠ > ♦ ❡'♣❛:♦ ❣❡.❛❞♦ ♣♦. ❞♦✐' ❞❡ '❡✉' ✈❡$♦.❡' ❜❛'❡ ❡✱ ❝♦♥'❡(✉❡♥$❡♠❡♥$❡✱ >
✉♠ '✉❜❡'♣❛:♦ ✈❡$♦.✐❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥';♦ ✷✳ ❆''✐♠✱ ❝❛.❛❝$❡.✐③❛♠♦' ❣❡♦♠❡$.✐✲
❝❛♠❡♥$❡ $♦❞♦' ♦' '✉❜❡'♣❛:♦' ✈❡$♦.✐❛✐' ❞❡ R3 ❝♦♠ ❞✐♠❡♥';♦ ✷✿ ♦! !✉❜❡!♣❛'♦!
✈❡)♦*✐❛✐! ❞❡ R3 ❝♦♠ ❞✐♠❡♥!0♦ 2 !0♦ ♦! ♣❧❛♥♦! ❡♠ R3 2✉❡ ♣❛!!❛♠ ♣❡❧❛ ♦*✐❣❡♠ ✳
❚♦♠❡♠♦' W ✉♠ '✉❜❡'♣❛:♦ ✈❡$♦.✐❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ✳ @❡❧♦ ❚❡♦.❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻✱ '❡❣✉❡ (✉❡
dim W ≤ 3✳ @❡❧♦ (✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦' ❞❡ ✈❡.✱ $❡♠♦' ❛ '❡❣✉✐♥$❡ ❝❧❛''✐✜❝❛:;♦ ❞♦'
'✉❜❡'♣❛:♦' W ❞❡ R3 ✿
❛!♣❡❝%♦ ❛❧❣)❜+✐❝♦ ❛!♣❡❝%♦ ❣❡♦♠)%+✐❝♦
dim W =0 ←→ W = {(0, 0, 0)} ✭♦.✐❣❡♠ ❞♦ ❡'♣❛:♦✮
dim W =1 ←→ W > ✉♠❛ .❡$❛ (✉❡ ♣❛''❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦.✐❣❡♠
dim W =2 ←→ W > ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ (✉❡ ♣❛''❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦.✐❣❡♠
dim W =3 ←→ W = R3
❆ '❡❣✉✐. ❛♣.❡'❡♥$❛♠♦' ❛ ❡(✉❛:;♦ ✈❡$♦.✐❛❧ ❡ ❛' ❡(✉❛:9❡' ♣❛.❛♠>$.✐❝❛' ❞❡
✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❙❡❥❛ π(A, v1 , v2 ) ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦' P ∈ R3 ✳
✶✳ ❘❊❚❆❙ ❊ '▲❆◆❖❙ ❊▼ R3 ✶✵✶
❚❡♠♦& '✉❡ P ∈ π(A, v1 , v2 ) &❡✱ ❡ &♦♠❡♥+❡ &❡✱ P = A + sv1 + tv2 ♣❛.❛ ❝❡.+♦&
s, t ∈ R✳ ❆ ❡'✉❛23♦
P = A + sv1 + tv2 , s∈R ❡ t∈R ✭✶✮
6 ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❡!✉❛$%♦ ✈❡(♦)✐❛❧ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π(A, v1 , v2 )✳ ❊&❝.❡✈❡♥❞♦ P = (x, y, z)✱

A = (x1 , y1 , z1 )✱ v1 = (a1 , b1 , c1 ) ❡ v2 = (a2 , b2 , c2 )✱ ♦❜+❡♠♦& ❞❡ ✭✶✮ '✉❡
(x, y, z) = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s(a1 , b1 , c1 ) + t(a2 , b2 , c2 ), s, t ∈ R,
♦ '✉❡ ❡'✉✐✈❛❧❡ >& ❡'✉❛2?❡&
x = x1 + sa1 + ta2 , s, t ∈ R,
y = y1 + sb1 + tb2 , s, t ∈ R, ✭✷✮
z = z1 + sc1 + tc2 , s, t ∈ R.
❆& ❡'✉❛2?❡& ❡♠ ✭✷✮ &3♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛& ❞❡ ❡!✉❛$,❡- ♣❛)❛♠0()✐❝❛- ❞❡ π(A,v1 ,v2)✳

❱❛♠♦& ❛♣.❡&❡♥+❛. ❛❣♦.❛ ❛ ❡!✉❛$%♦ ❝❛)(❡-✐❛♥❛ ♦✉ ❡!✉❛$%♦ ❣❡)❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦✳
❆♥+❡&✱ ♣.❡❝✐&❛♠♦& ❛♣.❡&❡♥+❛. ❛ ♥♦23♦ ❞❡ ✈❡(♦) ♥♦)♠❛❧ ❛ ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦✳ ❈❤❛♠❛✲
♠♦& ❞❡ ✈❡(♦) ♥♦)♠❛❧ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π(A, v1 , v2 ) ❛ ✉♠ ✈❡+♦. ♥3♦ ♥✉❧♦ ♦.+♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛♦&
✈❡+♦.❡& v1 ❡ v2 ✭♣♦.+❛♥+♦✱ ♦.+♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ +♦❞♦ ✈❡+♦. ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦✮✳
❙❡❥❛ n ✉♠ ✈❡+♦. ♥♦.♠❛❧ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π(A, v1 , v2 )✳ ❙❡❥❛ P = (x, y, z) ✉♠
♣♦♥+♦ ❞❡ π(A, v1 , v2 )✳ ❉❡♥♦+❡♠♦& ♣♦. v ♦ ✈❡+♦. ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦. P − A✳ ❊♥+3♦✱
v = t1 v1 + t2 v2 ♣❛.❛ ❝❡.+♦& t1 , t2 ∈ R✳ ❈♦♠♦ n ⊥ v1 ❡ n ⊥ v2 ✱ +❡♠♦& '✉❡
n · v1 = n · v2 = 0✳ ❆&&✐♠✱ n · v = 0✳ ❙❡ A = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ❡ n = (a, b, c)✱ +❡♠♦&
'✉❡ n · v = 0 ❡'✉✐✈❛❧❡ > ❡'✉❛23♦
(a, b, c) · (x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 ) = 0,
♦✉ &❡❥❛✱
ax + by + cz + d = 0, ✭✸✮
♦♥❞❡ d = −ax1 − by1 − cz1 ✳ ❆ ❡'✉❛23♦ ❡♠ ✭✸✮ 6 ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❡!✉❛$%♦ ❣❡)❛❧

♦✉ ❝❛)(❡-✐❛♥❛ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π(A, v1 , v2 )✳
✶✵✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳ ❉❡%❡&♠✐♥❡♠♦+ ❛+ ❡-✉❛/0❡+ ❝❛&%❡+✐❛♥❛+ ❞♦+ ♣❧❛♥♦+ ❝❛&%❡+✐❛♥♦+
xOy ✱ yOz ❡ xOz ✳
❖+ ✈❡%♦&❡+ e1 = (1, 0, 0) ❡ e2 = (0, 1, 0) +9♦ ✈❡%♦&❡+ ❜❛+❡ ♣❛&❛ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦
❝❛&%❡+✐❛♥♦ xOy ❡ ♦ ✈❡%♦& e3 ; ✉♠ ✈❡%♦& ♥♦&♠❛❧ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy ✳ ❈♦♠♦ e3 =
(0, 0, 1)✱ ❛ ❡-✉❛/9♦
z + d = 0x + 0y + 1 · z + d = 0
; ✉♠❛ ❡-✉❛/9♦ ❝❛&%❡+✐❛♥❛ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy ✱ ♦♥❞❡ d ; ✉♠ ♥=♠❡&♦ &❡❛❧ ❛ +❡&

❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛❞♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛ ♦&✐❣❡♠ ♣❡&%❡♥❝❡ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy ✱ %❡♠♦+ -✉❡
d = 0 + d = 0.
❆++✐♠✱ z = 0 ; ❛ ❡-✉❛/9♦ ❝❛&%❡+✐❛♥❛ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy ✳

❆+ ❡-✉❛/0❡+ x = 0 ❡ y = 0 +9♦ ❛+ ❡-✉❛/0❡+ ❝❛&%❡+✐❛♥❛+ ❞♦+ ♣❧❛♥♦+ yOz ❡
xOz ✱ &❡+♣❡❝%✐✈❛♠❡♥%❡✳
@❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐/9♦✱ ✈✐♠♦+ -✉❡ ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ ✜❝❛ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦& ✉♠ ♣♦♥%♦
A ❡♠ R3 ❡ ♣♦& ❞♦✐+ ✈❡%♦&❡+ v1 ❡ v2 ❡♠ R3 ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡+✳ ❊①✐+%❡♠
♦✉%&❛+ ♠❛♥❡✐&❛+ ❞❡ +❡ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛& ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦✳ ◆♦ &❡+✉❧%❛❞♦ ❛ +❡❣✉✐&✱ ✈❛♠♦+
❛♣&❡+❡♥%❛& %&E+ ♦✉%&❛+ ♠❛♥❡✐&❛+ ❞❡ +❡ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛& ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡♠ R3 ✳
✶✳ ❘❊❚❆❙ ❊ '▲❆◆❖❙ ❊▼ R3 ✶✵✸
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳✸✳
✭✐✮ ❊①✐#$❡ ✉♠ (♥✐❝♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡♠ R3 /✉❡ ♣❛##❛ ♣♦0 ✉♠ ♣♦♥$♦ A ❡ $❡♠ ✉♠ ✈❡$♦0
♥2♦ ♥✉❧♦ n ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡$♦0 ♥♦0♠❛❧✳
✭✐✐✮ ❊①✐#$❡ ✉♠ (♥✐❝♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡♠ R3 /✉❡ ♣❛##❛ ♣♦0 $04# ♣♦♥$♦# A✱ B ❡ C ♥2♦
❝♦❧✐♥❡❛0❡#✳
✭✐✐✐✮ ❊①✐#$❡ ✉♠ (♥✐❝♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ /✉❡ ♣❛##❛ ♣♦0 ✉♠❛ 0❡$❛ r ❡ ✉♠ ♣♦♥$♦ A ❢♦0❛
❞❡ r✳
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ &'♦✈❛'❡♠♦- ❛♣❡♥❛- ♦ ✐0❡♠ ✭✐✮✱ ❞❡✐①❛♥❞♦ ♦- ❞❡♠❛✐- ✐0❡♥-
♣❛'❛ ♦ ❧❡✐0♦' ✭✈❡❥❛ &'♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✷✮✳
❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠ ♣♦♥0♦ ❡♠ R3 ❡ -❡❥❛ n ✉♠ ✈❡0♦' ♥;♦ ♥✉❧♦✳ ❈♦♥-✐❞❡'❡♠♦-
W = {v ∈ R3 ; v · n = 0}✳ ❈♦♠♦ n = ♥;♦ ♥✉❧♦✱ W = ✉♠ -✉❜❡-♣❛>♦ ✈❡0♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡
R3 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥-;♦ ✷✳ ❆--✐♠✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦- 0♦♠❛' ❞♦✐- ✈❡0♦'❡- ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥0❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥✲
❞❡♥0❡- ❡♠ W ✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦-✱ v1 ❡ v2 ✳ ❖ ♣❧❛♥♦ π(A, v1 , v2 ) ❝♦♥0=♠ A ❡ 0❡♠ n ❝♦♠♦
✉♠ ✈❡0♦' ♥♦'♠❛❧✳ ▼❛✐- ❛✐♥❞❛✱ ❡-0❡ ♣❧❛♥♦ = ♦ E♥✐❝♦ ❝♦♠ 0❛✐- ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡-✳
❉❡ ❢❛0♦✱ ❝♦♥-✐❞❡'❡♠♦- π(P, w1 , w2 ) ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ H✉❡ ❝♦♥0=♠ A ❡ 0❡♠ n ❝♦♠♦
✉♠ ✈❡0♦' ♥♦'♠❛❧✳ ❱❡❥❛♠♦- H✉❡ π(P, w1 , w2 ) = π(A, v1 , v2 )✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦- Q ❡♠
π(P, w1 , w2 )✳ ❊♥0;♦✱ ❡①✐-0❡♠ ℓ ❡ m ❡♠ R 0❛✐- H✉❡
Q = P + ℓw1 + mw2 . ✭✹✮
❈♦♠♦ π(P, w1 , w2 ) ❝♦♥0=♠ A✱ ❡①✐-0❡♠ p ❡ q ❡♠ R 0❛✐- H✉❡
A = P + pw1 + qw2 . ✭✺✮
❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❞✐❢❡'❡♥>❛ ✭✹✮✲✭✺✮✱ ♦❜0❡♠♦- H✉❡
Q = A + rw1 + sw2 ✭✻✮
❝♦♠ r ❡ s ❡♠ R✳ ❈♦♠♦ w1 , w2 ∈ W ✱ ❡①✐-0❡♠ ♥E♠❡'♦- '❡❛✐- a✱ b✱ c ❡ d 0❛✐-

H✉❡ (
w1 = av1 + bv2
✭✼✮
w2 = cv1 + dv2 .
✶✵✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥*❡✱ ,✉❜,*✐*✉✐♥❞♦ ✭✼✮ ❡♠ ✭✻✮✱ ♦❜*❡♠♦,
Q = A + (ra + sc)v1 + (rb + sd)v2 ,
♦✉ ,❡❥❛✱ Q ∈ π(A, v1 , v2 )✳ ▼♦,*8❛♠♦, ❛,,✐♠ 9✉❡ π(P, w1 , w2 ) ⊂ π(A, v1 , v2 )✳

❉❡✐①❛♠♦, ♣❛8❛ ♦ ❧❡✐*♦8 ✈❡8✐✜❝❛8 ❛ ♦✉*8❛ ✐♥❝❧✉,@♦✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳ ❉❡*❡8♠✐♥❡♠♦, ❛ ❡9✉❛A@♦ ❝❛8*❡,✐❛♥❛ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ 9✉❡ ❝♦♥*B♠ ♦
♣♦♥*♦ A = (1, 1, 1) ❡ ❛ 8❡*❛ r ❞❡ ❡9✉❛AC❡, ♣❛8❛♠B*8✐❝❛,

 x = 2t,

y = 3t,

z = 1 + t; t ∈ R.

❈♦♠♦ A ∈ / r✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦8❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳✸✱ ❡①✐,*❡ ✉♠ G♥✐❝♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π 9✉❡ ❝♦♥*B♠ A

❡ r✳ H❛8❛ ❞❡*❡8♠✐♥❛8♠♦, ❡,*❡ ♣❧❛♥♦✱ *♦♠❡ B ∈ r ❡ v ✉♠ ✈❡*♦8 ❞✐8❡*♦8 ❞❛ 8❡*❛
r❀ ❞✐❣❛♠♦, B = (0, 0, 1) ❡ v = (2, 3, 1)✳ ❈♦♥,✐❞❡8❡ w = B − A = (−1, −1, 0)✳
❖ ♣❧❛♥♦ π(A, v, w) B ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣8♦❝✉8❛❞♦✳ ◆♦*❡ 9✉❡ ❛9✉✐ ❡,*❛♠♦, ❞❛♥❞♦ ✉♠❛
✐❞❡✐❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♦ 8❡,♦❧✈❡8 ♣❛8*❡ ❞♦ H8♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✷✱ ♣8♦✈❛♥❞♦ ❛,,✐♠ ♦ ✐*❡♠ ✭✐✐✐✮
❞♦ ❚❡♦8❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳✸✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✼
❖ ✈❡*♦8 n = (1, −1, 1) B ✉♠ ✈❡*♦8 ♥♦8♠❛❧ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π ✱ ❧♦❣♦ ✉♠❛ ❡9✉❛A@♦

❝❛8*❡,✐❛♥❛ ❞❡,*❡ ♣❧❛♥♦ B ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦8
x − y + z + d = 0,
✶✳ ❘❊❚❆❙ ❊ '▲❆◆❖❙ ❊▼ R3 ✶✵✺
♦♥❞❡ d ' ✉♠ ♥*♠❡+♦ +❡❛❧ ❛ .❡+ ❞❡/❡+♠✐♥❛❞♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ A ∈ π ✱ .❡❣✉❡ 5✉❡
1 − 1 + 1 + d = 0,
♦✉ .❡❥❛✱ d = −1✳ 7♦+/❛♥/♦✱ ✉♠❛ ❡5✉❛89♦ ❝❛+/❡.✐❛♥❛ ❞❡ π '
x − y + z − 1 = 0.
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳ ❉❡/❡+♠✐♥❛+❡♠♦. ❛ ❡5✉❛89♦ ✈❡/♦+✐❛❧ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ 5✉❡ ❝♦♥/'♠ ♦.

♣♦♥/♦. A = (1, 2, 3)✱ B = (1, −1, 0) ❡ C = (0, 2, 1)✳
❈♦♠♦ ♦. ✈❡/♦+❡. v1 = B − A = (0, −3, −3) ❡ v2 = C − A = (−1, 0, −2)
.9♦ ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥/❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡.✱ ♦. ♣♦♥/♦. A✱ B ❡ C ♥9♦ ♣❡+/❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ ✉♠❛
♠❡.♠❛ +❡/❛✳ ❆..✐♠✱ ♣❡❧❛ ♣❛+/❡ ✭✐✐✮ ❞♦ ❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳✸✱ ❡①✐./❡ ✉♠ *♥✐❝♦ ♣❧❛♥♦
π 5✉❡ ❝♦♥/'♠ ♦. ♣♦♥/♦. A✱ B ❡ C ✳ ❊./❡ ♣❧❛♥♦ ' ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π(A, v1 , v2 ) ✭❛5✉✐
❡./❛♠♦. ❞❛♥❞♦ ✉♠❛ ✐❞❡✐❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♦ +❡.♦❧✈❡+ ❛ ♦✉/+❛ ♣❛+/❡ ❞♦ 7+♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✷✱
♣+♦✈❛♥❞♦ ❛..✐♠ ♦ ✐/❡♠ ✭✐✐✮ ❞♦ ❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳✸✮✱ ❝✉❥❛ ❡5✉❛89♦ ✈❡/♦+✐❛❧ ' ❞❛❞❛
♣♦+
P = A + tv1 + sv2 , t, s ∈ R.
❖✉ .❡❥❛✱
(x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3) + t(0, −3, −3) + s(−1, 0, −2), t, s ∈ R.
◆♦/❡ 5✉❡ ♣❛+❛ t = s = 0✱ ♦❜/❡♠♦. (1, 2, 3) ♥❛ ❡5✉❛89♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✳ 7❛+❛ t = 1 ❡

s = 0✱ ♦❜/❡♠♦. (1, −1, 0)✳ ❊✱ ♣❛+❛ t = 0 ❡ s = 1✱ ♦❜/❡♠♦. (0, 2, 1)✳ ❆..✐♠✱
π(A, v1 , v2 ) ❝♦♥/'♠ ♦. ♣♦♥/♦. A✱ B ❡ C ✳
)*♦❜❧❡♠❛-
✶✳✶ ▼♦./+❡ 5✉❡ .❡ w ' ♦+/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ u ❡ ❛ v✱ ❡♥/9♦ w ' ♦+/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ /♦❞♦ ✈❡/♦+
❞❡ G(u, v)✳
✶✳✷✯ ▼♦./+❡ 5✉❡✱ ❡♠ R3✱ ❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞K♥❝✐❛ ❧✐♥❡❛+ ❞❡ /+K. ✈❡/♦+❡. ♣♦❞❡ .❡+ ❞❡.✲
❝+✐/❛ ❣❡♦♠❡/+✐❝❛♠❡♥/❡ ❝♦♠♦ .❡❣✉❡✿
❚+K. ✈❡/♦+❡. 5✉❛✐.5✉❡+ u✱ v ❡ w .9♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡. .❡✱ ❡ .♦♠❡♥/❡ .❡✱ ❡./9♦
♥✉♠ ♠❡.♠♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ 5✉❡ ♣❛..❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦+✐❣❡♠✱ ♦✉ .❡❥❛✱ .❡ ❡❧❡. .9♦ ❝♦♣❧❛♥❛&❡( ✳
✶✵✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
❊!"❡ ❡①❡%❝'❝✐♦ * ✉♠❛ ✈❡%!/♦ ❞❛ 1%♦♣♦!✐3/♦ ✹✳✶✳✶ ♣❛%❛ "%7! ✈❡"♦%❡! ❡♠ R3 ✳
✶✳✸✯ ❉❡&❡'♠✐♥❡ ❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ ❣❡'❛❧ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ,✉❡ ♣❛55❛ ♣❡❧♦5 ♣♦♥&♦5

A = (−1, 2, 0)✱ B = (2, −1, 1) ❡ C = (−1, −1, 1)✳
✶✳✹ ❉❡&❡'♠✐♥❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛5❡ ♣❛'❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠ ❞♦5 5❡❣✉✐♥&❡5 5✉❜❡5♣❛.♦5 ❞❡ R3 ✿
✭❛✮ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ 3x − 4y − z = 0❀
✭❜✮ ❛ '❡&❛ x = 2t✱ y = −t✱ z = 3t❀
✭❝✮ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ x − y = 0✳
✶✳✺ ❆5 ❡,✉❛.>❡5 ♣❛'❛♠?&'✐❝❛5 ❞❡ ✉♠❛ '❡&❛ 5/♦
x = 2 + 4t, y = t − 4, z = 7 − 8t (t ∈ R).
❘❡❞✉③✐' ❡5&❛5 ❡,✉❛.>❡5 B ❢♦'♠❛ 5✐♠?&'✐❝❛✳

✶✳✻ ✭❉❡&❡'♠✐♥❛./♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ '❡&❛ ♣♦' ❞♦✐5 ♣♦♥&♦5✳✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ❞♦✐5 ♣♦♥&♦5
❞✐5&✐♥&♦5 ❡♠ R3 ✳ ▼♦5&'❡ ,✉❡ ❛ '❡&❛ r(A, v)✱ ♦♥❞❡ v ? ♦ ✈❡&♦' A − B ✱ ? ❛ H♥✐❝❛
'❡&❛ ,✉❡ ❝♦♥&?♠ A ❡ B ✳
✶✳✼ ❉❡&❡'♠✐♥❡ ❛5 ❡,✉❛.>❡5 5✐♠?&'✐❝❛5 ❞❛ '❡&❛ ,✉❡ ❝♦♥&?♠ ♦5 ♣♦♥&♦5 A =
(2, 3, 0) ❡ B = (0, 1, 2)✳
✶✳✽ ❉❡&❡'♠✐♥❡ ❛5 ❡,✉❛.>❡5 '❡❞✉③✐❞❛5✱ ❡♠ ❢✉♥./♦ ❞❛ ✈❛'✐I✈❡❧ z ✱ ❞❛ '❡&❛ ,✉❡
♣❛55❛ ♣❡❧♦5 ♣♦♥&♦5 A = (−1, 0, 1) ❡ B = (1, 3, −2)✳
✶✳✾ ◗✉❛❧ ❞❡✈❡ 5❡' ♦ ✈❛❧♦' ❞❡ k ♣❛'❛ ,✉❡ ♦5 ♣♦♥&♦5 A = (3, k, 1)✱ B = (1, 1, −1)
❡ C = (−2, 10, −4) ♣❡'&❡♥.❛♠ B ♠❡5♠❛ '❡&❛❄
✶✳✶✵ ❘❡♣'❡5❡♥&❡ ❣'❛✜❝❛♠❡♥&❡ ♦5 ♣❧❛♥♦5 ❞❡ ❡,✉❛.>❡5✿
✭❛✮ x + y + z = 0❀ ✭❜✮ z − 2 = 0❀ ✭❝✮ 2x + y + z − 1 = 0✳
✶✳✶✶ ❉❡&❡'♠✐♥❡ ♦ ✈❛❧♦' ❞❡ k ♣❛'❛ ,✉❡ ♦5 ♣♦♥&♦5 A = (k, −1, 5)✱ B = (7, 2, 1)✱
C = (−1, −3, −1) ❡ D = (1, 0, 3) ❡5&❡❥❛♠ ♥♦ ♠❡5♠♦ ♣❧❛♥♦✳
✶✳✶✷ ❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥5&'❛./♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳✸✳
x y z
✶✳✶✸ ❉❡&❡'♠✐♥❡ ❛5 ❡,✉❛.>❡5 ♣❛'❛♠?&'✐❝❛5 ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ + + = 1✳
4 3 2
✷✳ "❖❙■➬'❊❙ ❘❊▲❆❚■❱❆❙ ✶✵✼
✶✳✶✹ ❉❡%❡&♠✐♥❡ ❛ ❡+✉❛-.♦ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ +✉❡ ♣❛33❛ ♣❡❧♦ ♣♦♥%♦ (2, −1, 0) ❡ ❝♦♥%5♠
❛ &❡%❛ 
2x − y − z + 4 = 0
x + 2y − z + 3 = 0 .
✶✳✶✺ ❉❡%❡&♠✐♥❡ ♦3 ♣♦♥%♦3 ❞❡ ✐♥%❡&3❡-.♦ ❞♦3 ♣❧❛♥♦3 ❝♦♦&❞❡♥❛❞♦3 xOy ✱ yOz ❡

xOz ❝♦♠ ❛ &❡%❛ 
y = 2x − 3
r:
z = −x + 2 .
✷ !♦#✐%&❡# ❘❡❧❛+✐✈❛#
❱❡❥❛♠♦3 ❛ 3❡❣✉✐& ❝♦♠♦ ♦3 ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦3 ❞❡ ❜❛3❡ ❡ ❞✐♠❡♥3.♦ ♣♦❞❡♠ 3❡& ❛♣❧✐✲
❝❛❞♦3 ♥♦ ❡3%✉❞♦ 3♦❜&❡ ❛3 ♣♦3✐-<❡3 &❡❧❛%✐✈❛3 ❡♥%&❡ &❡%❛3✱ &❡%❛3 ❡ ♣❧❛♥♦3 ❡
♣❧❛♥♦3 ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❆♥%❡3 ♣&❡❝✐3❛♠♦3 ❧❡♠❜&❛& +✉❡ ❞✉❛3 &❡%❛3 r1 = r(A1 , v1 ) ❡
r2 = r(A2 , v2 ) ❡♠ R3 3.♦ ❞✐%❛3 ❝♦♣❧❛♥❛&❡( +✉❛♥❞♦ ❡❧❛3 ♣❡&%❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ ✉♠
♠❡3♠♦ ♣❧❛♥♦✳ ◆❛ ❧✐♥❣✉❛❣❡♠ ❛❧❣5❜&✐❝❛✱ ✐3%♦ ❡+✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ❞✐③❡& +✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦
❞❡ ✈❡%♦&❡3 {v, v1 , v2 } 5 ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡✱ ♦♥❞❡ v ❞❡♥♦%❛ ♦ ✈❡%♦& A2 −A1
✭✈❡❥❛ C&♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✮✳ ❆3 &❡%❛3 r1 ❡ r2 3.♦ ❞✐%❛3 &❡✈❡&(❛( +✉❛♥❞♦ ♥.♦ 3.♦ ❝♦✲
♣❧❛♥❛&❡3✳ ❙❡ r1 ❡ r2 3.♦ &❡%❛3 &❡✈❡&3❛3✱ ❡♥%.♦ r1 ∩ r2 = ∅✱ ♦✉ 3❡❥❛✱ ❡❧❛3 ♥.♦
3❡ ✐♥%❡&3❡❝%❛♠✳ ◆♦ ❝❛3♦ ❞❡ r1 ❡ r2 3❡&❡♠ ❝♦♣❧❛♥❛&❡3 ✉♠ ❡ 3♦♠❡♥%❡ ✉♠ ❞♦3
❝❛3♦3 ❛❜❛✐①♦ ♣♦❞❡ ♦❝♦&&❡&✿
✶✮ r1 ∩ r2 = ∅❀
✷✮ r1 ∩ r2 = {P }✱ ♦♥❞❡ P ∈ R3 ❀
✸✮ r1 ∩ r2 = r1 = r2 ✳
❙❡ ✶✮ ♦❝♦&&❡✱ ♦✉ 3❡❥❛✱ 3❡ r1 ❡ r2 ♥.♦ 3❡ ✐♥%❡&3❡❝%❛♠✱ r1 ❡ r2 3.♦ ❞✐%❛3 &❡*❛(

♣❛&❛❧❡❧❛(✳ ❙❡ ✷✮ ♦❝♦&&❡✱ ♦✉ 3❡❥❛✱ 3❡ r1 ❡ r2 3❡ ✐♥%❡&3❡❝%❛♠ ❡♠ ✉♠ K♥✐❝♦ ♣♦♥%♦ ❞❡
R3 ✱ r1 ❡ r2 3.♦ ❞✐%❛3 &❡*❛( ❝♦♥❝♦&&❡♥*❡(✳ ❙❡ ✸✮ ♦❝♦&&❡✱ ♦✉ 3❡❥❛✱ 3❡ ❛ ✐♥%❡&3❡-.♦
❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♠ ❛3 &❡%❛3 ❞❛❞❛3✱ r1 ❡ r2 3.♦ ❞✐%❛3 &❡*❛( ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥*❡(✳ ❱❡❥❛♠♦3
✉♠❛ ❞❡♠♦♥3%&❛-.♦ ❞❡3%❡3 ❢❛%♦3✳
✶✵✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✹✳✷✳✶✳ ✭ ♦$✐&-❡$ !❡❧❛1✐✈❛$ ❞❡ ❞✉❛$ !❡1❛$ ❝♦♣❧❛♥❛!❡$✮ ❙❡✲
❥❛♠ r1 = r(A1 , v1 ) ❡ r2 = r(A2 , v2 ) ❞✉❛( )❡*❛( ❝♦♣❧❛♥❛)❡( ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❊♥*2♦✱ r1
❡ r2 (2♦ ♣❛)❛❧❡❧❛( ♦✉ r1 ❡ r2 (2♦ ❝♦♥❝♦))❡♥*❡( ♦✉ r1 ❡ r2 (2♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥*❡(✳
❉❡♠♦♥$1!❛&'♦ ❙❡ r1 ∩ r2 = ∅✱ ❛( )❡*❛( (+♦ ♣❛)❛❧❡❧❛( ❡ ♥+♦ *❡♠♦( ♥❛❞❛ ❛
❢❛③❡)✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦( 6✉❡ r1 ∩ r2 6= ∅✳ ❊♥*+♦ ❡①✐(*❡ P ∈ R3 *❛❧ 6✉❡ P ∈ r1 ∩ r2 ✳
▲♦❣♦✱
r1 = {A1 } + W1 = {P } + W1
❡
r2 = {A2 } + W2 = {P } + W2 ,
♦♥❞❡ W1 = G(v1 ) ❡ W2 = G(v2 )✳ ❉❛=✱ *❡♠♦( 6✉❡
r1 ∩ r2 = {P } + (W1 ∩ W2 ). ✭✶✮
❈♦♠♦ W1 ❡ W2 (+♦ (✉❜❡(♣❛B♦( ✈❡*♦)✐❛✐( ❞❡ R3 ✱ *❡♠♦( ♣❡❧❛ D)♦♣♦(✐B+♦ ✸✳✶✳✸

6✉❡ W1 ∩ W2 F ✉♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛B♦ ✈❡*♦)✐❛❧ ❞❡ W1 ❡ ❞❡ W2 ✳ ❈♦♠♦ dim W1 =
dim W2 = 1✱ (❡❣✉❡ ❛❣♦)❛✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻✱ 6✉❡ dim(W1 ∩W2 ) ≤ 1✳ ❚❡♠♦(✱
❡♥*+♦✱ ❞♦✐( ❝❛(♦( ❛ ❝♦♥(✐❞❡)❛)✿
❈❛(♦ ✶✳ dim(W1 ∩ W2 ) = 0✳
◆❡(*❡ ❝❛(♦✱ W1 ∩ W2 = {0}✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♣♦) ✭✶✮✱ (❡❣✉❡ 6✉❡ r1 ∩ r2 = {P }✳
❈❛(♦ ✷✳ dim(W1 ∩ W2 ) = 1✳
D❡❧♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻✱ (❡❣✉❡ ♥❡(*❡ ❝❛(♦ 6✉❡ W1 ∩ W2 = W1 = W2 ▲♦❣♦✱ ♣♦)
✭✶✮✱ (❡❣✉❡ 6✉❡ r1 ∩ r2 = r1 = r2 ✳
❱❡❥❛♠♦( ❛ (❡❣✉✐) ♦ 6✉❡ ♦❝♦))❡ ❝♦♠ ❞♦✐( ♣❧❛♥♦( ❡♠ R3 ✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✹✳✷✳✷✳ ✭ ♦$✐&-❡$ !❡❧❛1✐✈❛$ ❡♥1!❡ ❞♦✐$ ♣❧❛♥♦$✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ ❞❛❞♦(

❞♦✐( ♣❧❛♥♦( π1 = π(P1 , v1 , v2 ) ❡ π2 = π(P2 , v3 , v4 ) ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❯♠❛ ❡ (♦♠❡♥*❡
✉♠❛ ❞❛( ♣♦((✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡( ❛ (❡❣✉✐) ♣♦❞❡ ♦❝♦))❡)✿
✶✮ π1 ∩ π2 = ∅❀
✷✮ π1 ∩ π2 = r✱ ♦♥❞❡ r : ✉♠❛ )❡*❛ ❡♠ R3 ❀
✸✮ π1 ∩ π2 = π1 = π2 ✳
✷✳ "❖❙■➬'❊❙ ❘❊▲❆❚■❱❆❙ ✶✵✾
❙❡ ✶✮ ♦❝♦((❡✱ ♦* ♣❧❛♥♦* */♦ ❞✐2♦* ♣❛"❛❧❡❧♦&✳ ❙❡ ✷✮ ♦❝♦((❡✱ ♦* ♣❧❛♥♦* */♦

❞✐2♦* ❝♦♥❝♦""❡♥)❡& ❡✱ *❡ ✸✮ ♦❝♦((❡✱ ♦* ♣❧❛♥♦* */♦ ❞✐2♦* ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥)❡&✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ❙❡❥❛♠ π1 = {P1 } + W1 ❡ π2 = {P2 } + W2 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ W1 =
G(v1 , v2 ) ❡ W2 = G(v3 , v4 )✳ ❙❡ π1 ∩ π2 = ∅✱ ♥❛❞❛ 2❡♠♦* ❛ ❢❛③❡(✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦*
π1 ∩ π2 6= ∅✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦* P ∈ π1 ∩ π2 ✳ ❊♥2/♦
π1 = {P1 } + W1 = {P } + W1
❡
π2 = {P2 } + W2 = {P } + W2 .
❉❛?✱ 2❡♠♦* @✉❡

π1 ∩ π2 = {P } + (W1 ∩ W2 ). ✭✷✮
❈♦♠♦ W1 ∩ W2 C ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛E♦ ✈❡2♦(✐❛❧ ❞❡ W1 ✱ *❡❣✉❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦(❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻✱

@✉❡ dim(W1 ∩ W2 ) ≤ dim W1 = 2✳
I♦( ♦✉2(♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ dim(W1 ∩ W2 ) 6= 0✱ ♣♦✐*✱ ❝❛*♦ ❝♦♥2(J(✐♦✱ 2❡(?❛♠♦*✱ ♣❡❧♦
I(♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✸✳✶✻ ❞♦ ❈❛♣?2✉❧♦ ✸✱ @✉❡
4 = dim W1 + dim W2 = dim(W1 + W2 ) ≤ dim R3 = 3,
♦ @✉❡ C ❛❜*✉(❞♦✳ I♦(2❛♥2♦✱ 0 < dim(W1 ∩ W2 ) ≤ 2✳

❙❡ dim(W1 ∩ W2 ) = 2✱ ❡♥2/♦ W1 ∩ W2 = W1 = W2 ✳ ◆❡*2❡ ❝❛*♦✱ ♣♦( ✭✷✮✱
π1 ∩ π2 = {P } + W1 = {P } + W2 = π1 = π2 .
❙❡ dim(W1 ∩ W2 ) = 1✱ ❡♥2/♦ ❡①✐*2❡ ✉♠ ✈❡2♦( v ♥/♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❡♠ R3 2❛❧ @✉❡

W1 ∩ W2 = G(v)✳ ❙❡❥❛ r = r(P, v)✳ ❚❡♠♦*✱ ❡♥2/♦✱ ♥❡*2❡ ❝❛*♦ @✉❡
π1 ∩ π2 = {P } + G(v) = r.

❚❡(♠✐♥❛♠♦* ❡*2❛ *❡E/♦✱ ♦❜*❡(✈❛♥❞♦ @✉❡✱ ♥♦ ❝❛*♦ ❞❡ 2❡(♠♦* ✉♠❛ (❡2❛ r
❡ ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ π ❡♠ R3 ✱ ♣♦❞❡ ♦❝♦((❡( ✉♠❛ ❡ ❛♣❡♥❛* ✉♠❛ ❞❛* ♣♦**✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡*
❛❜❛✐①♦✿
✶✶✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
✶✮ r ∩ π = {P }✱ ♦♥❞❡ P ( ✉♠ ♣♦♥,♦ ❞❡ R3 ❀
✷✮ r ∩ π = ∅❀
✸✮ r ∩ π = r✳
❙❡ ✶✮ ♦❝♦33❡✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦6 7✉❡ r ❡ π 68♦ ❝♦♥❝♦##❡♥%❡&❀ 6❡ ✷✮ ♦❝♦33❡✱ r ❡ π 68♦ ❞✐,♦6
♣❛#❛❧❡❧♦&❀ ❡✱ 6❡ ✸✮ ♦❝♦33❡✱ r ❡6,9 ❝♦♥,✐❞❛ ♥♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π ✳ ❆ ❞❡♠♦♥6,3❛=8♦ ❞❡6,❡6
❢❛,♦6 6❡❣✉❡ ❞❡ ❛3❣✉♠❡♥,♦6 6❡♠❡❧❤❛♥,❡6 ❛♦6 ✉6❛❞♦6 ♥❛6 A3♦♣♦6✐=B❡6 ✹✳✷✳✶ ❡
✹✳✷✳✷ ❡ (✱ ♣♦3,❛♥,♦✱ ♦♠✐,✐❞❛✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✷✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ r1 = r(A1, v1) ❡ r2 = r(A2, v2) ❞✉❛6 3❡,❛6 ❡♠ R3✳ ❙❡❥❛ v ♦ ✈❡,♦3
❞❛❞♦ ♣♦3 A2 − A1 ✳ ❆6 6❡❣✉✐♥,❡6 ❛✜3♠❛=B❡6 68♦ ❡7✉✐✈❛❧❡♥,❡6✿
✭❛✮ r1 ❡ r2 68♦ ❝♦♣❧❛♥❛3❡6✱ ♦✉ 6❡❥❛✱ r1 ❡ r2 ♣❡3,❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ ✉♠ ♠❡6♠♦ ♣❧❛♥♦❀
✭❜✮ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ {v, v1 , v2 } ( ❧✐♥❡❛3♠❡♥,❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥,❡✳
✷✳✷✯ ❊6,✉❞❡ ❛ ♣♦6✐=8♦ 3❡❧❛,✐✈❛ ❞❛6 3❡,❛6

x = 1 − 36t
 

y = 2x − 3 
r1 : ❡ r2 : y = 4 − 6t
z = −x 

z = 3t .

✷✳✸ ❉L ❛ ♣♦6✐=8♦ 3❡❧❛,✐✈❛ ❡♥,3❡ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ 5x + 3y + 13z − 1 = 0 ❡ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦

3x + 8y − 3z + 8 = 0✳
✷✳✹ ❱❡3✐✜7✉❡ 6❡ ❛ 3❡,❛ x−1

−1
=
y−2
3
=
z−4
2
❡6,9 ❝♦♥,✐❞❛ ♥♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❞❡
❡7✉❛=8♦ 4x − 2y + 5z − 20 = 0✳
✷✳✺ ❉❛❞♦6 ♦6 ♣❧❛♥♦6 2ax − y + 4z + 2 = 0 ❡ 4x + by + 8z + c = 0✱ ❞❡,❡3♠✐♥❡
a, b ❡ c ♣❛3❛ 7✉❡ ❡❧❡6 6❡❥❛♠ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥,❡6✳
✷✳✻ ❉❛❞♦6 ♦6 ♣❧❛♥♦6 4x − 3ay + 6z − 8 = 0 ❡ 2x − 6y + bz + 10 = 0✱ ❞❡,❡3♠✐♥❡
a ❡ b ♣❛3❛ 7✉❡ 6❡❥❛♠ ♣❛3❛❧❡❧♦6✳
✷✳✼ A❛3❛ ♦6 ❞♦✐6 ♣❧❛♥♦6 a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 ❡ a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0✱
♠♦6,3❡ 7✉❡ ❛6 6❡❣✉✐♥,❡6 3❡❧❛=B❡6 68♦ ❝♦♥❞✐=B❡6 ♥❡❝❡6693✐❛6 ❡ 6✉✜❝✐❡♥,❡6 ♣❛3❛✿
✸✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ❊ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘■❆ ✶✶✶
✭❛✮ $❛%❛❧❡❧✐)♠♦✿ ❡①✐).❡ k 6= 0 .❛❧ /✉❡ a1 = ka2 ✱ b1 = kb2 ❡ c1 = kc2 ❀
✭❜✮ ❈♦✐♥❝✐❞8♥❝✐❛✿ ❡①✐).❡ k 6= 0 .❛❧ /✉❡ a1 = ka2 ✱ b1 = kb2 ✱ c1 = kc2 ❡

d1 = kd2 ✳
✸ ❉❡#❡$♠✐♥❛♥#❡) ❡ ●❡♦♠❡#$✐❛
◆❡).❛ )❡;<♦ ✐♥.%♦❞✉③✐%❡♠♦) ♦) ❞❡.❡%♠✐♥❛♥.❡) ❞❡ ♠❛.%✐③❡) 2 × 2 ❡ 3 × 3✱
♣❛%❛ ♣♦).❡%✐♦%♠❡♥.❡ ❛♣❧✐❝?✲❧♦) ❛♦ ❡).✉❞♦ ❞❛ ❣❡♦♠❡.%✐❛ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❆ ♥♦;<♦ ♠❛✐)
❣❡%❛❧ ❞❡ ❞❡.❡%♠✐♥❛♥.❡) )❡%? ❡).✉❞❛❞❛ ♥♦ ❈❛♣C.✉❧♦ ✽✳
❉❡.❡%♠✐♥❛♥.❡) )<♦ ❢✉♥;G❡) ♠✉✐.♦ ❡)♣❡❝✐❛✐) ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛) ♥♦) ❡)♣❛;♦) ❞❛) ♠❛✲
.%✐③❡) /✉❛❞%❛❞❛) ❝♦♠ ✈❛❧♦%❡) ♥♦ ❝♦%♣♦ ♦♥❞❡ ❡).<♦ ♦) ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥.❡) ❞❛ ♠❛.%✐③✳ ❆
✉.✐❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❞♦) ❞❡.❡%♠✐♥❛♥.❡) J ♠K❧.✐♣❧❛✳ $♦% ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧❡) )❡%✈❡♠✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡%❡✲
♠♦) ♥♦ ❈❛♣C.✉❧♦ ✽✱ ♣❛%❛ ❞❛% ✉♠ ❝%✐.J%✐♦ ♣❛%❛ ✐♥✈❡%.✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♠❛.%✐③❡) ❡ ✉♠
♠J.♦❞♦ ♣❛%❛ ♦ ❝?❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❛ ♠❛.%✐③ ✐♥✈❡%)❛✱ ❝❛)♦ ❛ ♠❛.%✐③ )❡❥❛ ✐♥✈❡%.C✈❡❧✳ ❊❧❡)
♣❡%♠✐.❡♠ ❞❛% ❢N%♠✉❧❛) ❡①♣❧C❝✐.❛) ♣❛%❛ ❛) )♦❧✉;G❡) ❞❡ )✐).❡♠❛) ❞❡ ❡/✉❛;G❡)
❧✐♥❡❛%❡)✳ $♦% ♠❡✐♦ ❞❡❧❡)✱ ❞❡✜♥❡✲)❡ .❛♠❜J♠ ❛ ✐♠♣♦%.❛♥.❡ ♥♦;<♦ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥O♠✐♦
❝❛%❛❝.❡%C).✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛.%✐③✱ ♥♦;<♦ /✉❡ ❞❡)❡♠♣❡♥❤❛%? ♣❛♣❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥.❛❧ ♥♦
❈❛♣C.✉❧♦ ✾✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❝❡✐.♦ ❞❡ ❞❡.❡%♠✐♥❛♥.❡ ❛♣❛%❡❝❡ ❡♠ ✈?%✐♦) ♦✉.%♦) ❝♦♥.❡①.♦)
❞❛ ▼❛.❡♠?.✐❝❛✳ $♦% ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡♠ ●❡♦♠❡.%✐❛✱ ❡❧❡ ❛♣❛%❡❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ?%❡❛ ❞❡
✉♠ ♣❛%❛❧❡❧♦❣%❛♠♦ ❡ ♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♣❛%❛❧❡❧❡♣C♣❡❞♦ ❡✱ ❡♠ ❆♥?❧✐)❡✱ ❡❧❡ ❡).?
♣%❡)❡♥.❡ ❡♠ .❡♦%❡♠❛) ✐♠♣♦%.❛♥.❡)✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ❞❛ ❋✉♥;<♦ ■♥✈❡%)❛✱ ♦
❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ❞❛ ❋✉♥;<♦ ■♠♣❧C❝✐.❛ ❡ ♦ ❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ❞❡ ▼✉❞❛♥;❛ ❞❡ ❱❛%✐?✈❡✐)✳
◆❡).❛ )❡;<♦ ❡).❛%❡♠♦) ✐♥.❡%❡))❛❞♦) ♥❛) ❛♣❧✐❝❛;G❡) ❞♦) ❞❡.❡%♠✐♥❛♥.❡) Y
❣❡♦♠❡.%✐❛ ❡♠ R3 ✳
✸✳✶ ❉❡%❡&♠✐♥❛♥%❡+
◆♦ .%❛❜❛❧❤♦ ❯♠ ❚#❛%❛❞♦ (♦❜#❡ ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ❡♠ ❚#.( /❛#%❡( ✱ ❞❡ ❈♦❧✐♥ ▼❛✲
❝❧❛✉%✐♥ ✭❊)❝N❝✐❛✱ ✶✻✾✽ ✲ ✶✼✹✻✮✱ ♣✉❜❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♠ ✶✼✹✽✱ ❢♦✐ ❛♣%❡)❡♥.❛❞♦ ♦ /✉❡ ❡❧❡
❝❤❛♠♦✉ ❞❡ %❡♦#❡♠❛ ❣❡#❛❧✱ /✉❡ ❡%❛ ✉)❛❞♦ ♣❛%❛ %❡)♦❧✈❡% ✉♠ )✐).❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛% n×n
♦♥❞❡ n ≤ 4✳ ❉❡ ❢❛.♦✱ ❡♠ )❡✉ .%❛❜❛❧❤♦ ♥❛❞❛ ❢♦✐ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ )♦❜%❡ ♦ ❝❛)♦ ❡♠
✶✶✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
"✉❡ n ≥ 5✳ ❖ ♠()♦❞♦ ❛♣.❡/❡♥)❛❞♦ ♣♦. ▼❛❝❧❛✉.✐♥ ( ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞♦ ❤♦❥❡ ❝♦♠♦
❘❡❣#❛ ❞❡ ❈#❛♠❡#✱ ❛♣8/ ♦ ♠❛)❡♠9)✐❝♦ ●❛❜.✐❡❧ ❈.❛♠❡. ✭❙✉?@❛✱ ✶✼✵✹ ✲ ✶✼✺✷✮
)❡. ✉)✐❧✐③❛❞♦ ♦/ ♠()♦❞♦/ ❞❡ ▼❛❝❧❛✉.✐♥ ❡♠ /❡✉ ❧✐✈.♦ /♦❜.❡ ❝✉.✈❛/ ❛❧❣(❜.✐❝❛/
❡♠ ✶✼✺✵✳
❉❛❞♦ ✉♠ /✐/)❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛. 2 × 2 ♥❛/ ✐♥❝8❣♥✐)❛/ x ❡ y ✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦/✱

ax + by = e
✭✶✮
cx + dy = f,
/❛❜❡♠♦/ ❞♦ K.♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✷ ❞♦ ❈❛♣?)✉❧♦ ✷ "✉❡✱ /❡ ad − bc 6= 0✱ ❛/ /♦❧✉@L❡/ /M♦

❞❛❞❛/ ♣❡❧❛/ ❢8.♠✉❧❛/
ed − f b af − ce
x= , y= .
ad − bc ad − bc
❱❡❥❛♠♦/ ❛❣♦.❛ ❛ .❡/♦❧✉@M♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ /✐/)❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❞❡ ).P/ ❡"✉❛@L❡/ ♥❛/
✐♥❝8❣♥✐)❛/ x✱ y ❡ z ✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦/✱

ax + by + cz = m



dx + ey + f z = n ✭✷✮


gx + hy + kz = p.

❊/)❡ /✐/)❡♠❛ ❢♦✐ ).❛)❛❞♦ ♣♦. ▼❛❝❧❛✉.✐♥ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛♥9❧♦❣♦ ❛♦ ❝❛/♦ 2 × 2✱

♥♦)❛♥❞♦ "✉❡✱ /❡ ♦ ♥R♠❡.♦ .❡❛❧ aek − ahf + dhc − dbk + gbf − gec ( ❞✐❢❡.❡♥)❡
❞❡ ③❡.♦✱ ❡♥)M♦
mek − mf h + bf p − bnk + cnh − cep
x= ,
aek − ahf + dhc − dbk + gbf − gec
nak − ncg + mf g − mdk + pcd − paf

y=
❡
aep − ahn + dhm − dbp + gbn − gem
z= ·
▼❛❝❧❛✉.✐♥ ♥♦)♦✉ "✉❡✱ )❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ♥♦ ❝❛/♦ 2 × 2✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛/ ❡①♣.❡//L❡/
❛❝✐♠❛ )❡♠ ♦ ♠❡/♠♦ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦.✱ "✉❡ ❝♦♥/✐/)❡ ❞❡ /♦♠❛/ ❛❧)❡.♥❛❞❛/ ❞❡ ✈9.✐♦/
✸✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ❊ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘■❆ ✶✶✸
♣#♦❞✉'♦( ❞♦( ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥'❡( ❞❛( ✐♥❝/❣♥✐'❛( ❞♦ (✐('❡♠❛✳ ❊❧❡ '❛♠❜6♠ ♥♦'♦✉ 7✉❡
♦ ♥✉♠❡#❛❞♦# ❞❛ ❡①♣#❡((9♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛( ✐♥❝/❣♥✐'❛( ❝♦♥(✐('❡ ❞❡ (♦♠❛(
❛❧'❡#♥❛❞❛( ❞❡ ✈;#✐♦( ♣#♦❞✉'♦( ❞♦( ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥'❡( ❞❛( ❞❡♠❛✐( ✐♥❝/❣♥✐'❛( ❡ ❞♦(
'❡#♠♦( ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡( ❞♦ (✐('❡♠❛✳
❖( ♥✉♠❡#❛❞♦#❡( ❡ ♦( ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦#❡( 7✉❡ ❛♣❛#❡❝❡#❛♠ ♥❛( (♦❧✉=>❡( ❞❡ ▼❛✲
❝❧❛✉#✐♥ (9♦ ♦ 7✉❡ ❝♦♥❤❡❝❡♠♦( ❤♦❥❡ ♣♦# ❞❡"❡#♠✐♥❛♥"❡(✳ ❖ '❡#♠♦ ❞❡'❡#♠✐♥❛♥'❡
❢♦✐ ✐♥'#♦❞✉③✐❞♦ ♣❡❧❛ ♣#✐♠❡✐#❛ ✈❡③ ♣♦# ●❛✉(( ❡♠ ✶✽✵✶✳
❱❛♠♦( ❛❣♦#❛ (✐♥'❡'✐③❛# ❛( (♦❧✉=>❡( ❞❡ ▼❛❝❧❛✉#✐♥✱ ✐♥'#♦❞✉③✐♥❞♦ ♦( ❞❡'❡#✲
♠✐♥❛♥'❡(✳
❙❡ A = [aij ] 6 ✉♠❛ ♠❛'#✐③ 2 × 2✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦( ♦ ❞❡'❡#♠✐♥❛♥'❡ ❞❛ ♠❛'#✐③ A
❝♦♠♦ " #
a11 a12
det = a11 a22 − a21 a12 . ✭✸✮
a21 a22
❙❡ A = [aij ] 6 ✉♠❛ ♠❛'#✐③ 3 × 3✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦( ♦ ❞❡'❡#♠✐♥❛♥'❡ ❞❛ ♠❛'#✐③ A
❝♦♠♦
 
a11 a12 a13
det a21 a22 a23  =
 
a31 a32 a33
a11 a22 a33 − a11 a23 a32 + a13 a21 a32 − a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 − a13 a22 a31 .
✭✹✮
◆♦'❡ 7✉❡ ❛ ❡①♣#❡((9♦ ✭✹✮ ❞♦ ❞❡'❡#♠✐♥❛♥'❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'#✐③ 7✉❛❞#❛❞❛ ❆ ❞❡

♦#❞❡♠ 3 ♣♦❞❡ (❡# ❡(❝#✐'❛ ❝♦♠♦
" # " # " #
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
det A = a11 det − a12 det + a13 det . ✭✺✮
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
❱♦❧'❛♥❞♦ ❛♦( (✐('❡♠❛( ❧✐♥❡❛#❡(✱ '❡♠♦( 7✉❡✱ (❡

" #
a b
det 6= 0,
c d
✶✶✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
❡♥$%♦ ❛( (♦❧✉+,❡( ❞♦ (✐($❡♠❛ ✭✶✮ ♣♦❞❡♠ (❡3 ❡(❝3✐$❛( ♥❛ ❢♦3♠❛
" # " #!−1 " # " #!−1
e b a b a e a b
x = det det , y = det det .
f d c d c f c d
6♦3 ♦✉$3♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ (❡  

a b c
det d e f  6= 0,
 
g h k
❛( (♦❧✉+,❡( ❞♦ (✐($❡♠❛ ✭✷✮ ♣♦❞❡♠ (❡3 ❡(❝3✐$❛( ♥❛ ❢♦3♠❛✿
   −1
m b c a b c
x = det  n e f  det d e f  ,
   
p h k g h k
   −1
a m c a b c
y = det d n f  det d e f  ,
   
g p k g h k
   −1
a b m a b c
z = det d e n  det d e f  .
   
g h p g h k
❆ ❡①♣3❡((%♦ ❞♦ ❞❡$❡3♠✐♥❛♥$❡ ❡♠ ✭✸✮ = ♠✉✐$♦ ❢>❝✐❧ ❞❡ ❧❡♠❜3❛3✳ ❇❛($❛

$♦♠❛3 ♦ ♣3♦❞✉$♦ ❞♦( ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦( ❞❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣3✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞❛ ♠❛$3✐③ A ❡ ❞❡❧❡
(✉❜$3❛✐3 ♦ ♣3♦❞✉$♦ ❞♦( ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦( ❞❛ ♦✉$3❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳
❆ ❡①♣3❡((%♦ ❞♦ ❞❡$❡3♠✐♥❛♥$❡ ❡♠ ✭✹✮ ♣♦❞❡ (❡3 3❡❝✉♣❡3❛❞❛ ❛ ♣❛3$✐3 ❞❛ ❡❣ ❛
❞❡ ❙❛ ✉' ✶ ✱ ♠✉✐$♦ ✉$✐❧✐③❛❞❛ ♥♦ ❘❡❣#❛
❊♥(✐♥♦❞❡▼=❞✐♦✳
❙❛##✉(
 
1 2 0
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❱❛♠♦( ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛3 det −1 4 1✳
 
2 1 1
✶)✐❡##❡ ❋#,❞❡#✐❝ ❙❛##✉( ✭❋#❛♥0❛✱ ✶✼✻✽ ✲✶✽✻✶✮ ✜❝♦✉ ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞♦ ♥❛ ▼❛<❡♠><✐❝❛ ♣❡❧❛ #❡❣#❛
♣#><✐❝❛ ❞❡ #❡(♦❧✉0A♦ ❞❡ ❞❡<❡#♠✐♥❛♥<❡( ❞❡ ♠❛<#✐③❡( C✉❛❞#❛❞❛( ❞❡ ♦#❞❡♠ ✸✳
✸✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ❊ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘■❆ ✶✶✺
"❡❧❛ &❡❣&❛ ❞❡ ❙❛&&✉+✱ ♦❜/❡♠♦+ 1✉❡

 
1 2 0
det −1 4 1 = 4 + 4 + 0 − (−2 + 1 + 0) = 10.
 
2 1 1
✸✳✷ ❖ $%♦❞✉)♦ ❱❡)♦%✐❛❧

❯♠ ♦✉/&♦ ♣&♦❞✉/♦ 1✉❡ ♣♦++✉✐ ✐♠♣♦&/❛♥/❡+ ❛♣❧✐❝❛78❡+ ❣❡♦♠9/&✐❝❛+ 9 ♦
♣!♦❞✉%♦ ✈❡%♦!✐❛❧ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❚&❛/❛✲+❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♦♣❡&❛7=♦ 1✉❡ ❛ ♣❛&/✐& ❞❡ ❞♦✐+
✈❡/♦&❡+ ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥/❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡+ ❡♠ R3 ✱ ❛++♦❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ♥❛/✉&❛❧ ✉♠ ✈❡/♦&
♦&/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❣❡&❛❞♦ ♣♦& ❡+/❡+ ✈❡/♦&❡+✳
❙❡❥❛♠ ❞❛❞♦+ ❞♦✐+ ✈❡/♦&❡+ u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ❡ v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) ❡♠ R3 ✳ "❛&❛
1✉❡ ✉♠ ✈❡/♦& w = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) +❡❥❛ /❛❧ 1✉❡ w ⊥ u ❡ w ⊥ v ✱ ❛+ +✉❛+ ❝♦♦&❞❡♥❛❞❛+
❞❡✈❡♠ +❡& +♦❧✉78❡+ ❞♦ +✐+/❡♠❛
(
w · u = u 1 x 1 + u 2 x 2 + u3 x 3 = 0
✭✻✮
w · v = v1 x1 + v2 x2 + v3 x3 = 0,
1✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦+ &❡❡+❝&❡✈❡& ❝♦♠♦

(
u1 x1 + u2 x2 = −u3 x3
v1 x1 + v2 x2 = −v3 x3 .
❈♦♠♦ u ❡ v +=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥/❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡+✱ ✉♠❛ ❞❛+ ❡①♣&❡++8❡+ ui vj −uj vi ✱

♣❛&❛ i, j = 1, 2, 3✱ i 6= j ✱ 9 ♥=♦ ♥✉❧❛ ✭❝❢✳ "&♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✸✳✼✮✳ "♦❞❡♠♦+✱ +❡♠ ♣❡&❞❛
✶✶✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
❞❡ ❣❡♥❡&❛❧✐❞❛❞❡✱ +✉♣♦& /✉❡ u1 v2 −u2 v1 6= 0✳ ❆++✐♠✱ ♦ +✐+3❡♠❛ ❛❝✐♠❛ +❡ &❡+♦❧✈❡
♣❡❧❛ ❢7&♠✉❧❛ ❞♦ 8&♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✷ ❞♦ ❈❛♣<3✉❧♦ ✷✱ ❝♦♠♦ +❡❣✉❡✿
u2 v 3 − u3 v 2 u3 v1 − u1 v3
x1 = x3 , x2 = x3 .
u1 v 2 − u2 v1 u1 v2 − u2 v1
8♦&3❛♥3♦✱ ♣❛&❛ 3♦❞♦ x3 ∈ R✱ ♦ ✈❡3♦&

u2 v 3 − u 3 v 2 u3 v 1 − u1 v3
x3 , x 3 , x3
u1 v2 − u2 v 1 u1 v 2 − u2 v1
> ✉♠ ✈❡3♦& ♦&3♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ u ❡ v ✳ ❊+❝♦❧❤❡♥❞♦ x3 = u1 v2 − u2 v1 ✱ 3❡♠♦+ /✉❡ ♦

✈❡3♦&
(u2 v3 − u3 v2 , u3 v1 − u1 v3 , u1 v2 − u2 v1 )
> ♦&3♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ u ❡ v ✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥3❡♠❡♥3❡ ❞❛ ❤✐♣73❡+❡ u1 v2 − u2 v1 6= 0 /✉❡

✜③❡♠♦+✳
■+3♦ ♠♦3✐✈❛ ❛ +❡❣✉✐♥3❡ ❞❡✜♥✐DE♦✿
❉❛❞♦+ ♦+ ✈❡3♦&❡+ u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ❡ v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) ❡♠ R3 ✱ ♦ ♣!♦❞✉%♦
✈❡%♦!✐❛❧ ❞❡ u ❡ v ✱ ❞❡♥♦3❛❞♦ ♣♦& u × v ✱ > ♦ ✈❡3♦& ❞❡ R3 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦&
u × v = (u2 v3 − u3 v2 , u3 v1 − u1 v3 , u1 v2 − u2 v1 ).
8♦& ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱
(1, 0, 0) × (0, 1, 2) = (0.2 − 0.1, −1.2 + 0.0, 1.1 − 0.0) = (0, −2, 1)✳
(1, 0, 0) × (0, 1, 0) = (0, 0, 1)✳
(0, 1, 0) × (0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, 0)✳
❖ ♣&♦❞✉3♦ ✈❡3♦&✐❛❧ ♣♦++✉✐ ❛+ ♣&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡+ ❛ +❡❣✉✐&✳
8❛&❛ /✉❛✐+/✉❡& u, v, w ∈ R3 ❡ a ∈ R✱ 3❡♠✲+❡ /✉❡

✭✐✮ u × v = −v × u✱
✭✐✐✮ u × (v + w) = (u × v) + (u × w)
✭✐✐✐✮ (au) × v = a(u × v) = u × (av)✱
✭✐✈✮ (u × v) ⊥ u ❡ (u × v) ⊥ v ✳
✸✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ❊ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘■❆ ✶✶✼
❊#$❛# ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡# #,♦ ❢❛❝✐❧♠❡♥$❡ ✈❡'✐✜❝❛❞❛# ❡ #❡',♦ ❞❡✐①❛❞❛# ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡'❝5✲

❝✐♦# ♣❛'❛ ♦ ❧❡✐$♦'✳
◆♦$❡♠♦# 9✉❡ ❛ ❡①♣'❡##,♦ 9✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ♦ ♣'♦❞✉$♦ ✈❡$♦'✐❛❧ ♣♦❞❡ #❡' ❝♦❧♦❝❛❞❛
❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❢♦'♠❛ ♠❛✐# ❝♦♠♣❛❝$❛ ❝♦♠ ❛ ❛❥✉❞❛ ❞♦# ❞❡$❡'♠✐♥❛♥$❡#✳
❉❡ ❢❛$♦✱ #❡ ❝♦♥#✐❞❡'❛'♠♦# ❛ ✏ ♠❛$'✐③ ✑ ❢♦'♠❛❧ 3 × 3
 
e1 e2 e3
A =  x1 x2 x3  ,
 
y1 y2 y3
♦♥❞❡ {e1 , e2 , e3 } A ❛ ❜❛#❡ ❝❛♥C♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R3 ❡ (x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∈ R3 ✱ ❡ ❝❛❧✲

❝✉❧❛'♠♦# ♦ #❡✉ ❞❡$❡'♠✐♥❛♥$❡ ✉$✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❢D'♠✉❧❛ ✭✹✮✱ ✈❛♠♦# ♦❜$❡' 9✉❡ #❡✉
✏❞❡$❡'♠✐♥❛♥$❡✑ A ♣'❡❝✐#❛♠❡♥$❡ ♦ ♣'♦❞✉$♦ ✈❡$♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ u = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ❡ v =
(y1 , y2 , y3 )✳ ◆♦$❡ 9✉❡ ❡#$❛ ❡①♣'❡##,♦ A ❛♣❡♥❛# ❢♦'♠❛❧✱ ❞❡#♣'♦✈✐❞❛ ❞❡ 9✉❛❧9✉❡'
❝♦♥$❡H❞♦✱ ♣♦✐#✱ ❡♠ ♣'✐♥❝5♣✐♦✱ ♥,♦ ❢❛③ #❡♥$✐❞♦ ❝♦♥#✐❞❡'❛' ♦ ❞❡$❡'♠✐♥❛♥$❡ ❞❡
✉♠❛ ♠❛$'✐③ ♦♥❞❡ ♦# ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦# ❞❛ ♣'✐♠❡✐'❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ #,♦ ✈❡$♦'❡# ❡ ♦# ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦#
❞❛# ❞❡♠❛✐# ❧✐♥❤❛# #,♦ ♥H♠❡'♦# '❡❛✐#✳ ■#$♦ A ✉♠ ❛❜✉#♦ ❞❡ ♥♦$❛K,♦✱ 9✉❡ #❡'✈❡
❛♣❡♥❛# ♣❛'❛ ♠❡♠♦'✐③❛' ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐K,♦ ❞❡ u × v ✳
L♦' ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛'❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛'♠♦# ♦ ♣'♦❞✉$♦ ✈❡$♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ u = (2, −8, 3) ❡
v = (0, 4, 3)✱ ❡#❝'❡✈❡♠♦#
 
e1 e2 e3 " # " # " #
−8 3 2 3 2 −8
u × v = det  2 −8 3  = det e1 − det e2 + det e3
 
4 3 0 3 0 4
0 4 3
= −36e1 − 6e2 + 8e3 = (−36, −6, 8).
❆ #❡❣✉✐'✱ ✈❛♠♦# ❛♣'❡#❡♥$❛' ❞✉❛# ✐❞❡♥$✐❞❛❞❡# ❡♥✈♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ♦ ♠D❞✉❧♦ ❞♦

♣'♦❞✉$♦ ✈❡$♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦✐# ✈❡$♦'❡# ❡♠ R3 ✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✹✳✸✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ u ❡ v ❞♦✐( ✈❡*♦+❡( ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❚❡♠✲(❡ /✉❡ ✿
✐✮ ||u × v||2 = ||u||2 ||v||2 − (u · v)2 ❀

✐✐✮ ||u × v|| = ||u|| ||v|| sen θ✱ (❡♥❞♦ θ ♦ 5♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥*+❡ u ❡ v ✱ ❝♦♠ u ❡ v ♥9♦
♥✉❧♦(✳
✶✶✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ✭✐✮✿ ❙❡❥❛♠ u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ❡ v = (x2 , y2 , z2 )✳ ❚❡♠♦, -✉❡
" # " # " #
y1 z1 x1 z 1 x1 y1
u × v = det e1 − det e2 + det e3 .
y2 z2 x2 z 2 x2 y2
▲♦❣♦✱
||u × v||2 = (y1 z2 − z1 y2 )2 + (−x1 z2 + z1 x2 )2 + (x1 y2 − y1 x2 )2 .
2♦3 ♦✉43♦ ❧❛❞♦✱
||u||2 ||v||2 = (x21 + y12 + z12 )(x22 + y22 + z22 )
❡
(u · v)2 = (x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 )2 .
❆,,✐♠✱
||u × v||2 = ||u||2 ||v||2 − (u · v)2 .
✭✐✐✮✿ 2♦3 ✭✐✮✱ ,❡❣✉❡ -✉❡
||u × v||2 = ||u||2 ||v||2 − (||u|| ||v|| cos θ)2 ,
✉♠❛ ✈❡③ -✉❡

u·v
cos θ = .
||u|| ||v||
2♦34❛♥4♦✱
||u × v||2 = ||u||2 ||v||2 − ||u||2 ||v||2 cos2 θ
= ||u||2 ||v||2 (1 − cos2 θ)
= ||u||2 ||v||2 sen2 θ,
♠♦,43❛♥❞♦ -✉❡
||u × v|| = ||u|| ||v||senθ.

❆ ,❡❣✉✐3✱ ❞❛3❡♠♦, ❛ ✐♥4❡3♣3❡4❛<=♦ ❣❡♦♠>43✐❝❛ ❞♦ ♠@❞✉❧♦ ❞♦ ♣3♦❞✉4♦ ✈❡✲
4♦3✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦✐, ✈❡4♦3❡,✳
❙❡❥❛♠ u❡v ❞♦✐, ✈❡4♦3❡, ♥=♦ ♥✉❧♦, ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❈♦♥,✐❞❡3❡♠♦, ♦ ♣❛3❛❧❡❧♦❣3❛♠♦
ABCD ❞❡4❡3♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦, ✈❡4♦3❡, u ❡ v ✱ ❝♦♥❢♦3♠❡ ❛ ❋✐❣✉3❛ ✽✱ ❛❜❛✐①♦✱ ♦♥❞❡
h ❞❡♥♦4❛ ❛ ❛❧4✉3❛ ❞♦ ♣❛3❛❧❡❧♦❣3❛♠♦ ❡ θ > ♦ H♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥43❡ ♦, ✈❡4♦3❡, u ❡ v ✳
✸✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ❊ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘■❆ ✶✶✾
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✽
❙❛❜❡♠♦( ❞❛ ●❡♦♠❡+,✐❛ .✉❡
➪,❡❛ ABCD = ||u|| · h.
❈♦♠♦ h = ||v|| senθ✱ (❡❣✉❡ .✉❡
➪,❡❛ ABCD = ||u|| senθ.
4❡❧❛ 4,♦♣♦(✐78♦ ❛♥+❡,✐♦,✱ ✐+❡♠ ✭❜✮✱ ❝♦♥❝❧✉=♠♦( ❡♥+8♦ .✉❡
➪,❡❛ ABCD = ||u × v||.
4❡❧♦ .✉❡ ✈✐♠♦( ❛❝✐♠❛✱ +❡♠♦( ♦ (❡❣✉✐♥+❡ ,❡(✉❧+❛❞♦✿
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✹✳✸✳✷✳ ❖ ♠"❞✉❧♦ ❞♦ ♣(♦❞✉)♦ ✈❡)♦(✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦✐. ✈❡)♦(❡. ♥0♦ ♥✉❧♦.
u ❡ v ❡♠ R3 ♠❡❞❡ ❛ 1(❡❛ ❞♦ ♣❛(❛❧❡❧♦❣(❛♠♦ ❞❡)❡(♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦( ❡.)❡. ✈❡)♦(❡.✳
❈♦♠ ✉♠ ♦✉+,♦ ✏♣,♦❞✉+♦✑ ❡♠ R3 ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦( ♦❜+❡, ♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❞♦ ♣❛,❛❧❡❧❡✲
♣=♣❡❞♦ ❞❡+❡,♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦, +,C( ✈❡+♦,❡( ♥8♦ ♥✉❧♦(✳ ❊(+❡ F ♦ ♣,♦❞✉+♦ ♠✐(+♦ .✉❡
✈❛♠♦( ❞❡✜♥✐, ❛ (❡❣✉✐,✳
❙❡❥❛♠ u = (x1 , y1 , z1 )✱ v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ❡ w = (x3 , y3 , z3 ) +,C( ✈❡+♦,❡( ❡♠
R ✳ ❈❤❛♠❛✲(❡ ♣(♦❞✉)♦ ♠✐.)♦ ❞♦( ✈❡+♦,❡( u✱ v ❡ w ❛♦ ♥J♠❡,♦ ,❡❛❧
3
(u, v, w) = u · (v × w).
4❡❧❛( ❞❡✜♥✐7K❡( ❞❡ ♣,♦❞✉+♦ ❡(❝❛❧❛, ❡ ♣,♦❞✉+♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❡♠ R3 ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦(
✈❡,✐✜❝❛, .✉❡  
x1 y1 z 1
u · (v × w) = det x2 y2 z2  .
 
x3 y3 z 3
✶✷✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
❈♦♥&✐❞❡*❡♠♦& ❛❣♦*❛ u✱ v ❡ w /*0& ✈❡/♦*❡& ♥2♦ ♥✉❧♦& ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❈❤❛♠❡♠♦& ❞❡
P ♦ ♣❛*❛❧❡❧❡♣8♣❡❞♦ ❞❡/❡*♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦* ❡&/❡& ✈❡/♦*❡&✱ ❝♦♥❢♦*♠❡ ❛ ✜❣✉*❛ ❛❜❛✐①♦✿
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✾
◆❛ ✜❣✉*❛✱ h ❞❡♥♦/❛ ❛ ❛❧/✉*❛ ❞♦ ♣❛*❛❧❡❧❡♣8♣❡❞♦ ❡ θ ♦ @♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥/*❡ u ❡

v × w✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦& ❛♥/❡*✐♦*♠❡♥/❡✱ v × w A ✉♠ ✈❡/♦* ♦*/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛♦& ✈❡/♦*❡&
v ❡ w✳ ❆&&✐♠✱
h = ||u|| cos θ.
❆ C*❡❛ ❞❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞♦ ♣❛*❛❧❡❧❡♣8♣❡❞♦ P A ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦*
||v × w||.
D♦*/❛♥/♦✱ &❡ V ❞❡♥♦/❛ ♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❞♦ ♣❛*❛❧❡❧❡♣8♣❡❞♦✱ ♦❜/❡♠♦&
V = ||v × w|| ||u|| cos θ = ||u · (v × w)|| = ||(u, v, w)||.
❆&&✐♠✱ ♦❜/✐✈❡♠♦& ♦ *❡&✉❧/❛❞♦ ❛ &❡❣✉✐*✿

!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✹✳✸✳✸✳ ❖ ♠"❞✉❧♦ ❞♦ ♣(♦❞✉)♦ ♠✐+)♦ ❞❡ )(-+ ✈❡)♦(❡+ ♥0♦ ♥✉❧♦+ u✱
v ❡ w ❡♠ R3 ♠❡❞❡ ♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❞♦ ♣❛(❛❧❡❧❡♣3♣❡❞♦ ❞❡)❡(♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦( ❡+)❡+ ✈❡)♦(❡+✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛$
✸✳✶ ▼♦&/*❡ F✉❡ ♦& ❞❡/❡*♠✐♥❛♥/❡& ❞❡ ♠❛/*✐③❡& 2 × 2 ♣♦&&✉❡♠ ❛& &❡❣✉✐♥/❡&
♣*♦♣*✐❡❞❛❞❡&✿
✸✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ❊ ●❊❖▼❊❚❘■❆ ✶✷✶
❛✮ $❛%❛ &♦❞♦) a, b, c, c′ , d, d′ , t ∈ R✱
" # " # " #
a b a b a b
det = det + t det ′ ′ ,
c + tc′ d + td′ c d c d
♦ ♠❡)♠♦ ✈❛❧❡♥❞♦ ♣❛%❛ ❛ ♣%✐♠❡✐%❛ ❧✐♥❤❛❀

❜✮ $❛%❛ &♦❞♦) a, b ∈ R✱
" #
a b
det = 0;
a b
" #
1 0
❝✮ det = 1✳
0 1
✸✳✷ ▼♦)&%❡ 8✉❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥;<♦ F : M(2, 2) → R ❝♦♠ ❛) &%=) ♣%♦♣%✐❡❞❛❞❡) ❛❝✐♠❛
> &❛❧ 8✉❡ F = det✳
✸✳✸ ▼♦)&%❡ 8✉❡ ♦) ❞❡&❡%♠✐♥❛♥&❡) ❞❡ ♠❛&%✐③❡) 3 × 3 ♣♦))✉❡♠ ❛) )❡❣✉✐♥&❡)

♣%♦♣%✐❡❞❛❞❡)✿
❛✮ $❛%❛ &♦❞♦) a, b, c, d, e, f, g, g ′ , h, h′ , k, k ′ , t ∈ R✱
     
a b c a b c a b c
det  d e f  = det d e f  + t det  d e f  ,
     
g + tg ′ h + th′ k + tk ′ g h k g ′ h′ k ′
♦ ♠❡)♠♦ ✈❛❧❡♥❞♦ ♣❛%❛ ❛) ♦✉&%❛) ❞✉❛) ❧✐♥❤❛)❀

❜✮ $❛%❛ &♦❞♦) a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, k ∈ R✱
     
a b c a b c a b c
det a b c  = det d e f  = det d e f  = 0,
     
g h k a b c d e f
 
1 0 0
❝✮ det 0 1 0 = 1✳
 
0 0 1
✶✷✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✹✳ ❖ ❊❙"❆➬❖ ❱❊❚❖❘■❆▲ R3
✸✳✹ ▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡✱ ♣❛&❛ (✉❛✐$(✉❡& a, b, c ❡ d ❡♠ R✱ %❡♠✲$❡ (✉❡
 
sen a cos a sen (a + d)
det  sen b cos b sen (b + d)  = 0 .
 
sen c cos c sen (c + d)
✸✳✺ ❉❡%❡&♠✐♥❡ x ∈ R ♣❛&❛ (✉❡

 
x−2 x+3 x−1
det  2 1 3  = 60 .
 
3 2 1
✸✳✻✯ ❯%✐❧✐③❡ ♦ ♠5%♦❞♦ ❞❡ ▼❛❝❧❛✉&✐♥ ♣❛&❛ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛& x′ ❡ y ′ ❡♠ ❢✉♥9:♦ ❞❡ x

❡ y ✱ ♦♥❞❡ (
x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sen θ
y = x′ sen θ + y ′ cos θ.
✸✳✼ ▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡ ❞♦✐$ ✈❡%♦&❡$ u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ❡ v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) ❡♠ R3 $:♦
❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡$ $❡✱ ❡ $♦♠❡♥%❡ $❡✱ ✉♠ ❞♦$ %&<$ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛♥%❡$ ❛❜❛✐①♦
5 ♥:♦ ♥✉❧♦✿
" # " # " #
u 1 u2 u1 u 3 u2 u3
det ; det ; det .
v1 v2 v1 v3 v 2 v3
▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡ u × v = 0 $❡✱ ❡ $♦♠❡♥%❡ $❡✱ u ❡ v $:♦ ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛&❡$✳

✸✳✽ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❛ B&❡❛ ❞♦ ♣❛&❛❧❡❧♦❣&❛♠♦ (✉❡ %❡♠ ♣♦& ❧❛❞♦$ ♦$ ✈❡%♦&❡$ u = (1, 3, 5)
❡ v = (2, 1, 4)✳
✸✳✾ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❞♦ ♣❛&❛❧❡❧❡♣D♣❡❞♦ (✉❡ %❡♠ ♣♦& ❛&❡$%❛$ ♦$ ✈❡%♦&❡$ u =
(1, 3, 5)✱ v = (2, 1, 4) ❡ w = (−2, 1, −3)✳
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✺
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✺✿ ❚+❛♥-❢♦+♠❛01❡- ▲✐♥❡❛+❡-
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ ❖ "✉❡ %&♦ ❛% ❚*❛♥%❢♦*♠❛./❡% ▲✐♥❡❛*❡%❄ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷✹
✷ ◆7❝❧❡♦ ❡ ■♠❛❣❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✵
✷✳✶ ❖ ◆%❝❧❡♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✵
✷✳✷ ❆ ■♠❛❣❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✷
✷✳✸ ❖ ❚❡♦2❡♠❛ ❞♦ ◆%❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛ ■♠❛❣❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✹
✸ ❖♣❡*❛./❡% ❝♦♠ ❚*❛♥%❢♦*♠❛./❡% ▲✐♥❡❛*❡% ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹✹
✶✷✸
✶✷✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
❆$ ❢✉♥()❡$ ♥❛,✉-❛✐$ ♥♦ ❝♦♥,❡①,♦ ❞♦$ ❡$♣❛(♦$ ✈❡,♦-❛✐$✱ ❛$ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛$ ❞❡
,-❛♥$❢♦-♠❛()❡$ ❧✐♥❡❛-❡$✱ ❢♦-♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❝❧❛$$❡ ♠✉✐,♦ ❡$♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❢✉♥()❡$ 9✉❡
,:♠ ♠✉✐,❛$ ❛♣❧✐❝❛()❡$ ♥❛ ❋<$✐❝❛✱ ♥❛$ ❊♥❣❡♥❤❛-✐❛$ ❡ ❡♠ ✈?-✐♦$ -❛♠♦$ ❞❛ ▼❛✲
,❡♠?,✐❝❛✳
✶ ❖ "✉❡ %&♦ ❛% ❚*❛♥%❢♦*♠❛./❡% ▲✐♥❡❛*❡%❄

❆$ ❢✉♥()❡$ ♥❛$ 9✉❛✐$ $❡ ❡$,? ✐♥,❡-❡$$❛❞♦ ♥❛ ➪❧❣❡❜-❛ ▲✐♥❡❛- $F♦ ❛$ ❢✉♥()❡$
❝✉❥♦$ ❞♦♠<♥✐♦$ ❡ ❝♦♥,-❛❞♦♠<♥✐♦$ $F♦ ❡$♣❛(♦$ ✈❡,♦-✐❛✐$ ❡ 9✉❡✱ ❛❧H♠ ❞✐$$♦✱
♣-❡$❡-✈❛♠ ❛$ ♦♣❡-❛()❡$ ❞❡ ❛❞✐(F♦ ❞❡ ✈❡,♦-❡$ ❡ ❞❡ ♠✉❧,✐♣❧✐❝❛(F♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡,♦-
♣♦- ✉♠ ❡$❝❛❧❛-✳ ■$,♦ H ♦ ❝♦♥,❡J❞♦ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐(F♦ ❛ $❡❣✉✐-✳
❙❡❥❛♠ V ❡ W ❡$♣❛(♦$ ✈❡,♦-✐❛✐$✳ ❯♠❛ !❛♥$❢♦!♠❛()♦ ❧✐♥❡❛! ❞❡ V ❡♠ W
H ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥(F♦ T : V → W 9✉❡ ♣♦$$✉✐ ❛$ $❡❣✉✐♥,❡$ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡$✿
✭✐✮ T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 )✱ ♣❛-❛ 9✉❛✐$9✉❡- v1 ❡ v2 ❡♠ V ❀
✭✐✐✮ T (av) = aT (v)✱ ♣❛-❛ 9✉❛✐$9✉❡- v ❡♠ V ❡ a ❡♠ R✳
❆$ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡$ ✭✐✮ ❡ ✭✐✐✮ $F♦ ❡9✉✐✈❛❧❡♥,❡$ R $❡❣✉✐♥,❡ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡✿
T (v1 + av2 ) = T (v1 ) + aT (v2 ), ✭✶✮
♣❛-❛ 9✉❛✐$9✉❡- v1 ❡ v2 ❡♠ V ❡ ♣❛-❛ 9✉❛❧9✉❡- a ❡♠ R✳

➱ ❡$,❛ ❝❛-❛❝,❡-✐③❛(F♦ ❞❛$ ,-❛♥$❢♦-♠❛()❡$ ❧✐♥❡❛-❡$ 9✉❡ ✉,✐❧✐③❛-❡♠♦$✱ ♣♦-
$❡- ♠❛✐$ ♣-?,✐❝❛✱ ♣❛-❛ ♠♦$,-❛- 9✉❡ ❞❡,❡-♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❢✉♥(F♦ ❡♥,-❡ ❡$♣❛(♦$ ✈❡,♦-✐❛✐$
H ✉♠❛ ,-❛♥$❢♦-♠❛(F♦ ❧✐♥❡❛-✳
▼♦$,-❛✲$❡ ♣♦- ✐♥❞✉(F♦ ✭✈❡❥❛ U-♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✮ 9✉❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥(F♦ T : V → W H
✉♠❛ ,-❛♥$❢♦-♠❛(F♦ ❧✐♥❡❛- $❡✱ ❡ $♦♠❡♥,❡ $❡✱ ♣❛-❛ ,♦❞♦$ v1 , . . . , vr ∈ V ❡ ,♦❞♦$
a1 , . . . , ar ∈ R✱ ,❡♠✲$❡ 9✉❡
T (a1 v1 + · · · + ar vr ) = a1 T (v1 ) + · · · + ar T (vr ). ✭✷✮
❱❡❥❛♠♦$ ❛ $❡❣✉✐- ❛❧❣✉♥$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦$✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❆ ❢✉♥(F♦ T : R2 → R✱ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦- T (x, y) = x + y ✱ H ✉♠❛
,-❛♥$❢♦-♠❛(F♦ ❧✐♥❡❛-✳
✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ❙➹❖ ❆❙ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬/❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙❄ ✶✷✺
❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ *❡ v1 = (x1 , y1 ) ∈ R2 ✱ v2 = (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 ❡ a ∈ R✱ '❡♠♦* ,✉❡
T (v1 + av2 ) = T (x1 + ax2 , y1 + ay2 )

= x1 + ax2 + y1 + ay2
= (x1 + y1 ) + a(x2 + y2 )
= T (v1 ) + aT (v2 ).
.♦/'❛♥'♦✱ T 1 ✉♠❛ '/❛♥*❢♦/♠❛23♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❞❡ R2 ❡♠ R✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❆ ❢✉♥23♦ T : R3 → R2 ✱ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦/ T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y − z)✱ 1
✉♠❛ '/❛♥*❢♦/♠❛23♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/✳
❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ *❡ v1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ∈ R3 ✱ v2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈ R3 ❡ a ∈ R✱ ❡♥'3♦
T (v1 + av2 ) = T (x1 + ax2 , y1 + ay2 , z1 + az2 )

= (x1 + ax2 − (y1 + ay2 ), y1 + ay2 − (z1 + az2 ))
= ((x1 − y1 ) + a(x2 − y2 ), (y1 − z1 ) + a(y2 − z2 ))
= (x1 − y1 , y1 − z1 ) + a(x2 − y2 , y2 − z2 )
= T (v1 ) + aT (v2 ),
♠♦*'/❛♥❞♦ ,✉❡ T 1 ✉♠❛ '/❛♥*❢♦/♠❛23♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❞❡ R3 ❡♠ R2 ✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ ❆ ❢✉♥23♦ T : R → R✱ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦/ T (x) = 5x✱ 1 ✉♠❛ '/❛♥*❢♦/♠❛23♦
❧✐♥❡❛/✳
❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ *❡ x1 , x2 , a ∈ R✱ '❡♠♦* ,✉❡
T (x1 + ax2 ) = 5(x1 + ax2 ) = 5x1 + a5x2 = T (x1 ) + aT (x2 ).
.♦/'❛♥'♦✱ T 1 ✉♠❛ '/❛♥*❢♦/♠❛23♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❞❡ R ❡♠ R✳

◆❛ /❡❛❧✐❞❛❞❡✱ '♦❞❛ '/❛♥*❢♦/♠❛23♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❞❡ R ❡♠ R 1 ❞❛ ❢♦/♠❛ T (x) = c·x✱
x ∈ R✱ ♦♥❞❡ c 1 ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥*'❛♥'❡ /❡❛❧❀ ❡ /❡❝✐♣/♦❝❛♠❡♥'❡ ✭✈❡❥❛ ./♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✷✮✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳ ❆ ❢✉♥23♦ T : R2 → R3 ✱ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦/ T (x, y) = (0, 0, 0)✱ 1 ✉♠❛
'/❛♥*❢♦/♠❛23♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/✳
❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ ❞❛❞♦* v1 ❡ v2 ❡♠ R2 ❡ ❞❛❞♦ a ∈ R✱ '❡♠✲*❡ ,✉❡
T (v1 + av2 ) = (0, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0) + a(0, 0, 0) = T (v1 ) + aT (v2 ),

✶✷✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
♠♦%&'❛♥❞♦ +✉❡ T . ✉♠❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'✳
▼❛✐% ❣❡'❛❧♠❡♥&❡✱ %❡ V ❡ W %1♦ ❡%♣❛0♦% ✈❡&♦'✐❛✐%✱ ❛ ❢✉♥01♦ T : V → W ✱
❞❛❞❛ ♣♦' T (v) = 0✱ v ∈ V ✱ . ✉♠❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ !❛♥$❢♦!✲
♠❛)*♦ ♥✉❧❛ ✳ ❆ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦ ♥✉❧❛ ❞❡ V ❡♠ W %❡'= &❛♠❜.♠ ❞❡♥♦&❛❞❛ ♣♦'
0✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳ ❆ ❢✉♥01♦ T : R2 → R2 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦' T (x, y) = (x2 , y) ♥*♦ . ✉♠❛
&'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'✳
❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐&♦✱ %❡ &♦♠❛'♠♦% v1 = (1, 0) ❡ v2 = (−1, 0)✱ ❡♥&1♦
T (v1 + v2 ) = (0, 0) 6= (2, 0) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ).
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳ ❙❡❥❛ f (x) ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥B♠✐♦ ❛'❜✐&'❛'✐❛♠❡♥&❡ ✜①❛❞♦ ❡♠ R[x]✳ ❆

❢✉♥01♦ T : R[x] → R[x]✱ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦' T (p(x)) = p(f (x))✱ . ✉♠❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦
❧✐♥❡❛'✳
❉❡ ❢❛&♦✱ %❡ p1 (x), p2 (x) ∈ R[x] ❡ a ∈ R✱ &❡♠♦% +✉❡
T (p1 (x) + ap2 (x)) = p1 (f (x)) + ap2 (f (x)) = T (p1 (x)) + aT (p2 (x)),
♠♦%&'❛♥❞♦ +✉❡ T . ✉♠❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✼✳ ❯♠❛ ❢✉♥01♦ T : Rn → Rm . ✉♠❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' %❡✱ ❡
%♦♠❡♥&❡ %❡✱ ❡①✐%&❡♠ ♥G♠❡'♦% '❡❛✐% aij ✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ &❛✐% +✉❡
T (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (a11 x1 + · · · + a1n xn , . . . , am1 x1 + · · · + amn xn ),
❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ❥✉% ❛♦ ❛❞❥❡&✐✈♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❛%%♦❝✐❛❞♦ I ♣❛❧❛✈'❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦✳ J❛'❛ ❛

❞❡♠♦♥%&'❛01♦ ❞❡%&❡ '❡%✉❧&❛❞♦✱ ✈❡❥❛ J'♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✸✳
❈♦♠♦ ❛ ♠❛✐♦'✐❛ ❞♦% '❡%✉❧&❛❞♦% ❛ %❡❣✉✐' . ❡✈✐❞❡♥&❡ ♣❛'❛ ❡%♣❛0♦% ✈❡&♦✲
'✐❛✐% ♥✉❧♦%✱ ✈❛♠♦% %❡♠♣'❡ ❝♦♥%✐❞❡'❛' ♦ ❞♦♠M♥✐♦ ❡ ♦ ❝♦♥&'❛❞♦♠M♥✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛
&'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❝♦♠♦ ❡%♣❛0♦% ✈❡&♦'✐❛✐% ♥1♦ ♥✉❧♦%✳
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥%❡+✉N♥❝✐❛ ❞❛ ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭✶✮✱ &❡♠♦% +✉❡ ✉♠❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛01♦
❧✐♥❡❛' T : V → W &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛ ♦ ✈❡&♦' ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ V ♥♦ ✈❡&♦' ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ W ✱ ♦✉ %❡❥❛✱
T (0) = 0✳ ❉❡ ❢❛&♦✱
0 = T (0) − T (0) = T (0) + (−1)T (0) = T (1 · 0 − 1 · 0) = T (0).

✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ❙➹❖ ❆❙ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬/❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙❄ ✶✷✼
#♦%&♠✱ ♦ ❢❛+♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥01♦ T +❡% ❝♦♠♦ ❞♦♠3♥✐♦ ❡ ❝♦♥+%❛❞♦♠3♥✐♦ ❡5♣❛0♦5

✈❡+♦%✐❛✐5 ❡ 5❛+✐5❢❛③❡% T (0) = 0 ♥1♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ :✉❡ ❡❧❛ 5❡❥❛ ✉♠❛ +%❛♥5❢♦%♠❛01♦
❧✐♥❡❛%✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♠♦5+%❛ ♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳
❯♠❛ ♣%♦♣%✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✐♠♣♦%+❛♥+❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ +%❛♥5❢♦%♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% & :✉❡ ❡❧❛ ✜❝❛
+♦+❛❧♠❡♥+❡ ❞❡+❡%♠✐♥❛❞❛ 5❡ ❝♦♥❤❡❝❡%♠♦5 5❡✉5 ✈❛❧♦%❡5 ♥♦5 ✈❡+♦%❡5 ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛5❡
❞❡ 5❡✉ ❞♦♠3♥✐♦✳ ▼❛✐5 ♣%❡❝✐5❛♠❡♥+❡✱ +❡♠♦5 ♦ %❡5✉❧+❛❞♦ ❛ 5❡❣✉✐%✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✺✳✶✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧
V ✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ✈❡-♦.❡' ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ W ✳ ❊♥-4♦ ❡①✐'-❡
✉♠❛ 6♥✐❝❛ -.❛♥'❢♦.♠❛*4♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. T : V → W -❛❧ 9✉❡ T (vj ) = wj ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦
1 ≤ j ≤ n✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ ❚♦♠❡♠♦5 v ∈ V ✳ ❈♦♠♦ α & ✉♠❛ ❜❛5❡ ❞❡ V ✱ v 5❡ ❡5❝%❡✈❡
❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ H♥✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❞♦5 ✈❡+♦%❡5 ❞❡ α✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦5
v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn . ✭✸✮
❉❡✜♥❛ T : V → W ♣♦%
T (v) = a1 w1 + a2 w2 + · · · + an wn . ✭✹✮
❆ ❢✉♥01♦ T ❡5+O ❜❡♠ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✱ ♣♦✐5 ♦5 ♥H♠❡%♦5 %❡❛✐5 a1 , a2 , . . . , an 51♦ ✉♥✐✲

❝❛♠❡♥+❡ ❞❡+❡%♠✐♥❛❞♦5 ❛ ♣❛%+✐% ❞❡ v ✳ ❆❧&♠ ❞✐55♦✱ T & ✉♠❛ +%❛♥5❢♦%♠❛✲
01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛%✳ ❉❡ ❢❛+♦✱ +♦♠❡♠♦5 a ❡♠ R ❡ w ❡♠ V ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦5 :✉❡ w =
b1 v1 + b2 v2 + · · · + bn vn ✳ ❈♦♠♦
v + aw = (a1 + ab1 )v1 + (a2 + ab2 )v2 + · · · + (an + abn )vn ,
5❡❣✉❡ :✉❡
T (v + aw) = (a1 + ab1 )w1 + (a2 + ab2 )w2 + · · · + (an + abn )wn
= (a1 w1 + a2 w2 + · · · + an wn ) + a(b1 w1 + b2 w2 + · · · + bn wn )
= T (v) + aT (w).
#❛%❛ ♠♦5+%❛% :✉❡ T (vj ) = wj ✱ ✜①❡ j ✱ ♦♥❞❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✳ ❈♦♠♦
vj = 0v1 + · · · + 1vj + · · · + 0vn ,

✶✷✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
#❡❣✉❡ ❞❡ ✭✹✮ +✉❡
T (vj ) = 0w1 + · · · + 1wj + · · · + 0wn = wj .
❱❡❥❛♠♦# ❛❣♦1❛ +✉❡ T 2 ❛ 3♥✐❝❛ ❢✉♥89♦ ❝♦♠ ❛# ♣1♦♣1✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❞❡#❡❥❛❞❛#✳ <❛1❛

✐#=♦✱ #✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦# +✉❡ S : V → W #❡❥❛ ✉♠❛ =1❛♥#❢♦1♠❛89♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 =❛❧ +✉❡
S(vj ) = wj ♣❛1❛ =♦❞♦ j ✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦# v ∈ V ✳ <♦1 ✭✸✮ ❡ ♣❡❧❛
❧✐♥❡❛1✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ S ✭♣1♦♣1✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭✷✮✮✱ =❡♠♦# +✉❡
S(v) = a1 S(v1 ) + a2 S(v2 ) + · · · + an S(vn ).
❈♦♠♦ S(vj ) = wj ♣❛1❛ =♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ ♦❜=❡♠♦#
S(v) = a1 w1 + a2 w2 + · · · + an wn = T (v).
❈♦♠♦ v ∈ V ❢♦✐ =♦♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛1❜✐=1E1✐♦✱ #❡❣✉❡ +✉❡ S = T ✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳ <❛1❛ ❞❡=❡1♠✐♥❛1♠♦# ❛ =1❛♥#❢♦1♠❛89♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 T : R2 → R3 =❛❧
+✉❡ T (1, 1) = (0, 2, 1) ❡ T (0, 2) = (1, 0, 1) ❞❡✈❡♠♦#✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ✺✳✶✳✶✱
✈❡1✐✜❝❛1 +✉❡ α = {(1, 1), (0, 2)} 2 ✉♠❛ ❜❛#❡ ❞❡ R2 ❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛1 ❛# ❝♦♦1❞❡♥❛❞❛#
❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡=♦1 ❞❡ R2 ♥❛ ❜❛#❡ α✳ ❖1❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ α 2 ❧✐♥❡❛1♠❡♥=❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥=❡ ❡
dim R2 = 2✱ =❡♠♦# +✉❡ α 2 ✉♠❛ ❜❛#❡ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❆❧2♠ ❞✐##♦✱ #❡ (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ❡♥=9♦
(x, y) = a1 (1, 1) + a2 (0, 2)

y−x
#❡✱ ❡ #♦♠❡♥=❡ #❡✱ a1 = x ❡ a2 = ✳ <♦1=❛♥=♦✱
2

y−x
T (x, y) = xT (1, 1) + T (0, 2)
2

y−x
= x(0, 2, 1) + (1, 0, 1)
2

y−x x+y
= , 2x, .
2 2
)*♦❜❧❡♠❛-
✶✳ ❖ ◗❯❊ ❙➹❖ ❆❙ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬/❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙❄ ✶✷✾
✶✳✶ ❙❡❥❛♠ V ❡ W ❞♦✐+ ❡+♣❛-♦+ ✈❡/♦0✐❛✐+ ❡ T : V → W ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥-4♦✳ 60♦✈❡

7✉❡ ❛+ +❡❣✉✐♥/❡+ ❛✜0♠❛-:❡+ +4♦ ❡7✉✐✈❛❧❡♥/❡+✿
✭❛✮ T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v) ❡ T (av) = aT (v)✱ ♣❛0❛ 7✉❛✐+7✉❡0 u ❡ v ❡♠ V ❡
7✉❛❧7✉❡0 ❛ ❡♠ R❀
✭❜✮ T (u + av) = T (u) + aT (v)✱ ♣❛0❛ 7✉❛✐+7✉❡0 u ❡ v ❡♠ V ❡ 7✉❛❧7✉❡0 a ❡♠
R❀
✭❝✮ T (a1 v1 + · · · + ar vr ) = a1 T (v1 ) + · · · + ar T (vr )✱ ♣❛0❛ 7✉❛✐+7✉❡0 v1 , . . . , vr
❡♠ V ❡ 7✉❛✐+7✉❡0 a1 , . . . , ar ❡♠ R✳
✶✳✷ ▼♦+/0❡ 7✉❡ T : R → R D ✉♠❛ /0❛♥+❢♦0♠❛-4♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0 +❡✱ ❡ +♦♠❡♥/❡ +❡✱
❡①✐+/❡ c ∈ R /❛❧ 7✉❡ T (x) = cx✱ ♣❛0❛ /♦❞♦ x ∈ R✳
✶✳✸ ❙❡❥❛ T : Rn → Rm ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥-4♦✳ ▼♦+/0❡ 7✉❡ T D ✉♠❛ /0❛♥+❢♦0♠❛-4♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0
+❡✱ ❡ +♦♠❡♥/❡ +❡✱ ❡①✐+/❡♠ ♥F♠❡0♦+ 0❡❛✐+ aij ✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ /❛✐+
7✉❡
T (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (a11 x1 + · · · + a1n xn , . . . , am1 x1 + · · · + amn xn ).
❙✉❣❡()*♦ 6❛0❛ ♠♦+/0❛0 7✉❡ T D ❞❛ ❢♦0♠❛ ❞❡+❡❥❛❞❛✱ ❡+❝0❡✈❛ (x1 , . . . , xn ) =

x1 e1 + · · · + xn en ✱ ♦♥❞❡ e1 , . . . , en D ❛ ❜❛+❡ ❝❛♥G♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ Rn ✳ 6♦♥❤❛ T (ei ) =
(a1i , . . . , ami ) ❡ ✉+❡ ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ✭✷✮✳ ❆ 0❡❝J♣0♦❝❛ D ✉♠❛ ✈❡0✐✜❝❛-4♦ ❢K❝✐❧✳
✶✳✹✯ ❈♦♥+✐❞❡0❡ V = M(n, n) ❡ +❡❥❛ B ❡♠ V ✳ ❉❡✜♥❛ ❛ ❢✉♥-4♦ T : V → V
♣♦0 T (A) = AB + BA ♣❛0❛ /♦❞❛ ♠❛/0✐③ A ❡♠ V ✳ ▼♦+/0❡ 7✉❡ T D ✉♠❛
/0❛♥+❢♦0♠❛-4♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0✳
✶✳✺ ▼♦+/0❡ 7✉❡ ❛ ❢✉♥-4♦ T : M(m, n) → M(n, m)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦0 T (A) = At ✱
D ✉♠❛ /0❛♥+❢♦0♠❛-4♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0✳
✶✳✻ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ /0❛♥+❢♦0♠❛-4♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0 T /❛❧ 7✉❡ T (u) = 2u ❡ T (v) = u + v ✱
❝❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡♠ ❢✉♥-4♦ ❞❡ u ❡ v ✿
✭❛✮ T (u + v)❀ ✭❜✮ T (3v)❀ ✭❝✮ T (−3u)❀ ✭❞✮ T (u − 5v)✳
✶✳✼ ◗✉❛✐+ ❞❛+ ❢✉♥-:❡+ ❛❜❛✐①♦ +4♦ /0❛♥+❢♦0♠❛-:❡+ ❧✐♥❡❛0❡+❄ ❏✉+/✐✜7✉❡ ❛+ 0❡+✲
♣♦+/❛+ ❞❛❞❛+✳
✭❛✮ T : R3 → R3 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − z, 0)✳
✶✸✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
✭❜✮ T : R2 → R3 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (x, y) = (x2 , x, y)✳
" #
2x x − y
✭❝✮ T : R2 → M(2, 2)✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (x, y) = ✳
x+y 2y
✭❞✮ T : R2 → R✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (x, y) = xy ✳
✭❡✮ T : R[x]2 → R[x]2 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (ax + b) = ax2 + bx✳
✭❢✮ T : R[x]d → R[x]d ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (x) = x + a✱ ❝♦♠ a ∈ R✳
✶✳✽ ❉❡0❡1♠✐♥❡ n ❡ m ❡ ❛ 01❛♥4❢♦1♠❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 T : Rn → Rm 0❛❧ 8✉❡✿

✭❛✮ T (1, 2) = (3, 1, 1) ❡ T (1, 1) = (1, −1, 0)❀
✭❜✮ T (1, 1, 1) = (2, −1, 4)✱ T (1, 1, 0) = (3, 0, 1) ❡ T (1, 0, 0) = (−1, 5, 1)✳
✶✳✾ ❙❡❥❛♠ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ✉♠❛ ❜❛4❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡4♣❛5♦ ✈❡0♦1✐❛❧ V ❡ T : V →W

✉♠❛ 01❛♥4❢♦1♠❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1✳ ▼♦401❡ 8✉❡ T (v1 ) = T (v2 ) = · · · = T (vn ) = 0 4❡✱
❡ 4♦♠❡♥0❡ 4❡ T A ❛ 01❛♥4❢♦1♠❛56♦ ♥✉❧❛✳
✷ ◆"❝❧❡♦ ❡ ■♠❛❣❡♠
❖ ♥C❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ 01❛♥4❢♦1♠❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 46♦ ❞♦✐4 4✉❜❡4♣❛5♦4
❞❡ 4❡✉ ❞♦♠E♥✐♦ ❡ ❞❡ 4❡✉ ❝♦♥01❛❞♦♠E♥✐♦✱ 1❡4♣❡❝0✐✈❛♠❡♥0❡✱ 8✉❡ ♥♦4 ❢♦1♥❡❝❡♠
✐♥❢♦1♠❛5F❡4 ✈❛❧✐♦4❛4 4♦❜1❡ ❛ 01❛♥4❢♦1♠❛56♦✳ ❍H ✉♠❛ 1❡❧❛56♦ ✐♠♣♦10❛♥0❡
❡♥01❡ ❛4 ❞✐♠❡♥4F❡4 ❞♦ ❞♦♠E♥✐♦✱ ❞♦ ♥C❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ 01❛♥4❢♦1♠❛56♦
❧✐♥❡❛1✱ 8✉❡ ❛♣1❡4❡♥0❛1❡♠♦4 ♥❡40❛ 4❡56♦ ❡ 8✉❡ ♣♦44✉✐ ♠✉✐0❛4 ❛♣❧✐❝❛5F❡4✳
✷✳✶ ❖ ◆%❝❧❡♦
❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠❛ 01❛♥4❢♦1♠❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1✳ ❖ ♥!❝❧❡♦ ❞❡ T ✱ ❞❡♥♦0❛❞♦ ♣♦1
Ker T ✱ A ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ❞❡ ✈❡0♦1❡4 ❞❡ V 8✉❡ 46♦ ❧❡✈❛❞♦4 ♣♦1 T ♥♦ ✈❡0♦1 ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡
W ✱ ♦✉ 4❡❥❛✱
Ker T = {v ∈ V ; T (v) = 0}.
◆♦0❡ 8✉❡ Ker T A ✉♠ 4✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ♥6♦ ✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡ V ✱ ❥H 8✉❡ T (0) = 0✳ ▼❛✐4

❛✐♥❞❛✱ Ker T ' ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛.♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛0♦✱ 4❡ v1 , v2 ∈ Ker T ❡ 4❡ a ∈ R✱
✷✳ ◆#❈▲❊❖ ❊ ■▼❆●❊▼ ✶✸✶
❡♥$%♦ v1 + av2 ∈ Ker T ✱ ♣♦✐*
T (v1 + av2 ) = T (v1 ) + aT (v2 ) = 0 + a · 0 = 0.
❖ *❡❣✉✐♥$❡ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ✐❧✉*$1❛ ♦ ❢❛$♦ ❞❡ 5✉❡ ❛ ❞❡$❡1♠✐♥❛6%♦ ❞♦ ♥7❝❧❡♦ ❞❡

✉♠❛ $1❛♥*❢♦1♠❛6%♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1✱ ❡♥$1❡ ❡*♣❛6♦* ✈❡$♦1✐❛✐* ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥*%♦ ✜♥✐$❛✱ 1❡❝❛✐
♥❛ ❞❡$❡1♠✐♥❛6%♦ ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ *♦❧✉6%♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ *✐*$❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡5✉❛6<❡* ❧✐♥❡❛1❡*
❤♦♠♦❣>♥❡♦✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : R4 → R3 ❛ $1❛♥*❢♦1♠❛6%♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦1
T (x, y, s, t) = (x − y + s + t, x + 2s − t, x + y + 3s − 3t).
A❛1❛ ❞❡$❡1♠✐♥❛1♠♦* Ker T ✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦* ♦❜$❡1 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ ❞❡ ✈❡$♦1❡* (x, y, s, t)

❡♠ R4 $❛✐* 5✉❡
T (x, y, s, t) = (x − y + s + t, x + 2s − t, x + y + 3s − 3t) = (0, 0, 0).
❊5✉✐✈❛❧❡♥$❡♠❡♥$❡✱ Ker T D ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ *♦❧✉6%♦ ❞♦ *❡❣✉✐♥$❡ *✐*$❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛1

❤♦♠♦❣>♥❡♦✿ 
x − y + s + t = 0



x + 2s − t = 0



x + y + 3s − 3t = 0 .
❘❡*♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ♦ *✐*$❡♠❛ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜$❡♠♦*
Ker T = {(−2s + t, −s + 2t, s, t) ; s, t ∈ R}.
◆♦$❡ 5✉❡ Ker T D ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛6♦ ✈❡$♦1✐❛❧ ❞❡ R4 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥*%♦ ✷✳
■♥✈❡1*❛♠❡♥$❡✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥$♦ *♦❧✉6%♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ *✐*$❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡5✉❛6<❡* ❧✐♥❡❛1❡*

❤♦♠♦❣>♥❡♦ AX = 0✱ ♦♥❞❡ A = [aij ]✱ ♣♦❞❡ *❡1 ✐♥$❡1♣1❡$❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ♥7❝❧❡♦ ❞❡
✉♠❛ $1❛♥*❢♦1♠❛6%♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1✳ ▼❛✐* ♣1❡❝✐*❛♠❡♥$❡✱ D ♦ ♥7❝❧❡♦ ❞❛ $1❛♥*❢♦1♠❛6%♦
❧✐♥❡❛1 T : Rn → Rm ✱
T (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (a11 x1 + · · · + a1n xn , . . . , am1 x1 + · · · + amn xn ).

✶✸✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
❙❡ ✉♠❛ ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) T 2 ✐♥❥❡(✐✈❛✱ ❡♥(/♦ ❛ ❡6✉❛./♦ T (v) = 0 +7
♣♦++✉✐ ❛ +♦❧✉./♦ v = 0✳ ❉❡ ❢❛(♦✱ +❡♥❞♦ T ✐♥❥❡(✐✈❛ ❡ ❝♦♠♦ T (0) = 0✱ (❡♠✲+❡
6✉❡ T (v) = 0 = T (0) ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ 6✉❡ v = 0✳ ❋❛(♦ ❝✉)✐♦+♦✱ 2 6✉❡ ✈❛❧❡ (❛♠❜2♠ ❛
)❡❝@♣)♦❝❛ ❞❡+(❛ ♣)♦♣)✐❡❞❛❞❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♠♦+()❛)❡♠♦+ ❛ +❡❣✉✐)✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✺✳✷✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠❛ &'❛♥)❢♦'♠❛,-♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'✳ ❚❡♠♦) 2✉❡

T 3 ✐♥❥❡&✐✈❛ )❡✱ ❡ )♦♠❡♥&❡ )❡✱ Ker T = {0}✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ❆ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛./♦ ❞✐)❡(❛ ❢♦✐ ♣)♦✈❛❞❛ ♥♦ ❝♦♠❡♥(C)✐♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✳ ❙✉✲
♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ❛❣♦)❛ 6✉❡ Ker T = {0}✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦+ u ❡ v ✈❡(♦)❡+ ❡♠ V ✳ ❙❡ T (u) =
T (v)✱ ❡♥(/♦ T (u) − T (v) = 0✳ ❊6✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡♠❡♥(❡✱ T (u − v) = 0✳ ❆++✐♠✱
u − v ∈ Ker T ✳ ❈♦♠♦ Ker T = {0}✱ +❡❣✉❡✲+❡ 6✉❡ u − v = 0✱ ❧♦❣♦ u = v ✱
♠♦+()❛♥❞♦ ❛ ✐♥❥❡(✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ T ✳
H♦) ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶ ♥/♦ 2 ✐♥❥❡(✐✈❛✱ ♣♦✐+

Ker T 6= {(0, 0, 0, 0)}✳ ❏C ❛ ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦) T (x, y)=(x−y, x+y)✱
(x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ 2 ✐♥❥❡(✐✈❛✱ ♣♦✐+ Ker T = {(0, 0)}✳
✷✳✷ ❆ ■♠❛❣❡♠
❆ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ T ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) T : V → W 2 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦
Im T = T (V )✳ ❈♦♠♦ T (0) = 0✱ (❡♠♦+ 6✉❡ 0 ∈ Im T ✱ ❧♦❣♦ ❡❧❡ 2 ✉♠ +✉❜❝♦♥✲
❥✉♥(♦ ♥/♦ ✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡ W ✳ ❉❡✐①❛)❡♠♦+ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡)❝@❝✐♦ ♣❛)❛ ♦ ❧❡✐(♦) ✈❡)✐✜❝❛) 6✉❡✱
❞❡ ❢❛(♦✱ Im T 3 ✉♠ )✉❜❡)♣❛,♦ ✈❡&♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ W ✭✈❡❥❛ H)♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✮✳ ❆ +❡❣✉✐♥(❡
♣)♦♣♦+✐./♦ ♠♦+()❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦+ ❞❡(❡)♠✐♥❛) ❣❡)❛❞♦)❡+ ♣❛)❛ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡
✉♠❛ ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✺✳✷✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V →W ✉♠❛ &'❛♥)❢♦'♠❛,-♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'✳ ❙❡ {v1, . . . , vn}

3 ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ ❞❡ ❣❡'❛❞♦'❡) ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥&-♦ {T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )} 3 ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦
❞❡ ❣❡'❛❞♦'❡) ❞❡ Im T ✳ ❊♠ ♣❛'&✐❝✉❧❛'✱ dim Im T ≤ dim V ✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ❙❡❥❛ w ∈ Im T ❡ (♦♠❡♠♦+ v ∈ V (❛❧ 6✉❡ T (v) = w✳ ❈♦♠♦
{v1 , . . . , vn } ❣❡)❛ V ✱ v 2 ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛./♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞❡ v1 , . . . , vn ✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦+✱
v = a 1 v 1 + · · · + an v n .
✷✳ ◆#❈▲❊❖ ❊ ■▼❆●❊▼ ✶✸✸
"❡❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛(✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ T ✭❝❢✳ ✭✷✮ ❞❛ ❙❡12♦ ✶✮✱ 5❡♠♦7 8✉❡
w = T (v) = a1 T (v1 ) + · · · + an T (vn ),
♦✉ 7❡❥❛✱ w ; ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛12♦ ❧✐♥❡❛( ❞❡ T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )✳ ❈♦♠♦ w ; ❛(❜✐5(>(✐♦

❡♠ Im T ✱ 7❡❣✉❡ 8✉❡ Im T = G(T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn ))✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡♠♦7 ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❛ 5(❛♥7❢♦(♠❛12♦ ❧✐♥❡❛( ❛♣(❡7❡♥5❛❞❛ ♥♦

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳
"❡❧❛ "(♦♣♦7✐12♦ ✺✳✷✳✷✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦7 ❞❡5❡(♠✐♥❛( ♦ ❡7♣❛1♦ ❣❡(❛❞♦ ♣❡❧❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠
❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥5♦ ❞❡ ❣❡(❛❞♦(❡7 ❞❡ R4 ✳ ❱❛♠♦7 ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛(✱ ❡♥52♦✱ ♦ ❡7♣❛1♦ ❣❡(❛❞♦
♣♦(
T (1, 0, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 1), T (0, 1, 0, 0) = (−1, 0, 1),

T (0, 0, 1, 0) = (1, 2, 3) ❡ T (0, 0, 0, 1) = (1, −1, −3).
"❡❧♦ ❚❡♦(❡♠❛ ✸✳✹✳✶✱ ❜❛75❛ (❡❞✉③✐( ❛ ♠❛5(✐③

 
1 1 1
−1 0 1
 
 
 1 2 3
1 −1 −3
I ❢♦(♠❛ ❡7❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ❖(❛✱

     
1 1 1 −→ 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1    −→ 
 0 1  L2 → L2 + L1  0 1 2 0 1 2
    L3 → L3 − L2  .
 1 2 3 3L → L 3 − L 1 0 1 2  L → L + 2L 0 0 0
4 4 2
L4 → L4 − L1
1 −1 −3 0 −2 −4 0 0 0
❆77✐♠✱ {(1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2)} ; ✉♠❛ ❜❛7❡ ❞❡ Im T ✱ ♦✉ 7❡❥❛✱
Im T = {(x, x + y, x + 2y) ; x, y ∈ R}.

✶✸✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
✷✳✸ ❖ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ❞♦ ◆,❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛ ■♠❛❣❡♠
❖ $❡❣✉✐♥*❡ +❡$✉❧*❛❞♦ 0 ✉♠ *❡♦+❡♠❛ ✐♠♣♦+*❛♥*❡ 3✉❡ +❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥$5♦
❞♦ ♥6❝❧❡♦ 7 ❞✐♠❡♥$5♦ ❞❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ *+❛♥$❢♦+♠❛95♦ ❧✐♥❡❛+ T : V → W ✱
3✉❛♥❞♦ V *❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥$5♦ ✜♥✐*❛✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✺✳✷✳✸✳ ✭❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ❞♦ ◆-❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛ ■♠❛❣❡♠✮ ❙❡❥❛ T : V →W
✉♠❛ &'❛♥)❢♦'♠❛,-♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'✱ ♦♥❞❡ V &❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥)-♦ ✜♥✐&❛✳ ❊♥&-♦
dim Ker T + dim Im T = dim V. ✭✶✮
❉❡♠♦♥56#❛78♦ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦$ 3✉❡ dim V = n✳ ❙❡❥❛ α = {u1 , u2 , . . . , um }

✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ Ker T ✳ ❈♦♠♦ 3✉❛❧3✉❡+ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡ ❞❡
✈❡*♦+❡$ ❡♠ V *❡♠ ♥♦ ♠E①✐♠♦ n ✈❡*♦+❡$ ✭❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✸✮✱ $❡❣✉❡ 3✉❡ m ≤ n✳
❱❛♠♦$ ❝♦♥$✐❞❡+❛+ ❞♦✐$ ❝❛$♦$✿
❈❛$♦ ✶✳ m = n✳
◆❡$*❡ ❝❛$♦✱ dim Ker T = dim V ❡✱ ❝♦♥$❡3✉❡♥*❡♠❡♥*❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻✱
Ker T = V ✳ ■$*♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ 3✉❡ Im T = {0}✱ ♣♦+*❛♥*♦✱ dim Im T = 0✱ ♠♦$*+❛♥❞♦
3✉❡ ❛ ❢M+♠✉❧❛ ✭✶✮ 0 ✈E❧✐❞❛✳
❈❛$♦ ✷✳ m < n✳
O❡❧♦ ❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✺✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦$ ❝♦♠♣❧❡*❛+ α ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛ ♦❜*❡+♠♦$ ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡
β ❞❡ V ✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦$ β = {u1 , u2 , . . . , um , vm+1 , . . . , vn }✳ ◆♦*❡ 3✉❡ ❛ ❢M+♠✉❧❛ ✭✶✮ 0
✈❡+✐✜❝❛❞❛ $❡ ♣+♦✈❛+♠♦$ 3✉❡ {T (vm+1 ), . . . , T (vn )} 0 ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ Im T ✳ O❡❧❛
O+♦♣♦$✐95♦ ✺✳✷✳✷✱ *❡♠♦$ 3✉❡ Im T = G(T (vm+1 ), . . . , T (vn ))✳ O❛+❛ ♣+♦✈❛+♠♦$
3✉❡ ❡$$❡$ ✈❡*♦+❡$ $5♦ ❧✐♥❡❛+♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡$✱ ❝♦♥$✐❞❡+❡♠♦$ ❛ ❡3✉❛95♦
bm+1 T (vm+1 ) + · · · + bn T (vn ) = 0,
3✉❡ ❡3✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ *❡+♠♦$
bm+1 vm+1 + · · · + bn vn ∈ Ker T.
❈♦♠♦ α 0 ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ Ker T ✱ ❡①✐$*❡♠ b1 , b2 , . . . , bm ❡♠ R *❛✐$ 3✉❡
bm+1 vm+1 + · · · + bn vn = b1 u1 + b2 u2 + · · · + bm um ,
✷✳ ◆#❈▲❊❖ ❊ ■▼❆●❊▼ ✶✸✺
♦✉ %❡❥❛✱
b1 u1 + b2 u2 + · · · + bm um − bm+1 vm+1 − · · · − bn vn = 0.
❙❡♥❞♦ β ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ❞❡ V ✱ ❛ ❡/✉❛01♦ ❛♥2❡3✐♦3 %❡ ✈❡3✐✜❝❛ %♦♠❡♥2❡ %❡ 2♦❞♦% ♦%

❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥2❡% ❞❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛3 %1♦ ✐❣✉❛✐% ❛ ③❡3♦✳ ❊♠ ♣❛32✐❝✉❧❛3✱ bm+1 =
· · · = bn = 0✳
❊♠ ❣❡3❛❧✱ ♣❛3❛ ♠♦%23❛3♠♦% /✉❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥01♦ ? ❜✐❥❡2✐✈❛✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦% ♠♦%23❛3

/✉❡ ❡❧❛ ? ✐♥❥❡2✐✈❛ ❡ %♦❜3❡❥❡2✐✈❛✳ ◆♦ ❡♥2❛♥2♦✱ %❡ ❛ ❢✉♥01♦ ? ✉♠❛ 23❛♥%❢♦3♠❛01♦
❧✐♥❡❛3 ❡♥23❡ ❡%♣❛0♦% ✈❡2♦3✐❛✐% ❞❡ ♠❡"♠❛ ❞✐♠❡♥%1♦ ✜♥✐2❛✱ ❡♥21♦✱ ❡①❛2❛♠❡♥2❡
❝♦♠♦ ♥♦ ❝❛%♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥0B❡% ❡♥23❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥2♦% ✜♥✐2♦% ❞❡ ♠❡%♠❛ ❝❛3❞✐♥❛❧✐❞❛❞❡✱
❜❛%2❛ ✈❡3✐✜❝❛3 /✉❡ ❡❧❛ ♦✉ ? ✐♥❥❡2✐✈❛ ♦✉ ? %♦❜3❡❥❡2✐✈❛❀ ❛ ♦✉23❛ ❝♦♥❞✐01♦ ?
❛✉2♦♠❛2✐❝❛♠❡♥2❡ %❛2✐%❢❡✐2❛✳ D3♦✈❛3❡♠♦% ❡%2❡ ❢❛2♦ ❛ %❡❣✉✐3 ❝♦♠ ♦ ❛✉①E❧✐♦ ❞♦
2❡♦3❡♠❛ ❞♦ ♥F❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠✳ ◆♦2❡ /✉❡ ❡%%❡ 3❡%✉❧2❛❞♦ ♥1♦ ? ❝♦♥%❡/✉G♥❝✐❛
❞♦ 3❡%✉❧2❛❞♦ ♣❛3❛ ❢✉♥0B❡% ❡♥23❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥2♦% ✜♥✐2♦%✱ ♣♦✐% ✉♠ ❡%♣❛0♦ ✈❡2♦3✐❛❧
%♦❜3❡ R✱ /✉❛♥❞♦ ♥1♦ ♥✉❧♦✱ ? ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥2♦ ✐♥✜♥✐2♦✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✺✳✷✳✹✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠❛ '(❛♥"❢♦(♠❛,-♦ ❧✐♥❡❛( ❡♥'(❡ ❡"✲

♣❛,♦" ✈❡'♦(✐❛✐" ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥"-♦ ✜♥✐'❛✳ ❙❡ dim V = dim W ✱ ❡♥'-♦ ❛" "❡❣✉✐♥'❡"
❛✜(♠❛,8❡" "-♦ ❡9✉✐✈❛❧❡♥'❡"✿
✭✐✮ T ; ✐♥❥❡'✐✈❛❀
✭✐✐✮ T ; "♦❜(❡❥❡'✐✈❛✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ D❡❧♦ ❚❡♦3❡♠❛ ❞♦ ◆F❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛ ■♠❛❣❡♠✱
dim Ker T + dim Im T = dim V.
❙❡♥❞♦ dim V = dim W ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦% ❡%❝3❡✈❡3 ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❝♦♠♦
dim Ker T + dim Im T = dim W. ✭✷✮
❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦% /✉❡ T %❡❥❛ ✐♥❥❡2✐✈❛✳ D❡❧❛ D3♦♣♦%✐01♦ ✺✳✷✳✶✱ Ker T = {0} ❡✱

❝♦♥%❡/✉❡♥2❡♠❡♥2❡✱ dim Ker T = 0✳ ❙❡❣✉❡ ❡♥21♦✱ ❞❡ ✭✷✮✱ /✉❡ dim Im T =
✶✸✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
dim W ✱ ♠♦&'(❛♥❞♦ ,✉❡ T / &♦❜(❡❥❡'✐✈❛✱ ❥4 ,✉❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦(❡♠❛ ✸✳✸✳✻✱ Im T =
W✳
❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦& ❛❣♦(❛ ,✉❡ T &❡❥❛ &♦❜(❡❥❡'✐✈❛✱ ♦✉ &❡❥❛✱ Im T = W ✳ ❊&&❡& ❞♦✐&
❡&♣❛=♦& '>♠ ♠❡&♠❛ ❞✐♠❡♥&?♦✱ ♣♦('❛♥'♦✱ ❞❡ ✭✷✮ '❡♠♦& ,✉❡ dim Ker T = 0✱ ♦
,✉❡ ❣❛(❛♥'❡ ,✉❡ Ker T = {0}✳ C❡❧❛ C(♦♣♦&✐=?♦ ✺✳✷✳✶✱ &❡❣✉❡ ,✉❡ T / ✐♥❥❡'✐✈❛✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ ❱❡(✐✜,✉❡♠♦& ,✉❡ ❛ '(❛♥&❢♦(♠❛=?♦ ❧✐♥❡❛( T : M(2, 2) → R4 ✱

❞❛❞❛ ♣♦(
" #!
a b
T = (a + b, b + c, c, a + b + d)
c d
/ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥=?♦ ❜✐❥❡'✐✈❛✳

❖(❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ dim M(2, 2) = dim R4 ✱ &❡❣✉❡✱ ❞❛ C(♦♣♦&✐=?♦ ✺✳✷✳✹✱ ,✉❡ ❜❛&'❛
✈❡(✐✜❝❛(♠♦& ,✉❡ T / ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥=?♦ ✐♥❥❡'✐✈❛✳
❈♦♠♦ ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡
" #!
a b
T = (0, 0, 0, 0)
c d
&L ♦❝♦((❡ ,✉❛♥❞♦ a = b = c = d = 0✱ '❡♠♦& ,✉❡ Ker T = {0}✳ C❡❧❛

C(♦♣♦&✐=?♦ ✺✳✷✳✶✱ T / ✐♥❥❡'✐✈❛✳
❖❜&❡(✈❛♠♦& ,✉❡ ❛ ❝♦♥❞✐=?♦ dim V = dim W ✱ ♥❛ C(♦♣♦&✐=?♦ ✺✳✷✳✹✱ / ♥❡✲

❝❡&&4(✐❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ ❝♦♥&✐❞❡(❡♠♦& ❛ '(❛♥&❢♦(♠❛=?♦ ❧✐♥❡❛( T : R3 → R2 ❞❛❞❛
♣♦( T (x, y, z) = (x, y)✳ ❚❡♠♦& ,✉❡ T / &♦❜(❡❥❡'✐✈❛✱ ♠❛& ♥!♦ / ✐♥❥❡'✐✈❛✳ ❏4 ❛
'(❛♥&❢♦(♠❛=?♦ ❧✐♥❡❛( T : R2 → R3 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦( T (x, y) = (x, y, 0) / ✐♥❥❡'✐✈❛✱ ♠❛&
♥!♦ / &♦❜(❡❥❡'✐✈❛✳
❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠❛ '(❛♥&❢♦(♠❛=?♦ ❧✐♥❡❛( ❜✐❥❡'✐✈❛✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ❡①✐&'❡ ❛ ❢✉♥=?♦

✐♥✈❡(&❛ T −1 : W → V ❞❡ T ✳ ❆ ❢✉♥&!♦ T −1 ' (❛♠❜'♠ ✉♠❛ (,❛♥-❢♦,♠❛&!♦
❧✐♥❡❛, ✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐'♦✱ ❝♦♥&✐❞❡(❡♠♦& w1 ❡ w2 ❡♠ W ❡ a ❡♠ R✳ ❈♦♠♦ T / ❜✐❥❡'✐✈❛✱
❡①✐&'❡♠ R♥✐❝♦& ✈❡'♦(❡& v1 ❡ v2 ❡♠ V '❛✐& ,✉❡ T (v1 ) = w1 ❡ T (v2 ) = w2 ✳
✷✳ ◆#❈▲❊❖ ❊ ■▼❆●❊▼ ✶✸✼
#♦%&❛♥&♦✱
T −1 (w1 + aw2 ) = T −1 (T (v1 ) + aT (v2 ))

= T −1 (T (v1 + av2 ))
= v1 + av2
= T −1 (w1 ) + aT −1 (w2 ).
❯♠❛ &%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛./♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❜✐❥❡&✐✈❛ 6 ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ✐!♦♠♦$✜!♠♦ ✳ ❉♦✐, ❡,♣❛.♦,

✈❡&♦%✐❛✐, =✉❡ ♣♦,,✉❡♠ ✉♠ ✐,♦♠♦%✜,♠♦ ❡♥&%❡ ❡❧❡, ,❡%/♦ ❞✐&♦, ✐!♦♠♦$❢♦!✱ ♦ =✉❡✱
❡♠ ❣%❡❣♦✱ ,✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ =✉❡ ♣♦,,✉❡♠ ♠❡,♠❛ ❢♦%♠❛✳ ❖, ✐,♦♠♦%✜,♠♦, ❞❡,❡♠♣❡✲
♥❤❛♠ ✉♠ ♣❛♣❡❧ ✐♠♣♦%&❛♥&❡ ♥❛ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✳
#♦% ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ R4 ❡ M(2, 2) ,/♦ ❡,♣❛.♦, ✈❡&♦%✐❛✐, ✐,♦♠♦%❢♦,✱ ♣♦✐, ❛ ❢✉♥./♦

T : R4 → M(2, 2) ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦%
" #
x y
T (x, y, z, t) =
z t
6 ✉♠ ✐,♦♠♦%✜,♠♦✳
#❡❧♦ ❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ✺✳✷✳✸✱ ,❡❣✉❡ =✉❡ ,❡ ❞♦✐, ❡,♣❛.♦, ✈❡&♦%✐❛✐, ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥,/♦ ✜♥✐&❛
,/♦ ✐,♦♠♦%❢♦,✱ ❡♥&/♦ ❡❧❡, &I♠ ❛ ♠❡,♠❛ ❞✐♠❡♥,/♦✳ ❖ ♣%J①✐♠♦ %❡,✉❧&❛❞♦ ♠♦,✲
&%❛ =✉❡ ❛ %❡❝K♣%♦❝❛ ❞❡,&❛ ❛✜%♠❛./♦ 6 &❛♠❜6♠ ✈❡%❞❛❞❡✐%❛✱ ♦✉ ,❡❥❛✱ ❡,♣❛.♦,
✈❡&♦%✐❛✐, ❞❡ ♠❡,♠❛ ❞✐♠❡♥,/♦ ✜♥✐&❛ ,/♦ ✐,♦♠♦%❢♦,✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✺✳✷✳✺✳ ❙❡ V ❡ W !)♦ ❡!♣❛,♦! ✈❡.♦$✐❛✐! ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥!)♦ n✱ ❡♥.)♦ V ❡
W !)♦ ✐!♦♠♦$❢♦! ✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ #❛%❛ ♣%♦✈❛%♠♦, =✉❡ V ❡ W ,/♦ ✐,♦♠♦%❢♦,✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦, ♠♦,&%❛%
=✉❡ ❡①✐,&❡ ✉♠❛ &%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛./♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❜✐❥❡&✐✈❛ ❞❡ V ❡♠ W ✳ #❛%❛ ✐,&♦✱ &♦♠❡♠♦,
α = {v1 , . . . , vn } ❡ β = {w1 , . . . , wn } ❜❛,❡, ❞❡ V ❡ W ✱ %❡,♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡✳ ❉❛❞♦
v ∈ V ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦, ❡,❝%❡✈❡% ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ L♥✐❝♦
v = a1 v1 + · · · + an vn ,
❝♦♠ a1 , . . . , an ∈ R✳
✶✸✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
❉❡✜♥❛✱ ❡♥)*♦✱ T : V → W ♣♦- T (v) = a1 w1 + · · · + an wn ✳ /❡❧❛ ❞❡✲
♠♦♥4)-❛5*♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✺✳✶✳✶✱ T ❡4)8 ❜❡♠ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡✱ ❛❧;♠ ❞✐44♦✱ T ; ✉♠❛
)-❛♥4❢♦-♠❛5*♦ ❧✐♥❡❛-✳
/❛-❛ ♣-♦✈❛-♠♦4 ?✉❡ T ; ❜✐❥❡)✐✈❛ ❜❛4)❛ ♣-♦✈❛-♠♦4✱ ♣❡❧❛ /-♦♣♦4✐5*♦ ✺✳✷✳✹✱
?✉❡ T ; ✐♥❥❡)✐✈❛✳ ❖-❛✱ 4❡ v = a1 v1 + · · · + an vn ❡
0 = T (v) = a1 w1 + · · · + an wn ,
4❡❣✉❡✲4❡ ?✉❡ a1 = · · · = an = 0✱ ♣♦✐4 {w1 , . . . , wn } ; ✉♠❛ ❜❛4❡ ❞❡ W ✳ ▲♦❣♦✱

v = 0✱ ♠♦4)-❛♥❞♦ ?✉❡ Ker T = {0}✳
❉♦✐4 ❡4♣❛5♦4 ✈❡)♦-✐❛✐4 V ❡ W ✐4♦♠♦-❢♦4 4*♦ ❡44❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥)❡ ♦ ✏♠❡4♠♦

❡4♣❛5♦ ✈❡)♦-✐❛❧✑✱ ❡①❝❡)♦ ?✉❡ 4❡✉4 ❡❧❡♠❡♥)♦4 ❡ 4✉❛4 ♦♣❡-❛5J❡4 ❞❡ ❛❞✐5*♦ ❡
❞❡ ♠✉❧)✐♣❧✐❝❛5*♦ ♣♦- ❡4❝❛❧❛- 4*♦ ❡4❝-✐)❛4 ❞✐❢❡-❡♥)❡♠❡♥)❡✳ ❆44✐♠✱ ?✉❛❧?✉❡-
♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ V ?✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❛ ❛♣❡♥❛4 ❞❡ 4✉❛ ❡4)-✉)✉-❛ ❞❡ ❡4♣❛5♦ ✈❡)♦-✐❛❧
♣❡-♠❛♥❡❝❡ ✈8❧✐❞❛ ❡♠ W ✱ ❡ ✈✐❝❡✲✈❡-4❛✳ /♦- ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ 4❡ T : V → W ; ✉♠
✐4♦♠♦-✜4♠♦ ❞❡ V ❡♠ W ✱ ❡♥)*♦ {T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )} ; ✉♠❛ ❜❛4❡ ❞❡ W 4❡✱ ❡
4♦♠❡♥)❡ 4❡✱ {v1 , . . . , vn } ; ✉♠❛ ❜❛4❡ ❞❡ V ✭✈❡❥❛ /-♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✹✮✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳ ❙❡❥❛ W ♦ 4✉❜❡4♣❛5♦ ❞❡ M(2, 2) ❣❡-❛❞♦ ♣♦-

" # " # " # " #
1 −5 1 1 2 −4 1 −7
M1 = , M2 = , M3 = ❡ M4 = .
−4 2 −1 5 −5 7 −5 1
❱❛♠♦4 ❡♥❝♦♥)-❛- ✉♠❛ ❜❛4❡ ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥4*♦ ❞❡ W ✳

/❛-❛ ❡♥❝♦♥)-❛-♠♦4 ✉♠❛ ❜❛4❡ ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥4*♦ ❞❡ W ♥*♦ ✉4❛-❡♠♦4 ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐5*♦
❞❡ ❡4♣❛5♦ ❣❡-❛❞♦✳ ❊♠ ✈❡③ ❞✐44♦✱ ✉4❛-❡♠♦4 ❛ ♥♦5*♦ ❞❡ ❡4♣❛5♦ ❧✐♥❤❛✱ ?✉❡
♥♦4 ❛✉①✐❧✐❛ ❛ ❡①✐❜✐- ✉♠❛ ❜❛4❡ ❞❡ 4✉❜❡4♣❛5♦4 ❞❡ Rn ❡✱ ❝♦♥4❡?✉❡♥)❡♠❡♥)❡✱ ❞❡
❡4♣❛5♦4 ✈❡)♦-✐❛✐4 ✐!♦♠♦$❢♦! ❛ "
4✉❜❡4♣❛5♦4
# ❞❡ Rn ✳
x y
❖-❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ T (x, y, t, z) = ; ✉♠ ✐4♦♠♦-✜4♠♦ ❞❡ R4 ❡♠ M(2, 2)✱
t z
)❡♠♦4 ?✉❡ W ; ✐4♦♠♦-❢♦ ❛♦ ❡4♣❛5♦ G(v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 )✱ ♦♥❞❡ v1 = (1, −5, −4, 2)✱
v2 = (1, 1, −1, 5)✱ v3 = (2, −4, −5, 7) ❡ v4 = (1, −7, −5, 1)✳ ❚❡♠♦4 ?✉❡ ❛
✷✳ ◆#❈▲❊❖ ❊ ■▼❆●❊▼ ✶✸✾
♠❛%&✐③  
1 −5 −4 2
1 1 −1 5
 
 
2 −4 −5 7
1 −7 −5 1
)❡ &❡❞✉③✱ ♣❡❧❛) %&❛♥)❢♦&♠❛34❡) ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛&❡)✱ 5 ♠❛%&✐③
 
1 3 0 6
0 2 1 1
 
 .
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
❆))✐♠✱ α = {(1, 3, 0,(" # 1,"1)} 7#)

6), (0, 2, ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ G(v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 ) ❡✱ ❝♦♥)❡✲
1 3 0 2
;✉❡♥%❡♠❡♥%❡✱ α′ = , 7 ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ W ✱ ♠♦)%&❛♥❞♦ ;✉❡
0 6 1 1
dim W = 2✳
◆♦%❡ ;✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥)❡;✉>♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ ❚❡♦&❡♠❛ ✺✳✷✳✺✱ %❡♠♦) ;✉❡ ♦❞♦ ❡$♣❛'♦
✈❡ ♦)✐❛❧ ♥-♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥$-♦ ✜♥✐ ❛ n 1 ✐$♦♠♦)❢♦ ❛♦ R ✳ ❉❡))❛ ❢♦&♠❛✱ ♦
n
❡)%✉❞♦ ❞❡ ❡)♣❛3♦) ✈❡%♦&✐❛✐) ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥)D♦ ✜♥✐%❛ ♣♦❞❡ )❡ &❡❞✉③✐& ❛♦ ❡)%✉❞♦

❞♦) ❡)♣❛3♦) Rn ✱ ♠❡❞✐❛♥%❡ ❛ ❡)❝♦❧❤❛ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♠ ✐)♦♠♦&✜)♠♦✳ ❆))✐♠✱ ❞❛❞♦
✉♠ ♣&♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡)♣❛3♦ ✈❡%♦&✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥)D♦ ✜♥✐%❛ n✱ &❡❡)❝&❡✈❡♠♦) ♦
♣&♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣❛&❛ Rn ✱ ✉)❛♥❞♦ ✉♠ ✐)♦♠♦&✜)♠♦✱ ❡ ♦ &❡)♦❧✈❡♠♦) ♥❡)%❡ ❝♦♥%❡①%♦✳
❈♦♠ ♦ ✐)♦♠♦&✜)♠♦ ✉%✐❧✐③❛❞♦✱ ✈♦❧%❛♠♦) ❛♦ ❝♦♥%❡①%♦ ♦&✐❣✐♥❛❧✳ ❊))❛ %7❝♥✐❝❛ ❢♦✐
✐❧✉)%&❛❞❛ ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳ ❯♠ ♦✉%&♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ♣♦❞❡ )❡& ✈✐)%♦ ♥♦ M&♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✻✱
❜❡♠ ❝♦♠♦ ♥♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛ )❡❣✉✐&✱ ❡♠ ;✉❡ )D♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦) ♦) ❝♦♥❝❡✐%♦) ❞❡ ❡)♣❛3♦
✈❡%♦&✐❛❧✱ ❜❛)❡ ❡ ❞✐♠❡♥)D♦✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛ ♦❜%❡& &❡)✉❧%❛❞♦) ♥D♦ %&✐✈✐❛✐)✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳ ❈♦♥)✐❞❡&❡♠♦) ❛ &❡❝♦&&>♥❝✐❛ R(1, 1)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦&
un+1 = un + un−1 , n ≥ 2.
❱✐♠♦) ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷ ❞❛ ❙❡3D♦ ✶✱ ❞♦ ❈❛♣Q%✉❧♦ ✶ ❡ ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺ ❞❛ ❙❡3D♦

✶✱ ❞♦ ❈❛♣Q%✉❧♦ ✸✱ ;✉❡ ❛) )❡;✉>♥❝✐❛) &❡❛✐) ;✉❡ )❛%✐)❢❛③❡♠ ❛ ❡)%❛ &❡❝♦&&>♥❝✐❛
❢♦&♠❛♠ ✉♠ ❡)♣❛3♦ ✈❡%♦&✐❛❧✳
✶✹✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
❖❜%❡'✈❡ )✉❡ +♦❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦ (un ) ❞❡ R(1, 1) ✜❝❛ +♦+❛❧♠❡♥+❡ ❞❡+❡'♠✐♥❛❞♦
%❡ %♦✉❜❡'♠♦% ♦% ✈❛❧♦'❡% ❞❡ u1 ❡ u2 ✳ 6♦' ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ %❡ u1 = u2 = 1✱ +❡♠♦% )✉❡
(un ) : ❛ %❡)✉;♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❋✐❜♦♥❛❝❝✐✳
❉❡✜♥❛♠♦% ❛ %❡❣✉✐♥+❡ ❢✉♥@A♦✿
T : R(1, 1) → R2
(un ) 7→ (u1 , u2 ) .
◆♦+❡ )✉❡ T : ✉♠❛ +'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛@A♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'✱ ♣♦✐% %❡ (un ), (vn ) ∈ R(1, 1) ❡ c ∈ R✱

❡♥+A♦
T ((un ) + c(vn )) = T ((un + cvn ))
= (u1 + cv1 , u2 + cv2 )
= (u1 , u2 ) + c(v1 , v2 )
= T ((un )) + cT ((vn )).
6♦' ♦✉+'♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ T : ♦❜✈✐❛♠❡♥+❡ %♦❜'❡❥❡+♦'❛✳ T : +❛♠❜:♠ ✐♥❥❡+♦'❛✱ ♣♦✐%
♦% ✈❛❧♦'❡% ❞❡ u1 ❡ u2 ❞❡+❡'♠✐♥❛♠ ✉♥✐✈♦❝❛♠❡♥+❡ ❛ %❡)✉;♥❝✐❛ (un ) ❞❡ R(1, 1)✳
▲♦❣♦✱ T : ✉♠ ✐%♦♠♦'✜%♠♦ ❞❡ ❡%♣❛@♦% ✈❡+♦'✐❛✐% ❡✱ ♣♦'+❛♥+♦✱ dim R(1, 1) =
2✳ ❱❛♠♦% ❞❡+❡'♠✐♥❛' ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ❞❡ R(1, 1)✳
6'♦❝✉'❡♠♦% ❞❡♥+'❡ ❛% ♣'♦❣'❡%%G❡% ❣❡♦♠:+'✐❝❛% (q n )✱ ❝♦♠ q 6= 0✱ ❛)✉❡❧❛%
)✉❡ %❛+✐%❢❛③❡♠ I '❡❝♦'';♥❝✐❛ R(1, 1)✳ ❊%%❛% ❞❡✈❡♠ %❛+✐%❢❛③❡' I ❝♦♥❞✐@A♦
q n+1 = q n + q n−1 .
❉❛K ❞❡❞✉③✲%❡ )✉❡ q ❞❡✈❡ %❛+✐%❢❛③❡' ❛ ❡)✉❛@A♦
q 2 − q − 1 = 0,
❝✉❥❛% '❛K③❡% %A♦

√ √
1+ 5 1− 5
q1 = , q2 = .
2 2
6♦'+❛♥+♦✱ %❡♥❞♦ (q1n ) ❡ (q2n ) ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡% ✭❜❛%+❛ ✈❡'✐✜❝❛' )✉❡
❛% ✐♠❛❣❡♥% ♣♦' T %A♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥+❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥+❡%✮✱ ❡❧❡% ❢♦'♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ❞❡
R(1, 1)✳
✷✳ ◆#❈▲❊❖ ❊ ■▼❆●❊▼ ✶✹✶
❆##✐♠✱ '♦❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦ (un ) ❞❡ R(1, 1) - '❛❧ /✉❡

√ !n √ !n
1+ 5 1− 5
un = t 1 + t2 , t1 , t2 ∈ R. ✭✸✮
2 2
4♦5'❛♥'♦✱ ❞❛❞♦# u1 ❡ u2 ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦# ❞❡'❡5♠✐♥❛5 t1 ❡ t2 5❡#♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ♦ #✐#'❡♠❛
❞❡ ❡/✉❛89❡#✿ (
t 1 q1 + t 2 q2 = u 1
t1 q12 + t2 q22 = u2 .
❊♠ ✈✐5'✉❞❡ ❞❛# ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡# q12 = q1 +1 ❡ q22 = q2 +1✱ ❡#'❡ #✐#'❡♠❛ - ❡/✉✐✈❛❧❡♥'❡
❛♦ #✐#'❡♠❛ (
t 1 q1 + t 2 q2 = u 1
t1 (q1 + 1) + t2 (q2 + 1) = u2 ,
4♦5 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛5❛ ❛ #❡/✉>♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❋✐❜♦♥❛❝❝✐✱ ♦♥❞❡ u1 = u2 = 1✱ 5❡#♦❧✈❡♥❞♦
√ √
♦ #✐#'❡♠❛ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜'❡♠♦# t1 = 1/ 5 ❡ t2 = −1/ 5✱ /✉❡ #✉❜#'✐'✉B❞♦# ❡♠ ✭✸✮
♥♦# ❞C♦ ❛ #❡❣✉✐♥'❡ ❢E5♠✉❧❛ ♣❛5❛ ♦ '❡5♠♦ ❣❡5❛❧ ❞❛ #❡/✉>♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❋✐❜♦♥❛❝❝✐✿
√ n √ n
1+ 5
2
− 1−2 5
un = √ .
5
❋✐♥❛❧✐③❛5❡♠♦# ❡#'❛ #❡8C♦ ❝♦♠ ♠❛✐# ✉♠❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛8C♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦5❡♠❛ ❞♦ ◆I❝❧❡♦
❡ ❞❛ ■♠❛❣❡♠✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳ ❉❡'❡5♠✐♥❛5❡♠♦# ✉♠❛ ❢E5♠✉❧❛ ♣❛5❛ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥#C♦ ❞❛ #♦♠❛ ❞❡
❞♦✐# #✉❜❡#♣❛8♦# ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡#♣❛❝♦ ✈❡'♦5✐❛❧✳
❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W #✉❜❡#♣❛8♦# ✈❡'♦5✐❛✐# ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥#C♦ ✜♥✐'❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡#♣❛8♦ ✈❡✲
'♦5✐❛❧ V ✳ ❈♦♥#✐❞❡5❡ ❛ '5❛♥#❢♦5♠❛8C♦ ❧✐♥❡❛5
T: U ×W → V
(u, w) 7→ u + w
➱ ❢S❝✐❧ ✈❡5✐✜❝❛5 /✉❡ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ T - ♦ #✉❜❡#♣❛8♦ U + W ❡ /✉❡ Ker T -

✐#♦♠♦5❢♦ ❛ U ∩ W ✭✈❡❥❛ 45♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✮✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦5❡♠❛ ❞♦ ◆I❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛
■♠❛❣❡♠ ❡ ♣❡❧♦ 45♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✸✳✶✺✱ ❞♦ ❈❛♣B'✉❧♦ ✸✱ '❡♠♦# /✉❡
dim U + dim W = dim U × W = dim Ker T + dim Im T
= dim(U ∩ W ) + dim(U + W ).
✶✹✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
❆$$✐♠✱ (❡♠♦$ +✉❡
dim(U + W ) = dim U + dim W − dim(U ∩ W ).
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✷✳✶✯ -.♦✈❡ +✉❡ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ (.❛♥$❢♦.♠❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. T : V → W 8 ✉♠
$✉❜❡$♣❛5♦ ✈❡(♦.✐❛❧ ❞❡ W ✳
✷✳✷✯ ❉❛❞❛ ❛ (.❛♥$❢♦.♠❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. T (x, y, z) = (x + 2y − z, y + 2z, x + 3y + z)

❡♠ R3 ✿
✭❛✮ ❱❡.✐✜+✉❡ +✉❡ Ker T 8 ✉♠❛ .❡(❛ +✉❡ ♣❛$$❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦.✐❣❡♠❀
✭❜✮ ❉❡(❡.♠✐♥❡ ❛$ ❡+✉❛5C❡$ ♣❛.❛♠8(.✐❝❛$ ❞❛ .❡(❛ ♦❜(✐❞❛ ❡♠ ✭❛✮❀
✭❝✮ ❱❡.✐✜+✉❡ +✉❡ Im T 8 ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ +✉❡ ♣❛$$❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦.✐❣❡♠❀
✭❞✮ ❉❡(❡.♠✐♥❡ ❛$ ❡+✉❛5C❡$ ♣❛.❛♠8(.✐❝❛$ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♦❜(✐❞♦ ❡♠ ✭❝✮✳
✷✳✸ ❊①♣❧✐+✉❡ ♣♦. +✉❡ ♥6♦ ❡①✐$(❡ ♥❡♥❤✉♠❛ (.❛♥$❢♦.♠❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. $♦❜.❡❥❡(✐✈❛
T : V → W ✱ +✉❛♥❞♦ dim V < dim W ✳
✷✳✹✯ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠ ✐$♦♠♦.✜$♠♦✳ -.♦✈❡ +✉❡ {v1 , . . . , vn } 8 ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡
❞❡ V $❡✱ ❡ $♦♠❡♥(❡ $❡✱ {T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )} ❢♦. ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ W ✳
✷✳✺ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W $✉❜❡$♣❛5♦$ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡$♣❛5♦ ✈❡(♦.✐❛❧ V ✳ ❈♦♥$✐❞❡.❡ ❛ ❢✉♥56♦

T : U × W → V ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦. T (u, w) = u + w✳ ▼♦$(.❡ +✉❡✿
✭❛✮ T 8 ✉♠❛ (.❛♥$❢♦.♠❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛.❀
✭❜✮ ❆ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ T 8 ♦ $✉❜❡$♣❛5♦ U + W ❀
✭❝✮ Ker T = {(u, −u); u ∈ U ∩ W } 8 ✐$♦♠♦.❢♦ ❛ U ∩ W ✳
✷✳✻✯ ❉❡(❡.♠✐♥❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥$6♦ ❞♦ $✉❜❡$♣❛5♦ ❞❡ R[x]3✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣♦.

{p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d ; p(−1) = 0}.
✷✳✼ ❉❡(❡.♠✐♥❡ ♦ ♥L❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❛$ $❡❣✉✐♥(❡$ (.❛♥$❢♦.♠❛5C❡$ ❧✐♥❡❛.❡$✿

✭❛✮ T : R3 → R2 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (x, y, z) = (x − y, x − z)❀
✷✳ ◆#❈▲❊❖ ❊ ■▼❆●❊▼ ✶✹✸
✭❜✮ T : R4 →R3 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (x, y, z, w)=(2x + y − z + w, x + 2y − w, 6x + 2z − 3w)❀

✭❝✮ T : R[x] → R[x]✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (p(x)) = x · p(x)❀
#"
1 −1
✭❞✮ T : M(2, 2) → M(2, 2)✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (A) = M · A✱ -❡♥❞♦ M = ❀
−4 4
✭❡✮ T : R[x]2 → R4 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T (ax2 + bx + c) = (a + b, 2b + c, a + 2b − c, c)✳
✷✳✽ ❉❡0❡1♠✐♥❡ 4✉❛✐- ❞❛- 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛89❡- ❧✐♥❡❛1❡- ❞♦ ❡①❡1❝<❝✐♦ ❛♥0❡1✐♦1 -=♦
✐♥❥❡0✐✈❛- ❡ 4✉❛✐- -=♦ -♦❜1❡❥❡0✐✈❛-✳
✷✳✾ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛8=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 T : V → W ✱ ♠♦-01❡ 4✉❡✿
✭❛✮ -❡ A -♦❜1❡❥❡0✐✈❛✱ ❡♥0=♦ dim W ≤ dim V ❀
✭❜✮ -❡ A ✐♥❥❡0✐✈❛✱ ❡♥0=♦ dim V ≤ dim W ✳
✷✳✶✵ ❊♥❝♦♥01❡ ✉♠❛ 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛8=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 T : R3 → R3 ❝✉❥♦ ♥C❝❧❡♦ -❡❥❛ ❣❡1❛❞♦
♣♦1 (1, 2, −1) ❡ (−1, 1, 0)✳
✷✳✶✶ ❊♥❝♦♥01❡ ✉♠❛ 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛8=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 T : R4 → R3 ❝✉❥♦ ♥C❝❧❡♦ -❡❥❛ ❣❡1❛❞♦
♣♦1 (1, 2, 3, 4) ❡ (0, 1, 1, 1)✳
✷✳✶✷ ❊♥❝♦♥01❡ ✉♠❛ 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛8=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 T : R3 → R3 ❝✉❥❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ -❡❥❛
❣❡1❛❞❛ ♣♦1 (1, 2, 3) ❡ (0, 1, −1)✳
✷✳✶✸ ❊♥❝♦♥01❡ ✉♠❛ 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛8=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 T : R3 → R4 ❝✉❥❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ -❡❥❛
❣❡1❛❞❛ ♣♦1 (1, 3, −1, 2) ❡ (1, 0, 1, −1)✳
✷✳✶✹ ❙❡❥❛ T : R3 → V ✉♠❛ 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛8=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 ❞❡ R3 ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡-♣❛8♦ ✈❡0♦1✐❛❧
V 4✉❛❧4✉❡1✳ ▼♦-01❡ 4✉❡ ♦ ♥C❝❧❡♦ ❞❡ T A 0♦❞♦ ♦ R3 ✱ ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❡❧❛ ♦1✐❣❡♠✱
✉♠❛ 1❡0❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦1✐❣❡♠✱ ♦✉ -H ❛ ♦1✐❣❡♠✳
✷✳✶✺ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → R3 ✉♠❛ 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛8=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡-♣❛8♦ ✈❡0♦1✐❛❧ V
4✉❛❧4✉❡1 ❡♠ R3 ✳ ▼♦-01❡ 4✉❡ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ T A -H ❛ ♦1✐❣❡♠✱ ✉♠❛ 1❡0❛ ♣❡❧❛
♦1✐❣❡♠✱ ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❡❧❛ ♦1✐❣❡♠✱ ♦✉ 0♦❞♦ ♦ R3 ✳
✷✳✶✻ ❉I✱ 4✉❛♥❞♦ ♣♦--<✈❡❧✱ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦- ❞❡ 01❛♥-❢♦1♠❛89❡- ❧✐♥❡❛1❡- T -❛0✐-❢❛✲
③❡♥❞♦✿
✭❛✮ T : R3 → R2 -♦❜1❡❥❡0✐✈❛❀
✭❜✮ T : R4 → R2 ❝♦♠ Ker T = {(0, 0, 0, 0)}❀
✶✹✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
✭❝✮ T : R3 → R3 ❝♦♠ Im T = {(0, 0, 0)}❀
✭❞✮ T : R3 → R4 ❝♦♠ Ker T = {(x, y, −x) ; x ∈ R}✳
✷✳✶✼ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → R ✉♠❛ /0❛♥2❢♦0♠❛45♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0 ♥5♦ ♥✉❧❛✳ 80♦✈❡ :✉❡ ❡①✐2/❡
✉♠ ✈❡/♦0 v ∈ V /❛❧ :✉❡ T (v) = 1✳ ❙❡❥❛ W ♦ 2✉❜❡2♣❛4♦ ❞❡ V ❣❡0❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦
✈❡/♦0 v ✳ 80♦✈❡ :✉❡ V = W ⊕ Ker T ✳
✷✳✶✽ ❙❡❥❛♠ W1 ❡ W2 2✉❜❡2♣❛4♦2 ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡2♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦0✐❛❧ V /❛✐2 :✉❡ dim W1 +
dim W2 = dim V ✳ ▼♦2/0❡ :✉❡ ❡①✐2/❡ ✉♠❛ /0❛♥2❢♦0♠❛45♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0 T : V → V
/❛❧ :✉❡ Ker T = V1 ❡ Im T = W2 ✳
✷✳✶✾ ❈♦♥2✐❞❡0❡ ❛ /0❛♥2❢♦0♠❛45♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0 T : R3 → R3 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦0
T (x, y, z) = (3x + y, −2x − 4y + 3z, 5x + 4y − 2z).
❉❡/❡0♠✐♥❡ 2❡ T B ✐♥✈❡0/C✈❡❧✳ ❊♠ ❝❛2♦ ❛✜0♠❛/✐✈♦✱ ❡♥❝♦♥/0❡ T −1 ✳

✷✳✷✵ ❙❡❥❛ T : Rn → Rn ❛ /0❛♥2❢♦0♠❛45♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦0
T (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (a1 x1 , a2 x2 , . . . , an xn ).
✭❛✮ ❙♦❜ :✉❛✐2 ❝♦♥❞✐4G❡2 2♦❜0❡ a1 , a2 , . . . , an ✱ ❛ ❢✉♥45♦ T B ✐♥✈❡0/C✈❡❧❄

✭❜✮ ❙✉♣♦♥❞♦ 2❛/✐2❢❡✐/❛2 ❛2 ❝♦♥❞✐4G❡2 ❞❡/❡0♠✐♥❛❞❛2 ❡♠ ✭❛✮✱ ❡♥❝♦♥/0❡ T −1 ✳
✷✳✷✶ ❙❡❥❛ T : R2 → R2 ❛ /0❛♥2❢♦0♠❛45♦ ❧✐♥❡❛0 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦0
T (x, y) = (x + ky, −y).
80♦✈❡ :✉❡ T B ✐♥❥❡/✐✈❛ ❡ :✉❡ T −1 = T ✱ ♣❛0❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦0 0❡❛❧ ❞❡ k ✳

✷✳✷✷ ❆❝❤❡ ✉♠ ✐2♦♠♦0✜2♠♦ ❡♥/0❡ ♦ ❡2♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦0✐❛❧ V ❞❛2 ♠❛/0✐③❡2 2✐♠B/0✐❝❛2
n × n ❡ ♦ ❡2♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦0✐❛❧ W ❞❛2 ♠❛/0✐③❡2 /0✐❛♥❣✉❧❛0❡2 ✐♥❢❡0✐♦0❡2 n × n✳
✸ ❖♣❡$❛&'❡( ❝♦♠ ❚$❛♥(❢♦$♠❛&'❡( ▲✐♥❡❛$❡(

◆❡2/❛ 2❡45♦✱ ❛♣0❡2❡♥/❛0❡♠♦2 ❛2 ♦♣❡0❛4G❡2 ✉2✉❛✐2 ❝♦♠ ❛2 /0❛♥2❢♦0♠❛4G❡2
❧✐♥❡❛0❡2✱ ♦❜/❡♥❞♦ ♥♦✈❛2 /0❛♥2❢♦0♠❛4G❡2 ❧✐♥❡❛0❡2 ❛ ♣❛0/✐0 ❞❡ /0❛♥2❢♦0♠❛4G❡2
❧✐♥❡❛0❡2 ❞❛❞❛2✳
✸✳ ❖#❊❘❆➬(❊❙ ❈❖▼ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬(❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✶✹✺
❙❡❥❛♠ T : V → W ❡ S : V → W ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./❡+ ❧✐♥❡❛)❡+✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦+ ❛

♦♠❛ ❞❡ T ❡ S ✱ ❞❡♥♦(❛❞❛ ♣♦) T + S ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ❢✉♥.:♦ T + S : V → W ❞❛❞❛
♣♦)
(T + S)(v) = T (v) + S(v), ✭✶✮
♣❛)❛ (♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✳ ❙❡ k ∈ R✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦+ ♦ ♣%♦❞✉(♦ ❞❡ k ♣♦) T ✱ ❞❡♥♦(❛♥❞♦✲♦

kT ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ❢✉♥.:♦ kT : V → W ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦)
(kT )(v) = kT (v), ✭✷✮
♣❛)❛ (♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✳ ❆+ ❢✉♥./❡+ T +S ❡ kT +:♦✱ ❞❡ ❢❛(♦✱ ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./❡+ ❧✐♥❡❛)❡+✱

♣♦✐+ ♣❛)❛ @✉❛❧@✉❡) a ❡♠ R ❡ ♣❛)❛ @✉❛✐+@✉❡) v1 ❡ v2 ❡♠ V (❡♠♦+ @✉❡
(T + S)(v1 + av2 ) = T (v1 + av2 ) + S(v1 + av2 )

= T (v1 ) + aT (v2 ) + S(v1 ) + aS(v2 )
= [T (v1 ) + S(v1 )] + a[T (v2 + S(v2 )]
= (T + S)(v1 ) + a(T + S)(v2 )
(kT )(v1 + av2 ) = kT (v1 + av2 ) = k[T (v1 ) + aT (v2 )]

= kT (v1 ) + akT (v2 )
= (kT )(v1 ) + a(kT )(v2 ).
❉❡♥♦(❡♠♦+ ♣♦) (V, W ) ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦ ❞❡ (♦❞❛+ ❛+ ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./❡+ ❧✐♥❡❛)❡+ ❞❡

V ❡♠ W ✳ ❆+ ♦♣❡)❛./❡+ ❞❡+❝)✐(❛+ ❡♠ ✭✶✮ ❡ ✭✷✮ ❞❡✜♥❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❛❞✐.:♦ ❡ ✉♠❛
♠✉❧(✐♣❧✐❝❛.:♦ ♣♦) ❡+❝❛❧❛) ❡♠ (V, W )✱ (♦)♥❛♥❞♦✲♦ ✉♠ ❡+♣❛.♦ ✈❡(♦)✐❛❧ ✭✈❡❥❛
B)♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✸✳✹✮✳ ❙❡ W = R✱ ♦ ❡+♣❛.♦ (V, R) E ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❡ ♣❛*♦ ❞✉❛❧ ❞❡ V ❡
+❡✉+ ❡❧❡♠❡♥(♦+ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦+ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛✐ ❧✐♥❡❛%❡ ❡♠ V ✳
❆ ❝♦♠♣♦+✐.:♦ ❞❡ ❞✉❛+ ()❛♥+❢♦)♠❛./❡+ ❧✐♥❡❛)❡+ T : V → W ❡ S : W → U

E ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦+✐.:♦ ✉+✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❢✉♥./❡+✿
(S ◦ T )(v) = S(T (v)), v ∈ V.

✶✹✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
❆ ❢✉♥'(♦ S ◦T * +❛♠❜*♠ ✉♠❛ +/❛♥0❢♦/♠❛'(♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐+♦✱ 0❡ v1 , v2 ∈ V
❡ 0❡ a ∈ R✱ ❡♥+(♦
(S ◦ T )(v1 + av2 ) = S(T (v1 + av2 )) = S(T (v1 ) + aT (v2 ))

= S(T (v1 )) + aS(T (V2 )) = (S ◦ T )(v1 ) + a(S ◦ T )(v2 ).
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ T : R3 → R3 ❡ S : R3 → R3 +/❛♥0❢♦/♠❛'9❡0 ❧✐♥❡❛/❡0

❞❛❞❛0 ♣♦/
T (x, y, z) = (2x, x − y, y + z) e S(x, y, z) = (x + 2z, y, −z).
❉❡+❡/♠✐♥❛/❡♠♦0 T + S ✱ 2S ❡ T ◦ S ✳
❚❡♠♦0
(T + S)(x, y, z) = T (x, y, z) + S((x, y, z))
= (2x, x − y, y + z) + (x + 2z, y, −z)
= (3x + 2z, x, y),
(2S)(x, y, z) = 2S(x, y, z) = 2(x + 2z, y, −z) = (2x + 4z, 2y, −2z)

❡
(T ◦S)(x, y, z) = T (S(x, y, z)) = T (x+2z, y, −z) = (2x+4z, x−y +2z, y −z).
❙❡❥❛♠ T : V → V ✉♠❛ +/❛♥0❢♦/♠❛'(♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❡ n ∈ N \ {0}✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦0

❛ n✲ !✐♠❛ ♣♦'(♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ T ✱ ❞❡♥♦+❛♥❞♦✲❛ ♣♦/ T n ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ❢✉♥'(♦ T n : V → V
❞❛❞❛ ♣♦/
Tn = T · · ◦ T} .
| ◦ ·{z
n ✈❡③❡#
A❡❧♦ B✉❡ ✈✐♠♦0 ❛♥+❡/✐♦/♠❡♥+❡✱ T * ✉♠❛ +/❛♥0❢♦/♠❛'(♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦0 T 0

n
❝♦♠♦ ❛ ❢✉♥'(♦ ✐❞❡♥+✐❞❛❞❡ ❡♠ V ✱ ♦✉ 0❡❥❛✱
T 0 = IV .
❙❡ T : V → V * ✉♠ ✐0♦♠♦/✜0♠♦✱ ❛ +/❛♥0❢♦/♠❛'(♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ T −n : V → V *

❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦/
T −n = T −1
· · ◦ T −1} .
| ◦ ·{z
n ✈❡③❡#
✸✳ ❖#❊❘❆➬(❊❙ ❈❖▼ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬(❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✶✹✼
❖ ♣%&①✐♠♦ %❡,✉❧/❛❞♦✱ ❝✉❥❛ ❞❡♠♦♥,/%❛67♦ 8 ❞❡✐①❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡%❝9❝✐♦ ✭✈❡❥❛

<%♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✸✳✾✮✱ %❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦,✐67♦ ❝♦♠ ❛ ❛❞✐67♦ ❡ ❛ ♠✉❧/✐♣❧✐❝❛67♦ ♣♦%
❡,❝❛❧❛% ❞❡ /%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛6C❡, ❧✐♥❡❛%❡,✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✺✳✸✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ T ❡ T ′ %&❛♥(❢♦&♠❛+,❡( ❧✐♥❡❛&❡( ❞❡ V ❡♠ W ❡

(❡❥❛♠ S ❡ S ′ %&❛♥(❢♦&♠❛+,❡( ❧✐♥❡❛&❡( ❞❡ W ❡♠ U ✳ ❊♥%2♦✿
✭❛✮ S ◦ (T + T ′ ) = S ◦ T + S ◦ T ′ ❀
✭❜✮ (S + S ′ ) ◦ T = S ◦ T + S ′ ◦ T ❀
✭❝✮ k(S ◦ T ) = (kS) ◦ T = S ◦ (kT )✱ ♦♥❞❡ k ∈ R✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛$
✸✳✶✯ ❈♦♥,✐❞❡%❡ ❛ /%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛67♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% T : R3 → R4 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦% T (x, y, z) =
(x + y, z, x − y, y + z)✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ (T ◦ S)(x, y)✱ ♦♥❞❡ S : R2 → R3 8 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦%
S(x, y) = (2x + y, x − y, x − 3y)✳
✸✳✷ ❙❡❥❛♠ T : V → W ❡ S : V → W /%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛6C❡, ❧✐♥❡❛%❡, ❡♥/%❡ ❡,♣❛6♦,

✈❡/♦%✐❛✐, ❞❡ ♠❡,♠❛ ❞✐♠❡♥,7♦✳ ❙❡ S ◦T = IV ✱ ♣%♦✈❡ F✉❡ T ◦S = IW ❡ S = T −1 ✳
✸✳✸ ❙❡❥❛♠ T : R2 → R2 ❡ S : R2 → R2 /%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛6C❡, ❧✐♥❡❛%❡, ❞❛❞❛, ♣♦%

T (x, y) = (x + y, 0) ❡ S(x, y) = (−y, x)✳ ❊♥❝♦♥/%❡ ❡①♣%❡,,C❡, ♣❛%❛ ❞❡✜♥✐%✿
✭❛✮ T + S ❀ ✭❜✮ 5T − 4S ❀ ✭❝✮ S ◦ T ❀
✭❞✮ T ◦ S ❀ ✭❡✮ T 3 ❀ ✭❢✮ S −3 ✳
✸✳✹ <%♦✈❡ F✉❡ (V, W )✱ ❝♦♠ ❛, ♦♣❡%❛6C❡, ❞❛❞❛, ❡♠ ✭✶✮ ❡ ✭✷✮✱ 8 ✉♠ ❡,♣❛6♦
✈❡/♦%✐❛❧✳
✸✳✺ ▼♦,/%❡ F✉❡ ❛, ,❡❣✉✐♥/❡, /%❛♥,❢♦%♠❛6C❡, ❧✐♥❡❛%❡, T, S ❡ Q ,7♦ ❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥/❡

✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡,✿
✭❛✮ T, S, Q ∈ (R3 , R2 )✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛, ♣♦% T (x, y, z) = (x+y +z, x+y)✱ S(x, y, z) =
(2x + z, x + y) ❡ Q(x, y, z) = (2y, x)❀
✭❜✮ T, S, Q ∈ (R3 , R)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛, ♣♦% T (x, y, z) = x + y + z ✱ S(x, y, z) = y + z
❡ Q(x, y, z) = x − z ✳
✶✹✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✺✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙
✸✳✻ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → V ✉♠❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛*✳ 4*♦✈❡ 6✉❡ T 2 = 0 ,❡✱ ❡
,♦♠❡♥)❡ ,❡✱ Im T ⊂ Ker T ✳
✸✳✼ 4*♦✈❡ 6✉❡ ,❡ T : V → V ❡ S : V → V ,0♦ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/8❡, ❧✐♥❡❛*❡, ♥0♦
♥✉❧❛, )❛✐, 6✉❡ T ◦ S = 0✱ ❡♥)0♦ T ♥0♦ 9 ✐♥❥❡)✐✈❛✳
✸✳✽ ❉❛❞❛ ❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* T (x, y, z) = (ay + bz, cz, 0) ❞❡ R3 ❡♠ R3 ✱
♠♦,)*❡ 6✉❡ T 3 = 0✳
✸✳✾ 4*♦✈❡ ❛ 4*♦♣♦,✐/0♦ ✺✳✸✳✶✳
✸✳✶✵ ❉❛❞❛ ❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* T (x, y) = (ac + by, cx + dy) ❞❡ R2 ❡♠ R2 ✱
♠♦,)*❡ 6✉❡✿
✭❛✮ T 2 − (a + d)T = (bc − ad) IR2 ❀
✭❜✮ ❙❡ ad − bc 6= 0✱ ❡♥)0♦ ❡①✐,)❡ ✉♠❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* S ❞❡ R2 ❡♠ R2 )❛❧
6✉❡ S ◦ T = T ◦ S = IR2 ✳
✸✳✶✶ ❙❡❥❛ T : W → U ✉♠❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* ✐♥❥❡)✐✈❛✳ 4*♦✈❡ 6✉❡ ,❡
S1 , S2 ∈ (V, W ) ,❛)✐,❢❛③❡♠ ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ T ◦ S1 = T ◦ S2 ✱ ❡♥)0♦ S1 = S2 ✳
✸✳✶✷ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* ,♦❜*❡❥❡)✐✈❛✳ 4*♦✈❡ 6✉❡ ,❡
S1 , S2 ∈ (W, U ) ,❛)✐,❢❛③❡♠ ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ S1 ◦ T = S2 ◦ T ✱ ❡♥)0♦ S1 = S2 ✳
✸✳✶✸ 4*♦✈❡ 6✉❡ ,❡ T : V → V 9 ✉♠❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* )❛❧ 6✉❡ T 2 = 0✱
❡♥)0♦ ❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ IV −T 9 ✐♥✈❡*)G✈❡❧✳
✸✳✶✹ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡,♣❛/♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦, 6✉❡ V = W1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ws ✳
❈♦♥,✐❞❡*❡ ❛ ❢✉♥/0♦ T : V → V ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦* T (v) = wi ✱ ♦♥❞❡ v = w1 + · · · +
wi + · · · + ws ✱ ❝♦♠ wi ∈ Wi ✱ ♣❛*❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ s✳ ▼♦,)*❡ 6✉❡✿
✭❛✮ T 9 ✉♠❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛*❀ ✭❜✮ T 2 = T ✳
❆ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ T 9 ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♣!♦❥❡%&♦ ❞❡ V ❡♠ )❡✉ )✉❜❡)♣❛%♦ ✈❡.♦!✐❛❧
Wi ✳
✸✳✶✺ ❙❡❥❛ T : V →V ✉♠❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* )❛❧ 6✉❡ T 2 =T ✳ ▼♦,)*❡ 6✉❡✿
✭❛✮ T (v) = v ♣❛*❛ )♦❞♦ v ∈ ■♠ T ❀
✭❜✮ V = Ker T ⊕ ■♠ T ❀
✭❝✮ T 9 ❛ ♣*♦❥❡/0♦ ❞❡ V ❡♠ ,✉❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠✳
✸✳ ❖#❊❘❆➬(❊❙ ❈❖▼ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬(❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ✶✹✾
✸✳✶✻ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → V ✉♠❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛*✳ ▼♦,)*❡ 5✉❡ T 6 ✉♠❛ ♣*♦❥❡✲

/0♦ ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥)❡ ,❡✱ T 2 = T ✳
✸✳✶✼ ❙❡❥❛♠ T ❡ S ❞✉❛, )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛/;❡, ❧✐♥❡❛*❡, ❡♥)*❡ ♦, ❡,♣❛/♦, ✈❡)♦*✐❛✐, ❞❡
❞✐♠❡♥,0♦ ✜♥✐)❛ V ❡ W ✳ ▼♦,)*❡ 5✉❡✿
✭❛✮ ❙❡ Ker T = Ker S ✱ ❡♥)0♦ ❡①✐,)❡ ✉♠ ✐,♦♠♦*✜,♠♦ T1 : W → W )❛❧ 5✉❡
S = T1 ◦ T ❀
✭❜✮ ❙❡ Im T = Im S ✱ ❡♥)0♦ ❡①✐,)❡ ✉♠ ✐,♦♠♦*✜,♠♦ T2 : V → V )❛❧ 5✉❡ S =
T ◦ T2 ✳
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✻
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✻✿ ❚+❛♥-❢♦+♠❛01❡- ▲✐♥❡❛+❡- ❡

▼❛$+✐③❡-
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ ▼❛#$✐③ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❚$❛♥-❢♦$♠❛01♦ ▲✐♥❡❛$ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✶
✷ ❖♣❡$❛08❡- ❝♦♠ ❚$❛♥-❢♦$♠❛08❡- ▲✐♥❡❛$❡- ❡ ▼❛✲
#$✐③❡- ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✽
✸ ❖♣❡$❛❞♦$❡- ▲✐♥❡❛$❡- ❡♠ R2 ❡ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✻✸
✹ ▼✉❞❛♥0❛ ❞❡ ❇❛-❡ ❡ ▼❛#$✐③❡- ❙❡♠❡❧❤❛♥#❡- ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼✶
✶✺✵
✶✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩ ❉❊ ❯▼❆ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ▲■◆❊❆❘ ✶✺✶
◆❡$%❡ ❝❛♣)%✉❧♦✱ ♠♦$%/❛♠♦$ ❝♦♠♦ ❛$$♦❝✐❛/ ♠❛%/✐③❡$ ❛ %/❛♥$❢♦/♠❛45❡$ ❧✐♥❡✲

❛/❡$✱ /❡❞✉③✐♥❞♦ ❛$ ♦♣❡/❛45❡$ ❝♦♠ %/❛♥$❢♦/♠❛45❡$ ❧✐♥❡❛/❡$ ❛ ♦♣❡/❛45❡$ ❝♦♠
♠❛%/✐③❡$✱ ♦ 8✉❡ ♣❡/♠✐%❡ ❣❛♥❤❛/ ❝♦♠♣✉%❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡✳
✶ ▼❛#$✐③ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❚$❛♥-❢♦$♠❛01♦ ▲✐♥❡❛$

◆❡$%❛ $❡4=♦✱ ✈❡/❡♠♦$ 8✉❡ $❡ V ❡ W $=♦ ❡$♣❛4♦$ ✈❡%♦/✐❛✐$ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥$=♦
✜♥✐%❛✱ ❝♦♠ ❜❛$❡$ ✜①❛❞❛$✱ ❡♥%=♦ ✉♠❛ %/❛♥$❢♦/♠❛4=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ T : V → W ♣♦❞❡
$❡/ /❡♣/❡$❡♥%❛❞❛ ♣♦/ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%/✐③✳ ❆ ✈❛♥%❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ %❛❧ /❡♣/❡$❡♥%❛4=♦ B
8✉❡ ♠✉✐%♦$ ♣/♦❜❧❡♠❛$ ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦$ C$ %/❛♥$❢♦/♠❛45❡$ ❧✐♥❡❛/❡$ ❡♥%/❡ ❡$♣❛4♦$
❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥$=♦ ✜♥✐%❛ ♣♦❞❡♠ $❡/ /❡$♦❧✈✐❞♦$ ❝♦♠ ❛ %❡♦/✐❛ ❞❛$ ♠❛%/✐③❡$✱ ❝♦♠♦
✈❡/❡♠♦$ ♥❛ ♣/D①✐♠❛ $❡4=♦ ❡ ♥♦$ ❝❛♣)%✉❧♦$ ❛ $❡❣✉✐/✳
❙❡❥❛ T : V →W ✉♠❛ %/❛♥$❢♦/♠❛4=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/✱ ❡♠ 8✉❡ dim V =n ❡ dim W =m✳
❙❡❥❛♠ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ❡ β = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wm } ❜❛$❡$ ❞❡ V ❡ W ✱ /❡$♣❡❝✲
%✐✈❛♠❡♥%❡✳ ❈♦♠♦ β B ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ W ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦$ ❞❡%❡/♠✐♥❛/ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ H♥✐❝♦
♥H♠❡/♦$ /❡❛✐$ aij ✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ 1 ≤ j ≤ m✱ %❛✐$ 8✉❡
T (vi ) = a1i w1 + · · · + aji wj + · · · + ami wm . ✭✶✮
❚♦♠❡♠♦$ ❛❣♦/❛ v ❡♠ V ✳ ❚❡♠♦$ 8✉❡ v = k1 v1 + · · · + kn vn ✱ ❡♠ 8✉❡ ki ∈ R

♣❛/❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✳ L❡❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛/✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ T ❡ ♣♦/ ✭✶✮✱ $❡❣✉❡ 8✉❡
T (v) = k1 T (v1 ) + · · · + kn T (vn )

= k1 (a11 w1 + · · · + am1 wm ) + · · · + kn (a1n w1 + · · · + amn wm )
= (a11 k1 + · · · + a1n kn )w1 + · · · + (am1 k1 + · · · + amn kn )wm .
▲♦❣♦✱
 
a11 k1 + · · · + a1n kn
✳✳
[T (v)]β =  ✳
 

am1 k1 + · · · + amn kn
   ✭✷✮
a11 · · · a1n k1
 ✳✳ ✳✳   ✳✳  α
= ✳ ✳   ✳  = [T ]β · [v]α ,
am1 · · · amn kn
✶✺✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
♦♥❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦*
 
a11 · · · a1n
α  ✳✳ ✳✳ 
[T ]β =  ✳ ✳ .
am1 · · · amn
❆ ♠❛./✐③ [T ]αβ ✱ 2✉❡ /❡♣/❡*❡♥.❛ T ❡♠ /❡❧❛67♦ 8* ❜❛*❡* α ❡ β ✱ : ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❛

♠❛"#✐③ ❞❡ T ♥❛) ❜❛)❡) α ❡ β ✳ =♦/ ✭✷✮✱ .❡♠♦* ❛ ❡①♣/❡**7♦
[T (v)]β = [T ]αβ · [v]α ♣❛#❛ "♦❞♦ v ❡♠ V . ✭✸✮
❖❜*❡/✈❡♠♦* 2✉❡ [T ]αβ : ✉♠❛ ♠❛./✐③ ❞❡ ♦/❞❡♠ m × n .❛❧ 2✉❡✱ ♣❛/❛ ❝❛❞❛
1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ ❛ i✲:*✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ [T ]αβ : ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧❛* ❝♦♦/❞❡♥❛❞❛* ❞❡ T (vi ) ♥❛
❜❛*❡ β ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α = {(1, 1), (0, 2)} ❡ β = {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0), (1, 2, 0)}✱
❜❛*❡* ❞❡ R2 ❡ R3 ✱ /❡*♣❡❝.✐✈❛♠❡♥.❡✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡♠♦* [T ]αβ ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T : R2 → R3 :
❞❛❞❛ ♣♦/ T (x, y) = (2x, x − y, 2y)✳
❈♦♠♦ T : ✉♠❛ ./❛♥*❢♦/♠❛67♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❞❡ R2 ❡♠ R3 ✱ [T ]αβ : ✉♠❛ ♠❛./✐③
3 × 2✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦*  
a11 a12
[T ]αβ = a21 a22  .
 
a31 a32
=❡❧♦ 2✉❡ ✈✐♠♦*✱ a11 , a21 ❡ a31 *7♦ ❛* ❝♦♦/❞❡♥❛❞❛* ❞❡ T (1, 1) ♥❛ ❜❛*❡ β ❡
a12 , a22 ❡ a32 *7♦ ❛* ❝♦♦/❞❡♥❛❞❛* ❞❡ T (0, 2) ♥❛ ❜❛*❡ β ✳ ❖✉ *❡❥❛✱
T (1, 1) = (2, 0, 2) = a11 (1, 0, 1) + a21 (0, 1, 0) + a31 (1, 2, 0)
❡
T (0, 2) = (0, −2, 4) = a12 (1, 0, 1) + a22 (0, 1, 0) + a32 (1, 2, 0).
❊2✉✐✈❛❧❡♥.❡♠❡♥.❡✱
 
a11 + a31 = 2
a12 + a32 = 0
 


 
a21 + 2a31 = 0 ❡ a22 + 2a32 = −2

 

a11 = 2
 a12 = 4 .

✶✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩ ❉❊ ❯▼❆ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ▲■◆❊❆❘ ✶✺✸
❘❡%♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ♦% %✐%,❡♠❛% ❧✐♥❡❛/❡% ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜,❡♠♦%
a11 = 2, a21 = 0, a31 = 0, a12 = 4, a22 = 6 ❡ a32 = −4.
3♦/,❛♥,♦✱  
2 4
[T ]αβ = 0 6 .
 
0 −4
◆♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥,❡/✐♦/✱ ❞❡,❡/♠✐♥❛♠♦% [T ]αβ ❛ ♣❛/,✐/ ❞❛ ,/❛♥%❢♦/♠❛89♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/

T ✳ ◆♦ ♣/;①✐♠♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ✈❛♠♦% ❝♦♥%✐❞❡/❛/ ♦ ♣/♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✐♥✈❡/%♦✿ ❞❛❞❛ ❛ ♠❛,/✐③
[T ]αβ ✱ ❞❡,❡/♠✐♥❛/ T ❛ ♣❛/,✐/ ❞❡%,❛ ♠❛,/✐③✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α ❡ β ❛% ❜❛%❡% ❞❛❞❛% ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❉❡,❡/♠✐♥❡ ❛
,/❛♥%❢♦/♠❛89♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ T : R2 → R3 ,❛❧ B✉❡
 
1 0
[T ]αβ = 1 2 .
 
0 1
3❛/❛ ❞❡,❡/♠✐♥❛/ T ✉%❛/❡♠♦% ❛ ❡①♣/❡%%9♦ ✭✸✮✳ ❆%%✐♠✱ ❝♦♠♣✉,❡♠♦% ✐♥✐❝✐✲

❛❧♠❡♥,❡ [v]α ✳
❖/❛✱ %❡ (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ❡♥,9♦

y−x
(x, y) = x(1, 1) + (0, 2),
2
♦ B✉❡ ♥♦% ❞I  
x
[(x, y)]α =  y − x  .
2
3♦/,❛♥,♦✱ 
x
 
1 0

x
y 
 
[T (x, y)]β = 1 2  y − x  = 
 
y − x
0 1 2
2
❡✱ ❝♦♥%❡B✉❡♥,❡♠❡♥,❡✱
✶✺✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙

y−x
T (x, y) = x(1, 0, 1) + y(0, 1, 0) + (1, 2, 0)
2

y+x
= , 2y − x, x .
2
❖ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷ ♣♦❞❡ -❡. .❡-♦❧✈✐❞♦ ♣♦. ✉♠ ♦✉2.♦ ♠32♦❞♦✳ ❉❡ ❢❛2♦✱ -❛❜❡♠♦-
:✉❡✱ ♥❛ ❜❛-❡ β ✱ ❛ ♣.✐♠❡✐.❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ [T ]αβ ♥♦- ❞= ❛- ❝♦♦.❞❡♥❛❞❛- ❞❡ T (1, 1)
❡ ❛ -❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♥♦- ❞= ❛- ❝♦♦.❞❡♥❛❞❛- ❞❡ T (0, 2)✳
❆--✐♠✱
T (1, 1) = 1(1, 0, 1) + 1(0, 1, 0) + 0 · (1, 2, 0) = (1, 1, 1)
❡
T (0, 2) = 0 · (1, 0, 1) + 2(0, 1, 0) + 1(1, 2, 0) = (1, 4, 0).
@❛.❛ (x, y) ∈ R2 ❛.❜✐2.=.✐♦✱ 2❡♠♦-

y−x
(x, y) = x(1, 1) + (0, 2).
2
❆❣♦.❛✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛.✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ T ✱ -❡❣✉❡ :✉❡

y−x
T (x, y) = x(1, 1, 1) + (1, 4, 0)
2

y+x
= , 2y − x, x ,
2
❝♦♠♦ ❡♥❝♦♥2.❛❞♦ ❛♥2❡.✐♦.♠❡♥2❡✳
◗✉❛♥❞♦ ❛ 2.❛♥-❢♦.♠❛BC♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❢♦. ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡-♣❛B♦ ✈❡2♦.✐❛❧ V ♥❡❧❡ ♠❡-♠♦✱
❡❧❛ -❡.= ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦♣❡#❛❞♦# ❡♠ V ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ ❈♦♥-✐❞❡.❡♠♦- ♦ ♦♣❡.❛❞♦. ✐❞❡♥2✐❞❛❞❡ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡-♣❛B♦ ✈❡2♦.✐❛❧ V ❀
✐-2♦ 3✱ ♦ ♦♣❡.❛❞♦. ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣♦. IV (v) = v ♣❛.❛ 2♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✳
❚❡♠✲-❡ :✉❡ [IV ]αα 3 ❛ ♠❛2.✐③ ✐❞❡♥2✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♦.❞❡♠ n✳ ❉❡ ❢❛2♦✱ ♣❛.❛ ❝❛❞❛
1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ ❛ j ✲3-✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ [IV ]αα 3 ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧❛- ❝♦♦.❞❡♥❛❞❛- ❞❡ IV (vj ) ♥❛
❜❛-❡ α✳ ▼❛-✱ ♣❛.❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱
IV (vj ) = vj = 0v1 + · · · + 0vj−1 + 1vj + 0vj+1 + · · · + 0vn ,

✶✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩ ❉❊ ❯▼❆ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ▲■◆❊❆❘ ✶✺✺
♦ #✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ #✉❡ [IV ]αα , ❛ ♠❛-.✐③ ✐❞❡♥-✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♦.❞❡♠ n✿

 
1 ··· 0 ··· 0
0 0 0
 
✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
 ✳✳ ✳ ✳
α
[IV ]α =  .
 
0 ··· 1 ··· 0
✳ ✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
 
✳ ✳ ✳
0 ··· 0 ··· 1
↑ ↑ ↑
❝♦♦.❞❡♥❛❞❛4 ❝♦♦.❞❡♥❛❞❛4 ❝♦♦.❞❡♥❛❞❛4
❞❡ IV (v1 ) ❞❡ IV (vj ) ❞❡ IV (vn )
♥❛ ❜❛4❡ α ♥❛ ❜❛4❡ α ♥❛ ❜❛4❡ α
❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠❛ -.❛♥4❢♦.♠❛9:♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❡♥-.❡ ❡4♣❛9♦4 ✈❡-♦.✐❛✐4 ❞❡

❞✐♠❡♥4:♦ ✜♥✐-❛✳ ❱✐♠♦4 #✉❡✱ ✉♠❛ ✈❡③ ✜①❛❞❛4 ❜❛4❡4 α ❡ β ❞❡ V ❡ W ✱ .❡4✲
♣❡❝-✐✈❛♠❡♥-❡✱ ❡①✐4-❡ ✉♠❛ A♥✐❝❛ ♠❛-.✐③ [T ]αβ #✉❡ .❡♣.❡4❡♥-❛ T ♥❡44❛4 ❜❛4❡4✳
❯♠❛ ♣❡.❣✉♥-❛ ♥❛-✉.❛❧ , ♦ #✉❡ ♦❝♦..❡ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♠❛-.✐③ [T ]αβ 4❡ ❞✐❢❡.❡♥-❡4 ❜❛4❡4
4:♦ ❡4❝♦❧❤✐❞❛4✳ ❈♦♥4✐❞❡.❡♠♦4 ❛ -.❛♥4❢♦.♠❛9:♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. ❞❛❞❛ ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡
α ❡ β 4:♦ ❛4 ❜❛4❡4 ❝❛♥G♥✐❝❛4 ❞❡ R2 ❡ R3 ✱ .❡4♣❡❝-✐✈❛♠❡♥-❡✱ ❡♥-:♦
 
2 0
[T ]αβ = 1 −1 .
 
0 2
❆44✐♠✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦4 -❡. ♠❛-.✐③❡4 ❞✐❢❡.❡♥-❡4 .❡♣.❡4❡♥-❛♥❞♦ ✉♠❛ ♠❡4♠❛ -.❛♥4✲

❢♦.♠❛9:♦ ❧✐♥❡❛.✳ ■4-♦ ❞❡✐①❛ ❜❛4-❛♥-❡ ❝❧❛.♦ #✉❡✱ ❡♠❜♦.❛ ✉♠❛ -.❛♥4❢♦.♠❛9:♦
❧✐♥❡❛. T : V → W ♥:♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❜❛4❡4 ♣❛.-✐❝✉❧❛.❡4 ❡4❝♦❧❤✐❞❛4 ♣❛.❛ V ❡ W ✱
❛ ♠❛-.✐③ ❛44♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡44❛4 ❜❛4❡4✳
❚❡.♠✐♥❛♠♦4 ❡4-❛ 4❡9:♦ ♦❜4❡.✈❛♥❞♦ #✉❡ ❡4❝♦❧❤✐❞❛4 ❜❛4❡4 #✉❛✐4#✉❡. α ❡ β
❞❡ Rn ❡ Rm ✱ .❡4♣❡❝-✐✈❛♠❡♥-❡✱ ✉♠❛ ♠❛-.✐③ A ∈ M(m, n) ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♠❛ -.❛♥4✲
❢♦.♠❛9:♦ ❧✐♥❡❛. T : Rn → Rm ❝♦♠♦ 4❡❣✉❡✿
[T (v)]β = A · [v]α , v ∈ Rn .
✶✺✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
▼❛✐& ❛✐♥❞❛✱ *❡♠✲&❡ .✉❡ [T ]αβ = A ✭✈❡❥❛ 34♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✷✮✳
❊♠ ♣❛4*✐❝✉❧❛4✱ &❡ α ❡ β &>♦ ❛& ❜❛&❡& ❝❛♥?♥✐❝❛& ❞❡ Rn ❡ Rm ✱ 4❡&♣❡❝*✐✈❛✲
♠❡♥*❡✱ ❡♥*>♦ ❛ *4❛♥&❢♦4♠❛A>♦ ❧✐♥❡❛4 T B ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ !❛♥$❢♦!♠❛()♦ ♠✉❧ ✐♣❧✐❝❛✲
()♦ ♣♦! A✱ &❡♥❞♦ 4❡♣4❡&❡♥*❛❞❛ ♣♦4 TA ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳ ❙❡❥❛ A = [aij ] ✉♠❛ ♠❛*4✐③ ❞❡ ♦4❞❡♠ m × n✳ ❚❡♠♦& .✉❡

   
a11 a12 . . . a1n x1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n   x2 
   
TA (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
  ✳✳ 
 
 ✳ ✳ ✳  ✳
am1 am2 . . . amn xn
 
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn
 
 
=  ✳✳ 
✳
 
 
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn
= x1 w 1 + x2 w 2 + · · · + xn w n ,
♦♥❞❡ w1 , . . . , wn &>♦ ♦& ✈❡*♦4❡& ❝♦❧✉♥❛& ❞❛ ♠❛*4✐③ A✳

❆&&✐♠✱ *❡♠♦& .✉❡ Im TA B ♦ &✉❜❡&♣❛A♦ ❞❡ Rm ❣❡4❛❞♦ ♣❡❧❛& ❝♦❧✉♥❛& ❞❛
♠❛*4✐③ A✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❡$♣❛(♦ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ A ❡ ❞❡♥♦*❛❞♦ ♣♦4 C(A)✳ 3♦4 ♦✉*4♦
❧❛❞♦✱ ♦ ♥I❝❧❡♦ Ker TA ❞❡ TA B ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ &♦❧✉A>♦ Sh (A) ❞♦ &✐&*❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛4
❤♦♠♦❣J♥❡♦ AX = 0✳
)*♦❜❧❡♠❛-
✶✳✶ ❉❛❞❛& ❞✉❛& *4❛♥&❢♦4♠❛AL❡& ❧✐♥❡❛4❡& T, T ′ : V → W ❡ ❜❛&❡& α ❡ β ❞❡ V ❡
W ✱ 4❡&♣❡❝*✐✈❛♠❡♥*❡✱ ♠♦&*4❡ .✉❡ &❡ [T ]αβ = [T ′ ]αβ ✱ ❡♥*>♦ T = T ′ ✳
✶✳✷✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ ❞❛❞♦& ❞♦✐& ❡&♣❛A♦& ✈❡*♦4✐❛✐& V
❡ W ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥&L❡& n ❡ m✱ 4❡&♣❡❝✲
*✐✈❛♠❡♥*❡✳ ❙❡❥❛ α ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞❡ V ❡ β ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞❡ W ✳ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛*4✐③
A ∈ M(m, n)✱ ❝♦♥&✐❞❡4❡ ❛ ❢✉♥A>♦ T : V → W ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦4
[T (v)]β = A[v]α , v ∈ V.
✶✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩ ❉❊ ❯▼❆ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬➹❖ ▲■◆❊❆❘ ✶✺✼
▼♦%&'❡ )✉❡✿
✭❛✮ T / ✉♠❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛'❀
✭❜✮ [T ]αβ = A✳
✶✳✸ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ♠❛&'✐③❡% ❡♠ M(m, n) ❡ β ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡%♣❛3♦ ✈❡&♦'✐❛❧

V ✳ ▼♦%&'❡ )✉❡ %❡ A[v]β = B[v]β ♣❛'❛ &♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✱ ❡♥&4♦ A = B ✳
✶✳✹✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ T : Rn → Rm ✉♠❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' ❡ α ❡ β ❜❛%❡% ❞❡ Rn ❡ ❞❡

Rm ✱ '❡%♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡✳ ❙❡ r / ♦ ♣♦%&♦ ❞❛ ♠❛&'✐③ [T ]αβ ✱ ♠♦%&'❡ )✉❡
dim Im T = r e dim Ker T = n − r.
✶✳✺ ❉❛❞❛% ❛% ❜❛%❡% α = {(1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1)} ❞❡ R3 ❡ β = {(1, 2), (0, 1)}
❞❡ R2 ✱ ❛❝❤❡ ❛ &'❛♥%❢♦'♠❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛' T : R3 → R2 &❛❧ )✉❡
" #
1 0 2
[T ]αβ = .
−1 −1 1
✶✳✻ ❉❛❞♦ ♦ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❧✐♥❡❛' T : R3 → R3 ✱ T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y − x, x − z)✱ ❡♥✲

❝♦♥&'❡ [T ]αβ ✱ ♦♥❞❡ α / ❛ ❜❛%❡ ❝❛♥E♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R3 ❡ β = {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)}✳
✶✳✼ ❙❡❥❛ T : R3 → R3 ❛ ♠✉❧&✐♣❧✐❝❛34♦ ♣❡❧❛ ♠❛&'✐③

 
1 3 4
 3 4 7 .
 
−2 2 0
✭❛✮ ▼♦%&'❡ )✉❡ Ker T / ✉♠❛ '❡&❛ )✉❡ ♣❛%%❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦'✐❣❡♠ ❡ ❡♥❝♦♥&'❡ ❛% ❡)✉❛3G❡%
♣❛'❛♠/&'✐❝❛% ❞❡%&❛ '❡&❛✳
✭❜✮ ▼♦%&'❡ )✉❡ Im T / ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ )✉❡ ♣❛%%❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦'✐❣❡♠ ❡ ❡♥❝♦♥&'❡ ❛ ❡)✉❛34♦
❝❛'&❡%✐❛♥❛ ❞❡%&❡ ♣❧❛♥♦✳
✶✳✽ ❉❛❞♦ ♦ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❧✐♥❡❛' T (x, y, z) = (x − 2y + z, −x + 4y − 2z, x) ❡♠ R3 ✱

❝♦♠ ❜❛%❡ α = {(1, 0, −1), (0, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0)}✱ ❡♥❝♦♥&'❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ β ❞❡ R3 &❛❧
✶✺✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
#✉❡  
1 0 0
[T ]αβ = 0 0 0 .
 
0 0 1
✶✳✾ ❙❡❥❛ T : R[x]2 → R[x]2 ❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* T (p(x)) = p(2x + 1)
✭✈❡❥❛ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✱ ❙❡01♦ ✶✱ ❈❛♣<)✉❧♦ ✺✮✳ ❊♥❝♦♥)*❡ [T ]ββ ❡♠ *❡❧❛01♦ @ ❜❛,❡
β = {1, x, x2 }✳
✶✳✶✵ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛ #✉❡ V ❡ W )❡♥❤❛♠ ❞✐♠❡♥,1♦ ✜♥✐)❛✳ ▼♦,)*❡ ❛ ♠❛)*✐③✱ ❡♠
#✉❛✐,#✉❡* ❜❛,❡, ❞❡ V ❡ ❞❡ W ✱ ❞❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛01♦ ♥✉❧❛ 0 : V → W G ❛ ♠❛)*✐③
♥✉❧❛✳
✶✳✶✶ ❙❡❥❛ α = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡,♣❛0♦ ✈❡)♦*✐❛❧ V ✳ ❊♥❝♦♥)*❡ ❛
♠❛)*✐③ [T ]αα ❞❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* T : V → V ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦*
T (v1 ) = v2 , T (v2 ) = v3 , T (v3 ) = v4 ❡ T (v4 ) = v1 .
✶✳✶✷ ❙❡❥❛ T : R2 → M(2, 2) ❛ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛01♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦*

 
1 −2
−1 0
[T ]αβ =  ,
 
 2 1
1 −1
♦♥❞❡ α ❡ β ,1♦ ❛, ❜❛,❡, ❝❛♥H♥✐❝❛, ❞❡ R2 ❡ M(2, 2)✱ *❡,♣❡❝)✐✈❛♠❡♥)❡✳

✭❛✮ ❉❡)❡*♠✐♥❡ ♦, ✈❡)♦*❡, v ∈ R2 )❛✐, #✉❡ T (v) = I2 ❀
✭❜✮ ❉❡)❡*♠✐♥❡ T (3, −1)✳
✷ ❖♣❡$❛&'❡( ❝♦♠ ❚$❛♥(❢♦$♠❛&'❡( ▲✐♥❡❛$❡( ❡ ▼❛✲

3$✐③❡(
❙❡❥❛♠ T ❡ T ′ )*❛♥,❢♦*♠❛0K❡, ❧✐♥❡❛*❡, ❞❡ V ❡♠ W ✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α = {v1 , . . . , vn }
❡ β = {w1 , . . . , wm } ❜❛,❡, ❞❡ V ❡♠ W ✱ *❡,♣❡❝)✐✈❛♠❡♥)❡✳ ❊,)❛♠♦, ✐♥)❡*❡,,❛✲
❞♦, ❡♠ ✈❡*✐✜❝❛* ,❡ ❡①✐,)❡ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ *❡❧❛01♦ ❡♥)*❡ ❛, ♠❛)*✐③❡, [T + T ′ ]αβ ✱ [T ]αβ ❡
✷✳ ❖#❊❘❆➬(❊❙ ❈❖▼ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬(❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✶✺✾
[T ′ ]αβ ✳ ◆♦&❡♠♦) *✉❡ )❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ ❡♥&.♦
[(T + T ′ )(vj )]β = [T (vj ) + T ′ (vj )]β = [T (vj )]β + [T ′ (vj )]β ,
♠♦)&/❛♥❞♦ *✉❡ ❛ j ✲3)✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ [T + T ′ ]αβ 3 ❛ )♦♠❛ ❞❛ j ✲3)✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡

[T ]αβ ❝♦♠ ❛ j ✲3)✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ [T ]αβ ✳ ❉❡♠♦♥)&/❛♠♦) ❛))✐♠ ♦ )❡❣✉✐♥&❡ /❡)✉❧&❛❞♦✿
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✻✳✷✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ T ❡ T ′ %&❛♥(❢♦&♠❛+,❡( ❧✐♥❡❛&❡( ❞❡ V❡♠ W ✱ ♦♥❞❡
V ❡ W (1♦ ❡(♣❛+♦( ✈❡%♦&✐❛✐( ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥(1♦ ✜♥✐%❛✳ ❙❡ α ❡ β (1♦ ❜❛(❡( ❞❡ V ❡
W ✱ &❡(♣❡❝%✐✈❛♠❡♥%❡✱ ❡♥%1♦
[T + T ′ ]αβ = [T ]αβ + [T ′ ]αβ .
❉❡✐①❛♠♦) ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡/❝;❝✐♦ ♣❛/❛ ♦ ❧❡✐&♦/ ✭✈❡❥❛ @/♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✸✮ ❞❡♠♦♥)&/❛/ ❛

♣/E①✐♠❛ ♣/♦♣♦)✐F.♦✱ *✉❡ 3 ✉♠ /❡)✉❧&❛❞♦ ❛♥G❧♦❣♦ ❛♦ ❛♥&❡/✐♦/ ♣❛/❛ ❛ ♠✉❧&✐♣❧✐✲
❝❛F.♦ ♣♦/ ❡)❝❛❧❛/ ❞❡ &/❛♥)❢♦/♠❛FI❡) ❧✐♥❡❛/❡)✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✻✳✷✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠❛ %&❛♥(❢♦&♠❛+1♦ ❧✐♥❡❛&✱ ♦♥❞❡ V ❡
W (1♦ ❡(♣❛+♦( ✈❡%♦&✐❛✐( ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥(1♦ ✜♥✐%❛✳ ❙❡ α ❡ β (1♦ ❜❛(❡( ❞❡ V ❡ W ✱
&❡(♣❡❝%✐✈❛♠❡♥%❡✱ ❡♥%1♦
[kT ]αβ = k[T ]αβ ,
♦♥❞❡ k 9 ✉♠ ♥:♠❡&♦ &❡❛❧ ❛&❜✐%&;&✐♦ ✳
❉❡❝♦//❡✱ ❞❛) ❞✉❛) ♣/♦♣♦)✐FI❡) ❛❝✐♠❛✱ *✉❡ [T +kT ′ ]αβ = [T ]αβ +k[T ′ ]αβ ✱ ♦ *✉❡
♠♦)&/❛✱ ❡♠ ✈✐/&✉❞❡ ❞♦) @/♦❜❧❡♠❛) ✶✳✶ ❡ ✶✳✷✱ ❞❛ ❙❡F.♦ ✶✱ *✉❡ ❞❛❞♦) ❡)♣❛F♦)
✈❡&♦/✐❛✐) V ❡ W ✱ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥)I❡) /❡)♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡✱ n ❡ m✱ ❡ ✜①❛❞❛) ❜❛)❡) α ❞❡
V ❡ β ❞❡ W ✱ ❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛F.♦
L(V, W ) → M(m, n)
T 7→ [T ]αβ
3 ✉♠ ✐)♦♠♦/✜)♠♦ ❞❡ ❡)♣❛F♦) ✈❡&♦/✐❛✐)✳ @♦/&❛♥&♦✱ &❡♠♦) *✉❡
dim L(V, W ) = dim M(m, n) = nm.
◆♦ ♣/E①✐♠♦ /❡)✉❧&❛❞♦ ✈❡/❡♠♦) *✉❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦)&❛ ❞❡ ❞✉❛) &/❛♥)❢♦/♠❛FI❡)

❧✐♥❡❛/❡) ♣♦❞❡ )❡/ /❡♣/❡)❡♥&❛❞❛ ♣♦/ ✉♠ ♣/♦❞✉&♦ ❞❡ ♠❛&/✐③❡)✳ ❊)&❛ 3 ✉♠❛ ❞❛)
♣/✐♥❝✐♣❛✐) /❛③I❡) ❞❛ ✐♠♣♦/&N♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ ❡)&✉❞♦ ❞❡ ♠❛&/✐③❡)✳
✶✻✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✻✳✷✳✸✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ T : V → W ❡ S : W → U %&❛♥(❢♦&♠❛+,❡( ❧✐♥❡❛&❡(✱
❡♠ 0✉❡ V, W ❡ U (2♦ ❡(♣❛+♦( ✈❡%♦&✐❛✐( ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥(2♦ ✜♥✐%❛✳ ❙❡ α, β ❡ γ (2♦
❜❛(❡( ❞❡ V, W ❡ U ✱ &❡(♣❡❝%✐✈❛♠❡♥%❡✱ ❡♥%2♦
[S ◦ T ]αγ = [S]βγ · [T ]αβ . ✭✶✮
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ❈♦♥(✐❞❡,❡♠♦( α = {v1 , . . . , vn }✳ ❉❡♥♦0❡♠♦( ♣♦, Cj (M ) ❛

j ✲4(✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛0,✐③ M ❛,❜✐0,:,✐❛✳ ❙❡ A ❡ B (<♦ ♠❛0,✐③❡( ♣❛,❛ ❛(
=✉❛✐( ❛ ♠❛0,✐③ AB ❡(0: ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✱ (❡❣✉❡ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐A<♦ ❞❡ ♣,♦❞✉0♦ =✉❡
Cj (AB) = A · Cj (B). ✭✷✮
C❛,❛ ❞❡♠♦♥(0,❛, ✭✶✮ ❜❛(0❛ ♣,♦✈❛, =✉❡✱ ♣❛,❛ ❝❛❞❛ j ✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ 0❡♠✲(❡
=✉❡ Cj ([S ◦ T ]αγ ) = Cj ([S]βγ · [T ]αβ )✳ ❖,❛✱ ✜①❡ ✉♠ G♥❞✐❝❡ j ✳ ❉❡ ✭✷✮✱ (❡❣✉❡ =✉❡
Cj ([S]βγ · [T ]αβ ) = [S]βγ · Cj ([T ]αβ ) = [S]βγ · [T (vj )]β .
C♦, ♦✉0,♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❞❡ ✭✸✮✱ ❞❛ ❙❡A<♦ ✶✱ (❡❣✉❡ =✉❡
Cj ([S ◦ T ]αγ ) = [(S ◦ T )(vj )]γ = [S(T (vj ))]γ = [S]βγ · [T (vj )]β ,
♦ =✉❡ ♣,♦✈❛ ♦ ❞❡(❡❥❛❞♦✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ T : R2 → R3 ❡ S : R3 → R2 0,❛♥(❢♦,♠❛AK❡( ❧✐♥❡❛,❡(
❝✉❥❛( ♠❛0,✐③❡( (<♦
 
1 0 " #
1 0 1
[T ]αβ =  2 1 ❡ [S]βγ = ,
 
0 0 1
−1 1
(❡♥❞♦ α = {(1, 0), (1, 1)}✱ β = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1)} ❡ γ = {(1, 0), (0, 2)}✳
❱❛♠♦( ❡♥❝♦♥0,❛, ❛ 0,❛♥(❢♦,♠❛A<♦ ❧✐♥❡❛, S ◦ T ✳
C❛,❛ ❞❡0❡,♠✐♥❛,♠♦( S ◦ T ✱ ✈❛♠♦( ♣,✐♠❡✐,❛♠❡♥0❡ ❞❡0❡,♠✐♥❛, [S ◦ T ]αγ ✳
C❡❧❛ C,♦♣♦(✐A<♦ ✻✳✷✳✸✱
 
" # 1 0 " #
1 0 1 0 1
[S ◦ T ]αγ =  2 1 = .
 
0 0 1 −1 1
−1 1
✷✳ ❖#❊❘❆➬(❊❙ ❈❖▼ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬(❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ✶✻✶
❆❣♦%❛ ♣♦% ✭✸✮✱ ❞❛ ❙❡/0♦ ✶✱ 1❡♠♦3 4✉❡✱ ♣❛%❛ 4✉❛❧4✉❡% (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱

" #
0 1
[(S ◦ T )(x, y)]γ = [(x, y)]α
−1 1
" #" #
0 1 x−y
=
−1 1 y
" #
y
=
2y − x
❡✱ ❝♦♥3❡4✉❡♥1❡♠❡♥1❡✱
(S ◦ T )(x, y) = y(1, 0) + (2y − x)(0, 2) = (y, 4y − 2x).
❱✐♠♦3 4✉❡ 3❡ T ; ✉♠❛ 1%❛♥3❢♦%♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❜✐❥❡1✐✈❛✱ T −1 ; 1❛♠❜;♠ ✉♠❛

1%❛♥3❢♦%♠❛/0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛%✳ ❖ %❡3✉❧1❛❞♦ ❛ 3❡❣✉✐%✱ 4✉❡ ; ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥3❡4✉B♥❝✐❛ ❞❛ C%♦✲
♣♦3✐/0♦ ✻✳✷✳✸✱ ♥♦3 ❛♣%❡3❡♥1❛ ✉♠❛ %❡❧❛/0♦ ❡♥1%❡ ❛3 ♠❛1%✐③❡3 4✉❡ %❡♣%❡3❡♥1❛♠
T ❡ T −1 ✱ 4✉❛♥❞♦ ✜①❛❞❛3 ❜❛3❡3 ❞♦ ❞♦♠I♥✐♦ ❡ ❞♦ ❝♦♥1%❛❞♦♠I♥✐♦ ❞❡ T ✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✻✳✷✳✹✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠ ✐'♦♠♦)✜'♠♦✱ ♦♥❞❡ V ❡ W '.♦ ❡'♣❛0♦'
✈❡2♦)✐❛✐' ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥'.♦ ✜♥✐2❛✳ ❙❡ α 4 ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ V ❡ β 4 ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ W ✱
❡♥2.♦
[T −1 ]βα = ([T ]αβ )−1 .
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ❈♦♠♦ T −1 ; ❛ ✐♥✈❡%3❛ ❞❡ T ✱ 1❡♠♦3 4✉❡ T −1 ◦ T ; ❛ ❢✉♥/0♦
✐❞❡♥1✐❞❛❞❡ ❡♠ V ✱ ♦✉ 3❡❥❛✱
T −1 ◦ T = IV .
C❡❧❛ C%♦♣♦3✐/0♦ ✻✳✷✳✸✱
[IV ]αα = [T −1 ◦ T ]αα = [T −1 ]βα · [T ]αβ . ✭✸✮
❙❡ dim V = n✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✱ ❞❛ ❙❡/0♦ ✶✱ 1❡♠♦3 4✉❡ [IV ]αα ; ❛ ♠❛1%✐③

✐❞❡♥1✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♦%❞❡♠ n✳ ❆33✐♠✱ ❞❡ ✭✸✮✱ 3❡❣✉❡✲3❡ 4✉❡ [T ]αβ ; ✐♥✈❡%1I✈❡❧ ❡ 3✉❛
✐♥✈❡%3❛ ; ❛ ♠❛1%✐③ [T −1 ]βα ✳
❈♦#♦❧2#✐♦ ✻✳✷✳✺✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → W ✉♠❛ 2)❛♥'❢♦)♠❛0.♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)✱ ♦♥❞❡ V ❡ W
'.♦ ❡'♣❛0♦' ✈❡2♦)✐❛✐' ❞❡ ♠❡'♠❛ ❞✐♠❡♥'.♦ ✜♥✐2❛✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α ❡ β ❜❛'❡' ❞❡ V
✶✻✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❡ W ✱ "❡#♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡✳ ❚❡♠♦# /✉❡ T 1 ✐♥✈❡"&2✈❡❧ #❡✱ ❡ #♦♠❡♥&❡ #❡✱ ❛ ♠❛&"✐③
[T ]αβ 1 ✐♥✈❡"&2✈❡❧✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ❯♠❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛*+♦ -❡/✉❧1❛ ❞❡ ✭✸✮✳ ❆ ♦✉1-❛✱ ❞♦ ❢❛1♦ :✉❡ ❛
1-❛♥/❢♦-♠❛*+♦ ❧✐♥❡❛- L(V, W ) → M(n, n)✱ ♦♥❞❡ n = dim V = dim W ✱ <
/♦❜-❡❥❡1♦-❛ ❡ 1-❛♥/❢♦-♠❛ ❝♦♠♣♦/✐*+♦ ❞❡ 1-❛♥/❢♦-♠❛*?❡/ ❧✐♥❡❛-❡/ ❡♠ ♣-♦❞✉1♦/
❞❡ ♠❛1-✐③❡/✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : R2 → R2 ❛ 1-❛♥/❢♦-♠❛*+♦ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦- T (x, y) =
(4x − 3y, −2x + 2y)✳ ❱❛♠♦/ ✈❡-✐✜❝❛- :✉❡ T < ✐♥✈❡-1E✈❡❧ ❡ ✈❛♠♦/ ❡♥❝♦♥1-❛-
T −1 ✳
F❛-❛ ✈❡-✐✜❝❛-♠♦/ :✉❡ T < ✐♥✈❡-1E✈❡❧✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦/ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛- Ker T ❡ ✉/❛- ❛
F-♦♣♦/✐*+♦ ✺✳✷✳✹✱ ♦✉✱ ❛✐♥❞❛✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦/ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛- [T ]αα ✱ ♦♥❞❡ α < ✉♠❛ ❜❛/❡ :✉❛❧✲
:✉❡- ❞❡ R2 ✱ ❡ ✉/❛- ♦ ❈♦-♦❧K-✐♦ ✻✳✷✳✺✳ ❱❛♠♦/ ❛:✉✐ ♦♣1❛- ♣❡❧♦ /❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♠<1♦❞♦✳
❖-❛✱ /❡ α < ❛ ❜❛/❡ ❝❛♥N♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✱ ❡♥1+♦
" #
4 −3
[T ]αα = .
−2 2
❯1✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❛ 1<❝♥✐❝❛ ❡①♣♦/1❛ ❧♦❣♦ ❛♣P/ ❛ F-♦♣♦/✐*+♦ ✷✳✶✳✼✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦/ ✈❡-✐✜❝❛-

:✉❡ ❛ ♠❛1-✐③ ❛❝✐♠❛ < ✐♥✈❡-1E✈❡❧ ❡ ❛ /✉❛ ✐♥✈❡-/❛ < ❛ ♠❛1-✐③
" #
1 3/2
.
1 2
F♦-1❛♥1♦✱ ❞❡✈✐❞♦ ❛♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✻✳✷✳✹✱ 1❡♠♦/ :✉❡

" #
1 3/2
[T −1 ]αα = ([T ]αα )−1 = .
1 2
❆ 1-❛♥/❢♦-♠❛*+♦ ❧✐♥❡❛- T −1 <✱ ❡♥1+♦✱ ❞❡1❡-♠✐♥❛❞❛ ✉/❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❢P-♠✉❧❛ ✭✸✮ ❞❛

❙❡*+♦ ✶✱ ❝♦♠♦ /❡❣✉❡✿
" #" # " #
3
1 3/2 x x + y
[T −1 (x, y)]α = [T −1 ]αα [(x, y)]α = = 2
,
1 2 y x + 2y
✸✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊▼ R2 ❊ ❊▼ R3 ✶✻✸
♦ $✉❡ ❢♦(♥❡❝❡
3
T −1 (x, y) = (x + y, x + 2y).
2
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✷✳✶ ❙❡❥❛♠    
1 0 1 1 1 −1
A = 0 2 −1 ❡ B= 0 0 1 .
   
0 0 1 −1 2 0
❉❡0❡(♠✐♥❡ ❛ 0(❛♥2❢♦(♠❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛( T : R3 → R3 0❛❧ $✉❡ TA = TB ◦ T ✳
✷✳✷ ❈♦♥2✐❞❡(❡ ❛2 ♠❛0(✐③❡2
   
1 2 1 1 1
A = 0 1 ❡ B = −1 0 0 .
   
1 −1 1 2 1
❉❡0❡(♠✐♥❡✿
✭❛✮ Ker TA ❀ ✭❜✮ Im TA ❀ ✭❝✮ Ker TB ❀
✭❞✮ Im TB ❀ ✭❡✮ Ker(TB ◦ TA )❀ ✭❢✮ Im(TB ◦ TA )✳
✷✳✸ ?(♦✈❡ ❛ ?(♦♣♦2✐34♦ ✻✳✷✳✷✳
✸ ❖♣❡$❛❞♦$❡( ▲✐♥❡❛$❡( ❡♠ R2 ❡ ❡♠ R3
❉❡♥0(❡ ♦2 ♦♣❡(❛❞♦(❡2 ❧✐♥❡❛(❡2 ♠❛✐2 ✐♠♣♦(0❛♥0❡2 ❡♠ R2 ❡ ❡♠ R3 ❡204♦ ♦2
$✉❡ ♣(♦❞✉③❡♠ (❡✢❡①E❡2✱ ♣(♦❥❡3E❡2 ❡ (♦0❛3E❡2✳ ❆ 2❡❣✉✐(✱ ♣❛22❛♠♦2 ❛ ❡20✉❞❛(
❛❧❣✉♥2 ❞❡20❡2 ♦♣❡(❛❞♦(❡2✳
❘❡✢❡①0❡( ❈♦♥2✐❞❡(❡♠♦2 ♦ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❧✐♥❡❛( T : R2 → R2 ✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❡✢❡✲
①%♦ ❡♠ (♦ ♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Ox✱ $✉❡ 0(❛♥2❢♦(♠❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡0♦( v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ❡♠ 2✉❛
✐♠❛❣❡♠ 2✐♠J0(✐❝❛ ❡♠ (❡❧❛34♦ ❛♦ ❡✐①♦
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✳
Ox✶✵
❙❡ ❡2❝(❡✈❡(♠♦2 w = T (v) = (w1 , w2 )✱ ♦❜0❡♠♦2 ❛2 ❡$✉❛3E❡2
w1 = x = 1x + 0y, w2 = −y = 0x − 1y.
✶✻✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❆$$✐♠✱ $❡ α ❞❡♥♦,❛ ❛ ❜❛$❡ ❝❛♥0♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✱ $❡❣✉❡ 3✉❡
" #
1 0
[T (v)]α = [v]α .
0 −1
❊♠ ❣❡5❛❧✱ ♦$ ♦♣❡5❛❞♦5❡$ ❧✐♥❡❛5❡$ ❞❡ R2 ♦✉ ❞❡ R3 3✉❡ ❧❡✈❛♠ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡,♦5 ❡♠

$❡✉ $✐♠9,5✐❝♦ ❡♠ 5❡❧❛:;♦ ❛ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ 5❡,❛ ♦✉ ♣❧❛♥♦ $;♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦$ ❞❡ ❡✢❡①$❡% ✳
❆❜❛✐①♦✱ ❛♣5❡$❡♥,❛♠♦$ ❛❧❣✉♠❛$ ❞❛$ 5❡✢❡①@❡$ ♠❛✐$ ❝♦♠✉♥$ ❡♠ R2 ❡ R3 ✳ ❋✐✲
①❛♠♦$ ❛ ♥♦,❛:;♦ α ♣❛5❛ ❞❡♥♦,❛5 ❛ ❜❛$❡ ❝❛♥0♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ♦✉ ❞❡ R3 ✳
✸✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊▼ R2 ❊ ❊▼ R3 ✶✻✺
❖♣❡#❛❞♦# ❊(✉❛*+❡, ▼❛.#✐③ [T ] α

α
( " #
❘❡✢❡①'♦ ❡♠ *♦+♥♦ w1 = −x −1 0
❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Oy w2 = y 0 1
( " #
❘❡✢❡①'♦ ❡♠ *♦+♥♦ w1 = y 0 1
❞❛ +❡*❛ y = x w2 = x 1 0
  
❘❡✢❡①'♦ ❡♠ *♦+♥♦  w1 = x
 1 0 0
w2 = y 0 1 0
 
❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy 
w3 = −z 0 0 −1

  
❘❡✢❡①'♦ ❡♠ *♦+♥♦ w1 = −x
 −1 0 0
w2 = y  0 1 0
 
❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ yOz 
w3 = z 0 0 1

  
❘❡✢❡①'♦ ❡♠ *♦+♥♦  w1 = x
 1 0 0
w2 = −y 0 −1 0
 
❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOz 
w3 = z 0 0 1

1#♦❥❡*+❡, ❈♦♥3✐❞❡+❡♠♦3 ♦ ♦♣❡+❛❞♦+ ❧✐♥❡❛+ T : R2 → R2 4✉❡ *+❛♥3❢♦+♠❛

❝❛❞❛ ✈❡*♦+ v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ❡♠ 3✉❛ ♣+♦❥❡:'♦ ♦+*♦❣♦♥❛❧ 3♦❜+❡ ♦ ❡✐①♦ Ox
✭❋✐❣✉+❛ ✶✶✮✳ ❙❡ ❡3❝+❡✈❡+♠♦3 w = T (v) = (w1 , w2 )✱ ♦❜*❡+❡♠♦3 ❛3 ❡4✉❛:C❡3
w1 = x = 1x + 0y, w2 = 0 = 0x + 0y.
❆33✐♠✱ 3❡ α ❞❡♥♦*❛ ❛ ❜❛3❡ ❝❛♥E♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✱ *❡♠♦3

" #
1 0
[T (v)]α = [v]α .
0 0
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✶
❊♠ ❣❡+❛❧✱ ✉♠❛ ♣!♦❥❡%&♦ ✭♦✉✱ ♠❛✐3 ♣+❡❝✐3❛♠❡♥*❡✱ ✉♠❛ ♣!♦❥❡%&♦ ♦!'♦❣♦♥❛❧ ✮
❞❡ R2 ♦✉ R3 G ✉♠ ♦♣❡+❛❞♦+ ❧✐♥❡❛+ 4✉❡ *+❛♥3❢♦+♠❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡*♦+ ❡♠ 3✉❛ ♣+♦❥❡:'♦
✶✻✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
♦#$♦❣♦♥❛❧ )♦❜#❡ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ #❡$❛ ♦✉ ❛❧❣✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ /✉❡ ♣❛))❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦#✐❣❡♠✳ ❆ )❡❣✉✐#✱
❛♣#❡)❡♥$❛♠♦) ❛❧❣✉♠❛) ❞❛) ♣#♦❥❡67❡) ♠❛✐) ❝♦♠✉♥)✳
❖♣❡#❛❞♦# ❊(✉❛*+❡, ▼❛.#✐③ [T ] α

α
( " #
9#♦❥❡6:♦ )♦❜#❡ w1 = 0 0 0
♦ ❡✐①♦ Oy w2 = y 0 1
  
9#♦❥❡6:♦ )♦❜#❡ w1 = x
 1 0 0
w2 = y  0 1 0
 
♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy 
w3 = 0 0 0 0

  
9#♦❥❡6:♦ )♦❜#❡  w1 = 0
 0 0 0
w2 = y  0 1 0
 
♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ yOz 
w3 = z 0 0 1

  
9#♦❥❡6:♦ )♦❜#❡ w1 = x
 1 0 0
w2 = 0  0 0 0
 
♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOz 
w3 = z 0 0 1

❘♦.❛*+❡, ❈♦♥)✐❞❡#❡♠♦) ♦ ♦♣❡#❛❞♦# ❧✐♥❡❛# T : R2 → R2 /✉❡ ❣✐#❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡$♦#

v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ❞❡ ✉♠ >♥❣✉❧♦ ✜①❛❞♦ θ ✭❋✐❣✉#❛ ✶✷✮✳ T D ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♦"❛$%♦
♣♦ θ ❡♠ R2 ✳ ❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✷
✸✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊▼ R2 ❊ ❊▼ R3 ✶✻✼
❙❡ ❡%❝'❡✈❡'♠♦% w = T (v) = (w1 , w2 )✱ %❡❣✉❡ ❞❛ 0'✐❣♦♥♦♠❡0'✐❛ 3✉❡
x = r cos φ, y = r sen φ ✭✶✮
❡
w1 = r cos(θ + φ), w2 = r sen(θ + φ), ✭✷✮
♦♥❞❡ r ❞❡♥♦0❛ ♦ ❝♦♠♣'✐♠❡♥0♦ ❞❡ v ❡ φ ❞❡♥♦0❛ ♦ 8♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥0'❡ v ❡ ♦ ❡✐①♦ Ox
♣♦%✐0✐✈♦ ♥♦ %❡♥0✐❞♦ ❛♥0✐✲❤♦'='✐♦✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ✐❞❡♥0✐❞❛❞❡% 0'✐❣♦♥♦♠@0'✐❝❛% ❡♠
✭✷✮✱ 0❡♠♦% (
w1 = r cos θ cos φ − r sen θ sen φ
w2 = r sen θ cos φ + r cos θ sen φ.
❙✉❜%0✐0✉✐♥❞♦ ✭✶✮ ♥❛% ❡①♣'❡%%B❡% ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜0❡♠♦% ❛% ❡3✉❛CB❡%
(
w1 = x cos θ − y sen θ
✭✸✮
w2 = x sen θ + y cos θ.
❆%%✐♠✱ %❡ α ❞❡♥♦0❛ ❛ ❜❛%❡ ❝❛♥E♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✱ ♦❜0❡♠♦%

" #
cos θ − sen θ
[T (v)]α = [v]α .
sen θ cos θ
❊♠ ❣❡'❛❧✱ ✉♠❛ '♦0❛CG♦ ❞❡ ✈❡0♦'❡% ❡♠ R3 @ ❢❡✐0❛ ❡♠ '❡❧❛CG♦ ❛ ✉♠❛ '❡0❛

♣❛'0✐♥❞♦ ❞❛ ♦'✐❣❡♠✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❡✐①♦ ❞❡ %♦&❛()♦ ✳ ➚ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ 3✉❡ ✉♠ ✈❡0♦' ❣✐'❛
❡♠ 0♦'♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ ❞❡ '♦0❛CG♦✱ ❡❧❡ ✈❛''❡ ✉♠❛ ♣♦'CG♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❡ ✭❋✐❣✉'❛ ✶✸✮✳
✶✻✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❖ ♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ (♦)❛+,♦ ✱ %✉❡ ( ♠❡❞✐❞♦ ♥❛ ❜❛0❡ ❞♦ ❝♦♥❡✱ ( ❞❡0❝2✐3♦ ♥♦ 0❡♥3✐❞♦
❤♦252✐♦ ♦✉ ❛♥3✐✲❤♦252✐♦ ❡♠ 2❡❧❛89♦ ❛ ✉♠ ♣♦♥3♦ ❞❡ ✈✐03❛ ❛♦ ❧♦♥❣♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ ❞❡
2♦3❛89♦ ♦❧❤❛♥❞♦ ♣❛2❛ ❛ ♦2✐❣❡♠✳ ?♦2 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♥❛ ❋✐❣✉2❛ ✶✸✱ ♦ ✈❡3♦2 T (v)
2❡0✉❧3❛ ❞❛ 2♦3❛89♦ ♥♦ 0❡♥3✐❞♦ ❛♥3✐✲❤♦252✐♦ ❞♦ ✈❡3♦2 v ❡♠ 3♦2♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Ox
♣♦2 ✉♠ B♥❣✉❧♦ θ✳ ❆00✐♠ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♠ R2 ✱ ♦0 B♥❣✉❧♦0 09♦ ♣♦0✐3✐✈♦0 0❡ ❣❡2❛❞♦0
♣♦2 2♦3❛8D❡0 ♥♦ 0❡♥3✐❞♦ ❛♥3✐✲❤♦252✐♦ ❡ ♥❡❣❛3✐✈♦0 0❡ ❣❡2❛❞♦0 ♣♦2 2♦3❛8D❡0 ♥♦
0❡♥3✐❞♦ ❤♦252✐♦✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✸
◆❛ 3❛❜❡❧❛ ❛ 0❡❣✉✐2✱ ❛♣2❡0❡♥3❛♠♦0 ❛0 2♦3❛8D❡0 ❡♠ R3 ❝✉❥♦0 ❡✐①♦0 ❞❡ 2♦3❛89♦

09♦ ♦0 ❡✐①♦0 ❝♦♦2❞❡♥❛❞♦0✳
✸✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊▼ R2 ❊ ❊▼ R3 ✶✻✾
❖♣❡#❛❞♦# ❊(✉❛*+❡, ▼❛.#✐③ [T ] α

α
  
❘♦%❛'(♦ ❛♥%✐✲❤♦-.-✐❛ 
 w1 = x 1 0 0
❡♠ %♦-♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Ox w2 = y cos θ − z sen θ 0 cos θ − sen θ
 
♣♦- ✉♠ 5♥❣✉❧♦ θ

w3 = y sen θ + z cos θ 0 sen θ cos θ

  
❘♦%❛'(♦ ❛♥%✐✲❤♦-.-✐❛  w1 = x cos θ + z sen θ
 cos θ 0 sen θ
❡♠ %♦-♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Oy w2 = y  0 1 0 
 
♣♦- ✉♠ 5♥❣✉❧♦ θ

w3 = −x sen θ + z cos θ − sen θ 0 cos θ

  
❘♦%❛'(♦ ❛♥%✐✲❤♦-.-✐❛ w1 = x cos θ − y sen θ
 cos θ − sen θ 0
❡♠ %♦-♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Oz w2 = x sen θ + y cos θ sen θ cos θ 0
 
♣♦- ✉♠ 5♥❣✉❧♦ θ

w3 = z 0 0 1

8❛-❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛: -♦%❛';❡: ♥❛ %❛❜❡❧❛ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ✉♠❛ ❞❛: ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥%❡: ❞♦
✈❡%♦- ♣❡-♠❛♥❡❝❡ ✐♥❛❧%❡-❛❞❛ ❞✉-❛♥%❡ ❛ -♦%❛'(♦ ❡ ❛ -❡❧❛'(♦ ❡♥%-❡ ❛: ❞✉❛: ♦✉%-❛:
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥%❡: ♣♦❞❡ :❡- ❞❡❞✉③✐❞❛ ❞❛ ♠❡:♠❛ ❢♦-♠❛ A✉❡ ❞❡❞✉③✐♠♦: ✭✸✮✳
❙❛❜❡♠♦: A✉❡ ❛ ♠✉❧%✐♣❧✐❝❛'(♦ ♣♦- ❡:❝❛❧❛- ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦- ❡♠ R2 ❡ ❡♠ R3 ✱ ❞❡✲

♣❡♥❞❡♥❞♦ ❞♦ ✈❛❧♦- ❞♦ ❡:❝❛❧❛-✱ ♣-♦❞✉③ ♥♦ ✈❡%♦- ✉♠❛ ❞✐❧❛%❛'(♦✱ ❝♦♥%-❛'(♦ ♦✉
✐♥✈❡-:(♦✳ 8♦❞❡♠♦: -❡♣-❡:❡♥%❛- ❡:%❡: ❡❢❡✐%♦: ❣❡♦♠G%-✐❝♦: ♣♦- ♠❡✐♦ ❞❡ ♦♣❡-❛✲
❞♦-❡: ❧✐♥❡❛-❡:✳ ❉❡ ❢❛%♦✱ ♦ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❧✐♥❡❛- Ta : R2 → R2 ✱ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦- Ta (v) = av ✱
❡♠ A✉❡ a ∈ R ❡ v ∈ R2 ✱ ❞✐❧❛%❛ v ✱ :❡ a ≥ 1❀ ❝♦♥%-❛✐ v ✱ :❡ 0 ≤ a < 1❀ ✐♥✈❡-%❡
♦ :❡♥%✐❞♦ ❞❡ v ✱ :❡ a < 0✳ ◆♦ ❝❛:♦ ♣❛-%✐❝✉❧❛- ❞❡ a = −1✱ ♦ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- Ta G
❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❡✢❡①$♦ ❡♠ '♦ ♥♦ ❞❛ ♦ ✐❣❡♠ ✳ ❖ A✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦: ❞❡ ✈❡- ✈❛❧❡ %❛♠❜G♠
♣❛-❛ R3 ✭❋✐❣✉-❛ ✶✹✮✳ ❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✹
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❉❡%❡-♠✐♥❡♠♦: :❡ T1 ◦ T2 = T2 ◦ T1 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ T1 : R2 → R2 G ❛

♣-♦❥❡'(♦ ♦-%♦❣♦♥❛❧ :♦❜-❡ ♦ ❡✐①♦ Ox ❡ T2 : R2 → R2 G ❛ ♣-♦❥❡'(♦ ♦-%♦❣♦♥❛❧
:♦❜-❡ ♦ ❡✐①♦ Oy ✳
❈♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦: ♥❛ ❙❡'(♦ ✷✱ ❝♦♠♣♦- %-❛♥:❢♦-♠❛';❡: ❧✐♥❡❛-❡: G ❡A✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡ ❛
♠✉❧%✐♣❧✐❝❛- ❛: ♠❛%-✐③❡: A✉❡ -❡♣-❡:❡♥%❛♠ ❡:%❛: %-❛♥:❢♦-♠❛';❡:✳ ❙❡❥❛ α ❛ ❜❛:❡
✶✼✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❝❛♥&♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❈♦♠♦
" # " #
1 0 0 0
[T1 ]αα = ❡ [T2 ]αα = ,
0 0 0 1
.❡❣✉❡ 1✉❡ T1 ◦ T2 2 ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧♦ ♣5♦❞✉6♦

" #" # " #
1 0 0 0 0 0
= ✭✹✮
0 0 0 1 0 0
❡ 1✉❡ T2 ◦ T1 2 ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧♦ ♣5♦❞✉6♦

" #" # " #
0 0 1 0 0 0
= . ✭✺✮
0 1 0 0 0 0
❉❡ ✭✹✮ ❡ ✭✺✮✱ ♦❜6❡♠♦. 1✉❡ T1 ◦ T2 ❡ T2 ◦ T1 .>♦ ♦ ♦♣❡5❛❞♦5 ♥✉❧♦ ❡♠ R2 ✳

?♦56❛♥6♦✱ T1 ◦ T2 = T2 ◦ T1 ✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✸✳✶✯ ❊♥❝♦♥65❡ ❛ ♠❛65✐③ ♥❛ ❜❛.❡ ❝❛♥&♥✐❝❛ ♣❛5❛ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦.✐B>♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ 5♦6❛B>♦
❞❡ 90◦ .❡❣✉✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ 5❡✢❡①>♦ ❡♠ 6♦5♥♦ ❞❛ 5❡6❛ y = x✱ ❡♠ R2 ✳
✸✳✷✯ ❉❡6❡5♠✐♥❡ ❛ ✐♥✈❡5.❛ ❞♦ ♦♣❡5❛❞♦5 ❧✐♥❡❛5 ❡♠ R3 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦5 ✉♠❛ 5❡✢❡①>♦
❡♠ 6♦5♥♦ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy ✳
✸✳✸ ❙❡❥❛♠ T : R2 → R2 ❛ 5❡✢❡①>♦ ❡♠ 6♦5♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Oy ❡ S : R2 → R2 ❛
5❡✢❡①>♦ ❡♠ 6♦5♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Ox✳ ▼♦.65❡ 1✉❡ S ◦ T = T ◦ S ✳
✹✳ ▼❯❉❆◆➬❆ ❉❊ ❇❆❙❊ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❙❊▼❊▲❍❆◆❚❊❙ ✶✼✶
✸✳✹ ❙❡❥❛♠ T : R2 → R2 ❛ '❡✢❡①*♦ ❡♠ ,♦'♥♦ ❞❛ '❡,❛ y = x ❡ S : R2 → R2 ❛

♣'♦❥❡0*♦ ♦',♦❣♦♥❛❧ 3♦❜'❡ ♦ ❡✐①♦ Oy ✳ ▼♦3,'❡ 8✉❡ S ◦ T 6= T ◦ S ✳
✸✳✺ ▼♦3,'❡ 8✉❡ 3❡ T : R3 → R3 : ✉♠❛ ♣'♦❥❡0*♦ ♦',♦❣♦♥❛❧ 3♦❜'❡ ✉♠ ❞♦3 ❡✐①♦3
❝♦♦'❞❡♥❛❞♦3✱ ❡♥,*♦ ♦3 ✈❡,♦'❡3 T (v) ❡ v − T (v) 3*♦ ♦',♦❣♦♥❛✐3✱ ♣❛'❛ ❝❛❞❛ v
❡♠ R3 ✳
✸✳✻ ❙❡❥❛ T : R3 → R3 ❛ ♣'♦❥❡0*♦ ♦',♦❣♦♥❛❧ 3♦❜'❡ ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy ✳ ▼♦3,'❡ 8✉❡
✉♠❛ '❡,❛ ♦',♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ xOy : ❧❡✈❛❞❛ ♣♦' T ❛ ✉♠ ♠❡3♠♦ ♣♦♥,♦ ❞❡3,❡
♣❧❛♥♦✳
✸✳✼ ❉❡,❡'♠✐♥❡ ❛ ♠❛,'✐③ ♥❛ ❜❛3❡ ❝❛♥@♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ T : R2 → R2 ✱ ❡♠ 8✉❡
✭❛✮ T ❞✐❧❛,❛ ♦3 ✈❡,♦'❡3 ❞❡ R2 ♣♦' ✸✱ ❡♠ 3❡❣✉✐❞❛ '❡✢❡,❡ ❡3,❡3 ✈❡,♦'❡3 ❡♠ ,♦'♥♦
❞❛ '❡,❛ y = x ❡ ❞❡♣♦✐3 ♣'♦❥❡,❛ ❡3,❡3 ✈❡,♦'❡3 ♦',♦❣♦♥❛❧♠❡♥,❡ 3♦❜'❡ ♦ ❡✐①♦ Oy ❀
1
✭❜✮ T ❝♦♥,'❛✐ ♦3 ✈❡,♦'❡3 ❞❡ R2 ♣♦' ✱ ❡♠ 3❡❣✉✐❞❛ ❣✐'❛ ❡3,❡3 ✈❡,♦'❡3 ♣❡❧♦
2
π
E♥❣✉❧♦ ❡ ❞❡♣♦✐3 '❡✢❡,❡ ❡3,❡3 ✈❡,♦'❡3 ❡♠ ,♦'♥♦ ❞♦ ❡✐①♦ Ox✳
4
✹ ▼✉❞❛♥&❛ ❞❡ ❇❛)❡ ❡ ▼❛*+✐③❡) ❙❡♠❡❧❤❛♥*❡)

❯♠ ♣'♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❝♦♠✉♠ ♥♦ ❡3,✉❞♦ ❞❡ ❡3♣❛0♦3 ✈❡,♦'✐❛✐3 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥3*♦ ✜♥✐,❛ :
❝♦♥❤❡❝❡' ❛3 '❡❧❛0I❡3 ❡♥,'❡ ❛3 ❝♦♦'❞❡♥❛❞❛3 ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡,♦' ❡♠ ❞✐❢❡'❡♥,❡3 ❜❛3❡3✳
❈♦♠♦ ❛ ♥♦0*♦ ❞❡ ❜❛3❡ : ❛ ❣❡♥❡'❛❧✐③❛0*♦ ♣❛'❛ ❡3♣❛0♦3 ✈❡,♦'✐❛✐3 ❛'❜✐,'L'✐♦3 ❞❛
♥♦0*♦ ❞❡ 3✐3,❡♠❛3 ❞❡ ❝♦♦'❞❡♥❛❞❛3 ❡♠ R2 ❡ R3 ✱ ♠✉❞❛' ❞❡ ❜❛3❡ : ❛♥L❧♦❣♦ ❛
♠✉❞❛' ❞❡ ❡✐①♦3 ❝♦♦'❞❡♥❛❞♦3 ❡♠ R2 ♦✉ R3 ✳
❉❛❞♦ ✉♠ ❡3♣❛0♦ ✈❡,♦'✐❛❧ V ❛'❜✐,'L'✐♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥3*♦ ✜♥✐,❛ ❡ ❞✉❛3 ❜❛3❡3 α ❡
β ❞❡ V ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦3 ♦❜,❡' ✉♠❛ '❡❧❛0*♦ ❡♥,'❡ ❛3 ♠❛,'✐③❡3 [v]α ❡ [v]β ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡,♦'
v ❡♠ V ✱ ✉3❛♥❞♦✱ ♣❛'❛ ✐3,♦✱ ♦ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ✐❞❡♥,✐❞❛❞❡ ❡♠ V ✳
❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐,♦✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❡①♣'❡33*♦ ✭✸✮ ❞❛ ❙❡0*♦ ✶✱ ♣❛'❛ ,♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✱ ,❡♠♦3 8✉❡
[v]β = [IV ]αβ · [v]α . ✭✶✮
♠❛"#✐③ ♠✉❞❛♥)❛ ❞❡ ❜❛,❡

❆ ♠❛,'✐③ [IV ]αβ : ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ α ♣❛'❛ β ✱ ♣♦✐3✱ ♣❡❧❛
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ✭✶✮✱ ❡❧❛ ♥♦3 ♣❡'♠✐,❡ ♦❜,❡' ❛3 ❝♦♦'❞❡♥❛❞❛3 ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡,♦' v ❡♠ V ❡♠
'❡❧❛0*♦ N ❜❛3❡ β ✉♠❛ ✈❡③ ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞❛3 3✉❛3 ❝♦♦'❞❡♥❛❞❛3 ♥❛ ❜❛3❡ α✳
✶✼✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❈♦♥&✐❞❡*❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❜❛&❡ ❝❛♥.♥✐❝❛ α ❞❡ R2 ❡ ❛ ♦✉0*❛ ❜❛&❡ β =
{(1, 1), (1, 2)}✱ 0❡♠♦& 3✉❡
" #
α a1 b1
[IR2 ]β = ,
a2 b2
♦♥❞❡ a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 &4♦ ♥5♠❡*♦& *❡❛✐& &❛0✐&❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ♦ &✐&0❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡3✉❛89❡&


 (1, 0) = a1 (1, 1) + a2 (1, 2)


(0, 1) = b1 (1, 1) + b2 (1, 2).

❘❡&♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ❛& ❡3✉❛89❡& ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜0❡♠♦& a1 = 2✱ a2 = −1✱ b1 = −1 ❡

b2 = 1✳ >♦*0❛♥0♦✱ " #
2 −1
[IR2 ]αβ = .
−1 1
❙❡❥❛ ❛❣♦*❛ v = (x, y) ❡♠ R2 ✳ ❙❡
" #
x′
[v]β = ′ ,
y
❡♥04♦ " # " #" #

x′ 2 −1 x
= ,
y′ −1 1 y
♦ 3✉❡ ❣❛*❛♥0❡ 3✉❡
x′ = 2x − y e y ′ = −x + y
&4♦ ❛& ❝♦♦*❞❡♥❛❞❛& ❞❡ v ♥❛ ❜❛&❡ β ✳ ❖✉ &❡❥❛✱
(x, y) = (2x − y)(1, 1) + (−x + y)(1, 2).
❆ ❋✐❣✉*❛ ✶✺ ✐❧✉&0*❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ❞❡0❡*♠✐♥❛84♦ ❞♦ ♣❛* ✭✷✱✸✮ ❡♠ R2 ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❛

❜❛&❡ ❝♦♠ ❛ 3✉❛❧ ❡&0❛♠♦& 0*❛❜❛❧❤❛♥❞♦✳
✹✳ ▼❯❉❆◆➬❆ ❉❊ ❇❆❙❊ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❙❊▼❊▲❍❆◆❚❊❙ ✶✼✸
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✺
❖ ♣%&①✐♠♦ %❡,✉❧/❛❞♦ ♠♦,/%❛ 2✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛/%✐③ ♠✉❞❛♥5❛ ❞❡ ❜❛,❡ 7 ✐♥✈❡%/9✈❡❧

❡ 2✉❡ ,✉❛ ✐♥✈❡%,❛ /❛♠❜7♠ 7 ✉♠❛ ♠❛/%✐③ ♠✉❞❛♥5❛ ❞❡ ❜❛,❡✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✻✳✹✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α ❡ β ❞✉❛' ❜❛'❡' ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛*♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥'.♦ ✜♥✐0❛

V ✳ ❚❡♠♦' 3✉❡ ❛ ♠❛04✐③ [IV ]αβ 6 ✐♥✈❡408✈❡❧ ❡ '✉❛ ✐♥✈❡4'❛ 6 ❛ ♠❛04✐③ [IV ]βα ✳ ❖✉
'❡❥❛✱
([IV ]αβ )−1 = [IV ]βα .
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ❈♦♠♦ IV 7 ✉♠ ✐,♦♠♦%✜,♠♦ ❡ I−1

V = IV ✱ ♦ %❡,✉❧/❛❞♦ ,❡❣✉❡
❞♦ ❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ✻✳✷✳✹✳
❙❡❥❛♠ α ❡ β ❞✉❛, ❜❛,❡, ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡,♣❛5♦ ✈❡/♦%✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥,E♦ ✜♥✐/❛ V ❡ T
✉♠ ♦♣❡%❛❞♦% ❧✐♥❡❛% ❡♠ V ✳ ❈♦♠ ❛, ♠❛/%✐③❡, ♠✉❞❛♥5❛ ❞❡ ❜❛,❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦, ♦❜/❡%
✉♠❛ %❡❧❛5E♦ ❡♥/%❡ ❛, ♠❛/%✐③❡, [T ]αα ❡ [T ]ββ ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛/♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ T = IV ◦T ◦ IV ✱
,❡❣✉❡✱ ❞❛ I%♦♣♦,✐5E♦ ✻✳✷✳✸✱ 2✉❡
[T ]αα = [IV ◦T ◦ TV ]αα = [IV ]βα · [T ]ββ · [IV ]αβ ,
♦✉ ,❡❥❛
[T ]αα = [IV ]βα · [T ]ββ · [IV ]αβ . ✭✷✮
◆♦ ❡♥/❛♥/♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ✻✳✹✳✶✱ /❡♠♦, 2✉❡ [IV ]βα 7 ❛ ✐♥✈❡%,❛ ❞❡ [IV ]αβ ✳ ❆,,✐♠✱
,❡ ❞❡♥♦/❛%♠♦, [IV ]αβ ♣♦% P ✱ ❛ ❡2✉❛5E♦ ✭✷✮ ♣♦❞❡ ,❡% %❡❡,❝%✐/❛ ❝♦♠♦
[T ]αα = P −1 [T ]ββ P .
✶✼✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
❈♦♠ ✐'(♦✱ ❞❡♠♦♥'(-❛♠♦' ♦ '❡❣✉✐♥(❡ -❡'✉❧(❛❞♦✿
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✻✳✹✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α ❡ β ❞✉❛' ❜❛'❡' ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥'2♦
✜♥✐-❛ V ✳ ❙❡ T 5 ✉♠ ♦♣❡.❛❞♦. ❧✐♥❡❛. ❡♠ V ✱ ❡♥-2♦
[T ]αα = P −1 · [T ]ββ · P, ✭✸✮
♦♥❞❡ P = [IV ]αβ ✳

❆ -❡❧❛89♦ ❞❛❞❛ ♥❛ ❡①♣-❡''9♦ ✭✸✮ < ❞❡ (❛❧ ✐♠♣♦-(=♥❝✐❛ ?✉❡ ❡①✐'(❡ ✉♠❛ (❡-✲
♠✐♥♦❧♦❣✐❛ ❛''♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ❡❧❛✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ♠❛(-✐③❡' ?✉❛❞-❛❞❛' ❞❡ ♠❡'♠❛ ♦-❞❡♠✳
❉✐③❡♠♦' ?✉❡ B < '❡♠❡❧❤❛♥-❡ ❛ A✱ ?✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐'(✐- ✉♠❛ ♠❛(-✐③ ✐♥✈❡-(F✈❡❧ P (❛❧
?✉❡ B = P −1 A P ✳ ➱ ❢I❝✐❧ ✈❡-✐✜❝❛- ?✉❡ '❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛(-✐③ B < '❡♠❡❧❤❛♥(❡ ❛ ✉♠❛
♠❛(-✐③ A✱ ❡♥(9♦ A (❛♠❜<♠ < '❡♠❡❧❤❛♥(❡ ❛ B ✳ ❆''✐♠✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦' '✐♠♣❧❡'♠❡♥(❡
?✉❡ A ❡ B '2♦ '❡♠❡❧❤❛♥-❡' ✳ M♦- ✭✸✮✱ (❡♠♦' ?✉❡ [T ]αα ❡ [T ]ββ '9♦ '❡♠❡❧❤❛♥(❡'✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ M❛-❛ ✈❡-✐✜❝❛- '❡ ❛' ♠❛(-✐③❡'
" # " #
5 2 1 2
A= e B=
−8 −3 0 1
'9♦ '❡♠❡❧❤❛♥(❡'✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦' ❡♥❝♦♥(-❛- ✉♠❛ ♠❛(-✐③ ✐♥✈❡-(F✈❡❧ P (❛❧ ?✉❡
P A = BP.
❙❡ (❛❧ ♠❛(-✐③ P ❡①✐'(✐-✱ ❡❧❛ ♥❡❝❡''❛-✐❛♠❡♥(❡ < ✉♠❛ ♠❛(-✐③ ?✉❛❞-❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦-❞❡♠
2❀ ❞✐❣❛♠♦' " #
x y
P = .
z t
❆''✐♠✱ " #" # " #" #
x y 5 2 1 2 x y
= ,
z t −8 −3 0 1 z t
♦ ?✉❡ < ❡?✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡ ❛♦ '✐'(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❤♦♠♦❣O♥❡♦

 4x − 8y − 2z = 0

2x − 4y − 2t = 0

4z − 8t = 0,

✹✳ ▼❯❉❆◆➬❆ ❉❊ ❇❆❙❊ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙ ❙❊▼❊▲❍❆◆❚❊❙ ✶✼✺
#✉❡ ❛❞♠✐*❡ ❛ +♦❧✉./♦ ♥/♦ *1✐✈✐❛❧ (3, 1, 2, 1)✳ 4♦1*❛♥*♦✱ ♦❜*❡♠♦+ ❛ ♠❛*1✐③
✐♥✈❡1*8✈❡❧ " #
3 1
P = ,
2 1
#✉❡ +❛*✐+❢❛③ A = P −1 BP ✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✹✳✶ ❙❡❥❛♠ ❞❛❞❛+ ❛+ ❜❛+❡+ ❞❡ R2
α = {(1, 1), (0, 2)}✱ β = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} ❡ γ = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}✳
α α γ
✭❛✮ ❉❡*❡1♠✐♥❡ IR2 β ✱ IR2 γ ✱ IR2 β ✳

✭❜✮ ❙❡ v = (4, −1)✱ ❡♥❝♦♥*1❡ [v]β ✉+❛♥❞♦ ✉♠❛ ♠❛*1✐③ ♠✉❞❛♥.❛ ❞❡ ❜❛+❡✳
" #
✹✳✷ ❙❡ IR2 β = −1 2
α
❡ β = {(3, 5), (1, 2)}✱ ❡♥❝♦♥*1❡ ❛ ❜❛+❡ α✳

4 −11
✹✳✸ ❉❡*❡1♠✐♥❡ IR3 βα ✱ +❛❜❡♥❞♦ #✉❡

 
0 1 0
α 
IR3 β =  1 1 0 .

1 1 1
✹✳✹ ❊♥❝♦♥*1❡ *1A+ ♠❛*1✐③❡+ +❡♠❡❧❤❛♥*❡+ C ♠❛*1✐③

" #
1 1
.
−1 2
✹✳✺ ▼♦+*1❡ #✉❡ ♥/♦ +/♦ +❡♠❡❧❤❛♥*❡+ ❛+ ♠❛*1✐③❡+

" # " #
3 1 −1 2
❡ .
−6 −2 1 0
✹✳✻ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ♠❛*1✐③❡+ +❡♠❡❧❤❛♥*❡+✳ 41♦✈❡ #✉❡✿

✭❛✮ At ❡ B t +/♦ +❡♠❡❧❤❛♥*❡+❀
✭❜✮ ❙❡ A ❡ B +/♦ ✐♥✈❡1*8✈❡✐+✱ ❡♥*/♦ A−1 ❡ B −1 +/♦ +❡♠❡❧❤❛♥*❡+✳
✶✼✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✻✳ ❚❘❆◆❙❋❖❘▼❆➬0❊❙ ▲■◆❊❆❘❊❙ ❊ ▼❆❚❘■❩❊❙
✹✳✼ ▼♦"#$❡ &✉❡ ❛ "❡♠❡❧❤❛♥-❛ ❞❡ ♠❛#$✐③❡" 1 ✉♠❛ $❡❧❛-2♦ ❞❡ ❡&✉✐✈❛❧4♥❝✐❛✱ ♦✉
"❡❥❛✿ ✭✐✮ A 1 "❡♠❡❧❤❛♥#❡ ❛ A❀ ✭✐✐✮ "❡ A 1 "❡♠❡❧❤❛♥#❡ ❛ B✱ ❡♥#2♦ B 1 "❡♠❡❧❤❛♥#❡
❛ A❀ ✭✐✐✐✮ "❡ A 1 "❡♠❡❧❤❛♥#❡ ❛ B ❡ B ❛ C ✱ ❡♥#2♦ A 1 "❡♠❡❧❤❛♥#❡ ❛ C ✳
✹✳✽✯ ❙❡❥❛ A = (a ) ✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ &✉❛❞$❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦$❞❡♠ n✳ ❉❡✜♥❡✲"❡ ♦
ij !❛#♦ ❞❡
A ❝♦♠♦
tr A = a11 + · · · + ann .
❛✮ ▼♦"#$❡ &✉❡ tr : M(n, n) → R 1 ✉♠ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛$✳
❜✮ ❙❡ A, B ∈ M(n, n)✱ ♠♦"#$❡ &✉❡
tr AB = tr BA.
❝✮ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → V ✉♠ ♦♣❡$❛❞♦$ ❧✐♥❡❛$✱ ♦♥❞❡ V 1 ✉♠ ❡"♣❛-♦ n✲❞✐♠❡♥"✐♦♥❛❧✱

❡ "❡❥❛ α ✉♠❛ ❜❛"❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❉❡✜♥❛ tr T = tr[T ] ✳ ▼♦"#$❡ &✉❡ ❡"#❛ ❞❡✜♥✐-2♦
α
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❛ ❜❛"❡ ❞❡ V ❡"❝♦❧❤✐❞❛❀ ♦✉ "❡❥❛✱ "❡ β 1 ✉♠❛ ♦✉#$❛ ❜❛"❡ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥#2♦

α
tr[T ] = tr[T ] ✳ ❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ &✉❡ ❛""✐♠ #❡♠♦" ❜❡♠ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✉♠ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛$
α β
tr : L(V, V ) → R✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣♦$ T 7→ tr T ✳

α β
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✼
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✼✿ ❊+♣❛,♦+ ❝♦♠ /0♦❞✉$♦

■♥$❡0♥♦
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ !"♦❞✉&♦ ■♥&❡"♥♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼✽
✷ ➶♥❣✉❧♦1 ❡♥&"❡ ❱❡&♦"❡1 ❡ ❖"&♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✶
✸ ❇❛1❡1 ❖"&♦♥♦"♠❛✐1 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✽
✸✳✶ ❈♦♥❥✉♥(♦) ❖+(♦❣♦♥❛✐) ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✽
✸✳✷ ❖+(♦❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛34♦ ❞❡ ●+❛♠✲❙❝❤♠✐❞( ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾✷
✹ ❖♣❡"❛❞♦"❡1 ❡♠ ❊1♣❛<♦1 ❝♦♠ !"♦❞✉&♦ ■♥&❡"♥♦ ✳ ✳ ✶✾✽
✹✳✶ ❖ ❖♣❡+❛❞♦+ ❆❞❥✉♥(♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾✾
✹✳✷ ❖♣❡+❛❞♦+❡) ❖+(♦❣♦♥❛✐) ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✷
✶✼✼
✶✼✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
◆❡%&❡ ❝❛♣*&✉❧♦✱ ❛♣/❡%❡♥&❛/❡♠♦% ❛ ♥♦23♦ ❞❡ ♣/♦❞✉&♦ ✐♥&❡/♥♦ ❡♠ ❡%♣❛2♦%
✈❡&♦/✐❛✐%✳ ❊%&❛ ♥♦23♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡/❡♠♦%✱ ❣❡♥❡/❛❧✐③❛ ❛ ♥♦23♦ ❞❡ ♣/♦❞✉&♦ ❡%❝❛❧❛/
❡♠ R2 ❡ ❡♠ R3 ❡ ❡♥/✐;✉❡❝❡ ❛ ❡%&/✉&✉/❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡%♣❛2♦ ✈❡&♦/✐❛❧✱ ♣❡/♠✐&✐♥❞♦
❞❡✜♥✐/ ✈=/✐♦% ❝♦♥❝❡✐&♦% ❞❡ ❝❛/=&❡/ ❣❡♦♠>&/✐❝♦ ♣/❡✈✐❛♠❡♥&❡ ❡%&✉❞❛❞♦% ❡♠ R2
❡ R3 ✳
✶ !"♦❞✉&♦ ■♥&❡"♥♦
❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡%♣❛2♦ ✈❡&♦/✐❛❧✳ ❯♠ ♣!♦❞✉%♦ ✐♥%❡!♥♦ ❡♠ V > ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥23♦ ;✉❡ ❛
❝❛❞❛ ♣❛/ ❞❡ ✈❡&♦/❡% u ❡ v ❡♠ V ❛%%♦❝✐❛ ✉♠ ♥C♠❡/♦ /❡❛❧✱ ❞❡♥♦&❛❞♦ ♣♦/ hu, vi✱
;✉❡ %❛&✐%❢❛③ ❛% %❡❣✉✐♥&❡% ❝♦♥❞✐2D❡%✿
F❛/❛ ;✉❛✐%;✉❡/ ✈❡&♦/❡% u✱ v ❡ w ❞❡ V ❡ ;✉❛❧;✉❡/ ♥C♠❡/♦ /❡❛❧ k ✱
■ ✶ hv, vi ≥ 0❀
■ ✷ hv, vi = 0 %❡✱ ❡ %♦♠❡♥&❡ %❡✱ v = 0❀
■ ✸ hu, vi = hv, ui❀
■ ✹ hu + v, wi = hu, wi + hv, wi❀
■ ✺ hku, vi = khu, vi✳
❯♠ ❡%♣❛2♦ ✈❡&♦/✐❛❧ ❝♦♠ ✉♠ ♣/♦❞✉&♦ ✐♥&❡/♥♦ > ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦✱ ❛❜/❡✈✐❛❞❛♠❡♥&❡✱
❞❡ ❡)♣❛+♦ ❝♦♠ ♣!♦❞✉%♦ ✐♥%❡!♥♦ ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ u = (x1, x2, . . . , xn) ❡ v = (y1, y2, . . . , yn) ✈❡&♦/❡% ❡♠ Rn✳
❉❡✜♥✐♠♦%
hu, vi = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn . ✭✶✮
◆♦&❡ ;✉❡
hu, ui = x21 + · · · + x2n ≥ 0,
❡ ;✉❡
hu, vi = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn = y1 x1 + y2 x2 + · · · + yn xn = hv, ui,
♠♦%&/❛♥❞♦ ;✉❡ ❛% ❝♦♥❞✐2D❡% ✶ ❡ ✸ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐23♦ ❞❡ ♣/♦❞✉&♦ ✐♥&❡/♥♦ %3♦ %❛&✐%✲

❢❡✐&❛%✳ ❆ ❝♦♥❞✐23♦ ✷ &❛♠❜>♠ > %❛&✐%❢❡✐&❛ ❥= ;✉❡
hu, ui = x21 + · · · + x2n = 0 ⇐⇒ x1 = · · · = xn = 0 ⇐⇒ u = 0.

✶✳ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖ ✶✼✾
❙❡ w = (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn )✱ ❡♥'(♦
hu + v, wi = (x1 + y1 )z1 + (x2 + y2 )z2 + · · · + (xn + yn )zn

= (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + · · · + xn zn ) + (y1 z1 + y2 z2 + · · · + yn zn )
= hu, wi + hv, wi,
♠♦+',❛♥❞♦ /✉❡ ❛ ❝♦♥❞✐3(♦ ✹ 5 +❛'✐+❢❡✐'❛✳ ❆ ❝♦♥❞✐3(♦ ✺ '❛♠❜5♠ 5 +❛'✐+❢❡✐'❛✱

♣♦✐+ +❡ k ∈ R✱ ❡♥'(♦
hku, vi = (kx1 )y1 +(kx2 )y2 +· · ·+(kxn )yn = k(x1 y1 +x2 y2 +· · ·+xn yn ) = khu, vi.
❆++✐♠✱ ✭✶✮ ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♠ ♣,♦❞✉'♦ ✐♥'❡,♥♦ ❡♠ Rn ✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♣!♦❞✉%♦ ✐♥%❡!♥♦

✉)✉❛❧ ❞❡ Rn ♦✉ ♣!♦❞✉%♦ ❡)❝❛❧❛! ❞❡ Rn ✱ ❣❡♥❡,❛❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♥♦3(♦ ❞❡ ♣,♦❞✉'♦
❡+❝❛❧❛, ❞❡ R2 ❡ ❞❡ R3 ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 ❡ q(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 ✈❡'♦,❡+
❡♠ R[x]2 ✳ ❉❡✜♥❛
hp(x), q(x)i = a0 b0 + a1 b1 + a2 b2 . ✭✷✮
❚❡♠♦+ /✉❡ ✭✷✮ ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♠ ♣,♦❞✉'♦ ✐♥'❡,♥♦ ❡♠ R[x]2 ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ ♣♦, ♠❡✐♦ ❞♦
✐+♦♠♦,✜+♠♦ ❞❡ ❡+♣❛3♦+ ✈❡'♦,✐❛✐+✱
T: R[x]2 → R3
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 7→ (a0 , a1 , a2 )
♦ ♣,♦❞✉'♦ hp(x), q(x)i ♥(♦ 5 ♦✉',♦ /✉❡ ♦ ♣,♦❞✉'♦ ✐♥'❡,♥♦ ✉+✉❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ✳

❖ ♣,I①✐♠♦ ,❡+✉❧'❛❞♦ ❛♣,❡+❡♥'❛ ❛❧❣✉♠❛+ ♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡+ ❜K+✐❝❛+ ❞♦+ ♣,♦❞✉✲
'♦+ ✐♥'❡,♥♦+✳
)*♦♣♦+✐-.♦ ✼✳✶✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡)♣❛0♦ ❝♦♠ ♣!♦❞✉%♦ ✐♥%❡!♥♦✳ ❙❡ u, v, w ∈ V
❡ )❡ k ∈ R✱ ❡♥%3♦
✭✐✮ h0, ui = hu, 0i = 0❀

✭✐✐✮ hu, v + wi = hu, vi + hu, wi❀
✭✐✐✐✮ hu, kvi = khu, vi❀
✶✽✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
✭✐✈✮ hu, v − wi = hu, vi − hu, wi✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ()♦✈❛)❡♠♦. ❛♣❡♥❛. ✭✐✐✮ ❡ ❞❡✐①❛)❡♠♦. ♦. ❞❡♠❛✐. ✐3❡♥. ❝♦♠♦

❡①❡)❝5❝✐♦ ✭✈❡) ()♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✸✮✳
❉❡ ❢❛3♦✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐<=❡. (■ ✸ ❡ (■ ✹ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐<A♦ ❞❡ ♣)♦❞✉3♦ ✐♥3❡)♥♦ 3❡♠♦.
C✉❡
hu, v + wi = hv + w, ui = hv, ui + hw, ui = hu, vi + hu, wi.

❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡.♣❛<♦ ❝♦♠ ♣)♦❞✉3♦ ✐♥3❡)♥♦✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦. ❛ ♥♦"♠❛ ❞♦ ✈❡3♦) v
❞❡ V ✱ ♦✉ ❝♦♠♣"✐♠❡♥)♦ ❞❡ v ✱ ❞❡♥♦3❛❞♦ ♣♦) ||v||✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ♥F♠❡)♦ )❡❛❧
||v|| = hv, vi1/2 .
❙❡ ||v|| = 1✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦. C✉❡ v H ✉♠ ✈❡)♦" ✉♥✐),"✐♦ ✳

❆ ❞✐.)/♥❝✐❛ d(u, v) ❡♥3)❡ ❞♦✐. ✈❡3♦)❡. u ❡ v ❞❡ V H ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦
p
d(u, v) = ||u − v|| = hu − v, u − vi.
(♦) ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ .❡ u = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ❡ v = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) .A♦ ✈❡3♦)❡. ❞❡

R ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣)♦❞✉3♦ ✐♥3❡)♥♦ ✉.✉❛❧✱ ❡♥3A♦
n
q
||u|| = hu, ui1/2 = x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n
d(u, v) = ||u − v|| = hu − v, u − vi1/2

p
= (x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2 + · · · + (xn − yn )2 .
❖❜.❡)✈❡ C✉❡✱ ♥♦ ❝❛.♦ ❞❡ R2 ❡ R3 ✱ ||u|| ❡ d(u, v) .A♦ ♣)❡❝✐.❛♠❡♥3❡ ❛ ♥♦)♠❛

❡ ❛ ❞✐.3K♥❝✐❛ ✉.✉❛✐. ❞❡ R2 ❡ ❞❡ R3 ✳
+'♦❜❧❡♠❛%
✶✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ u = (x , x ) ❡ v = (y , y ) ✈❡3♦)❡. ❡♠ R ✳
1 2 1 2
2
✷✳ ➶◆●❯▲❖❙ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❱❊❚❖❘❊❙ ❊ ❖❘❚❖●❖◆❆▲■❉❆❉❊ ✶✽✶
✭❛✮ ▼♦'()❡ +✉❡

1 1
hu, vi = x1 y1 + x2 y2
9 4
❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♠ ♣)♦❞✉(♦ ✐♥(❡)♥♦ ❡♠ R2 ✳
✭❜✮ ❊'❜♦❝❡ ♦ ❝7)❝✉❧♦ ✉♥✐(9)✐♦ ♥♦ '✐'(❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦)❞❡♥❛❞❛' xy ❡♠ R2 ✱ ✉'❛♥❞♦
❛ ❞✐'(;♥❝✐❛ ♦❜(✐❞❛ ❛ ♣❛)(✐) ❞♦ ♣)♦❞✉(♦ ✐♥(❡)♥♦ ❡♠ ✭❛✮✳
✭❝✮ ❊'❜♦❝❡ ♦ ❝7)❝✉❧♦ ✉♥✐(9)✐♦ ♥♦ '✐'(❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦)❞❡♥❛❞❛' xy ❡♠ R2 ✱ ✉'❛♥❞♦ ❛
❞✐'(;♥❝✐❛ ♦❜(✐❞❛ ❛ ♣❛)(✐) ❞♦ ♣)♦❞✉(♦ ✐♥(❡)♥♦ ✉'✉❛❧✳
✭❞✮ ❱♦❝= ♥♦(❛ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ ❞✐❢❡)❡♥@❛ ❡♥()❡ ♦' ❝7)❝✉❧♦' ♦❜(✐❞♦' ❡♠ ✭❛✮ ❡ ❡♠ ✭❜✮❄
✶✳✷ ❙❡❥❛♠ u = (x1 , x2 ) ❡ v = (y1 , y2 ) ✈❡(♦)❡' ❡♠ R2 ✳ ▼♦'()❡ +✉❡ ❛' ❡①♣)❡''F❡'
❛ '❡❣✉✐) ❞❡✜♥❡♠ ♣)♦❞✉(♦' ✐♥(❡)♥♦' ❡♠ R2 ✳
✭❛✮ hu, vi = 3x1 y1 + 5x2 y2 ✳
✭❜✮ hu, vi = 4x1 y1 + x2 y1 x1 y2 + 4x2 y2 ✳
✶✳✸ ❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥'()❛@H♦ ❞❛ I)♦♣♦'✐@H♦ ✼✳✶✳✶✳
✶✳✹ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛ +✉❡ u✱ v ❡ w '❡❥❛♠ ✈❡(♦)❡' (❛✐' +✉❡
hu, vi = 2, hu, wi = −3, hv, wi = 5, ||u|| = 1, ||v|| = 2 ❡ ||w|| = 1.
❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ♦ ✈❛❧♦) ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛' '❡❣✉✐♥(❡' ❡①♣)❡''F❡'✿

✭❛✮ hu + v, v + wi❀ ✭❜✮ h2v + w, 2u − vi❀ ✭❝✮ ||u + v + w||✳
✷ ➶♥❣✉❧♦' ❡♥)*❡ ❱❡)♦*❡' ❡ ❖*)♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞❡

❘❡❝♦)❞❡♠♦' +✉❡ ♥♦ ❈❛♣7(✉❧♦ ✹ ✈✐♠♦' +✉❡ ♦ ;♥❣✉❧♦ θ✱ ❝♦♠ 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ✱
❡♥()❡ ❞♦✐' ✈❡(♦)❡' ♥H♦ ♥✉❧♦' u ❡ v ❡♠ R3 ✱ ❞♦(❛❞♦ ❞♦ ♣)♦❞✉(♦ ❡'❝❛❧❛)✱ '❛(✐'❢❛③
❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡
u·v
cos θ = · ✭✶✮
||u|| ||v||
◆♦''♦ ♣)✐♠❡✐)♦ ♦❜❥❡(✐✈♦ ♥❡'(❛ '❡@H♦ '❡)9 ♦ ❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐) ♦ ❝♦♥❝❡✐(♦ ❞❡ ;♥❣✉❧♦

❡♥()❡ ❞♦✐' ✈❡(♦)❡' ♥H♦ ♥✉❧♦' ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛@♦ ❝♦♠ ♣)♦❞✉(♦ ✐♥(❡)♥♦✱ ✉(✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦
✶✽✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
✭✶✮✱ ♦♥❞❡ ♦ ♣+♦❞✉-♦ ❡.❝❛❧❛+ 2 .✉❜.-✐-✉5❞♦ ♣❡❧♦ ♣+♦❞✉-♦ ✐♥-❡+♥♦✳ 7❛+❛ 8✉❡
✉♠❛ -❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐;<♦ ❢❛;❛ .❡♥-✐❞♦✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦. ❛..❡❣✉+❛+ 8✉❡
|hu, vi|
≤1
||u|| ||v||
♣❛+❛ 8✉❛✐.8✉❡+ ❞♦✐. ✈❡-♦+❡. ♥<♦ ♥✉❧♦. u ❡ v ❞❡ V ✳ ❱❡+❡♠♦.✱ ♥♦ ♣+A①✐♠♦

+❡.✉❧-❛❞♦✱ 8✉❡ ✐.-♦ .❡♠♣+❡ ♦❝♦++❡✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✼✳✷✳✶✳ ✭❉❡,✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ❈❛✉❝❤②✲❙❝❤✇❛#③✮ ❙❡ u ❡ v "#♦ ✈❡✲

'♦(❡" ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡"♣❛.♦ ❝♦♠ ♣(♦❞✉'♦ ✐♥'❡(♥♦ V ✱ ❡♥'#♦
|hu, vi| ≤ ||u|| ||v||, ✭✷✮
❝♦♠ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ✈❛❧❡♥❞♦ "❡✱ ❡ "♦♠❡♥'❡ "❡✱ u ❡ v "#♦ ❧✐♥❡❛(♠❡♥'❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡"✳

❉❡♠♦♥,<#❛=>♦ ❆ ❞❡.✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ 2 ❝❧❛+❛ .❡ u 2 ♦ ✈❡-♦+ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❙✉♣♦✲
♥❤❛♠♦.✱ ❡♥-<♦✱ u ❞✐❢❡+❡♥-❡ ❞♦ ✈❡-♦+ ♥✉❧♦✳ 7❛+❛ 8✉❛❧8✉❡+ t ∈ R✱ -❡♠♦. 8✉❡
htu + v, tu + vi ≥ 0✱ ♦✉ .❡❥❛✱ ♣❛+❛ 8✉❛❧8✉❡+ t ∈ R✱
hu, uit2 + 2hu, vit + hv, vi ≥ 0. ✭✸✮
❉❡✜♥❛♠♦. p(t) = hu, uit2 + 2hu, vit + hv, vi✱ t ∈ R✳ 7♦+ ✭✸✮✱ p 2 ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥;<♦
♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♥<♦ ♥❡❣❛-✐✈❛✳ ❆❧2♠ ❞✐..♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥-❡ ❞♦ -❡+♠♦ 8✉❛❞+J-✐❝♦
2 ♥<♦ ♥❡❣❛-✐✈♦✱ .❡❣✉❡ 8✉❡ ♦ ❞✐.❝+✐♠✐♥❛♥-❡ ∆ ❞❡ p(t) 2 ✉♠ ♥K♠❡+♦ +❡❛❧ ♥<♦
♣♦.✐-✐✈♦✳ 7♦+-❛♥-♦✱
∆ = 4hu, vi2 − 4hu, uihv, vi

= 4hu, vi2 − 4||u||2 ||v||2 ≤ 0,
♦ 8✉❡ ❡8✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛
hu, vi2 ≤ ||u||2 ||v||2 .
❊①-+❛✐♥❞♦ ❛ +❛✐③ 8✉❛❞+❛❞❛ ❡♠ ❛♠❜♦. ♦. ❧❛❞♦. ❞❛ ❞❡.✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜-❡✲

♠♦. ✭✷✮✳ ❉❡✐①❛+❡♠♦. ❛ ♣❛+-❡ 8✉❡ -+❛-❛ ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❡♠ ✭✷✮ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡+❝5❝✐♦
✭❝❢✳ 7+♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✸✮
✷✳ ➶◆●❯▲❖❙ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❱❊❚❖❘❊❙ ❊ ❖❘❚❖●❖◆❆▲■❉❆❉❊ ✶✽✸
❈❛❜❡ ♦❜(❡)✈❛) +✉❡ ♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ✼✳✷✳✶ ❢♦✐ ♣)♦✈❛❞♦✱ ❡♠ ✶✽✷✶✱ ♣♦) ❆✉❣✉(9✐♥
❈❛✉❝❤② ✭❋)❛♥@❛✱ ✶✼✽✾ ✲ ✶✽✺✼✮ ♣❛)❛ V = Rn ✱ ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣)♦❞✉9♦ ✐♥9❡)♥♦ ✉(✉❛❧✳ ❖
)❡(✉❧9❛❞♦ ❣❡)❛❧✱ ♣❛)❛ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛@♦ ❝♦♠ ♣)♦❞✉9♦ ✐♥9❡)♥♦ ❛)❜✐9)G)✐♦✱ ❢♦✐ ♣)♦✈❛❞♦
❡♠ ✶✽✽✺✱ ♣♦) ❍❡)♠❛♥♥ ❙❝❤✇❛)③ ✭❆❧❡♠❛♥❤❛✱ ✶✽✹✸ ✲ ✶✾✷✶✮✳
❱❛♠♦( ❛❣♦)❛ ❞❡✜♥✐) ❛ ♥♦@O♦ ❞❡ P♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♠ ❡(♣❛@♦( ❝♦♠ ♣)♦❞✉9♦ ✐♥9❡)♥♦
❛)❜✐9)G)✐♦(✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦( +✉❡ u ❡ v (O♦ ✈❡9♦)❡( ♥O♦ ♥✉❧♦( ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛@♦
❝♦♠ ♣)♦❞✉9♦ ✐♥9❡)♥♦ V ✳ ❉✐✈✐❞✐♥❞♦ ❛♠❜♦( ♦( ❧❛❞♦( ❞❛ ❞❡(✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ✭✷✮ ♣♦)
||u|| ||v||✱ ♦❜9❡♠♦(
|hu, vi|
≤1
||u|| ||v||
♦✉✱ ❡+✉✐✈❛❧❡♥9❡♠❡♥9❡✱
hu, vi
−1 ≤ ≤ 1. ✭✹✮
||u|| ||v||
❈♦♠♦ cos θ ❛((✉♠❡✱ ✉♠❛ R♥✐❝❛ ✈❡③✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦) ♥♦ ✐♥9❡)✈❛❧♦ [−1, 1] +✉❛♥❞♦ θ
✈❛)✐❛ ♥♦ ✐♥9❡)✈❛❧♦ [0, π]✱ (❡❣✉❡ ❞❡ ✭✹✮ +✉❡ ❡①✐(9❡ ✉♠ R♥✐❝♦ θ ∈ [0, π] 9❛❧ +✉❡
hu, vi
cos θ = · ✭✺✮
||u|| ||v||
❉❡✜♥✐♠♦( ♦ ♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥'(❡ u ❡ v ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ♥R♠❡)♦ )❡❛❧ θ ❛❝✐♠❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞♦✳

T❛)❡❝❡ ❡(9)❛♥❤♦ ❞❡✜♥✐) ❛ ♥♦)♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡9♦) ❡ ♦ P♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥9)❡ ❞♦✐( ✈❡9♦)❡(
❡♠ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛@♦ ✈❡9♦)✐❛❧ ❛❜(9)❛9♦ ❝♦♠ ♣)♦❞✉9♦ ✐♥9❡)♥♦✱ ❥G +✉❡ ❡♠ ❣❡)❛❧ ♥O♦
9❡♠♦( ✉♠❛ )❡♣)❡(❡♥9❛@O♦ ❣❡♦♠V9)✐❝❛ ❛((♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ❡(9❡( ❡(♣❛@♦(✳ ❈♦♥9✉❞♦✱
♠✉✐9❛( ❞❡✜♥✐@W❡( ❡ 9❡♦)❡♠❛( ❜G(✐❝♦( ❞❛ ●❡♦♠❡9)✐❛ ❝♦♥9✐♥✉❛♠ ✈❛❧❡♥❞♦ ♥❡(9❡
❣)❛✉ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡)❛❧✐❞❛❞❡✳
T♦) ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ (❛❜❡♠♦( ❞❛ ●❡♦♠❡9)✐❛ ❞❡ R2 +✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♠♣)✐♠❡♥9♦ ❞❡ ✉♠
❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ 9)✐P♥❣✉❧♦ ♥O♦ ❡①❝❡❞❡ ❛ (♦♠❛ ❞♦( ❝♦♠♣)✐♠❡♥9♦( ❞♦( ♦✉9)♦( ❞♦✐(
✭❋✐❣✉)❛ ✶✻✭❛✮✮✳ ❱❡)❡♠♦( ❛ (❡❣✉✐) +✉❡ ❡(9❡ )❡(✉❧9❛❞♦ ✈❛❧❡ ❡♠ 9♦❞♦( ♦( ❡(♣❛@♦(
❝♦♠ ♣)♦❞✉9♦ ✐♥9❡)♥♦ ✭✈❡❥❛ T)♦♣♦(✐@O♦ ✼✳✷✳✷✭✐✈✮✮✳ ❯♠ ♦✉9)♦ )❡(✉❧9❛❞♦ ❞❛
●❡♦♠❡9)✐❛ ❛✜)♠❛ +✉❡ ❛ (♦♠❛ ❞♦( +✉❛❞)❛❞♦( ❞❛( ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛✐( ❞❡ ✉♠ ♣❛)❛❧❡❧♦✲
❣)❛♠♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♠ ❛ (♦♠❛ ❞♦( +✉❛❞)❛❞♦( ❞♦( +✉❛9)♦ ❧❛❞♦( ✭❋✐❣✉)❛ ✶✻✭❜✮✮✳
❊(9❡ )❡(✉❧9❛❞♦ 9❛♠❜V♠ ✈❛❧❡ ❡♠ +✉❛❧+✉❡) ❡(♣❛@♦ ❝♦♠ ♣)♦❞✉9♦ ✐♥9❡)♥♦ ✭✈❡❥❛
T)♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✮✳ ❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✻✭❛✮ ❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✻✭❜✮
✶✽✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
❆$$✐♠✱ ♦ ♣*♦❞✉-♦ ✐♥-❡*♥♦ 0 ✉♠❛ ♥♦23♦ 4✉❡ ❡♥*✐4✉❡❝❡ ❛ ❡$-*✉-✉*❛ ❞❡ ✉♠

❡$♣❛2♦ ✈❡-♦*✐❛❧✱ ♣❡*♠✐-✐♥❞♦ ❣❡♥❡*❛❧✐③❛* ✈:*✐❛$ ♥♦2;❡$ ❞❡ ❝❛*:-❡* ❣❡♦♠0-*✐❝♦
❡♠ R2 ❡ ❡♠ R3 ♣❛*❛ ❡$♣❛2♦$ ✈❡-♦*✐❛✐$ ♠❛✐$ ❣❡*❛✐$✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✷✳✷✳ ✭ !♦♣!✐❡❞❛❞❡$ ❞❛ ♥♦!♠❛✮ ❙❡ u ❡ v "#♦ ✈❡&♦'❡" ❡♠
✉♠ ❡"♣❛,♦ V ❝♦♠ ♣'♦❞✉&♦ ✐♥&❡'♥♦ ❡ "❡ k ∈ R✱ ❡♥&#♦✿
✭✐✮ ||u|| ≥ 0❀
✭✐✐✮ ||u|| = 0 "❡✱ ❡ "♦♠❡♥&❡ "❡✱ u = 0❀
✭✐✐✐✮ ||ku|| = |k| ||u||❀
✭✐✈✮ ||u + v|| ≤ ||u|| + ||v|| (❞❡"✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ &'✐❛♥❣✉❧❛' )✳
❉❡♠♦♥$3!❛&'♦ ?*♦✈❛*❡♠♦$ ♦ ✐-❡♠ ✭✐✈✮ ❡ ❞❡✐①❛*❡♠♦$ ♦$ ❞❡♠❛✐$ ✐-❡♥$ ❝♦♠♦

❡①❡*❝A❝✐♦$ ✭✈❡❥❛ ?*♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✹✮✳ ❚❡♠♦$
||u + v||2 = hu + v, u + vi = hu, ui + hu, vi + hv, ui + hv, vi

= ||u||2 + 2hu, vi + ||v||2 ≤ ||u||2 + 2|hu, vi| + ||v||2 , ✭✻✮
♣♦✐$ x ≤ |x| ♣❛*❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ R✳ ?♦* ✭✷✮✱
||u||2 + 2|hu, vi| + ||v||2 ≤ ||u||2 + 2||u|| ||v|| + ||v||2

= (||u|| + ||v||)2 . ✭✼✮
❉❡ ✭✻✮ ❡ ✭✼✮✱ $❡❣✉❡ 4✉❡
||u + v||2 ≤ (||u|| + ||v||)2 .
❊①-*❛✐♥❞♦ ❛$ *❛A③❡$ 4✉❛❞*❛❞❛$ ❡♠ ❛♠❜♦$ ♦$ ❧❛❞♦$ ❞❛ ❞❡$✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛

♦❜-❡♠♦$ ❛ ❞❡$✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❞❡$❡❥❛❞❛✳
✷✳ ➶◆●❯▲❖❙ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❱❊❚❖❘❊❙ ❊ ❖❘❚❖●❖◆❆▲■❉❆❉❊ ✶✽✺
◆♦ ♣&'①✐♠♦ &❡,✉❧/❛❞♦ ❛♣&❡,❡♥/❛♠♦, ❛❧❣✉♠❛, ♣&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡, ❞❛ ♥♦45♦ ❞❡

❞✐,/6♥❝✐❛ ❡♥/&❡ ❞♦✐, ✈❡/♦&❡, ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡,♣❛4♦ ❝♦♠ ♣&♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡&♥♦✳ ❆ ✈❡&✐✜❝❛45♦
❞❡,,❛, ♣&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡, < ,✐♠♣❧❡, ❡ ✉,❛ ❛ =&♦♣♦,✐45♦ ✼✳✷✳✷✳ =♦&/❛♥/♦✱ ❞❡✐①❛&❡♠♦,
❛ ,✉❛ ❞❡♠♦♥,/&❛45♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡&❝A❝✐♦ ♣❛&❛ ♦ ❧❡✐/♦& ✭✈❡❥❛ =&♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✮✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✷✳✸✳ ✭ !♦♣!✐❡❞❛❞❡$ ❞❛ ❞✐$01♥❝✐❛✮ ❙❡ u✱ v ❡ w #$♦ ✈❡'♦(❡#

❡♠ ✉♠ ❡#♣❛-♦ ❝♦♠ ♣(♦❞✉'♦ ✐♥'❡(♥♦ V ✱ ❡♥'$♦✿
✭✐✮ d(u, v) ≥ 0❀
✭✐✐✮ d(u, v) = 0 #❡✱ ❡ #♦♠❡♥'❡ #❡✱ u = v ❀
✭✐✐✐✮ d(u, v) = d(v, u)❀
✭✐✈✮ d(u, v) ≤ d(u, w) + d(w, v) ✭❞❡#✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ '(✐❛♥❣✉❧❛( ✮✳
❖ ♣&'①✐♠♦ ♦❜❥❡/✐✈♦ ❞❡,/❛ ,❡45♦ < ❞❡✜♥✐& ❛ ♥♦45♦ ❞❡ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❡♠

✉♠ ❡,♣❛4♦ ❝♦♠ ♣&♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡&♥♦✳ ❈♦♠❡❝❡♠♦, ❝♦♠ ❛ ♥♦45♦ ❞❡ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞❡
❡♥'(❡ ❞♦✐# ✈❡'♦(❡#✳
❙❡❥❛♠ u ❡ v ❞♦✐, ✈❡/♦&❡, ♥$♦ ♥✉❧♦# ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡,♣❛4♦ ❝♦♠ ♣&♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡&♥♦
V ❡ ,❡❥❛ θ ♦ 6♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥/&❡ ❡❧❡,✳ ❙❡❣✉❡ ❞❡ ✭✺✮ J✉❡ cos θ = 0 ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥/❡ ,❡✱
hu, vi = 0✳ ❊J✉✐✈❛❧❡♥/❡♠❡♥/❡✱ /❡♠♦, θ = π/2 ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥/❡ ,❡ hu, vi = 0✳
❈♦♥✈❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦, J✉❡ ,❡ u ♦✉ v < ♦ ✈❡/♦& ♥✉❧♦✱ ♦ 6♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥/&❡ ❡❧❡, < π/2✳
❆,,✐♠✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦, J✉❡ ❞♦✐, ✈❡/♦&❡, J✉❛✐,J✉❡& u ❡ v ❡♠ V ,5♦ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛✐# J✉❛♥❞♦
hu, vi = 0✳
❆ ,❡❣✉✐&✱ ✐♥/&♦❞✉③✐&❡♠♦, ❛ ♥♦45♦ ❞❡ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❡♥'(❡ ✉♠ ✈❡'♦( ❡ ✉♠

#✉❜❡#♣❛-♦✳
❙❡❥❛♠ v ✉♠ ✈❡/♦& ❞❡ V ❡ W ✉♠ ,✉❜❡,♣❛4♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦, J✉❡ v 6
♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ W ,❡ v < ♦&/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡/♦& ❞❡ W ✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ❞❡ /♦❞♦, ♦,
✈❡/♦&❡, ❞❡ V J✉❡ ,5♦ ♦&/♦❣♦♥❛✐, ❛ W < ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥'♦ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡
W ❡ < ❞❡♥♦/❛❞♦ ♣♦& W ⊥ ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ R3 ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣&♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡&♥♦ ✉,✉❛❧ ❡ ,❡❥❛ W ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❞❡

❡J✉❛45♦ ❝❛&/❡,✐❛♥❛ x + y + z = 0✳ ❖ ✈❡/♦& v = (1, 1, 1) < ♦&/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ W ✱
♣♦✐, v < ✉♠ ✈❡/♦& ♥♦&♠❛❧ ❛ ❡,/❡ ♣❧❛♥♦✳ =❛&❛ ❞❡/❡&♠✐♥❛&♠♦, W ⊥ ✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦,
✶✽✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
❡♥❝♦♥'(❛( ✉♠ ✈❡'♦( (a, b, c) ❡♠ R3 -✉❡ .❡❥❛ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ '♦❞♦ ✈❡'♦( ❞❡ W ✳
❈♦♠♦ ✉♠ ✈❡'♦( ❞❡ W 5 ❞❛ ❢♦(♠❛ (−y − z, y, z)✱ ♣❛(❛ y, z ∈ R✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦.
❡♥❝♦♥'(❛( (a, b, c) '❛❧ -✉❡
(−y − z, y, z) · (a, b, c) = 0
❋❛③❡♥❞♦✱ ♥❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ y = 0 ❡ z = 1✱ ♦❜'❡♠♦. a = c❀ ❡✱ ❢❛③❡♥❞♦ y = 1

❡ z = 0✱ ♦❜'❡♠♦. a = b✳ >♦('❛♥'♦✱
W ⊥ = {(a, a, a); a ∈ R},
♦✉ .❡❥❛✱ W ⊥ 5 ❛ (❡'❛ -✉❡ ♣❛..❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦(✐❣❡♠ -✉❡ '❡♠ v ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠ ✈❡'♦( ❞✐(❡'♦(✳
❚❡(♠✐♥❛♠♦. ❡.'❛ .❡@A♦ ❛♣(❡.❡♥'❛♥❞♦ ❛❧❣✉♠❛. ♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡. ❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡✲

♠❡♥'♦ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✷✳✹✳ ❙❡❥❛ W ✉♠ &✉❜❡&♣❛)♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡&♣❛)♦ ❝♦♠ ♣-♦❞✉.♦ ✐♥.❡-♥♦
V ✳ ❊♥.3♦✿
✭✐✮ W ⊥ 4 ✉♠ &✉❜❡&♣❛)♦ ❞❡ V ❀
✭✐✐✮ W ∩ W ⊥ = {0}❀
✭✐✐✐✮ (W ⊥ )⊥ = W ✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ >(♦✈❛(❡♠♦. ❛♣❡♥❛. ✭✐✮✱ ❞❡✐①❛♥❞♦ ❛. ❞❡♠♦♥.'(❛@G❡. ❞❛.

❞❡♠❛✐. ♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡. ♣❛(❛ ♦ ❧❡✐'♦( ✭✈❡❥❛ >(♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✵✮✳
>(✐♠❡✐(❛♠❡♥'❡✱ 5 ❝❧❛(♦ -✉❡ 0 ∈ W ⊥ ✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦. u ❡ v ❡♠ W ⊥ ❡ a ❡♠ R✳
❙❡ w ∈ W ✱ ❡♥'A♦
hu + av, wi = hu, wi + ahv, wi = 0 + a0 = 0,
♠♦.'(❛♥❞♦ -✉❡ u + av 5 ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ w✳ ❈♦♠♦ w ∈ W ❢♦✐ '♦♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦

❛(❜✐'(K(✐♦✱ '❡♠♦. -✉❡ u + av 5 ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡'♦( ❞❡ W ✱ ♦✉ .❡❥❛ u + av
❡.'K ❡♠ W ⊥ ✳ >❡❧♦ ❈♦(♦❧K(✐♦ ✸✳✶✳✷✱ .❡❣✉❡ -✉❡ W ⊥ 5 ✉♠ .✉❜❡.♣❛@♦ ❞❡ V ✳
◆♦ ❈❛♣N'✉❧♦ ✶ '✐✈❡♠♦. ❛ ♦♣♦('✉♥✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♠♦.'(❛( -✉❡ ❞♦✐. .✐.'❡♠❛. ❧✐♥❡✲
❛(❡. ❤♦♠♦❣P♥❡♦. ❝♦♠ ♠❛'(✐③❡. ❛..♦❝✐❛❞❛. ❡-✉✐✈❛❧❡♥'❡. ♣♦..✉❡♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦. ❞❡
✷✳ ➶◆●❯▲❖❙ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❱❊❚❖❘❊❙ ❊ ❖❘❚❖●❖◆❆▲■❉❆❉❊ ✶✽✼
#♦❧✉'(❡# ✐❣✉❛✐#✳ ❱❛♠♦#✱ ♥♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛ #❡❣✉✐4✱ ♠♦#54❛4 6✉❡ ✈❛❧❡ ✉♠❛ 4❡❝9♣4♦❝❛
❞❡##❛ ♣4♦♣4✐❡❞❛❞❡✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ ❞❛❞♦ ✉♠ #✐#5❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛4 ❤♦♠♦❣>♥❡♦ AX = 0✱ ❝♦♠ m ❡6✉❛✲
'(❡# ❡ n ✐♥❝@❣♥✐5❛# ❝✉❥♦ ❡#♣❛'♦ #♦❧✉'A♦ B ❞❡♥♦5❛❞♦ ♣♦4 Sh (A)✳ ❈❤❛♠❡♠♦# ❞❡
TA ❛ 54❛♥#❢♦4♠❛'A♦ ❧✐♥❡❛4 ❞❡ Rn ♣❛4❛ Rm ❞❡5❡4♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦4 A ❡ ♣❡❧❛# ❜❛#❡#
❝❛♥F♥✐❝❛# ❞♦# ❞♦✐# ❡#♣❛'♦# ✈❡5♦4✐❛✐# ✭❝❢✳ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✱ ❙❡'A♦ ✶ ❞♦ ❈❛♣95✉❧♦ ✻✮✳
❈♦♠♦ ❛# #♦❧✉'(❡# ❞♦ #✐#5❡♠❛ #A♦ ♦# ✈❡5♦4❡# ❞❡ Rn 6✉❡ #A♦ ♦45♦❣♦♥❛✐# ❛♦#
✈❡5♦4❡# ❧✐♥❤❛# ❞❡ A✱ 5❡♠♦#✱ ♣❡❧♦ L4♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✶✱ 6✉❡ Sh (A) = (L(A))⊥ ✳
)*♦❜❧❡♠❛-
✷✳✶ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛ 6✉❡ R3 ❡ R4 5>♠ ♦ ♣4♦❞✉5♦ ✐♥5❡4♥♦ ✉#✉❛❧✳ ❊♠ ❝❛❞❛ ✐5❡♠ ❛❜❛✐①♦✱
❡♥❝♦♥54❡ ♦ ❝♦##❡♥♦ ❞♦ N♥❣✉❧♦ ❡♥54❡ u ❡ v ✿
✭❛✮ u = (−1, 5, 2) ❡ v = (2, 4, −9)❀
✭❜✮ u = (1, 0, 1, 0) ❡ v = (1, 1, 1, 1)❀
✭❝✮ u = (2, 1, 0, −1) ❡ v = (4, 0, 0, 0)✳
✷✳✷✯ ▼♦#54❡ 6✉❡ ❛ #❡❣✉✐♥5❡ ✐❞❡♥5✐❞❛❞❡ ✈❛❧❡ ♣❛4❛ 6✉❛✐#6✉❡4 ✈❡5♦4❡# u ❡ v ❞❡
✉♠ ❡#♣❛'♦ ❝♦♠ ♣4♦❞✉5♦ ✐♥5❡4♥♦✿
||u + v||2 + ||u − v||2 = 2||u||2 + 2||v||2 .
✷✳✸ ▼♦#54❡ 6✉❡ ✈❛❧❡ ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ♥❛ ❞❡#✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ❈❛✉❝❤②✲❙❝❤✇❛4③ #❡✱ ❡

#♦♠❡♥5❡ #❡✱ u ❡ v #A♦ ❧✐♥❡❛4♠❡♥5❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥5❡#✳
✷✳✹ ❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥#54❛'A♦ ❞❛ L4♦♣♦#✐'A♦ ✼✳✷✳✷✳
✷✳✺ L4♦✈❡ ❛ L4♦♣♦#✐'A♦ ✼✳✷✳✸✳
✷✳✻ ❯#❡ ❛ ❞❡#✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ❈❛✉❝❤②✲❙❝❤✇❛4③ ♣❛4❛ ♠♦#54❛4✱ ♣❛4❛ 6✉❛✐#6✉❡4
✈❛❧♦4❡# 4❡❛✐# ❞❡ a✱ b ❡ θ✱ 6✉❡
(a cos θ + b sen θ)2 ≤ a2 + b2 .
✷✳✼ ❙❡❥❛ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ✉♠❛ ❜❛#❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡#♣❛'♦ ❝♦♠ ♣4♦❞✉5♦ ✐♥5❡4♥♦ V ✳

▼♦#54❡ 6✉❡ ♦ ✈❡5♦4 ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ V B ♦ W♥✐❝♦ ✈❡5♦4 ❞❡ V 6✉❡ B ♦45♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ 5♦❞♦#
♦# ✈❡5♦4❡# ❞❛ ❜❛#❡✳
✶✽✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
✷✳✽ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡(♣❛*♦ ❝♦♠ ♣-♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡-♥♦✳ ▼♦(/-❡ 4✉❡ (❡ u ❡ v (5♦ ✈❡/♦-❡(
√
♦-/♦❣♦♥❛✐( ❞❡ V /❛✐( 4✉❡ ||u|| = ||v|| = 1✱ ❡♥/5♦ ||u − v|| = 2✳
✷✳✾✯ ✭❯♠❛ ❣❡♥❡-❛❧✐③❛*5♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ❞❡ >✐/?❣♦-❛(✮ ❙❡❥❛ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ✉♠
❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ♦-/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡/♦-❡( ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛*♦ ❝♦♠ ♣-♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡-♥♦✳ ❊♥/5♦
||v1 + v2 + · · · + vn ||2 = ||v1 ||2 + ||v2 ||2 + · · · + ||vn ||2 .

✷✳✶✵ ❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥(/-❛*5♦ ❞❛ >-♦♣♦(✐*5♦ ✼✳✷✳✹✳
✷✳✶✶ ❙❡❥❛ β ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ❞❡ ❣❡-❛❞♦-❡( ❞❡ W ✱ ♦♥❞❡ W F ✉♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛*♦ ❞❡ ✉♠
❡(♣❛*♦ ❝♦♠ ♣-♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡-♥♦ V ✳ ▼♦(/-❡ 4✉❡ W ⊥ ❝♦♥(✐(/❡ ❞❡ /♦❞♦( ♦( ✈❡/♦-❡(
❞❡ V 4✉❡ (5♦ ♦-/♦❣♦♥❛✐( ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡/♦- ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ β ✳
✷✳✶✷✯ ❙❡❥❛ W ♦ (✉❜❡(♣❛*♦ ❞❡ R5 ❣❡-❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦( ✈❡/♦-❡( u = (1, 2, 3, −1, 2) ❡
v = (2, 1, 3, 2, −1)✳ ❉❡/❡-♠✐♥❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛(❡ ❞❡ W ⊥ ✳
✷✳✶✸ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛ 4✉❡ R4 /❡♠ ♦ ♣-♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡-♥♦ ✉(✉❛❧ ❡ (❡❥❛ v = (1, −1, 0, −2)✳
❉❡/❡-♠✐♥❡ (❡ v F ♦-/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛♦ (✉❜❡(♣❛*♦ ❞❡ R4 ❣❡-❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦( ✈❡/♦-❡( v1 =
(−1, 1, 3, 0) ❡ v2 = (4, 0, 2, 2)✳
✷✳✶✹ ❙❡❥❛ W ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❞❡ ❡4✉❛*5♦ ❝❛-/❡(✐❛♥❛ x − 2y − 3z − 1 = 0✳ ❖❜/❡♥❤❛ ❛(
❡4✉❛*K❡( ♣❛-❛♠F/-✐❝❛( ♣❛-❛ W ⊥ ✳
✸ ❇❛#❡# ❖&'♦♥♦&♠❛✐#
❱❡-❡♠♦( ♥❡(/❛ (❡*5♦ 4✉❡ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛*♦ ✈❡/♦-✐❛❧✱ ❝♦♠ ♣-♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡-♥♦✱ ♣♦((✉✐
❜❛(❡( 4✉❡ (❡ ❞❡(/❛❝❛♠ ❞❛( ❞❡♠❛✐(✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛( ❞❡ ❜❛(❡( ♦-/♦♥♦-♠❛✐(✳ ❚-❛❜❛✲
❧❤❛- ❝♦♠ ❡(/❡ /✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❜❛(❡ /♦-♥❛ V ❣❡♦♠❡/-✐❝❛♠❡♥/❡ ♠✉✐/♦ ♣❛-❡❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠ ♦
❡(♣❛*♦ Rn ✱ ♦♥❞❡ n = dim V ✳
❆♦ ❧♦♥❣♦ ❞❡(/❛ (❡*5♦✱ V (❡-? (❡♠♣-❡ ✉♠ ❡(♣❛*♦ ❝♦♠ ♣-♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡-♥♦ h , i✱
❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥(5♦ ✜♥✐/❛ n > 0✳
✸✳✶ ❈♦♥❥✉♥(♦) ❖+(♦❣♦♥❛✐)

❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ❞❡ ✈❡/♦-❡( ❡♠ V F ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ ♦&%♦❣♦♥❛❧ (❡ 4✉❛✐(4✉❡-
❞♦✐( ✈❡/♦-❡( ❞✐(/✐♥/♦( ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ (5♦ ♦-/♦❣♦♥❛✐(✳
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❖❘❚❖◆❖❘▼❆■❙ ✶✽✾
#♦% ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ {(1, 2, 1), (2, 1, −4), (3, −2, 1)} 1 ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦
♦%0♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❡♠ R3 ❝♦♠ 4❡✉ ♣%♦❞✉0♦ ✐♥0❡%♥♦ ✉4✉❛❧✳
❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ♦%0♦❣♦♥❛❧ ♥♦ 9✉❛❧ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡0♦% 0❡♠ ♥♦%♠❛ ✶ 1 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❝♦♥✲
❥✉♥&♦ ♦'&♦♥♦'♠❛❧ ✳ ❙❡ v 1 ✉♠ ✈❡0♦% ♥=♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡4♣❛>♦ ❝♦♠ ♣%♦❞✉0♦
✐♥0❡%♥♦✱ 4❡❣✉❡ ❞❛ #%♦♣♦4✐>=♦ ✼✳✷✳✷✭✐✐✐✮ 9✉❡ ♦ ✈❡0♦% ||v||−1 v 0❡♠ ♥♦%♠❛ ✶✳
❖ ♣%♦❝❡44♦ ❞❡ ♠✉❧0✐♣❧✐❝❛% ✉♠ ✈❡0♦% ♥=♦ ♥✉❧♦ ♣❡❧♦ ✐♥✈❡%4♦ ❞❡ 4✉❛ ♥♦%♠❛ ♣❛%❛
♦❜0❡% ✉♠ ✈❡0♦% ❞❡ ♥♦%♠❛ ✶ 1 ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♥♦'♠❛❧✐③❛-.♦ ✳ ❆44✐♠✱ ✉♠ ❝♦♥✲
❥✉♥0♦ ♦%0♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡0♦%❡4 ♥=♦ ♥✉❧♦4 ♣♦❞❡ 4❡% 4❡♠♣%❡ 0%❛♥4❢♦%♠❛❞♦ ❡♠ ✉♠
❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ♦%0♦♥♦%♠❛❧✱ ♥♦%♠❛❧✐③❛♥❞♦✲4❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠ ❞❡ 4❡✉4 ✈❡0♦%❡4✳
❖ ♣%I①✐♠♦ %❡4✉❧0❛❞♦ %❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❛ ♥♦>=♦ ❞❡ ♦%0♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♥♦>=♦ ❞❡
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞J♥❝✐❛ ❧✐♥❡❛%✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✸✳✶✳ ❚♦❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ ♦'&♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡&♦'❡4 ♥.♦ ♥✉❧♦4 ❞❡ V 5
❧✐♥❡❛'♠❡♥&❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡ ✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ❙❡❥❛ {v1 , . . . , vr } ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ❞❡ ✈❡0♦%❡4 ♦%0♦❣♦♥❛✐4 ❞❡ V
❝♦♠ ♣%♦❞✉0♦ ✐♥0❡%♥♦✳ ❈♦♥4✐❞❡%❡♠♦4 ❛ ❡9✉❛>=♦
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ar vr = 0.
❱❛♠♦4 ♠♦40%❛% 9✉❡ ai = 0✱ ♣❛%❛ 0♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ r✳ ❋✐①❡ 1 ≤ i ≤ r✳ ❊♥0=♦✱
ha1 v1 + · · · + ar vr , vi i = a1 hv1 , vi i + · · · + ai hvi , vi i

+ ai+1 hvi+1 , vi i + · · · + ar hvr , vi i
= ai hvi , vi i, ✭✶✮
❥O 9✉❡ hvj , vi i = 0 4❡♠♣%❡ 9✉❡ j 6= i✳ #♦% ♦✉0%♦ ❧❛❞♦
ha1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ar vr , vi i = h0, vi i = 0. ✭✷✮
❉❡ ✭✶✮ ❡ ✭✷✮✱ 4❡❣✉❡ 9✉❡ ai hvi , vi i = 0 ❡ ❝♦♠♦ vi 1 ✉♠ ✈❡0♦% ♥=♦ ♥✉❧♦✱ 0❡♠♦4
♥❡❝❡44❛%✐❛♠❡♥0❡ 9✉❡ ai = 0✳ ❈♦♠♦ i ❢♦✐ 0♦♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛%❜✐0%O%✐♦ ❡♠ 4❡✉
✐♥0❡%✈❛❧♦ ❞❡ ✈❛%✐❛>=♦✱ ♦ %❡4✉❧0❛❞♦ 4❡❣✉❡✳
❆ %❡❝Q♣%♦❝❛ ❞♦ %❡4✉❧0❛❞♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ 1 ♦❜✈✐❛♠❡♥0❡ ❢❛❧4❛✱ ♣♦✐4✱ ♣♦% ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱

♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ {(1, 1), (1, 0)} ❞❡ ✈❡0♦%❡4 ❡♠ R2 ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣%♦❞✉0♦ ✐♥0❡%♥♦ ✉4✉❛❧ 1
❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥0❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥0❡✱ ♠❛4 ♥=♦ 1 ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ ♦%0♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
✶✾✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
❙❡ α={v1 , . . . , vn } % ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ ♦-,♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡,♦-❡3 ♥4♦ ♥✉❧♦3 ❞❡ V ✱
3❡❣✉❡ ❞❛ ♣-♦♣♦3✐84♦ ❛♥,❡-✐♦- 9✉❡ α % ✉♠❛ ❜❛3❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❯♠❛ ❜❛3❡ ❝♦♥3✐3,✐♥❞♦
❞❡ ✈❡,♦-❡3 ♦-,♦❣♦♥❛✐3 % ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❜❛"❡ ♦%&♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛3❡ ❝♦♥3✐3,✐♥❞♦ ❞❡
✈❡,♦-❡3 ♦-,♦♥♦-♠❛✐3 % ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❜❛"❡ ♦%&♦♥♦%♠❛❧✳
>♦- ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ❜❛3❡ ❝❛♥@♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ Rn ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣-♦❞✉,♦ ✐♥,❡-♥♦ ✉3✉❛❧ % ✉♠❛
❜❛3❡ ♦-,♦♥♦-♠❛❧✳
❱✐♠♦3 9✉❡ 3❡ V % ✉♠ ❡3♣❛8♦ ✈❡,♦-✐❛❧ ❡ α % ✉♠❛ ❜❛3❡ ❞❡ V ❡♥,4♦✱ ❡♠
❣❡-❛❧✱ % ♥❡❝❡33B-✐♦ -❡3♦❧✈❡- ✉♠ 3✐3,❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❛ ✜♠ ❞❡ ❡3❝-❡✈❡- ✉♠ ✈❡,♦-
❞❡ V ❡♠ ,❡-♠♦3 ❞❛ ❜❛3❡ α✳ ❖ ♣-E①✐♠♦ -❡3✉❧,❛❞♦ ♠♦3,-❛ 9✉❡ 9✉❛♥❞♦ V %
✉♠ ❡3♣❛8♦ ❝♦♠ ♣-♦❞✉,♦ ✐♥,❡-♥♦ ❡ α % ✉♠❛ ❜❛3❡ ♦-,♦♥♦-♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥,4♦ %
❜❛3,❛♥,❡ 3✐♠♣❧❡3 ❡♥❝♦♥,-❛- ❛3 ❝♦♦-❞❡♥❛❞❛3 ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡,♦- ❞❡ V ❡♠ -❡❧❛84♦ ❛
❜❛3❡ α✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✷✳ ❙❡ α={v1 , v2 , . . ., vn } , ✉♠❛ ❜❛"❡ ♦%&♦♥♦%♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥&0♦✱
♣❛%❛ &♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦" ❡"❝%❡✈❡%
v = hv, v1 iv1 + hv, v2 iv2 + · · · + hv, vn ivn .

❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ❙❡❥❛ v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ❛ ❡3❝-✐,❛ ❞❡ v ♥❛ ❜❛3❡ α✳
❋✐①❡ i✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✳ ❚❡♠♦3
hv, vi i = ha1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn , vi i
= a1 hv1 , vi i + · · · + ai hvi , vi i + · · · + an hvn , vi i = ai ,
❥B 9✉❡ hvj , vi i = 0 3❡ j 6= i ❡ hvi , vi i = ||vi ||2 = 1✳ ❈♦♠♦ i ❢♦✐ ,♦♠❛❞♦ ❞❡
♠♦❞♦ ❛-❜✐,-B-✐♦✱ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥3,-❛84♦ ❡3,B ❝♦♠♣❧❡,❛✳
❙❡ β = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } % ✉♠❛ ❜❛3❡ ♦-,♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ V ✱ ♥♦-♠❛❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❝❛❞❛
✉♠ ❞♦3 ✈❡,♦-❡3 ❞❡ β ✱ ♦❜,❡♠♦3 ❛ ❜❛3❡ ♦-,♦♥♦-♠❛❧ α ❞❡ V ✱ ♦♥❞❡

v1 v2 vn
α= , ,..., .
||v1 || ||v2 || ||vn ||
>❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✷✱ ♣❛-❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡,♦- v ❡♠ V ✱ ,❡♠♦3 9✉❡
v1 v1 vn vn
v = hv, i + · · · + hv, i
||v1 || ||v1 || ||vn || ||vn ||
hv, v1 i hv, vn i
= v1 + · · · + vn .
||v1 || 2 ||vn ||2
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❖❘❚❖◆❖❘▼❆■❙ ✶✾✶
❖ ♥$♠❡'♦ '❡❛❧
hv, vi i
ai =
||vi ||2
+ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥&❡ ❞❡ ❋♦✉*✐❡* ✶ ❞❡ v ❡♠ '❡❧❛/0♦ ❛♦ ✈❡2♦' vi ✳ ❊52❡
❡5❝❛❧❛' ❛❞♠✐2❡ ✉♠❛ ✐♥2❡'♣'❡2❛/0♦ ❣❡♦♠+2'✐❝❛ '❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♥♦/0♦ ❞❡
♣'♦❥❡/0♦✳ ;❛'❛ ❛♣'❡5❡♥2❛'♠♦5 ❡52❛ ✐♥2❡'♣'❡2❛/0♦ ❣❡♦♠+2'✐❝❛✱ ✈❛♠♦5 ♣'❡❝✐5❛'
❞♦ 5❡❣✉✐♥2❡ '❡5✉❧2❛❞♦✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✸✳✸✳ ❙❡❥❛ w ✉♠ ✈❡&♦* ♥0♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❙❡ v ∈ V ✱ ❡♥&0♦
hv, wi hv, wi
k= = ✭✸✮
hw, wi ||w||2
4 ♦ 5♥✐❝♦ ♥5♠❡*♦ *❡❛❧ &❛❧ 6✉❡ v ′ = v − kw 4 ♦*&♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ w ✳

❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ ;❛'❛ @✉❡ v ′ 5❡❥❛ ♦'2♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ w ❞❡✈❡♠♦5 2❡' hv−kw, wi=0✱
hv, wi
♦✉ 5❡❥❛✱ hv, wi = khw, wi✱ ♠♦52'❛♥❞♦ @✉❡ k = · ❘❡❝✐♣'♦❝❛♠❡♥2❡✱ 5✉✲
hw, wi
hv, wi
♣♦♥❤❛♠♦5 @✉❡ k = · ❊♥20♦✱
hw, wi
hv, wi
hv − kw, wi = hv, wi − khw, wi = hv, wi − hw, wi = 0,
hw, wi
♦ @✉❡ ♠♦52'❛ @✉❡ v − kw + ♦'2♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ w✳

❖ ❡5❝❛❧❛' k ❡♠ ✭✸✮ + ♦ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥2❡ ❞❡ ❋♦✉'✐❡' ❞❡ v ❡♠ '❡❧❛/0♦ ❛♦ ✈❡2♦'
w✳ ❆ ♣*♦❥❡:0♦ ❞❡ v ❛♦ ❧♦♥❣♦ ❞❡ w ✭❋✐❣✉'❛ ✶✼✮ + ❞❡♥♦2❛❞❛ ♣♦' projw (v) ❡ +
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦'
hv, wi
projw (v) = kw = w.
hw, wi
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✼
❖ ♣'F①✐♠♦ '❡5✉❧2❛❞♦✱ ❝✉❥❛ ❞❡♠♦♥52'❛/0♦ + ❞❡✐①❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡'❝H❝✐♦ ✭✈❡❥❛

;'♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✸✳✷✮✱ ❣❡♥❡'❛❧✐③❛ ❛ ;'♦♣♦5✐/0♦ ✼✳✸✳✸✳
✶❊♠ ❤♦♠❡♥❛❣❡♠ ❛ ❏❡❛♥✲❇❛♣2✐32❡ ❋♦✉$✐❡$ ✭❋$❛♥5❛✱ ✶✼✻✽ ✲ ✶✽✸✵✮✱ ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞♦ ♥❛ ▼❛2❡✲
♠?2✐❝❛ ♣♦$ ✐♥✐❝✐❛$ ❛ ✐♥✈❡32✐❣❛5A♦ 3♦❜$❡ ♦ ❞❡3❡♥✈♦❧✈✐♠❡♥2♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥5E❡3 ♣❡$✐F❞✐❝❛3 ❡♠ 3G$✐❡3
2$✐❣♦♥♦♠G2$✐❝❛3 ❝♦♥✈❡$❣❡♥2❡3✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛3 3G$✐❡3 ❞❡ ❋♦✉$✐❡$✱ ❡ 3✉❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛5A♦ ❛♦3 ♣$♦❜❧❡♠❛3
❞❡ ❝♦♥❞✉5A♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❧♦$✳
✶✾✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✸✳✹✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦( )✉❡ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wr } (❡❥❛ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ♦.✲

-♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡-♦.❡( ♥4♦ ♥✉❧♦( ❞❡ V ✳ ❙❡ v ∈ V ✱ ❡♥-4♦
hv, wi i
ki = , 1 ≤ i ≤ r,
||wi ||2
(4♦ ♦( 7♥✐❝♦( ♥7♠❡.♦( .❡❛✐( -❛✐( )✉❡ ♦ ✈❡-♦.
v ′ = v − k1 w 1 − k2 w 2 − · · · − kr w r
9 ♦.-♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛♦( ✈❡-♦.❡( w1 , w2 , . . . , wr ✳
✸✳✷ ❖$%♦❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛-.♦ ❞❡ ●$❛♠✲❙❝❤♠✐❞%

❱✐♠♦' ♥❛ '❡+,♦ ❛♥-❡.✐♦. /✉❡ -.❛❜❛❧❤❛. ❝♦♠ ❜❛'❡' ♦.-♦♥♦.♠❛✐' 5 ❜❛'-❛♥-❡
❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥-❡✳ ❱❡.❡♠♦' ❛ '❡❣✉✐. /✉❡ -♦❞♦ ❡'♣❛+♦ ❝♦♠ ♣.♦❞✉-♦ ✐♥-❡.♥♦✱ ♥,♦
♥✉❧♦✱ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥',♦ ✜♥✐-❛ -❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ♦.-♦♥♦.♠❛❧✳
❆ ❝♦♥'-.✉+,♦ ❞❛❞❛ ♥❛ ♣.♦✈❛ ❞♦ .❡'✉❧-❛❞♦ ❛❜❛✐①♦ 5 ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♣.♦❝❡((♦
❞❡ ♦.-♦❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛;4♦ ❞❡ ●.❛♠✲❙❝❤♠✐❞- ✱ ♣♦✐' ❧❡✈❛ ♦' ♥♦♠❡' ❞❡ ❏♦.❣❡♥ @❡❞❡.✲
'❡♥ ●.❛♠ ✭❉✐♥❛♠❛.❝❛✱ ✶✽✺✵ ✲ ✶✾✶✻✮ ❡ ❞❡ ❊.❤❛.❞ ❙❝❤♠✐❞- ✭❆❧❡♠❛♥❤❛✱ ✶✽✼✻
✲ ✶✾✺✾✮✳ ❈❛❜❡ ♦❜'❡.✈❛. /✉❡ ❛ ❝♦♥'-.✉+,♦ ❞❡ ●.❛♠✲❙❝❤♠✐❞- ♣♦❞❡ '❡. ❡♥✲
❝♦♥-.❛❞❛✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ✐♠♣❧N❝✐-♦✱ ❡♠ -.❛❜❛❧❤♦' ❞❡ @✐❡..❡ ❙✐♠♦♥ ▲❛♣❧❛❝❡ ✷ ❡ ❞❡
❈❛✉❝❤②✳
✷ ✐❡##❡ ❙✐♠♦♥ ▲❛♣❧❛❝❡ ✭❋#❛♥/❛ ✶✼✹✾ ✕ ✶✽✷✼✮ ❢♦✐ ✉♠ ✐♠♣♦#:❛♥:❡ ♠❛:❡♠;:✐❝♦✱ ❢=>✐❝♦ ❡
❛>:#?♥♦♠♦✱ ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞♦ ♣♦# >✉❛> ❝♦♥:#✐❜✉✐/C❡> D ♠❡❝E♥✐❝❛ ❝❡❧❡>:❡ D :❡♦#✐❛ ❞❡ ♣#♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡>✱
❜❡♠ ❝♦♠♦ ♣♦# >✉❛> ❛♣❧✐❝❛/C❡> ❞❛ ♠❛:❡♠;:✐❝❛ D ❢=>✐❝❛✳
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❖❘❚❖◆❖❘▼❆■❙ ✶✾✸
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✺✳ ❖ ❡"♣❛%♦ V ♣♦""✉✐ ✉♠❛ ❜❛"❡ ♦+,♦❣♦♥❛❧✳

❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ❙❡❥❛ {v1, v2, . . . , vn} ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦+ ✭✈❡❥❛ ❋✐❣✉4❛
✶✽✮
w 1 = v1 ,
hv2 , w1 i
w 2 = v2 − w1 ,
||w1 ||2
hv3 , w1 i hv3 , w2 i
w 3 = v3 − w1 − w2 ,
||w1 || 2 ||w2 ||2
✳✳
✳
hvn , w1 i hvn , wn−1 i
w n = vn − w1 − · · · − wn−1 .
||w1 || 2 ||wn−1 ||2
7❡❧❛ 74♦♣♦+✐:;♦ ✼✳✸✳✹✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥A♦ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } B ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥A♦ ♦4A♦❣♦✲
♥❛❧✳ ❆❧B♠ ❞✐++♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥A♦ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } B ❧✐♥❡❛4♠❡♥A❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥A❡✱
❝❛❞❛ ✈❡A♦4 wi B ♥;♦ ♥✉❧♦✳ ❆++✐♠✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥A♦ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } B ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥A♦
♦4A♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡A♦4❡+ ♥;♦ ♥✉❧♦+ ❞❡ V ✳ ❈♦♠♦✱ ♣♦4 ❞❡✜♥✐:;♦✱ n = dim V ✱ +❡❣✉❡
♣❡❧❛ 74♦♣♦+✐:;♦ ✼✳✸✳✶ G✉❡ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } B ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ♦4A♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ V ✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✽
❉❡❝♦44❡ ❞❛ ♣4♦♣♦+✐:;♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ G✉❡ +❡ V A❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ♦4A♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ ❡❧❡ A❡♠
✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ♦4A♦♥♦4♠❛❧✱ ♣♦✐+ ♦+ ✈❡A♦4❡+ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ♦4A♦❣♦♥❛❧ ♣♦❞❡♠ +❡4
♥♦4♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦+ ♣❛4❛ ♣4♦❞✉③✐4 ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ♦4A♦♥♦4♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ✳
✶✾✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❈♦♥&✐❞❡*❡ R3 ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣*♦❞✉/♦ ✐♥/❡*♥♦ ✉&✉❛❧✳ ❆♣❧✐4✉❡♠♦& ♦
♣*♦❝❡&&♦ ❞❡ ●*❛♠✲❙❝❤♠✐❞/ ❛♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 0, 1)} ♣❛*❛ ♦❜✲
/❡*♠♦& ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ♦*/♦❣♦♥❛❧ {w1 , w2 , w3 } ❞❡ R3 ✳
❋❛=❛♠♦&
w1 = (1, 0, 0),
h(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0)i
w2 = (1, 1, 1) − (1, 0, 0) = (0, 1, 1),
||(1, 0, 0)||2
h(0, 0, 1), (1, 0, 0)i

w3 = (0, 0, 1) − (1, 0, 0)
||(0, 1, 1)||2

h(0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)i 1 1
− (0, 1, 1) = 0, − , .
||(0, 1, 1)||2 2 2
❆&&✐♠✱ {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, − 12 , 12 )} ? ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ♦*/♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ✳
❯♠❛ ❝♦♥&❡4✉A♥❝✐❛ ✐♠♣♦*/❛♥/❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✺✱ 4✉❡ ❞❡♠♦♥&/*❛*❡♠♦& ❛

&❡❣✉✐*✱ ? ♦ ❢❛/♦ ❞❡ 4✉❡ V =W ⊕W ⊥ ✱ ♦♥❞❡ W ? ✉♠ &✉❜❡&♣❛=♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❊♠ ♦✉/*❛&
♣❛❧❛✈*❛&✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡/♦* v ❞❡ V ♣♦❞❡ &❡* ❡&❝*✐/♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ I♥✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦
v = w1 + w2 , ✭✹✮
♦♥❞❡ w1 ∈ W ❡ w2 ∈ W ⊥ ✳ ❖ ✈❡/♦* w1 ? ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♣!♦❥❡%&♦ ♦!'♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ v

❡♠ W ❡ ? ❞❡♥♦/❛❞♦ ♣♦* projW (v)✳ ❖ ✈❡/♦* w2 ? ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥'❡ ❞❡ v
♦!'♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ W ❡ ? ❞❡♥♦/❛❞♦ ♣♦* projW ⊥ (v) ✭❋✐❣✉*❛ ✶✾✮✳ M♦* ✭✹✮✱ /❡♠♦& ❡♥/N♦
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✾
4✉❡ v = projW (v) + projW ⊥ (v).
❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✻✳ ❙❡ W 0 ✉♠ 2✉❜❡2♣❛%♦ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥'&♦
V = W ⊕ W ⊥.
❉❡♠♦♥12*❛34♦ M❡❧❛ M*♦♣♦&✐=N♦ ✼✳✷✳✹✭✐✐✮✱ W ∩ W ⊥ = {0}✳ ❱❡❥❛♠♦& 4✉❡

V = W + W ⊥ ✳ M❡❧♦ ♣*♦❝❡&&♦ ❞❡ ♦*/♦❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛=N♦ ❞❡ ●*❛♠✲❙❝❤♠✐❞/✱ ❡①✐&/❡
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❖❘❚❖◆❖❘▼❆■❙ ✶✾✺
✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ♦*+♦♥♦*♠❛❧ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ❞❡ W ✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦' v ∈ V ✳ ❉❡✜♥❛
w1 = hv, v1 iv1 + hv, v2 iv2 + · · · + hv, vn ivn ,

w2 = v − w1 .
◆♦+❡ 4✉❡ w1 + w2 = w1 + (v − w1 ) = v ✳ ❆❧6♠ ❞✐''♦✱ w1 ∈ W ✱ ♣♦✐' w1 6

✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛;<♦ ❧✐♥❡❛* ❞♦' ✈❡+♦*❡' ❞❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ W ✳ >♦*+❛♥+♦✱ *❡'+❛ ♠♦'+*❛*
4✉❡ w2 ∈ W ⊥ ✱ ♦✉ '❡❥❛✱ w2 6 ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ W ✳ >❛*❛ ✐'+♦✱ '❡❥❛ w ∈ W ✳ >❡❧♦
❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✷✱
w = hw, v1 iv1 + hw, v2 iv2 + · · · + hw, vn ivn .
❆''✐♠✱
hw2 , wi = hv − w1 , wi = hv, wi − hw1 , wi

= hw, v1 ihv, v1 i + · · · + hw, vn ihv, vn i

− hv, v1 ihv1 , wi + · · · + hv, vn ihvn , wi
= 0.
❈♦♠♦ w ∈ W ❢♦✐ +♦♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛*❜✐+*F*✐♦✱ '❡❣✉❡ 4✉❡ w2 6 ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ W ✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❘❡+♦♠❡♠♦' ♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶ ❞❛ ❙❡;<♦ ✷✱ ♦♥❞❡ V = R3 ❡ ♦♥❞❡
W = {(x, y, z); x + y + z = 0} ❡ W ⊥ = {(x, y, z); x = y = z}✳ ◆♦+❡ 4✉❡
W ∩ W ⊥ = {0}✳
✶✾✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
❈♦♠♦
dim(W + W ⊥ ) = dim W + dim W ⊥ − dim(W ∩ W ⊥ ),
&❡❣✉❡ *✉❡ dim(W + W ⊥ ) = 3✱ ❥- *✉❡ .❡♠♦& dim W = 2✱ dim W ⊥ = 1 ❡

dim(W ∩ W ⊥ ) = 0✳ 0♦1.❛♥.♦✱ W + W ⊥ = R3 ✳ ❈♦♥&❡*✉❡♥.❡♠❡♥.❡✱ .❡♠♦&
*✉❡ R3 = W ⊕ W ⊥ ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❧✐-& ❞❡✈❡1✐❛ &❡1 ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✻✳
0❛1❛ ❝❛❞❛ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ✱ .❡♠♦& *✉❡
(x, y, z) = 2x−y−z , −x+2y−z , −x−y+2z

3 3 3
x+y+z x+y+z x+y+z

+ 3
, 3 , 3 ∈ W + W ⊥.
▼❛✐& ❛✐♥❞❛✱ ❛ ❡&❝1✐.❛ ❛❝✐♠❛ > ?♥✐❝❛✳ ❊♠ ♦✉.1❛& ♣❛❧❛✈1❛&✱ .♦❞♦ ✈❡.♦1 ❞❡ R3
&❡ ❡①♣1❡&&❛✱ ❞❡ ❢♦1♠❛ ?♥✐❝❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ &♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦ ❡ W ❝♦♠ ✉♠
❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦ ❞❡ W ⊥ ✳ ❆ ✜❣✉1❛ ❛❜❛✐①♦ ♠♦&.1❛ ❛ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦&✐FG♦ ❞♦ ✈❡.♦1 (0, 3, 0)✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✷✵
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ ❙❡❥❛ AX = 0 ✉♠ &✐&.❡♠❛ m×n ❞❡ ❡*✉❛FI❡& ❧✐♥❡❛1❡& ❤♦♠♦❣K♥❡♦✱

❝✉❥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ &♦❧✉FG♦ ❞❡♥♦.❛♠♦& ♣♦1 Sh (A)✳ ❙❡❥❛ TA ❛ .1❛♥&❢♦1♠❛FG♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1
❛&&♦❝✐❛❞❛ L ♠❛.1✐③ A✳ ❙❛❜❡♠♦& ✭❝❢✳ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✱ ❙❡FG♦ ✷✮ *✉❡
Ker TA = Sh (A) = (L(A))⊥ .
0♦1 ♦✉.1♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✱ ❙❡FG♦ ✶✱ ❈❛♣R.✉❧♦ ✻✱ .❡♠♦& *✉❡
Im TA = C(A).
✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❖❘❚❖◆❖❘▼❆■❙ ✶✾✼
#❡❧♦ ❚❡♦(❡♠❛ ❞♦ ◆-❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛ ■♠❛❣❡♠✱ 2❡♠♦3 4✉❡
n = dim Ker TA + dim Im TA = dim(L(A))⊥ + dim C(A).
#❡❧♦ ❚❡♦(❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✻✱ 2❡♠♦3 4✉❡
n = dim L(A) + dim(L(A))⊥ = pA + dim Sh (A).
❉❛: ❞❡❝♦((❡ 4✉❡

dim Sh (A) = n − pA ,
❡ 4✉❡
dim C(A) = dim L(A).
❆33✐♠✱ ♦ ♣♦32♦ ♣♦( ❧✐♥❤❛3 ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛2(✐③ A✱ 4✉❡ ♣♦( ❞❡✜♥✐BC♦ D ✐❣✉❛❧ E
❞✐♠❡♥3C♦ ❞♦ ❡3♣❛B♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ L(A) ❞❡ A✱ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣♦32♦ ❞❡ A ♣♦( ❝♦❧✉♥❛3✱
♦✉ 3❡❥❛ ❝♦♠ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥3C♦ ❞♦ ❡3♣❛B♦ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ C(A) ❞❛ ♠❛2(✐③ A✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✸✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡3♣❛B♦ ❝♦♠ ♣(♦❞✉2♦ ✐♥2❡(♥♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥3C♦ ✜♥✐2❛ n✳ ❙❡ α D
✉♠❛ ❜❛3❡ ♦(2♦♥♦(♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ❡ 3❡
   
a1 b1
 a2   b2 
   
 ✳✳  ❡ [w]α =  ✳✳  ,
[v]α =    
✳ ✳
an bn
❡♥2C♦✿
✭❛✮ ||v|| = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n ❀
p
✭❜✮ d(v, w) = (a1 − b1 )2 + (a2 − b2 )2 + · · · + (an − bn )2 ❀

p
✭❝✮ hv, wi = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn ✳
❖ ❡①❡#❝%❝✐♦ ❛♥*❡#✐♦# ♠♦,*#❛ -✉❡ *#❛❜❛❧❤❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♠ ❜❛,❡, ♦#*♦♥♦#♠❛✐,✱ ♦
❝4❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ♥♦#♠❛, ❡ ♣#♦❞✉*♦, ✐♥*❡#♥♦, ❛#❜✐*#4#✐♦, ,❡ #❡❞✉③ ❛♦ ❝4❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ♥♦#✲
♠❛, ❡ ♣#♦❞✉*♦, ✐♥*❡#♥♦, ❞❛, ♠❛*#✐③❡, ❞❛, ❝♦♦#❞❡♥❛❞❛,✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♠ Rn ❝♦♠ ,✉❛
♥♦#♠❛ ❡ ♣#♦❞✉*♦ ✐♥*❡#♥♦ ✉,✉❛✐, ✳
✶✾✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
✸✳✷ #$♦✈❡ ❛ #$♦♣♦*✐,-♦ ✼✳✸✳✹✳
✸✳✸ ▼♦*3$❡ 4✉❡ ♦* ✈❡3♦$❡*

4 3 3 4
v1 = , ,0 , v2 = − , ,0 ❡ v3 = (0, 0, 1)
5 5 5 5
❢♦$♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛*❡ ♦$3♦♥♦$♠❛❧ ♣❛$❛ R3 ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣$♦❞✉3♦ ✐♥3❡$♥♦ ✉*✉❛❧✳ ❊♠
*❡❣✉✐❞❛✱ ❡①♣$❡**❡ ♦ ✈❡3♦$ v = (1, −1, 2) ♥❡*3❛ ❜❛*❡✳
✸✳✹✯ ❙❡❥❛ W ✉♠ *✉❜❡*♣❛,♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥*-♦ ✜♥✐3❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡*♣❛,♦ ❝♦♠ ♣$♦❞✉3♦
✐♥3❡$♥♦ V ✳ #$♦✈❡ 4✉❡✿
✭❛✮ ❙❡ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } G ✉♠❛ ❜❛*❡ ♦$3♦♥♦$♠❛❧ ❞❡ W ❡ v G ✉♠ ✈❡3♦$ 4✉❛❧4✉❡$
❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥3-♦ projW (v) = hv, w1 iw1 + hv, w2 iw2 + · · · + hv, wn iwn ;
✭❜✮ ❙❡ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } G ✉♠❛ ❜❛*❡ ♦$3♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ W ❡ v G ✉♠ ✈❡3♦$ 4✉❛❧4✉❡$
❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥3-♦
hv, w1 i hv, w2 i hv, wn i
projW (v) = w1 + w2 + · · · + wn .
||w1 || 2 ||w2 || 2 ||wn ||2
✸✳✺ ❈♦♥#✐❞❡'❡ R4 ❝♦♠ ♦ ♣'♦❞✉,♦ ✐♥,❡'♥♦ ✉#✉❛❧✳ ❯#❡ ♦ ♣'♦❝❡##♦ ❞❡ ●'❛♠✲
❙❝❤♠✐❞, ♣❛'❛ ,'❛♥#❢♦'♠❛' ❛ ❜❛#❡ {v1, v2, v3, v4} ❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛#❡ ♦',♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ ♦♥❞❡
v1 = (0, 2, 1, 0), v2 = (1, −1, 0, 0), v3 = (1, 2, 0, −1) ❡ v4 = (1, 0, 0, 1).
✸✳✻ ❙❡❥❛ W ♦ #✉❜❡#♣❛:♦ ❞❡ R4 ❣❡'❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦# ✈❡,♦'❡#
v1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), v2 = (1, −1, 2, −2) ❡ v3 = (−1, −5, 1, −7).
❆❝❤❡ ❛ ♣'♦❥❡:=♦ ♦',♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ v = (1, 2, −3, 4) ❡♠ W ✳
✸✳✼ ❈♦♥#,'✉❛✱ ❛ ♣❛',✐' ❞♦ ✈❡,♦' v = (2, 1, 0)✱ ✉♠❛ ❜❛#❡ ♦',♦♥♦'♠❛❧ ❞❡ R3 ❝♦♠
♦ ♣'♦❞✉,♦ ✐♥,❡'♥♦ ✉#✉❛❧✳
✹ ❖♣❡$❛❞♦$❡( ❡♠ ❊(♣❛+♦( ❝♦♠ -$♦❞✉/♦ ■♥/❡$♥♦

◆❡#,❛ #❡:=♦✱ ✈❛♠♦# ❞❡✜♥✐' ✐♠♣♦',❛♥,❡# ♦♣❡'❛❞♦'❡# ❡♠ ❡#♣❛:♦# ❝♦♠ ♣'♦✲
❞✉,♦ ✐♥,❡'♥♦✳ ▼❛✐# ♣'❡❝✐#❛♠❡♥,❡✱ ♠♦#,'❛'❡♠♦# ❛ ❡①✐#,B♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❛❞✲
❥✉♥,♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❧✐♥❡❛' ❡✱ ❛ ♣❛',✐' ❞❡#,❡✱ ✐♥,'♦❞✉③✐' ❛# ♥♦:D❡# ❞❡ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦✲
'❡# #✐♠E,'✐❝♦# ❡ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦'❡# ♦',♦❣♦♥❛✐#✳ ❊#,❡# ♦♣❡'❛❞♦'❡# ❡#,=♦ '❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦#
✹✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊▼ ❊❙#❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ #❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖ ✶✾✾
❝♦♠ ♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ❊*♣❡❝,'❛❧✱ ✉♠ ❞♦* ,❡♦'❡♠❛* ♠❛✐* ✐♠♣♦',❛♥,❡* ❞❛ ➪❧❣❡❜'❛

▲✐♥❡❛'✱ ❝♦♥❢♦'♠❡ ✈❡'❡♠♦* ♥♦ ❈❛♣:,✉❧♦ ✾✳
◆❡*,❛ *❡=>♦✱ ❝♦♥,✐♥✉❛'❡♠♦* *✉♣♦♥❞♦ ?✉❡ V @ ✉♠ ❡*♣❛=♦ ❝♦♠ ♣'♦❞✉,♦
✐♥,❡'♥♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥*>♦ ✜♥✐,❛ n > 0✳
✹✳✶ ❖ ❖♣❡&❛❞♦& ❆❞❥✉♥.♦

❉❛❞♦ ✉♠ ✈❡,♦' v ∈ V ✱ ❛ ❡❧❡ ❛**♦❝✐❛♠♦* ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ ♥❛,✉'❛❧ ✉♠ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧
❧✐♥❡❛' ❡♠ V ✱ ❝♦♠♦ *❡❣✉❡✿
φv : V → R
u 7→ hu, vi .
❉❡ ❢❛,♦✱ φv @ ✉♠ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛'✱ ♣♦✐*✱ ♣❛'❛ ,♦❞♦* u1 , u2 ∈ V ❡ ,♦❞♦

a ∈ R✱ ,❡♠♦*
φv (u1 + au2 ) = hu1 + au2 , vi = hu1 , vi + ahu2 , vi = φv (u1 ) + aφv (u2 ).
❆**✐♠✱ ❝❛❞❛ v ❡♠ V ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♠ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛' φv ❡♠ V ✱ ♦✉ *❡❥❛✱ ✉♠ ❡❧❡✲

♠❡♥,♦ ❞❡ (V, R)✳ ❆ '❡❝:♣'♦❝❛ ❞❡*,❡ ❢❛,♦ @ ,❛♠❜@♠ ✈❡'❞❛❞❡✐'❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♠♦*,'❛
♦ *❡❣✉✐♥,❡ '❡*✉❧,❛❞♦✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✶✳ ❉❛❞♦ ✉♠ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛, φ ❡♠ V ✱ ❡①✐/0❡ ✉♠ 1♥✐❝♦ ✈❡0♦,

v∈V 0❛❧ 3✉❡ φ = φv ✳
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ❙❡❥❛ φ ∈ (V, R) ❡ ✜①❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛*❡ ♦',♦♥♦'♠❛❧ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }
❞❡ V ✳ I❡❧♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✷✱ ,♦❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥,♦ u ∈ V *❡ ❡*❝'❡✈❡ ❝♦♠♦
u = hu, v1 iv1 + hu, v2 iv2 + · · · + hu, vn ivn .
❊①✐,-3♥❝✐❛✿ ❚♦♠❡♠♦* v = φ(v1 )v1 + φ(v2 )v2 + · · · + φ(vn )vn ✳

I♦' ✉♠ ❧❛❞♦✱ ,❡♠♦*

φ(u) = φ hu, v1 iv1 + hu, v2 iv2 + · · · + hu, vn ivn
✭✶✮
= hu, v1 i φ(v1 ) + hu, v2 i φ(v2 ) + · · · + hu, vn i φ(vn ).
✷✵✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
"♦$ ♦✉&$♦ ❧❛❞♦✱
hu, vi = hu, φ(v1 )v1 + φ(v2 )v2 + · · · + φ(vn )vn i

✭✷✮
= φ(v1 )hu, v1 i + φ(v2 )hu, v2 i + · · · + φ(vn )hu, vn i.
❏✉♥&❛♥❞♦ ✭✶✮ ❡ ✭✷✮ ♦❜&❡♠♦3 4✉❡ φ(u) = hu, vi = φv (u)✱ ♣❛$❛ &♦❞♦ u ∈ V ✳
❯♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡✿ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦3 4✉❡ v ′ &❡♥❤❛ ❛ ♣$♦♣$✐❡❞❛❞❡ hu, v ′ i = hu, vi✱ ♣❛$❛
&♦❞♦ u ∈ V ✳ ▲♦❣♦ hu, v − v ′ i = 0✱ ♣❛$❛ &♦❞♦ u ∈ V ✳ "♦$&❛♥&♦✱ v − v ′
< ♦$&♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ &♦❞♦3 ♦3 ✈❡&♦$❡3 ❞❡ V ✱ ♦ 4✉❡✱ ❡♠ ✈✐$&✉❞❡ ❞♦ "$♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✼✱
❛❝❛$$❡&❛ 4✉❡ v = v ′ ✳
❖❜3❡$✈❡ 4✉❡ ♦ ❚❡♦$❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✶ ❣❛$❛♥&❡ 4✉❡ ❛ ❢✉♥DE♦ v 7→ φv ✱ ♦♥❞❡ φv (u) =
hu, vi (u ∈ V )✱ < ✉♠ ✐3♦♠♦$✜3♠♦ ❡♥&$❡ V ❡ (V, R) ✭❝❢✳ "$♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✹✳✹✮✳
❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✷✳ ❉❛❞♦ ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❧✐♥❡❛( T ❡♠ V ✱ ❡①✐./❡ ✉♠ 0♥✐❝♦ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦(
❧✐♥❡❛( T ∗ ❡♠ V /❛❧ 2✉❡
hT (v), wi = hv, T ∗ (w)i, ♣❛$❛ 4✉❛✐34✉❡$ v, w ∈ V.
❉❡♠♦♥12*❛34♦ ❚♦♠❡ w ∈ V ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛ ❢✉♥DE♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦$ v 7→ hT (v), wi

< ✉♠ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛$ ❡♠ V ✭✈❡$✐✜4✉❡✮✱ 3❡❣✉❡✱ ❞♦ ❚❡♦$❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✶✱ 4✉❡ ❡①✐3&❡
✉♠ I♥✐❝♦ ✈❡&♦$ w′ ∈ V &❛❧ 4✉❡
hT (v), wi = hv, w′ i, ♣❛$❛ &♦❞♦ v ∈ V.
❇❛3&❛ ❞❡✜♥✐$ T ∗ (w) = w′ ✳ ❆ ❞❡♠♦♥3&$❛DE♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦$❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✶ &❛♠❜<♠ ♥♦3

♠♦3&$❛ 4✉❡ 3❡ {v1 , . . . , vn } < ✉♠❛ ❜❛3❡ ♦$&♦♥♦$♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥&E♦
T ∗ (w) = w′ = hT (v1 ), wiv1 + · · · + hT (vn ), wivn .
❉❛M✱ ✈N✲3❡ ❝❧❛$❛♠❡♥&❡ 4✉❡ T ∗ < ❧✐♥❡❛$✳

❖ ♦♣❡$❛❞♦$ T ∗ < ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❛❞❥✉♥/♦ ❞❡ T ✳ ❆33✐♠✱ ♦ ❚❡♦$❡♠❛
✼✳✹✳✷ ❛✜$♠❛ 4✉❡ &♦❞♦ ♦♣❡$❛❞♦$ ❧✐♥❡❛$ T ✱ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡3♣❛D♦ ❝♦♠ ♣$♦❞✉&♦ ✐♥&❡$♥♦
❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥3E♦ ✜♥✐&❛✱ ♣♦33✉✐ ✉♠ ♦♣❡$❛❞♦$ ❛❞❥✉♥&♦ T ∗ ✳
❖ ♣$Q①✐♠♦ $❡3✉❧&❛❞♦ ♠♦3&$❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦3 ♦❜&❡$ T ∗ ❛ ♣❛$&✐$ ❞❡ ✉♠❛
$❡♣$❡3❡♥&❛DE♦ ♠❛&$✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ T ✳
✹✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊▼ ❊❙#❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ #❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖ ✷✵✶
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✹✳✸✳ ❛"❛ #♦❞❛ ❜❛'❡ ♦"#♦♥♦"♠❛❧ α ❞❡ V ❡ ♣❛"❛ #♦❞♦ ♦♣❡"❛❞♦"

❧✐♥❡❛" T ❡♠ V ✱ #❡♠♦' /✉❡
[T ∗ ]αα = ([T ]αα )t .
#❛%❛ ❞❡♠♦♥+,%❛%♠♦+ ❛ ♣%♦♣♦+✐/0♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ✈❛♠♦+ ♣%❡❝✐+❛% ❞♦ +❡❣✉✐♥,❡ %❡✲

+✉❧,❛❞♦✱ ❝✉❥❛ ❞❡♠♦♥+,%❛/0♦ ✜❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡%❝;❝✐♦ ♣❛%❛ ♦ ❧❡✐,♦% ✭✈❡❥❛ #%♦❜❧❡♠❛
✹✳✺✮✳
▲❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✹✳ ❙❡❥❛ α = {v1, . . . , vn} ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ♦"#♦♥♦"♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ✳ ❙❡ A =

[aij ]n×n 4 ❛ ♠❛#"✐③ /✉❡ "❡♣"❡'❡♥#❛ ✉♠ ♦♣"❡"❛❞♦" T ❡♠ V ✱ ❝♦♠ "❡❧❛78♦ 9 ❜❛'❡
α ✭♦✉ '❡❥❛✱ A = [T ]αα ✮✱ ❡♥#8♦
aij = hT (vj ), vi i, ♣❛%❛ ,♦❞♦+ i, j, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n.
❉❡♠♦♥$2!❛&'♦ ❞❛ !♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✹✳✸✳ ❈♦♥+✐❞❡%❡ ❛+ ♠❛,%✐③❡+ [T ]αα = [aij ]n×n

❡ [T ∗ ]αα = [bij ]n×n ✳ #❡❧♦ ▲❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✹✱
aij = hT (vj ), vi i e bij = hT ∗ (vj ), vi i, ♣❛%❛ ,♦❞♦+ i, j, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n.
▲♦❣♦✱
bij = hT ∗ (vj ), vi i = hvi , T ∗ (vj )i = hT (vi ), vj i = aji ,
♣❛%❛ ,♦❞♦+ i, j ✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n✱ ♣%♦✈❛♥❞♦ ♦ %❡+✉❧,❛❞♦✳

❯♠ ♦♣❡%❛❞♦% ❧✐♥❡❛% T : V → V G ❞✐,♦ +❡% ✉♠ ♦♣❡"❛❞♦" '✐♠4#"✐❝♦ H✉❛♥❞♦
T = T✳
∗
#❡❧❛ #%♦♣♦+✐/0♦ ✼✳✹✳✸✱ ♦❜+❡%✈❛♠♦+ H✉❡ +❡ T G ✉♠ ♦♣❡%❛❞♦% +✐♠G,%✐❝♦ ❡♠

V ✱ ❡♥,0♦ ♣❛%❛ ,♦❞❛ ❜❛+❡ ♦%,♦♥♦%♠❛❧ α ❞❡ V ,❡♠♦+
[T ]αα = ([T ]αα )t .
❆++✐♠✱ T : V → V 4 '✐♠4#"✐❝♦ '❡✱ ❡ '♦♠❡♥#❡ '❡✱ [T ]αα 4 ✉♠❛ ♠❛#"✐③ '✐♠4✲

#"✐❝❛ ✳ ❖❜+❡%✈❡♠♦+ H✉❡ ♦ ❢❛,♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡%❛❞♦% +❡% +✐♠G,%✐❝♦ ♥0♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❛
❜❛+❡ ♦%,♦♥♦%♠❛❧ ❡+❝♦❧❤✐❞❛✳ #♦%,❛♥,♦✱ +❡ [T ]αα ❢♦% ✉♠❛ ♠❛,%✐③ +✐♠G,%✐❝❛ ❡♠
✷✵✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
✉♠❛ ❞❡'❡(♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❜❛,❡ ♦('♦♥♦(♠❛❧ α✱ ❡♥'0♦ [T ]ββ ,❡(1 '❛♠❜2♠ ,✐♠2'(✐❝❛ ♣❛(❛
5✉❛❧5✉❡( ♦✉'(❛ ❜❛,❡ ♦('♦♥♦(♠❛❧ β ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : R3 → R3 ♦ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❧✐♥❡❛( ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣♦( T (x, y, z) =

(2x − y + z, −x + y + 3z, x + 3y)✳ ❙❡ α 2 ❛ ❜❛,❡ ❝❛♥:♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R3 ✱ ❡♥'0♦
 
1 −1 1
[T ]αα = −1 1 3
 
1 3 0
2 ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ ,✐♠2'(✐❝❛ ❡✱ ♣♦('❛♥'♦✱ T 2 ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ,✐♠2'(✐❝♦✳
✹✳✷ ❖♣❡&❛❞♦&❡* ❖&+♦❣♦♥❛✐*

❯♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❧✐♥❡❛( T : V → V 2 ❞✐'♦ ,❡( ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ♦!"♦❣♦♥❛❧ 5✉❛♥❞♦
T ∗ T = T T ∗ = IV .
❊♠ ♦✉'(❛, ♣❛❧❛✈(❛,✱ T 2 ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧ 5✉❛♥❞♦ T 2 ✐♥✈❡('@✈❡❧ ❡

T = T −1 ✳
∗
❉✐(❡♠♦, 5✉❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( T ❡♠ V ♣(❡,❡(✈❛ ♥♦(♠❛✱ ♣(❡,❡(✈❛ ❞✐,'B♥❝✐❛✱ ♦✉

♣(❡,❡(✈❛ ♣(♦❞✉'♦ ✐♥'❡(♥♦✱ 5✉❛♥❞♦✱ ♣❛(❛ '♦❞♦, u, v ∈ V ✱ ,❡ '❡♥❤❛ ||T (v)|| =
||v||✱ d(T (u), T (v)) = d(u, v)✱ ♦✉ hT (u), T (v)i = hu, vi✱ (❡,♣❡❝'✐✈❛♠❡♥'❡✳
❖ (❡,✉❧'❛❞♦ ❛ ,❡❣✉✐( ❝❛(❛❝'❡(✐③❛ ♦, ♦♣❡(❛❞♦(❡, ♦('♦❣♦♥❛✐,✳
❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✺✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → V ✉♠ ♦♣❡!❛❞♦! ❧✐♥❡❛!✳ ❆1 1❡❣✉✐♥"❡1 ❛✜!♠❛✲

45❡1 16♦ ❡7✉✐✈❛❧❡♥"❡1✿
✭✐✮ T : ♦!"♦❣♦♥❛❧❀
✭✐✐✮ T ♣!❡1❡!✈❛ ❛ ♥♦!♠❛❀
✭✐✐✐✮ T ♣!❡1❡!✈❛ ❛ ❞✐1"<♥❝✐❛❀
✭✐✈✮ T ♣!❡1❡!✈❛ ♦ ♣!♦❞✉"♦ ✐♥"❡!♥♦❀
✭✈✮ T "!❛♥1❢♦!♠❛ "♦❞❛ ❜❛1❡ ♦!"♦♥♦!♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ♥✉♠❛ ❜❛1❡ ♦!"♦♥♦!♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ❀
✹✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊▼ ❊❙#❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ #❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖ ✷✵✸
✭✈✐✮ T !❛♥$❢♦!♠❛ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ♦! ♦♥♦!♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ♥✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ♦! ♦♥♦!♠❛❧
❞❡ V✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ✭✐✮ ⇒ ✭✐✐✮ ❙❡ v ∈ V ✱ ❡♥+,♦ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✷✳
||T (v)||2 = hT (v), T (v)i = hv, T ∗ (T (v))i = hv, IV (v)i = hv, vi = ||v||2 .
✭✐✐✮ ⇒ ✭✐✐✐✮ ❙❡ v, u ∈ V ✱ ❡♥+,♦
d(T (v), T (u)) = ||T (v) − T (u)|| = ||T (v − u)|| = ||v − u|| = d(v, u).
✭✐✐✐✮ ⇒ ✭✐✈✮ ❙❡ v, u ∈ V ✱ ❡♥+,♦ d(T (v + u), 0) = d(v + u, 0)✳ ❖✉ 9❡❥❛✱
||T (v + u)||2 = ||v + u||2 . ✭✸✮
◆♦+❡ <✉❡
||T (v + u)||2 = hT (v), T (v)i + 2hT (v), T (u)i + hT (u), T (u)i
❡
||v + u||2 = hv, vi + 2hv, ui + hu, ui . ✭✹✮
❈♦♠♦
hv, vi = (d(v, 0))2 = (d(T (v), 0))2 = hT (v), T (v)i,
♦ ♠❡9♠♦ ✈❛❧❡♥❞♦ ♣❛1❛ u✱ +❡♠♦9 ❞❡ ✭✸✮ ❡ ✭✹✮ <✉❡ hT (v), T (u)i = hv, ui✱ ❝♦♠♦
❞❡9❡❥❛❞♦✳
✭✐✈✮ ⇒ ✭✐✮ ❙❡ v, u ∈ V ✱ ❡♥+,♦ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✷
hv, ui = hT (v), T (u)i = hv, T ∗ (T (u))i,
♠♦9+1❛♥❞♦ <✉❡✱ ♣❛1❛ +♦❞♦9 u, v ∈ V ✱
hv, (T ∗ T − IV )(u)i = 0.
@❡❧♦ @1♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✽✱ +❡♠♦9 <✉❡ (T ∗ T − IV )(u) = 0✱ ♣❛1❛ +♦❞♦ u ∈ V ✱ ♦ <✉❡

❛❝❛11❡+❛ <✉❡ T ∗ T = IV ✱ ❧♦❣♦ T D ♦1+♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
✷✵✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
✭✐✮ ⇒ ✭✈✮ ❙❡❥❛ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ♦01♦♥♦0♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ✳ ❊♥17♦

0 .❡ i 6= j
hT (vi ), T (vj )i = hvi , vj i =
1 .❡ i = j.
▲♦❣♦✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦ {T (v1 ), T (v2 ), . . . , T (vn )} < ♦01♦♥♦0♠❛❧ ❡✱ ❝♦♥.❡=✉❡♥1❡♠❡♥1❡✱

❧✐♥❡❛0♠❡♥1❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥1❡ ✭?0♦♣♦.✐@7♦ ✼✳✸✳✶✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ dim V =n✱ ❝♦♥❝❧✉E♠♦.
=✉❡ ❡..❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦ < ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❞❡ V ✳
✭✈✮ ⇒ ✭✈✐✮ ❊.1❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛@7♦ < F❜✈✐❛✳
✭✈✐✮ ⇒ ✭✐✈✮ ❙❡❥❛ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ♦01♦♥♦0♠❛❧ ❞❡ V 1❛❧ =✉❡
{T (v1 ), T (v2 ), . . . , T (vn )} 1❛♠❜<♠ < ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ♦01♦♥♦0♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ v
❡ u ❡♠ V ✳ ❙❡
v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ❡ u = b1 v 1 + b 2 b 2 + · · · + bn vn ,
❡♥17♦
n X
X n n X
X n
hv, ui = ai bj hvi , vj i = ai b j . ✭✺✮
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
?♦0 ♦✉10♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ 1❡♠♦.
T (v) = a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) + · · · + an T (vn ) ❡
T (u) = b1 T (v1 ) + b2 T (v2 ) + · · · + bn T (vn ),
❞♦♥❞❡
n X
X n n X
X n
hT (v), T (u)i = ai bj hT (vi ), T (vj )i = ai b j . ✭✻✮
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
❆..✐♠✱ ❞❡ ✭✺✮ ❡ ✭✻✮✱ ❝♦♥❝❧✉E♠♦. =✉❡ hT (v), T (u)i = hv, ui✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡.❡❥❛❞♦✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❈♦♥.✐❞❡0❡♠♦. ♦ ♦♣❡0❛❞♦0 ❧✐♥❡❛0 T : R2 → R2 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦0 T (x, y) =

(x cos θ −y sen θ, x sen θ +y cos θ)✳ ▲❡♠❜0❡♠♦. ❞❛ ❙❡@7♦ ✸✱ ❞♦ ❈❛♣E1✉❧♦ ✻✱ =✉❡
T < ♦ ♦♣❡0❛❞♦0 0♦1❛@7♦ ♣♦0 ✉♠ J♥❣✉❧♦ θ ❡♠ R2 ✳ ◆♦1❡ =✉❡ .❡ α < ❛ ❜❛.❡ ❝❛♥L✲
♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥1♦ {T (1, 0), T (0, 1)} = {(cos θ, sen θ)✱ (− sen θ, cos θ)} <
✹✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊▼ ❊❙#❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ #❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖ ✷✵✺
✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ♦*+♦♥♦*♠❛❧ ❡♠ R2 ✳ ❆''✐♠✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦*❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✺✱ T 6 ✉♠ ♦♣❡*❛❞♦*

♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❡♠ R2 ✳
9❛*❛ *❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛*♠♦' ❛ ♣*♦♣*✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡*❛❞♦* '❡* ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♠ ♣*♦✲

♣*✐❡❞❛❞❡' ❞❡ '✉❛' ♠❛+*✐③❡' ❛''♦❝✐❛❞❛'✱ ❡'+❛❜❡❧❡❝❡♠♦' ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐>?♦ ❛ '❡❣✉✐*✳
❯♠❛ ♠❛+*✐③ A ∈ M(n, n) 6 ❞✐+❛ '❡* ♦!"♦❣♦♥❛❧ A✉❛♥❞♦
A At = At A = In .
❊♠ ♦✉+*❛' ♣❛❧❛✈*❛'✱ A 6 ✉♠❛ ♠❛+*✐③ ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧ '❡ A 6 ✐♥✈❡*+D✈❡❧ ❡ At = A−1 ✳
❙❡❣✉❡ ✐♠❡❞✐❛+❛♠❡♥+❡ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐>?♦ A✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛+*✐③ A 6 ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧ '❡✱ ❡

'♦♠❡♥+❡ '❡✱ ❛ ♠❛+*✐③ At 6 ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
9♦* ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ♠❛+*✐③ ❞❡ *♦+❛>?♦ ❡♠ R3 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦*

 
cos θ − sen θ 0
A = sen θ cos θ 0
 
0 0 1
6 ✉♠❛ ♠❛+*✐③ ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧✳

❈♦♠ ♦ *❡'✉❧+❛❞♦ ❛ '❡❣✉✐* ♣♦❞❡♠♦' ✈❡*✐✜❝❛* ♠❛✐' ❢❛❝✐❧♠❡♥+❡ '❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛+*✐③
6 ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧ ♦✉ ♥?♦✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✹✳✻✳ '❛!❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛"!✐③ A = aij n×n ✱ ❛- -❡❣✉✐♥"❡- ❛✜!♠❛01❡-

-2♦ ❡3✉✐✈❛❧❡♥"❡-✿
✭✐✮ A 6 ♦!"♦❣♦♥❛❧❀
✭✐✐✮ ❆- ❝♦❧✉♥❛- ❞❡ A ❢♦!♠❛♠ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥"♦ ♦!"♦♥♦!♠❛❧ ❡♠ Rn ❀
✭✐✐✐✮ ❆- ❧✐♥❤❛- ❞❡ A ❢♦!♠❛♠ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥"♦ ♦!"♦♥♦!♠❛❧ ❡♠ Rn ✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ✭✐✮ ⇔ ✭✐✐✮ ❈❤❛♠❡♠♦' At A = bij n×n ✳ 9❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐>?♦ ❞❡

♣*♦❞✉+♦ ❞❡ ♠❛+*✐③❡'✱ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦ bij 6 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦*
bij = a1i a1j + a2i a2j + · · · + ani anj

= h(a1i , a2i , . . . , ani ), (a1j , a2j , . . . , anj )i.
✷✵✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
#♦%&❛♥&♦✱ ❞❛+ ,❡❣✉❡✲,❡ 1✉❡
At A = In ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥&❡ ,❡✱

0 ,❡ i 6= j
h(a1i , a2i , . . . , ani ), (a1j , a2j , . . . , anj )i =
1 ,❡ i = j,
♣%♦✈❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❞❡,❡❥❛❞♦✳
✭✐✮ ⇔ ✭✐✐✐✮ ❇❛,&❛ ✉&✐❧✐③❛% ♦ ❢❛&♦ 1✉❡ A > ♦%&♦❣♦♥❛❧ ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥&❡ ,❡✱ At >
♦%&♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ 1✉❡ ❛, ❧✐♥❤❛, ❞❡ At ,@♦ ❛, ❝♦❧✉♥❛, ❞❡ A ❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛% ♦ 1✉❡ ❢♦✐ ♣%♦✈❛❞♦
❛❝✐♠❛✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✼✳ ❙❡ α ❡ β "#♦ ❜❛"❡" ♦'(♦♥♦'♠❛✐" ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥(#♦ ❛ ♠❛('✐③
α
♠✉❞❛♥0❛ ❞❡ ❜❛"❡ IV β 1 ✉♠❛ ♠❛('✐③ ♦'(♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ ❙❡❥❛♠ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ❡ β = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn }✳ ❙✉♣♦✲
♥❤❛♠♦, [IV ]αβ = [aij ]✳ #❛%❛ ❝❛❞❛ i✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ &❡♠♦, 1✉❡
vi = a1i w1 + a2i w2 + · · · + ani wn .
❖%❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ vi ❡ vj ,@♦ ♦%&♦❣♦♥❛✐,✱ 1✉❛♥❞♦ i 6= j ✱ ❡♥&@♦
0 = hvi , vj i = a1i a1j + a2i a2j + · · · + ani anj

= h(a1i , a2i , . . . , ani ), (a1j , a2j , . . . , anj )i, ✭✼✮
♣♦✐, β > ♦%&♦♥♦%♠❛❧✳ ❉❡ ✭✼✮ ❝♦♥❝❧✉+♠♦, 1✉❡ ❛, ❝♦❧✉♥❛, ❞❡ [IV ]αβ ❢♦%♠❛♠
✈❡&♦%❡, ♦%&♦❣♦♥❛✐, ❡♠ Rn ✳ ❱❡❥❛♠♦, ❛❣♦%❛ 1✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ [IV ]αβ ❢♦%♠❛
✉♠ ✈❡&♦% ✉♥✐&G%✐♦ ❡♠ Rn ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛&♦✱ ,❡ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ ❡♥&@♦
1 = hvi , vi i = a21i + a22i + · · · + a2ni ,
❥G 1✉❡ β > ♦%&♦♥♦%♠❛❧✳ ❆,,✐♠✱ ❛, ❝♦❧✉♥❛, ❞❡ [IV ]αβ ❢♦%♠❛♠ ✈❡&♦%❡, ✉♥✐&G%✐♦,
❡♠ Rn ✳ #❡❧❛ #%♦♣♦,✐I@♦ ✼✳✹✳✻✱ [IV ]αβ > ✉♠❛ ♠❛&%✐③ ♦%&♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
❚❡%♠✐♥❛%❡♠♦, ❛ ,❡I@♦ ♠♦,&%❛♥❞♦ ❛ %❡❧❛I@♦ ❡♥&%❡ ♦, ♦♣❡%❛❞♦%❡, ♦%&♦❣♦♥❛✐,
❡ ❛, ♠❛&%✐③❡, ♦%&♦❣♦♥❛✐,✳
❙❡❥❛♠ ❞❛❞♦, ✉♠ ❡,♣❛I♦ ✈❡&♦%✐❛❧✱ ❝♦♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ α = {v1 , . . . , vn }✱ ❡ ✉♠❛
♠❛&%✐③ 1✉❛❞%❛❞❛ A = [aij ] ❞❡ ♦%❞❡♠ n✳ #♦❞❡♠♦,✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❢❡✐&♦ ♥❛ ❙❡I@♦ ✶
✹✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊▼ ❊❙#❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ #❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖ ✷✵✼
❞♦ ❈❛♣()✉❧♦ ✻ ♣❛-❛ Rn ❡ ❛ ❜❛0❡ ❝❛♥3♥✐❝❛✱ ❛00♦❝✐❛- 6 ♠❛)-✐③ A ✉♠ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦-

❧✐♥❡❛- TA ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ 0❡❣✉❡✿
TA (v) = (a11 x1 + · · · + a1n xn , . . . , an1 x1 + · · · + ann xn ),
♦♥❞❡ x1 , . . . , xn 0<♦ ❛0 ❝♦♦-❞❡♥❛❞❛0 ❞❡ v -❡❧❛)✐✈❛♠❡♥)❡ 6 ❜❛0❡ α✱ ♦✉ 0❡❥❛
v = x 1 v1 + · · · + xn vn .
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✼✳✹✳✽✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ♦)*♦♥♦)♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ❡ T ✉♠ ♦♣❡)❛❞♦)

❧✐♥❡❛) ❡♠ V ✳ ❙❡❥❛ A ∈ M(n, n)✳
✭✐✮ T 1 ♦)*♦❣♦♥❛❧ '❡✱ ❡ '♦♠❡♥*❡ '❡✱ [T ]αα 1 ♦)*♦❣♦♥❛❧✳

✭✐✐✮ A 1 ♦)*♦❣♦♥❛❧ '❡✱ ❡ '♦♠❡♥*❡ '❡✱ TA 1 ♦)*♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ A-♦✈❛-❡♠♦0 ❛♣❡♥❛0 ♦ ✐)❡♠ ✭✐✮✱ ❞❡✐①❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥0)-❛C<♦

❞♦ ✐)❡♠ ✭✐✐✮ ♣❛-❛ ♦ ❧❡✐)♦- ✭✈❡❥❛ A-♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✵✮✳
❉❡ ❢❛)♦✱ 0❡ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } I ✉♠❛ ❜❛0❡ ♦-)♦♥♦-♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ❡ 0❡ T I ✉♠ ♦✲
♣❡-❛❞♦- ♦-)♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❡♠ V ❡♥)<♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✺✱ β = {T (v1 ), T (v2 ), . . . , T (vn )}
I ✉♠❛ ❜❛0❡ ♦-)♦♥♦-♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ✳ ❙❡ [T ]αα = [aij ]✱ ❡♥)<♦✱ ♣❛-❛ )♦❞♦ i✱ ❝♦♠
1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ )❡♠♦0
T (vi ) = a1i v1 + a2i v2 + · · · + ani vn .
❈♦♠♦ β I ♦-)♦♥♦-♠❛❧✱ 0❡❣✉❡ N✉❡ hT (vi ), T (vj )i = 0 0❡ i6=j ❡ hT (vi ), T (vi )i=1✳
A♦- ♦✉)-♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ 0❡♥❞♦ α I ♦-)♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ )❡♠♦0 N✉❡
a1i a1j + a2i a2j + · · · + ani anj =

ha1i v1 + a2i v2 + · · · + ani vn , a1j v1 + a2j v2 + · · · + anj vn i =

 0 0❡ i 6= j
hT (vi ), T (vj )i = ✭✽✮
 1 0❡ i = j,
♠♦0)-❛♥❞♦ ❛00✐♠ N✉❡ ❛0 ❝♦❧✉♥❛0 ❞❡ [T ]αα ❢♦-♠❛♠ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ♦-)♦♥♦-♠❛❧ ❡♠

Rn ✳ A❡❧❛ A-♦♣♦0✐C<♦ ✼✳✹✳✻✱ [T ]αα I ✉♠❛ ♠❛)-✐③ ♦-)♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
✷✵✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✼✳ ❊❙"❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ "❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖
❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ❛❣♦-❛ .✉❡ [T ]αα = [aij ] 0 ✉♠❛ ♠❛1-✐③ ♦-1♦❣♦♥❛❧✳ 6❛-❛ ♠♦+✲
1-❛-♠♦+ .✉❡ T 0 ♦-1♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❜❛+1❛ ♣-♦✈❛-♠♦+✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✺✱ .✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥✲
❥✉♥1♦ {T (v1 ), T (v2 ), . . . , T (vn )} 0 ♦-1♦♥♦-♠❛❧ ❡♠ V ✳ ▼❛+ ✐+1♦ ♣♦❞❡ +❡- ❢❛❝✐❧✲
♠❡♥1❡ ✈❡-✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❛ ♣❛-1✐- ❞❡ ✭✽✮✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✹✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ S ❡ T ♦♣❡-❛❞♦-❡+ ❧✐♥❡❛-❡+ ♥✉♠ ❡+♣❛G♦ ❝♦♠ ♣-♦❞✉1♦ ✐♥1❡-♥♦ ❞❡
❞✐♠❡♥+H♦ ✜♥✐1❛ ❡ +❡❥❛ k ∈ R✳ 6-♦✈❡ .✉❡✿
✭❛✮ (S + T )∗ = S ∗ + T ∗ ❀ ✭❜✮ (kT )∗ = kT ∗ ❀
✭❝✮ (ST )∗ = T ∗ S ∗ ❀ ✭❞✮ (T ∗ )∗ = T ✳
✹✳✷ ❈♦♥+✐❞❡-❡ ♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛- φ : R3 → R ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣♦- φ(x, y, z) = x +

4y − 5z ✳ ❊♥❝♦♥1-❡ ♦ ✈❡1♦- v ❡♠ R3 1❛❧ .✉❡ φ = φv ✳
✹✳✸ ❙❡❥❛ T : R3 → R3 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦- T (x, y, z) = (2x + 2y, 3x − 4z, y)✳ ❊♥❝♦♥1-❡
T (x, y, z)✳
∗
✹✳✹ ▼♦+1-❡ .✉❡ ❛ ❢✉♥GH♦

V → (V, R)
v 7 → φv
♦♥❞❡ φv (u) = hu, vi✱ ♣❛-❛ 1♦❞♦ u ∈ V ✱ 0 ✉♠ ✐+♦♠♦-✜+♠♦ ❞❡ ❡+♣❛G♦+ ✈❡1♦-✐❛✐+✳
▼♦+1-❡ ❝♦♠ ✐+1♦ .✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦+ 1-❛♥+♣♦-1❛- ♦ ♣-♦❞✉1♦ ✐♥1❡-♥♦ ❞❡ V ♣❛-❛ (V, R)✱
❞♦ +❡❣✉✐♥1❡ ♠♦❞♦✿
hφu , φv i = hu, vi.
✹✳✺ ❉❡♠♦♥+1-❡ ♦ ▲❡♠❛ ✼✳✹✳✹✳

✹✳✻ ❉❡♥1-❡ ♦+ +❡❣✉✐♥1❡+ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦-❡+ ❧✐♥❡❛-❡+✱ ✈❡-✐✜❝❛- .✉❛✐+ +H♦ ♦-1♦❣♦♥❛✐+✿
✭❛✮ T : R2 → R2 ✱ T (x, y) = (−y, −x)❀
✭❜✮ T : R2 → R2 ✱ T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y)❀
✭❝✮ T : R3 → R3 ✱ T (x, y, z) = (z, x, −y)❀
✭❞✮ T : R3 → R3 ✱ T (x, y, z) = (x, y cos θ + z sen θ, −y sen θ + z cos θ)✳
✹✳ ❖#❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊▼ ❊❙#❆➬❖❙ ❈❖▼ #❘❖❉❯❚❖ ■◆❚❊❘◆❖ ✷✵✾
✹✳✼✯ ❊♥❝♦♥'(❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧ [aij ] ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ ✸ ❝✉❥❛ ♣(✐♠❡✐(❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ 6
❞❛❞❛ ♣♦(
1 2 2
a11 = , a12 = , ❡ a13 = ·
3 3 3
✹✳✽ ▼♦8'(❡ 9✉❡ ♦ ♣(♦❞✉'♦ ❞❡ ♠❛'(✐③❡8 ♦('♦❣♦♥❛✐8 6 ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧✳
✹✳✾ ❈♦♥8'(✉❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ ♦('♦❣♦♥❛❧ A = [aij ] ❝✉❥❛ ♣(✐♠❡✐(❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ 8❡❥❛✿
2 −1
✭❛✮ a11 = √ ✱ a21 = √ ❀
5 5
1 −2 −2
✭❜✮ a11 = ✱ a21 = ❡ a31 = ·
3 3 3
✹✳✶✵ ❈♦♥❝❧✉❛ ❛ ❞❡♠♦♥8'(❛BC♦ ❞❛ D(♦♣♦8✐BC♦ ✼✳✹✳✽✳
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✽
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✽✿ ❉❡$❡,♠✐♥❛♥$❡0
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ !"♦♣"✐❡❞❛❞❡) ❞♦) ❉❡+❡"♠✐♥❛♥+❡) ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✶
✶✳✶ "#♦♣#✐❡❞❛❞❡* ❈❛#❛❝-❡#.*-✐❝❛* ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✶
✶✳✷ "#♦♣#✐❡❞❛❞❡* ❆❞✐❝✐♦♥❛✐* ❞❛* ❋✉♥45❡* D ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✷
✶✳✸ "#♦♣#✐❡❞❛❞❡ ▼✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛-✐✈❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✺
✷ ❊①✐)+2♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❉❡+❡"♠✐♥❛♥+❡) ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✽
✸ ▼❛+"✐③ ❆❞❥✉♥+❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✷✵
✹ ❘❡❣"❛ ❞❡ ❈"❛♠❡" ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✷✹
✷✶✵
✶✳ "❘❖"❘■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❉❖❙ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ✷✶✶
✶ !"♦♣"✐❡❞❛❞❡) ❞♦) ❉❡+❡"♠✐♥❛♥+❡)

❊#$✉❞❛(❡♠♦# ♥❡#$❛ #❡-.♦ ❛# ♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❞♦# ❞❡$❡(♠✐♥❛♥$❡# ❞❡ ♠❛$(✐③❡#
2✉❛❞(❛❞❛#✱ ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❞♦✲❛# ❡♠ $(6# ❝❛$❡❣♦(✐❛#✱ ❛ #❛❜❡(✿
✶✮ <(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❝❛(❛❝$❡(=#$✐❝❛#✱ ❛2✉❡❧❛# 2✉❡ ❜❛#$❛♠ ♣❛(❛ ❞❡$❡(♠✐♥❛( ❛# ❢✉♥✲
-@❡# ❞❡$❡(♠✐♥❛♥$❡#❀
✷✮ <(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛✐#✱ ❛2✉❡❧❛# 2✉❡ #❡❣✉❡♠ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ 2✉❛#❡ ❞✐(❡$♦ ❞❛#
♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❝❛(❛❝$❡(=#$✐❝❛#❀
✸✮ <(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡ ♠✉❧$✐♣❧✐❝❛$✐✈❛✱ 2✉❡ (❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❞❡$❡(♠✐♥❛♥$❡# ❞❡ ♣(♦❞✉$♦# ❞❡
♠❛$(✐③❡# ❝♦♠ ♦# ❞❡$❡(♠✐♥❛♥$❡# ❞♦# ❢❛$♦(❡#✳ ❊##❛ ♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡ D ❝♦♥#❡2✉6♥❝✐❛
❞❛# ♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❝❛(❛❝$❡(=#$✐❝❛# ❡ ❞❡ ♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❞❛# ♠❛$(✐③❡# ❛♥$❡(✐♦(♠❡♥$❡
❡#$✉❞❛❞❛#✳
✶✳✶ "#♦♣#✐❡❞❛❞❡* ❈❛#❛❝-❡#.*-✐❝❛*

❙❡❥❛ K ✉♠ ❝♦(♣♦✶ ❡ #❡❥❛ n ✉♠ ♥G♠❡(♦ ♥❛$✉(❛❧✱ ❝♦♠ n ≥ 2✳ ❉❡♥♦$❛(❡♠♦#
♣♦( MK (n)✱ ♦✉ #✐♠♣❧❡#♠❡♥$❡ ♣♦( M(n)✱ ♦ ❡#♣❛-♦ ❞❛# ♠❛$(✐③❡# 2✉❛❞(❛❞❛# ❞❡
♦(❞❡♠ n ❝♦♠ ❡♥$(❛❞❛# ♥♦ ❝♦(♣♦ K ✳ ◆♦##♦ ♦❜❥❡$✐✈♦✱ ♥❡#$❡ ❝❛♣=$✉❧♦✱ D ❡#$❡♥❞❡(
❛ n > 3 ❛ ♥♦-.♦ ❞❡ ❞❡$❡(♠✐♥❛♥$❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$(✐③ ❡♠ M(n) 2✉❡ ✐♥$(♦❞✉③✐♠♦#
♥♦ ❈❛♣=$✉❧♦ ✹ ♥♦# ❝❛#♦# n = 2 ❡ n = 3✳
❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$(✐③ A ∈ M(n)✱ ❞❡♥♦$❛(❡♠♦# ♣♦( A1 , . . . , An ∈ K n ♦# #❡✉#
✈❡$♦(❡# ❧✐♥❤❛# ❡ ❡#❝(❡✈❡♠♦#
 
A1
 ✳ 
A =  ✳✳  .
An
◗✉❡(❡♠♦# ✜①❛( ❛ ♥♦##❛ ❛$❡♥-.♦ #♦❜(❡ ❛# ❢✉♥-@❡# D : M(n) → K 2✉❡

♣♦##✉❡♠ ❛# #❡❣✉✐♥$❡# ♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡#✿
✭❉✶✮ D D ❧✐♥❡❛( ❝♦♠♦ ❢✉♥-.♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ #❡♣❛(❛❞❛♠❡♥$❡✳
✶❖ ❧❡✐$♦& ♣♦❞❡ ✜①❛& ,✉❛ ❛$❡♥/0♦ ♥♦, ❝❛,♦, K = R ♦✉ K = C✱ ,❡ ❝♦♠ ✐,$♦ ,❡ ,❡♥$✐& ♠❛✐,
❝♦♥❢♦&$5✈❡❧✳
✷✶✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙
■#$♦ #✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ ,✉❡ #❡ Aj = A′j + tA′′j ✱ ♦♥❞❡ A′j , A′′j ∈ K n ❡ t ∈ K ✱ ❡♥$1♦
     
A1 A1 A1
 ✳✳   ✳ 
 ✳✳ 
 ✳✳ 

 ✳ 
  

 ✳  
D ′′  = D 
Aj + tAj 
′ ′  + tD 
 Aj  Aj ′′  .


 ✳✳   ✳ 
✳
 ✳✳ 
✳  ✳  ✳ 
     
  
An An An
✭❉✷✮ ❙❡ ❞✉❛# ❧✐♥❤❛# ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥$❡# Aj ❡ Aj+1 ❞❡ A #1♦ ✐❣✉❛✐#✱ ❡♥$1♦ D(A) = 0✳

✭❉✸✮ ❙❡ In ;❡♣;❡#❡♥$❛ ❛ ♠❛$;✐③ ✐❞❡♥$✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ M(n)✱ ❡♥$1♦ D(In ) = 1✳
❊#$❛# ♣;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡# #1♦ #❛$✐#❢❡✐$❛#✱ ♣♦; ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❡❧❛# ❢✉♥BC❡# ❞❡$❡;♠✐✲

♥❛♥$❡# det : M(2) → K ❡ det : M(3) → K ✐♥$;♦❞✉③✐❞❛# ♥❛ ❙❡B1♦ ✸ ❞♦
❈❛♣F$✉❧♦ ✹ ✭✈❡❥❛ I;♦❜❧❡♠❛# ✸✳✶ ❡ ✸✳✸ ❞♦ ❈❛♣F$✉❧♦ ✹✳✮
❆# I;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡# ✭❉✶✮ ❡ ✭❉✷✮ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥B1♦ D ❛❝❛;;❡$❛♠ ✈L;✐❛# ♦✉$;❛#
♣;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡#✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡;❡♠♦# ❛ #❡❣✉✐;✳ ❊##❛# ♣;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡#✱ ❥✉♥$❛♠❡♥$❡ ❝♦♠ ❛
I;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❉✸✮✱ ❞❡$❡;♠✐♥❛♠ ✉♠❛ M♥✐❝❛ ❢✉♥B1♦ ,✉❡ ❝❤❛♠❛;❡♠♦# ❞❡ ❢✉♥#$♦
❞❡(❡)♠✐♥❛♥(❡ ✱ ♦✉ #✐♠♣❧❡#♠❡♥$❡✱ ❞❡(❡)♠✐♥❛♥(❡ ✱ ❝♦♥❢♦;♠❡ ✈❡;❡♠♦# ♥❛ ❙❡B1♦ ✷✳
◆❛# ♣;O①✐♠❛# #✉❜#❡BC❡# ❡#$✉❞❛;❡♠♦# ♠❛✐# ♣;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❞❡ $❛✐# ❢✉♥BC❡#

D✳
✶✳✷ #$♦♣$✐❡❞❛❞❡+ ❆❞✐❝✐♦♥❛✐+ ❞❛+ ❋✉♥12❡+ D

◆❡#$❛ #❡B1♦ ❡#$✉❞❛;❡♠♦# ❛# ♣;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❞❛# ❢✉♥BC❡# D ,✉❡ ❞❡❝♦;;❡♠
❞❛# I;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡# ✭❉✶✮ ❡ ✭❉✷✮ ❞❛ #❡B1♦ ❛♥$❡;✐♦;✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✽✳✶✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ j ✉♠ ♥/♠❡)♦ ♥❛(✉)❛❧ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ j ≤ n − 1✳ ❙❡ A′ 3

❛ ♠❛()✐③ ♦❜(✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ♣♦) ♠❡✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ()❛♥7❢♦)♠❛#$♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥(❛) Lj ↔ Lj+1 ✱
❡♥($♦ D(A ) = −D(A)✳

′
❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ ❈♦♥#✐❞❡;❡ ❛ ♠❛$;✐③ B $❛❧ ,✉❡ Bj = Bj+1 = Aj + Aj+1 ❡

Bi = Ai ✱ #❡ i 6= j ❡ i 6= j + 1✳
❉❛ I;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❉✷✮ $❡♠♦# ,✉❡ D(B) = 0✳ ❉❛ I;♦♣;✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❉✶✮ ✭✉$✐❧✐✲
✶✳ "❘❖"❘■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❉❖❙ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ✷✶✸
③❛❞❛ ❞✉❛' ✈❡③❡'✮✱ ♦❜.❡♠♦' ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡

       
A1 A1 A1 A1
 ✳✳  ✳✳  ✳✳  ✳✳ 
 ✳  ✳  ✳  ✳ 
  
  
       
 A   Aj    Aj+1   Aj+1 
 j 
0 = D(B) = D  + D + D + D ,
   
     
 Aj   Aj+1   Aj    Aj+1 
 ✳✳  ✳✳  ✳✳  ✳✳ 
     
 ✳  ✳  ✳  ✳ 
  
  
An An An An
❞❛ 4✉❛❧ '❡❣✉❡✲'❡ ♦ 6❡'✉❧.❛❞♦✱ ♣♦✐' '❛❜❡♠♦'✱ ♣♦6 ✭❉✷✮✱ 4✉❡

   
A1 A1
 ✳✳  ✳✳ 
 ✳  ✳ 


   
 A   Aj+1 
 j 
D  = D  = 0.
 
 Aj   Aj+1 
 ✳✳  ✳✳ 
   
 ✳  ✳ 


An An

❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✷✳ ❙❡ A " ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ❝♦♠ ❞✉❛- ❧✐♥❤❛- ✐❣✉❛✐-✱ ❡♥&3♦ D(A) =
0✳
❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ ❈♦♠ ✉♠❛ .6♦❝❛ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛'✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦' .6❛♥'❢♦6♠❛6 ❛ ♠❛.6✐③ A
❡♠ ✉♠❛ ♠❛.6✐③ A′ ❝♦♠ ❞✉❛' ❧✐♥❤❛' ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥.❡' ✐❣✉❛✐'✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♣❡❧❛ ♣6♦♣♦'✐AB♦
❛♥.❡6✐♦6 ❡ ♣❡❧❛ C6♦♣6✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❉✷✮✱ .❡♠♦' 4✉❡
D(A) = ±D(A′ ) = 0.

❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✸✳ ❙❡ A " ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ♦❜&✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ♣♦' ✉♠❛ &'❛♥-❢♦'♠❛83♦
′
❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛' Li ↔ Lj ✱ i, j = 1, . . . , n✱ ❝♦♠ i 6= j ✱ ❡♥&3♦ D(A′ ) = −D(A)✳

❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ ❯'❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♠❡'♠❛ ✐❞❡✐❛ ❞❛ ♣6♦✈❛ ❞❛ C6♦♣♦'✐AB♦ ✽✳✶✳✶✱ ❝♦♥✲
'✐❞❡6❛♥❞♦ ♥❡'.❡ ❝❛'♦ ❛ ♠❛.6✐③ B .❛❧ 4✉❡ Bi = Bj = Ai + Aj ❡ Bk = Ak ✱ '❡
k 6= i, j ✱ ♦❜.❡♠♦' ♦ 6❡'✉❧.❛❞♦ ❝♦♠ ❛✉①G❧✐♦ ❞♦ ❈♦6♦❧H6✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✷✳
✷✶✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙
❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✹✳ ❙❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ A′ ) ♦❜%✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ A ♥❛ .✉❛❧
0♦♠❛♠♦0 ❛ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ✉♠ ♠2❧%✐♣❧♦ ❞❡ ♦✉%&❛✱ ♠❛♥%❡♥❞♦ ❛0 ❞❡♠❛✐0 ✐♥❛❧%❡&❛❞❛0✱
❡♥%5♦ D(A′ ) = D(A)✳
❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ #❛%❛ i < j ✱ '❡❥❛♠
   
A1 A1
 ✳  ✳✳
 ✳✳  ✳
 
 
   
 Ai  Ai + tAj 
   
 ✳  ✳✳
✳ 
 
 ✳ ,
A= A′ = 
 ✳ .

 Aj   Aj 
   
 ✳  ✳✳
 ✳ 
 
 ✳  ✳
 
 
An An
❚❡♠♦' ❞❛ ♣%♦♣%✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❉✶✮ 4✉❡
D(A′ ) = D(A) + tD(A′′ ), ✭✶✮
♦♥❞❡  
A1
 ✳ 
 ✳✳ 
 
 Aj 
 
 ✳ 
′′ ✳ 
A = ✳ .
 Aj 
 
 ✳ 
 ✳ 
 ✳ 
An
#❡❧♦ ❈♦%♦❧9%✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✷✱ ;❡♠♦' 4✉❡ D(A′′ ) = 0✱ ❧♦❣♦ ♦ %❡'✉❧;❛❞♦ '❡❣✉❡ ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧✲
❞❛❞❡ ✭✶✮✱ ❛❝✐♠❛✳
❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✺✳ ❙❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ A′ ) ♦❜%✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ A ♥❛ .✉❛❧

0♦♠❛♠♦0 ❛ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛85♦ ❧✐♥❡❛& ❞❡ ♦✉%&❛0✱ ♠❛♥%❡♥❞♦ ❛0 ❞❡♠❛✐0
✐♥❛❧%❡&❛❞❛0✱ ❡♥%5♦ D(A′ ) = D(A)✳
❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ ❯'❡ %❡♣❡;✐❞❛♠❡♥;❡ ♦ ❈♦%♦❧9%✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✹✳
✶✳ "❘❖"❘■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❉❖❙ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ✷✶✺
❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✻✳ ❙❡ ♦# ✈❡%♦&❡# ❧✐♥❤❛# ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ A #0♦ ❧✐♥❡❛&♠❡♥%❡

❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥%❡#✱ ❡♥%0♦ D(A) = 0✳
❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ ❙❡ ♦& ✈❡(♦)❡& ❧✐♥❤❛& ❞❛ ♠❛()✐③ &2♦ ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥(❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡&✱
❡♥(2♦ ✉♠❛ ❞❛& ❧✐♥❤❛& 6 ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛92♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞❛& ❞❡♠❛✐&✱ &❡❣✉✐♥❞♦✲&❡ ♦ )❡&✉❧(❛❞♦
❞♦ ❈♦)♦❧=)✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✺✳
✶✳✸ #$♦♣$✐❡❞❛❞❡ ▼✉❧.✐♣❧✐❝❛.✐✈❛

◆❡&(❛ &✉❜&❡92♦✱ ♠♦&()❛)❡♠♦& ❝♦♠♦ ❢✉♥9B❡& D ♣♦&&✉✐♥❞♦ ❛& C)♦♣)✐❡❞❛❞❡&
✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮ ❞❛ ❙❡92♦ ✶ &❡ ❝♦♠♣♦)(❛♠ ❡♠ )❡❧❛92♦ H ♠✉❧(✐♣❧✐❝❛92♦ ❞❡
♠❛()✐③❡&✳
3"♦♣♦.✐12♦ ✽✳✶✳✼✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦# ❞❡ M(n) ❡ #❡❥❛ D : M(n) → K
✉♠❛ ❢✉♥60♦ ♣♦##✉✐♥❞♦ ❛# 7&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡# ✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮✳
✭✐✮ ❙❡ E 8 ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%❛&✱ ❡♥%0♦ D(EA) = D(E)D(A)✳

✭✐✐✮ ❙❡ A ❡ B #0♦ ♠❛%&✐③❡# ❡9✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡# ♣♦& ❧✐♥❤❛#✱ ❡♥%0♦
D(A) 6= 0 ⇐⇒ D(B) 6= 0.
✭✐✐✐✮ A 8 ✐♥✈❡&%:✈❡❧ #❡✱ ❡ #♦♠❡♥%❡ #❡✱ D(A) 6= 0✳

✭✐✈✮ D(AB) = D(A)D(B)✳
❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ ✭✐✮ ❙❡❥❛ E1 ❛ ♠❛()✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥(❛) ♦❜(✐❞❛ ♦♣❡)❛♥❞♦ &♦❜)❡ In

❝♦♠ Li ↔ Lj ✳ ❚❡♠♦& K✉❡ E1 A 6 ❛ ♠❛()✐③ ♦❜(✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ♠❡❞✐❛♥(❡ ❛ ♦♣❡)❛92♦
Li ↔ Lj ✱ ❧♦❣♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❈♦)♦❧=)✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✸✱ (❡♠♦& K✉❡ D(E1 A) = −D(A)✳ C♦) ♦✉()♦
❧❛❞♦✱ ❞♦ C)♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✸✭❛✮✱ (❡♠♦& K✉❡ D(E1 ) = −1✱ ♦ K✉❡ ❛❝❛))❡(❛ ♦ )❡&✉❧(❛❞♦
♥❡&(❡ ❝❛&♦✳
❙❡❥❛ E2 ❛ ♠❛()✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥(❛) ♦❜(✐❞❛ ❞❡ In ♠❡❞✐❛♥(❡ ❛ ♦♣❡)❛92♦ Li → Li +
tLj ✳ ❚❡♠♦&✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❈♦)♦❧=)✐♦ ✽✳✶✳✹✱ K✉❡ D(E2 A) = D(A) ❡ ♣❡❧♦ C)♦❜❧❡♠❛
✶✳✸✭❛✮ (❡♠♦& K✉❡ D(E2 ) = 1✱ ❞❛M ♦❜(❡♥❞♦ ♦ )❡&✉❧(❛❞♦ ♥❡&(❡ ❝❛&♦ (❛♠❜6♠✳
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥(❡✱ &❡ E3 6 ❛ ♠❛()✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥(❛) ❝♦))❡&♣♦♥❞❡♥(❡ ❛ Li → cLi ✱ (❡♠♦&
❞❡ ✭❉✶✮ K✉❡ D(E3 A) = cD(A) ❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ C)♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✸✭❛✮✱ D(E3 ) = c✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
D(E3 A) = D(E3 )D(A)✳
✷✶✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙
✐✐✮ A ❡ B &'♦ ❡)✉✐✈❛❧❡♥/❡& &❡✱ ❡ &♦♠❡♥/❡ &❡✱ B = Er · · · E1 A✱ ♦♥❞❡ E1 , . . . , Er
&'♦ ♠❛/3✐③❡& ❡❧❡♠❡♥/❛3❡&✳ ❉❡ ✭✐✮✱ ♣♦3 ✐♥❞✉9'♦✱ /❡♠♦& )✉❡
D(B) = D(Er ) · · · D(E1 )D(A).
❈♦♠♦ D(E) 6= 0✱ ♣❛3❛ /♦❞❛ ♠❛/3✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥/❛3 E ✱ ✈❛❧❡ ♦ 3❡&✉❧/❛❞♦✳

✐✐✐✮ ❙❡ A < ✐♥✈❡3/=✈❡❧✱ ❞♦ ❚❡♦3❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✻✱ /❡♠♦& )✉❡ A < ❡)✉✐✈❛❧❡♥/❡ ❛ In ✱ ❧♦❣♦
♣♦3 ✭✐✐✮ &❡❣✉❡✲&❡ )✉❡ D(A) 6= 0✱ ❥B )✉❡ D(In ) = 1 6= 0✳
❘❡❝✐♣3♦❝❛♠❡♥/❡✱ &❡ D(A) 6= 0✱ &❡❥❛ B ❛ ♠❛/3✐③ ❡)✉✐✈❛❧❡♥/❡ ❛ A ♥❛ ❢♦3♠❛
❡&❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣♦3 ✭✐✐✮ /❡♠♦& )✉❡ D(B) 6= 0✱ &❡❣✉❡✲&❡ )✉❡ B = In ✳ ❉❛=✱
A < ❡)✉✐✈❛❧❡♥/❡ ❛ In ✱ ❧♦❣♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦3❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✻✱ /❡♠✲&❡ )✉❡ A < ✐♥✈❡3/=✈❡❧✳
✐✈✮ ❙❡ A ♥'♦ < ✐♥✈❡3/=✈❡❧✱ ❡♥/'♦ AB < ♥'♦ ✐♥✈❡3/=✈❡❧✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♣♦3 ✭✐✐✐✮✱ /❡♠♦&
)✉❡ D(AB) = 0 ❡ D(A) = 0✱ &❡❣✉✐♥❞♦✲&❡ ♦ 3❡&✉❧/❛❞♦ ♥❡&/❡ ❝❛&♦✳ ❙❡ A <
✐♥✈❡3/=✈❡❧✱ ❡♥/'♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦3❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✻✱ A = E1 · · · Er ♦♥❞❡ ♦& Ei ✬& &'♦ ♠❛/3✐③❡&
❡❧❡♠❡♥/❛3❡&✳ H♦3/❛♥/♦✱ ♣♦3 ✐♥❞✉9'♦ ✉/✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ✭✐✮✱ /❡♠♦& )✉❡
D(AB) = D(E1 ) · · · D(Er )D(B) = D(E1 · · · Er )D(B) = D(A)D(B).

❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✽✳✶✳✽✳ ❙❡ ❡①✐$%✐&❡♠ ❞✉❛$ ❢✉♥-.❡$ D : M(n) → K ❡ D′ : M(n) →
K $❛%✐$❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ❛$ ❝♦♥❞✐-.❡$ ✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮✱ ❡♥%3♦ D = D′ ✳
❉❡♠♦♥+,#❛-.♦ ❙❡❥❛ A ∈ M(n)✳ ❙❡ A ♥'♦ < ✐♥✈❡3/=✈❡❧✱ ❡♥/'♦ ❞❛ H3♦♣♦&✐9'♦
✽✳✶✳✼✭✐✐✐✮ /❡♠♦& )✉❡ D(A) = 0 = D′ (A)✳
❙❡ A < ✐♥✈❡3/=✈❡❧✱ ❧♦❣♦✱ A = E1 · · · Er ✱ ♦♥❞❡ ♦& Ei ✬& &'♦ ♠❛/3✐③❡& ❡❧❡♠❡♥/❛✲
3❡&✳ H❡❧❛ H3♦♣♦&✐9'♦ ✽✳✶✳✼✭✐✈✮✱ /❡♠♦& )✉❡ D(A) = D(E1 ) · · · D(Er ) ❡ D′ (A) =
D′ (E1 ) · · · D′ (Er )✳ H❡❧♦ H3♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✸✭❜✮✱ /❡♠♦& )✉❡ D(Ei ) = D′ (Ei )✱ ♣❛3❛
/♦❞♦ i = 1, . . . , r✱ ❧♦❣♦ D(A) = D′ (A)✳
❆&&✐♠✱ /❡♠♦& ❛&&❡❣✉3❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥9'♦ D : M(n) → K ✱

♣♦&&✉✐♥❞♦ ❛& H3♦♣3✐❡❞❛❞❡& ✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮✱ ❝❛&♦ /❛❧ ❢✉♥9'♦ ❡①✐&/❛✳ ❱❛♠♦&✱
♥❛ ♣3P①✐♠❛ &❡9'♦✱ ♠♦&/3❛3 )✉❡ /❛❧ ❢✉♥9'♦ ❡①✐&/❡✱ ❛ )✉❛❧ ♣❛&&❛3❡♠♦& ❛ ❞❡♥♦/❛3
♣♦3 det ❡ ❛ ❝❤❛♠❛3 ❞❡ ❢✉♥-3♦ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛♥%❡ ✳ H❛3❛ n = 2 ❡ n = 3✱ ❛& ❢✉♥9R❡&
det : M(2) → K ❡ det : M(3) → K ✱ )✉❡ ✐♥/3♦❞✉③✐♠♦& ♥♦ ❈❛♣=/✉❧♦ ✹✱ &'♦ ❛&
✶✳ "❘❖"❘■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❉❖❙ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ✷✶✼
#♥✐❝❛( ❢✉♥+,❡( .✉❡ ♣♦((✉❡♠ ❛( 23♦♣3✐❡❞❛❞❡( ✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮✱ ❝♦♠ ❞♦♠:♥✐♦(
M(2) ❡ M(3)✱ 3❡(♣❡❝;✐✈❛♠❡♥;❡✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✶✳✶ ▼♦(;3❡ .✉❡ (❡ ❛ ♠❛;3✐③ A ∈ M(n) ♣♦((✉✐ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ❡♥;B♦ D(A) =
0✳
✶✳✷ ❙❡❥❛ D : M(n) → K ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥+B♦ .✉❡ ♣♦((✉✐ ❛( 23♦♣3✐❡❞❛❞❡( ✭❉✶✮ ❡ ✭❉✷✮✳
▼♦(;3❡ .✉❡ (❡ A E ❛ ♠❛;3✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ Diag(a11 , . . . , ann ) ✭❝♦♠ ❛ ♥♦;❛+B♦ ❞♦
23♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✺✱ ❈❛♣:;✉❧♦ ✶✮✱ ❡♥;B♦
D(Diag(a11 , . . . , ann )) = a11 . . . ann D(In ).
❊♠ ♣❛3;✐❝✉❧❛3✱ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❛ .✉❡ D(c In ) = cn D(In )✱ ♦♥❞❡ c ∈ K ✳

✶✳✸ ❙❡❥❛ D : M(n) → K ✱ ♣♦((✉✐♥❞♦ ❛( 23♦♣3✐❡❞❛❞❡( ✭❉✶✮ ❡ ✭❉✷✮✱ ❡ (❡❥❛♠
E1 ✱ E2 ❡ E3 ♠❛;3✐③❡( ❡❧❡♠❡♥;❛3❡( ♦❜;✐❞❛( ❞❛ ♠❛;3✐③ ✐❞❡♥;✐❞❛❞❡ In ♠❡❞✐❛♥;❡✱
3❡(♣❡❝;✐✈❛♠❡♥;❡✱ ✉♠❛ ♦♣❡3❛+B♦ ❞♦ ;✐♣♦ Li ↔ Lj ✱ Li → Li + tLj ✱ Li → cLi ✱
♣❛3❛ i 6= j ✳
❛✮ ▼♦(;3❡ .✉❡
D(E1 ) = −D(In ), D(E2 ) = D(In ) ❡ D(E3 ) = cD(In ).
❜✮ ❙❡ D, D′ : M(n) → K ♣♦((✉❡♠ ❛( ♣3♦♣3✐❡❞❛❞❡( ✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮✱ ❡♥;B♦
D(E1 ) = D′ (E1 ) = −1, D(E2 ) = D′ (E2 ) = 1 ❡ D(E3 ) = D′ (E3 ) = c.
✶✳✹ ❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛;3✐③ ✐♥✈❡3;:✈❡❧ ❞❡ ♦3❞❡♠ n ❡ (✉♣♦♥❤❛ .✉❡ ❡①✐(;❛ ❛ ❢✉♥+B♦
det : M(n) → K ✳ ▼♦(;3❡ .✉❡
1
det(A−1 ) = .
det A
✶✳✺ ❙❡❥❛ E ∈ M(n) ✉♠❛ ♠❛;3✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥;❛3✳ ❈♦♠ ❛ ♠❡(♠❛ ❤✐♣L;❡(❡ ❞♦
♣3♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛♥;❡3✐♦3✱ ♠♦(;3❡ .✉❡ det(E t ) = det(E)✳
❙✉❣❡(23♦ ❯;✐❧✐③❡ ♦ 23♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✳✾✳
✷✶✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙
✷ ❊①✐$%&♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❉❡%❡-♠✐♥❛♥%❡$
◆❡%&❛ %❡()♦✱ ❡%&❛❜❡❧❡❝❡/❡♠♦% ❛ ❡①✐%&3♥❝✐❛ ❞❛% ❢✉♥(8❡% ❞❡&❡/♠✐♥❛♥&❡% ♣❛/❛
✈❛❧♦/❡% ❞❡ n ♠❛✐♦/❡% ❞♦ ;✉❡ 3✱ ;✉❡ ❥= %❛❜❡♠♦% ❡①✐%&✐/❡♠ ♣❛/❛ n = 2 ❡ n = 3✳ ❆
❞❡♠♦♥%&/❛()♦ ❞❡ &❛❧ ❡①✐%&3♥❝✐❛ %❡/= ❢❡✐&❛ ♣♦/ ✐♥❞✉()♦ %♦❜/❡ n✳ ▼♦%&/❛/❡♠♦%
;✉❡ %❡ ❡①✐%&❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥()♦ D′ : M(n − 1) → K ;✉❡ ♣♦%%✉✐ ❛% A/♦♣/✐❡❞❛❞❡%
✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮✱ ❡♥&)♦ ❡①✐%&❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥()♦ D : M(n) → K ;✉❡ ♣♦%%✉✐ ❛%
♠❡%♠❛% ♣/♦♣/✐❡❞❛❞❡%✳
◆❛ /❡❛❧✐❞❛❞❡✱ ♠♦%&/❛/❡♠♦% ;✉❡ ❛ ❢✉♥()♦ D ♣♦❞❡ %❡/ ♦❜&✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✈=/✐♦%
♠♦❞♦% ♣♦%%F✈❡✐% ❛ ♣❛/&✐/ ❞❡ D′ ✱ ♦ ;✉❡ ♣❡/♠✐&✐/= ❝❡/&❛ ✢❡①✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡ ♥♦ ❝=❧❝✉❧♦
❞❡ D(A)✱ ♦♥❞❡ A H ✉♠❛ ♠❛&/✐③ ;✉❛❞/❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦/❞❡♠ n✳
❙❡❥❛♠ n ≥ 2 ❡ A ∈ M(n)✳ A❛/❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛/ (i, j) ∈ N2 ✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ i, j ≤
n✱ ❞❡✜♥❡✲%❡ ❛ ♠❛&/✐③ A(i|j) ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ♠❛&/✐③ (n − 1) × (n − 1) ♦❜&✐❞❛ ❞❡ A
%✉♣/✐♠✐♥❞♦✲%❡ ❛ i✲H%✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❡ ❛ j ✲H%✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛✳
◆♦%%♦ /❡%✉❧&❛❞♦ ❡%&= ❝♦♥&✐❞♦ ♥♦ ♣/N①✐♠♦ &❡♦/❡♠❛✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✽✳✷✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ n ≥ 3 ❡ D′ : M(n − 1) → K %❛&✐%❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ❛% ❝♦♥❞✐✲

/0❡% ✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮✳ ❉❛❞♦ j ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ ❛ ❢✉♥/5♦ Dj : M(n) → K
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦8
n
X
Dj (A) = (−1)i+j aij D′ (A(i|j)),
i=1
♦♥❞❡ A = [aij ] ∈ M(n)✱ &❛♠❜:♠ %❛&✐%❢❛③ ❛% ❝♦♥❞✐/0❡% ✭❉✶✮✱ ✭❉✷✮ ❡ ✭❉✸✮✳

❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ❋✐①❡♠♦% j ✳ A❛/❛ ❝❛❞❛ i✱ &❡♠♦% ;✉❡ D′ (A(i|j)) H ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥✲
❞❡♥&❡ ❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ i✱ ♦✉ %❡❥❛✱ ❞♦% ❡❧❡♠❡♥&♦% aik ✱ k = 1, . . . , n✱ ❡ H %❡♣❛/❛❞❛♠❡♥&❡
❧✐♥❡❛/ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛% n−1 ❧✐♥❤❛% /❡%&❛♥&❡% ❞❡ A✳ A♦/ ♦✉&/♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ (−1)i+j aij
H ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥&❡ ❞❛% ❡♥&/❛❞❛% ❞❡ A(i|j) ❡ H ❧✐♥❡❛/ ♥❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ i ❞❡ A✳ ➱✱ ♣♦/&❛♥&♦✱
❢=❝✐❧ ✈❡/✐✜❝❛/ ;✉❡ (−1)i+j aij D′ (A(i|j)) H %❡♣❛/❛❞❛♠❡♥&❡ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ♥❛% ❧✐♥❤❛% ❞❡
A✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ Dj H ✉♠❛ %♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥(8❡% ❞❡ A ;✉❡ %)♦ %❡♣❛/❛❞❛♠❡♥&❡ ❧✐♥❡❛/❡%
♥❛ ❧✐♥❤❛% ❞❡ A✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ %❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐ ;✉❡ Dj ♣♦%%✉✐ ❛ A/♦♣/✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❉✶✮✳ A❛/❛
♣/♦✈❛/ ;✉❡ Dj ♣♦%%✉✐ ❛ A/♦♣/✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❉✷✮✱ %✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦% ;✉❡ A ∈ M(n) &❡♥❤❛
❛% ❧✐♥❤❛% Ak ❡ Ak+1 ✐❣✉❛✐%✳
❙❡ i 6= k ❡ i 6= k + 1✱ ❛ ♠❛&/✐③ A(i|j) &❡♠ ❞✉❛% ❧✐♥❤❛% ✐❣✉❛✐%✱ ❧♦❣♦
✷✳ ❊❳■❙❚✃◆❈■❆ ❉❊ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙ ✷✶✾
D′ (A(i|j)) = 0✳ ❉❛& '❡♠♦+
Dj (A) = (−1)k+j akj D′ (A(k|j)) + (−1)k+j+1 ak+1,j D′ (A(k + 1|j)).
▼❛+✱ akj = ak+1,j ❡ A(k|j) = A(k + 1|j)✱ ❧♦❣♦ Dj (A) = 0✱ ❥1 2✉❡ ❛+ ❞✉❛+
♣❛6❝❡❧❛+ 2✉❡ ❝♦♠♣8❡♠ Dj (A) +9♦ ✉♠❛ +✐♠;'6✐❝❛ ❞❛ ♦✉'6❛✳
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥'❡✱ +❡♥❞♦ δij ❛+ ❡♥'6❛❞❛+ ❞❛ ♠❛'6✐③ In ✱ '❡♠♦+ 2✉❡
n
X
Dj (In ) = (−1)i+j δij D′ (In (i|j)) = δjj D′ (In (j|j)) = D′ (In−1 ) = 1,
i=1
❥1 2✉❡ In (j|j) = In−1 ❡ D′ (In−1 ) = 1✱ ♠♦+'6❛♥❞♦ 2✉❡ Dj ♣♦++✉✐ ❛ ?6♦♣6✐❡❞❛❞❡

✭❉✸✮✳
❊++❡ '❡♦6❡♠❛ ♥♦+ ♠♦+'6❛ 2✉❡ ♣❛6❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛6 ♦ ❞❡'❡6♠✐♥❛♥'❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'6✐③
A✱ ❡+❝♦❧❤❡✲+❡ ✉♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ j 2✉❛❧2✉❡6 ❞❡ A✱ ♦❜'❡♥❞♦
n
X
det(A) = (−1)i+j aij det(A(i|j)),
i=1
2✉❡ ; ✉+✉❛❧♠❡♥'❡ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❞❡"❡♥✈♦❧✈✐♠❡♥)♦ ❞❡ ▲❛♣❧❛❝❡ ❞❡ det(A) +❡❣✉♥❞♦

♦+ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦+ ❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ j ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡♠♦+ det(A)✱ ♦♥❞❡
 
2 3 1 0
0 1 3 2
A= .
 
0 5 −1 0
1 −2 1 1
❚❡♠♦+ ❞♦ ❚❡♦6❡♠❛ ✽✳✷✳✶✱ ❞❡+❡♥✈♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ +❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦+ ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦+ ❞❛ ♣6✐♠❡✐6❛
❝♦❧✉♥❛✱ 2✉❡
   
1 3 2 3 1 0
det(A) = 2 det  5 −1 0 − det 1 3 2 .
   
−2 1 1 5 −1 0
❈❛❧❝✉❧❛♥❞♦ ♦+ ❞❡'❡6♠✐♥❛♥'❡+ 3 × 3✱ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❘❡❣6❛ ❞❡ ❙❛66✉+✱ ♦❜'❡♠♦+
2✉❡ det(A) = −36✳
✷✷✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✷✳✶ ▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡ $❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ A ♣♦$$✉✐ ✉♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ❡♥%3♦ det(A) = 0✳
✷✳✷✯ 5&♦✈❡ (✉❡ ♦ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛♥%❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ %&✐❛♥❣✉❧❛& $✉♣❡&✐♦& ✭&❡$♣✳
✐♥❢❡&✐♦&✮ < ♦ ♣&♦❞✉%♦ ❞♦$ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦$ ❞❡ $✉❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣&✐♥❝✐♣❛❧✳ ▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡ ✉♠❛
%❛❧ ♠❛%&✐③ < ✐♥✈❡&%=✈❡❧ $❡✱ ❡ $♦♠❡♥%❡ $❡✱ $✉❛$ ❡♥%&❛❞❛$ ♥❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣&✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
$3♦ %♦❞❛$ ♥3♦ ♥✉❧❛$✳
✷✳✸✯ ❙❡❥❛ a ∈ R✳ 5&♦✈❡ (✉❡
 
1 1 1 1
 1 a a 2 a3 
det   = 0.
 
2 3
1 a a a  4
1 a3 a4 a5
✷✳✹ ❈♦♥$✐❞❡&❡ ❛ ♠❛"#✐③ ❞❡ ❱❛♥❞❡#♠♦♥❞❡ ✷

 
1 a1 a21 . . . an−1
1
1 a2 a22 . . . an−1
 
2 
A=
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ .
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳


2 n−1
1 an an . . . an
▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡
Y
det(A) = (aj − ai ).
i<j
✸ ▼❛#$✐③ ❆❞❥✉♥#❛
❙❡❥❛ A = [aij ] ∈ M(n)✳ ❉❡✜♥❡✲$❡ ♦ ❝♦❢❛"♦#
❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ aij ❞❛ ♠❛%&✐③ A
❝♦♠♦
∆ij (A) = (−1)i+j det(A(i|j)).
❆ ♠❛%&✐③ [∆ij (A)] ∈ M(n) $❡&E ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛"#✐③ ❞♦- ❝♦❢❛"♦#❡- ❞❛
♠❛%&✐③ A ❡ $✉❛ %&❛♥$♣♦$%❛ $❡&E ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛"#✐③ ❛❞❥✉♥"❛ ❞❡ A ❡ ❞❡♥♦%❛❞❛
adj(A)✳
✷ ❊♠ ❤♦♠❡♥❛❣❡♠ ❛ ❆❧❡①❛♥❞,❡✲❚❤❡/♣❤✐❧❡ ❱❛♥❞❡,♠♦♥❞❡ ✭❋,❛♥5❛ ✶✼✸✺ ✕ ✶✼✾✻✮✳
✸✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩ ❆❉❏❯◆❚❆ ✷✷✶
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛
 
1 0 0
A = 1 2 1  .
 
0 0 −1
❚❡♠♦) *✉❡ ∆11 (A) = −2✱ ∆12 (A) = 1✱ ∆13 (A) = ∆21 (A) = ∆23 (A) =
∆31 (A) = 0✱ ∆22 (A) = ∆32 (A) = −1 ❡ ∆33 (A) = 2✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
 
−2 1 0
[∆ij (A)] =  0 −1 0 .
 
0 −1 2
0♦12❛♥2♦✱
 
−2 0 0
adj(A) =  1 −1 −1 .
 
0 0 2
❆ )❡❣✉✐1✱ ✈❡1❡♠♦) ✉♠❛ 1❡❧❛89♦ ❡♥21❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛21✐③ ❡ ❛ )✉❛ ❛❞❥✉♥2❛✳
)*♦♣♦+✐-.♦ ✽✳✸✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ *✉❛❞'❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦'❞❡♠ n✳ ❊♥&0♦
adj(A) · A = det(A) In .
❉❡♠♦♥+3*❛-.♦ ❉❡♥♦2❡♠♦) ♣♦1 B ❛ ♠❛21✐③ adj(A) · A✳ ◗✉❡1❡♠♦) ♠♦)21❛1

*✉❡
(
det(A), )❡ i = j
bij =
0, )❡ i 6= j .
❉❡♥♦2❛♥❞♦ ∆ij (A) ♣♦1 ∆ij ✱ 2❡♠♦) *✉❡

   
∆11 . . . ∆n1 a11 . . . a1j . . . an1
 ✳ ✳✳ 
 ✳✳   ✳✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 

 ✳   ✳ ✳ 
[bij ] =  ∆1i . . . ∆ni   ai1 . . . aij . . . ain  .
   
 ✳ ✳✳   ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
 ✳✳
 
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ 

  
∆1n . . . ∆nn an1 . . . anj . . . ann
✷✷✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙
▲♦❣♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ✽✳✷✳✶✱
n
X
bjj = aij ∆ij = det(A).
i=1
/♦) ♦✉1)♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ 3❡❥❛ i 6= j ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❞♦✱ 3❡♠ ♣❡)❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡)❛❧✐❞❛❞❡✱ 8✉❡ i < j ✱
1❡♠♦3
X n n
X
bij = akj ∆ki = (−1)i+k akj det(A(k|i)),
k=1 k=1
8✉❡ 9 ♦ ❞❡1❡)♠✐♥❛♥1❡ ❞❛ ♠❛1)✐③

 
a11 . . . a1j . . . a1j . . . an1
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ,
an1 . . . anj . . . anj . . . ann
❞❡3❡♥✈♦❧✈✐❞♦ 3❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦3 ❡❧❡♠❡♥1♦3 ❞❛ i✲93✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛✱ ♦ 8✉❛❧ 9 ♥✉❧♦✳
❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✽✳✸✳✷✳ ❙❡ A " ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ✐♥✈❡'&,✈❡❧✱ ❡♥&/♦

1
A−1 = adj(A).
det(A)
❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ ❙❡ A 9 ✐♥✈❡)1>✈❡❧✱ ❡♥1?♦ det(A) 6= 0 ❡✱ ♣♦)1❛♥1♦✱

1
adj(A) · A = In ,
det(A)
♦ 8✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ 8✉❡

1
A−1 = adj(A).
det(A)

❆ ❡①♣)❡33?♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ ♣❛)❛ ❛ ✐♥✈❡)3❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛1)✐③ A ❞❡ ♦)❞❡♠ n 9 ♠✉✐1♦

✐♥1❡)❡33❛♥1❡ ❞♦ ♣♦♥1♦ ❞❡ ✈✐31❛ 1❡B)✐❝♦✱ ♠❛3 ♣♦✉❝♦ C1✐❧ ❞♦ ♣♦♥1♦ ❞❡ ✈✐31❛
♣)D1✐❝♦✱ ♣♦✐3 ♣❛)❛ ✉1✐❧✐③D✲❧❛ ♣❛)❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛) ❛ ✐♥✈❡)3❛ ❞❡ A 3❡)✐❛ ♥❡❝❡33D)✐♦
❝❛❧❝✉❧❛) n2 ❞❡1❡)♠✐♥❛♥1❡3 ❞❡ ♦)❞❡♥3 n − 1 ✭♦3 ❝♦❢❛1♦)❡3 ❞♦3 ❡❧❡♠❡♥1♦3 ❞❡ A✮✳
■31♦ 9 ❝♦♠♣✉1❛❝✐♦♥❛❧♠❡♥1❡ ✐♠♣)❛1✐❝D✈❡❧ 3❡ n 9 ❣)❛♥❞❡✳ /♦) ♦✉1)♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ♦
✸✳ ▼❆❚❘■❩ ❆❉❏❯◆❚❆ ✷✷✸
♠#$♦❞♦ ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡+,-♦ ♣♦+ ❡,❝❛❧♦♥❛♠❡♥$♦ ❛♣+❡,❡♥$❛❞♦ ♥❛ ❙❡3-♦ ✶ ❞♦ ❈❛♣6$✉❧♦

✷ # ❝♦♠♣✉$❛❝✐♦♥❛❧♠❡♥$❡ ♠✉✐$♦ ♠❛✐, ❡✜❝❛③✳
❱❛♠♦,✱ ❛ ,❡❣✉✐+✱ +❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛+ ♦ ❞❡$❡+♠✐♥❛♥$❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$+✐③ ❝♦♠ ♦ ❞❡ ,✉❛
$+❛♥,♣♦,$❛✳
❙❛❜❡♠♦, ❞♦ ?+♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✺ A✉❡ ,❡ E # ✉♠❛ ♠❛$+✐③ ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛+ A✉❛❧A✉❡+✱
❡♥$-♦ det(E t ) = det(E)✳
❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛$+✐③ A✉❛❞+❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦+❞❡♠ n✱ A✉❛❧A✉❡+✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ❡①✐,$❡♠ ♠❛$+✐✲
③❡, ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛+❡, E1 , . . . , Er $❛✐, A✉❡ Er · · · E1 A = B ✱ ♦♥❞❡ ♦✉ B # ✉♠❛ ♠❛$+✐③
❝♦♠ ❛ F❧$✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ♦✉ B = In ✳
❙❡ B ♣♦,,✉✐ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ B t $❡+H ✉♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ❧♦❣♦ det(B) =
det(B t ) = 0 ✭❝❢✳ ?+♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✮✳ ❙❡ B = In ✱ ❡♥$-♦ det(B) = det(B t ) = 1✳
?♦❞❡♠♦, ❡,❝+❡✈❡+
A = F1 · · · Fr B, ✭✶✮
♦♥❞❡ Fi = Ei−1 ✱ i = 1, . . . , n✱ ,-♦ $❛♠❜#♠ ♠❛$+✐③❡, ❡❧❡♠❡♥$❛+❡, ✭❝❢✳ ❈♦+♦❧H+✐♦
✷✳✶✳✺✮✳ ❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ $+❛♥,♣♦,$❛, ❡♠ ✭✶✮✱ ♦❜$❡♠♦,
At = B t Frt · · · F1t . ✭✷✮
❚♦♠❛♥❞♦✱ ❛❣♦+❛✱ ❞❡$❡+♠✐♥❛♥$❡, ❡♠ ✭✶✮ ❡ ✭✷✮✱ ♦❜$❡♠♦,
det(A) = det(F1 ) · · · det(Fr ) det(B) ❡ det(At ) = det(B t ) det(Frt ) · · · det(F1t ),

♦ A✉❡ ❛❝❛++❡$❛ A✉❡ det(At ) = det(A)✱ ♣♦✐, det(B) = det(B t ) ❡ det(Fi ) =
det(Fit )✱ ♣❛+❛ $♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ r✳
❆,,✐♠✱ ♣+♦✈❛♠♦, ♦ ,❡❣✉✐♥$❡ +❡,✉❧$❛❞♦✿
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✽✳✸✳✸✳ ❖ ❞❡#❡$♠✐♥❛♥#❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ +✉❛❞$❛❞❛ , ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛♦
❞❡#❡$♠✐♥❛♥#❡ ❞❡ 0✉❛ #$❛♥0♣♦0#❛✳
?♦+$❛♥$♦✱ $♦❞❛ ❛✜+♠❛3-♦ ,♦❜+❡ ♦ ❞❡$❡+♠✐♥❛♥$❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$+✐③ A✉❛❞+❛❞❛✱
+❡❧❛$✐✈❛♠❡♥$❡ ❛ ,✉❛, ❧✐♥❤❛,✱ $❛♠❜#♠ ✈❛❧❡ ♣❛+❛ ,✉❛, ❝♦❧✉♥❛, ❡ ✈✐❝❡✲✈❡+,❛✳ ❆,✲
,✐♠✱ ❡♠ ♣❛+$✐❝✉❧❛+✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦, ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛+ ❞❡$❡+♠✐♥❛♥$❡, ✉,❛♥❞♦ ❞❡,❡♥✈♦❧✈✐♠❡♥$♦,
❞❡ ▲❛♣❧❛❝❡ ,❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦, ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦, ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ Li ✱ ♦✉ ,❡❥❛✱
n
X
det(A) = (−1)i+j aij det(A(i|j)).
j=1
✷✷✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✸✳✶ ▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡ ❛ ✐♥✈❡&$❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ %&✐❛♥❣✉❧❛& ✐♥❢❡&✐♦& 4 %&✐❛♥❣✉❧❛& ✐♥❢❡✲
&✐♦& ❡ ❛ ✐♥✈❡&$❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ %&✐❛♥❣✉❧❛& $✉♣❡&✐♦& 4 %&✐❛♥❣✉❧❛& $✉♣❡&✐♦&✳
✸✳✷ ▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡ $❡ det(A) = 1 ❡ %♦❞❛$ ❛$ ❡♥%&❛❞❛$ ❞❡ A $8♦ ♥9♠❡&♦$ ✐♥%❡✐&♦$✱

❡♥%8♦ %♦❞❛$ ❛$ ❡♥%&❛❞❛$ ❞❡ A−1 %❛♠❜4♠ $8♦ ♥9♠❡&♦$ ✐♥%❡✐&♦$✳
✸✳✸ ▼♦$%&❡ (✉❡ $❡ A 4 ✐♥✈❡&%<✈❡❧✱ ❡♥%8♦ adj(A) 4 ✐♥✈❡&%<✈❡❧ ❡

(adj(A))−1 = adj(A−1 ).
✸✳✹ ❈♦♠♦ 4 ❛❢❡%❛❞❛ ❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ✐♥✈❡&$❛ A−1 $❡

❛✮ ♣❡&♠✉%❛&♠♦$ ❡♠ A ❛ i✲4$✐♠❛ ❝♦♠ ❛ j ✲4$✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛❄
❜✮ ❛ i✲4$✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ A 4 ♠✉❧%✐♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦& ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥$%❛♥%❡ k ♥8♦ ♥✉❧❛❄
❝✮ ❛ i✲4$✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❡ A 4 $♦♠❛❞❛ B k ✈❡③❡$ ❛ j ✲4$✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛❄
✹ ❘❡❣$❛ ❞❡ ❈$❛♠❡$
◆❡$%❛ $❡D8♦✱ ♠♦$%&❛&❡♠♦$ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①♣&❡$$❛& ❛ $♦❧✉D8♦ 9♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ $✐$%❡♠❛
❞❡ n ❡(✉❛DF❡$ ❝♦♠ n ✐♥❝G❣♥✐%❛$ AX = B ✱ ♦♥❞❡ A 4 ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ✐♥✈❡&%<✈❡❧✳
➱ ❛ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❘❡❣&❛ ❞❡ ❈&❛♠❡&✱ (✉❡ ❛♣&❡$❡♥%❛♠♦$ ♣❛&❛ n = 2 ❡ n = 3 ♥❛
❙❡D8♦ ✸ ❞♦ ❈❛♣<%✉❧♦ ✹✱ (✉❡ $❡ &❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ♥❛%✉&❛❧♠❡♥%❡ ❝♦♠ ♦$ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❛♥%❡$
❡ (✉❡ $❡&✈✐✉ ❞❡ ♠♦%✐✈❛D8♦ ♣❛&❛ ❛ $✉❛ ✐♥%&♦❞✉D8♦ ❡ ♣♦$%❡&✐♦& ❡$%✉❞♦ ❞❡ $✉❛$
♣&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡$✳
❚❡♦!❡♠❛ ✽✳✹✳✶✳ ✭❘❡❣!❛ ❞❡ ❈!❛♠❡!✮ ❙❡❥❛ AX = B ✉♠ &✐&(❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛+

n × n✳ ❙❡ det(A) 6= 0✱ ❡♥(.♦ ♦ &✐&(❡♠❛ (❡♠ ✉♠❛ 0♥✐❝❛ &♦❧✉2.♦ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦+
det(A(j) )
xj = , j = 1, . . . , n,
det(A)
♦♥❞❡ A(j) ❞❡♥♦(❛ ❛ ♠❛(+✐③ ♦❜(✐❞❛ ❞❡ A &✉❜&(✐(✉✐♥❞♦ ❛ &✉❛ j ✲8&✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ♣❡❧❛
0♥✐❝❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ B ✳
✹✳ ❘❊●❘❆ ❉❊ ❈❘❆▼❊❘ ✷✷✺
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ❈♦♠♦ det(A) 6= 0✱ &❡❣✉❡✲&❡ ❞❛ -.♦♣♦&✐12♦ ✽✳✶✳✼✭✐✐✐✮ 9✉❡ A

: ✐♥✈❡.=>✈❡❧✳ -♦.=❛♥=♦✱ ❛ &♦❧✉12♦ ❞♦ &✐&=❡♠❛ : ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦.
1
X = A−1 · B = adj(A) · B
det(A)
  
∆11 . . . ∆n1 b1
∆ . . . ∆n2   b2 
  
1   ✳12
= ✳✳ 
  ✳✳ 
✳
 
det(A) 
 ✳ ✳  ✳ 
∆1n . . . ∆nn bn
 
b1 ∆11 + b2 ∆21 + · · · + bn ∆n1
b1 ∆12 + b2 ∆22 + · · · + bn ∆n2 
 
1 
=  ✳✳ ,
det(A) 
 ✳


b1 ∆1n + b2 ∆2n + · · · + bn ∆nn
♠♦&=.❛♥❞♦ 9✉❡ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥=♦ ❞❛ j ✲:&✐♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛ ♠❛=.✐③ X :
b1 ∆1j + b2 ∆2j + · · · + bn ∆nj
xj = . ✭✶✮
det(A)
❈♦♥&✐❞❡.❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♠❛=.✐③
 
a11 . . . a1,j−1 b1 a1,j+1 . . . a1n
 ✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ 
A(j) =  ✳✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ,
an1 . . . an,j−1 bn an,j+1 . . . ann
=❡♠✲&❡ ❝❧❛.❛♠❡♥=❡ 9✉❡
b1 ∆1j + · · · + bn ∆nj = det(A(j) ),
♦ 9✉❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐ ❛ ♣.♦✈❛✱ ❡♠ ✈✐&=❛ ❞❡ ✭✶✮✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❯&❡♠♦& ❛ .❡❣.❛ ❞❡ ❈.❛♠❡. ♣❛.❛ .❡&♦❧✈❡. ♦ &✐&=❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛.



 x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 5
−x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 0

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = −1.

✷✷✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✽✳ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆❆◆❚❊❙
❚❡♠♦& '✉❡
     
1 2 1 5 2 1 1 5 1
A = −1 2 2 , A(1) =  0 2 2 , A(2) = −1 0 2
     
1 2 3 −1 2 3 1 −1 3
❡  
1 2 5
A(3) = −1 2 0 ✳
 
1 2 −1
❈♦♠♦ det(A) = 8 6= 0✱ det(A(1) ) = 8✱ det(A(2) ) = 28 ❡ det(A(3) ) = −24✱

❛ ❘❡❣/❛ ❞❡ ❈/❛♠❡/ ♥♦& ❞2
x1 = 1, x2 = 7/2 ❡ x3 = −3.
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✹✳✶ ❘❡&♦❧✈❛ ♣❡❧❛ /❡❣/❛ ❞❡ ❈/❛♠❡/ ♦& &❡❣✉✐♥7❡& &✐&7❡♠❛& ❧✐♥❡❛/❡&✿

  −2x − y + 2w = 1
2x + y + 3z = 0
 

 
 3x + y − 2z − 2w = 0

(a) 4x + 2y + 2z = 0 (b)

 
 −4x − y + 2z + 3w = 2
2x + 5y + 3z = 0 ;
 


3x + y − z − 2w = −1 .

❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✾
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✾✿ ❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛/0♦ ❞❡
❖♣❡4❛❞♦4❡5
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ ❆✉#♦✈❛❧♦(❡* ❡ ❆✉#♦✈❡#♦(❡* ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✷✽
✷ .♦❧✐♥1♠✐♦ ❈❛(❛❝#❡(5*#✐❝♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸✹
✸ ❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛;<♦ ❞❡ ❖♣❡(❛❞♦(❡* ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✹✹
✹ ❖ ❚❡♦(❡♠❛ ❊*♣❡❝#(❛❧ ♣❛(❛ ❖♣❡(❛❞♦(❡* ❙✐♠C#(✐❝♦* ✷✺✶
✺ ❘❡❝♦♥❤❡❝✐♠❡♥#♦ ❞❡ ❈1♥✐❝❛* ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✺
✷✷✼
✷✷✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❱✐♠♦& ♥♦ ❈❛♣+,✉❧♦ ✻ 0✉❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡2❛❞♦2 ❧✐♥❡❛2 ❡♠ V ✱ ♦♥❞❡ V ,❡♠ ❞✐♠❡♥&5♦
✜♥✐,❛✱ ♣♦❞❡ &❡2 2❡♣2❡&❡♥,❛❞♦ ♣♦2 ✉♠❛ ♠❛,2✐③✳ ❙❡♥❞♦ ❛& ♠❛,2✐③❡& ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛✐&
❛& ♠❛✐& &✐♠♣❧❡& ❞♦ ♣♦♥,♦ ❞❡ ✈✐&,❛ ❞❛& ♦♣❡2❛<=❡& ♠❛,2✐❝✐❛✐& ✭❝❢✳ A2♦❜❧❡♠❛
✷✳✶✺✱ ❈❛♣+,✉❧♦ ✶✮✱ ♥♦& ♣❡2❣✉♥,❛♠♦& &❡ ❞❛❞♦ ✉♠ ♦♣❡2❛❞♦2 ❧✐♥❡❛2 T ✱ F &❡♠♣2❡
♣♦&&+✈❡❧ 2❡♣2❡&❡♥,G✲❧♦ ♣♦2 ✉♠❛ ♠❛,2✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧❄ ▼❛✐& ♣2❡❝✐&❛♠❡♥,❡✱ 0✉❡2❡✲
♠♦& &❛❜❡2 &❡ ♣❛2❛ ,♦❞♦ ♦♣❡2❛❞♦2 T ❡①✐&,❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ α ❞❡ V ,❛❧ 0✉❡ [T ]αα &❡❥❛
✉♠❛ ♠❛,2✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳
❆ 2❡&♣♦&,❛ F 0✉❡ ♥❡♠ &❡♠♣2❡ ❡①✐&,❡ ✉♠❛ ,❛❧ ❜❛&❡✳ A♦2 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♦ ♦♣❡2❛✲
❞♦2 T ❡♠ R2 ✱ ❝✉❥❛ ♠❛,2✐③ ♥❛ ❜❛&❡ ❝❛♥N♥✐❝❛ F ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦2
" #
0 0
A= ,
1 0
♥5♦ ❛❞✐♠✐,❡ ✉♠❛ ,❛❧ 2❡♣2❡&❡♥,❛<5♦✳ ❉❡ ❢❛,♦✱ &❡ ❢♦&&❡ ♣♦&&+✈❡❧ ❛❝❤❛2 ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡
α ,❛❧ 0✉❡ ❛ ♠❛,2✐③ ❞❡ T ♥❡&,❛ ❜❛&❡ F ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ ,❡2+❛♠♦& P AP −1 = C ✱ ♦♥❞❡
P F ✉♠❛ ♠❛,2✐③ 2 × 2 ✐♥✈❡2,+✈❡❧ ❡ C ✉♠❛ ♠❛,2✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ ❈♦♠♦ A2 = 0✱
✐&,♦ ❛❝❛22❡,❛2✐❛ 0✉❡
2
C 2 = P AP −1 = P A2 P −1 = 0.
▲♦❣♦✱ C = 0✱ ♦ 0✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛2✐❛ 0✉❡ A = 0❀ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥,2❛❞✐<5♦✳
❉✐2❡♠♦& 0✉❡ ♦♣❡2❛❞♦2 ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ &♦❜2❡ ✉♠ ❡&♣❛<♦ ✈❡,♦2✐❛❧ V ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥✲

&5♦ ✜♥✐,❛ F ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③(✈❡❧✱ 0✉❛♥❞♦ ❢♦2 ♣♦&&+✈❡❧ 2❡♣2❡&❡♥,G✲❧♦ ♣♦2 ✉♠❛ ♠❛,2✐③
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡♠ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞❡ V ✳
❖ 2❡&✉❧,❛❞♦ ❝❡♥,2❛❧ ❞❡&,❡ ❝❛♣+,✉❧♦ F ✉♠❛ ✈❡2&5♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ,❡♦2❡♠❛ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦
❚❡♦2❡♠❛ ❊&♣❡❝,2❛❧ 0✉❡ ❣❛2❛♥,❡ 0✉❡ ,♦❞♦ ♦♣❡2❛❞♦2 &✐♠F,2✐❝♦ F ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③G✈❡❧✳
✶ ❆✉#♦✈❛❧♦(❡* ❡ ❆✉#♦✈❡#♦(❡*
❙❡❥❛ T : V → V ✉♠ ♦♣❡2❛❞♦2 ❧✐♥❡❛2✳ ❯♠ ♥W♠❡2♦ 2❡❛❧ c &❡2G ❞✐,♦ ✉♠
❛✉,♦✈❛❧♦- ❞❡ T &❡ ❡①✐&,✐2 ✉♠ ✈❡,♦2 ♥5♦ ♥✉❧♦ v ❡♠ V ,❛❧ 0✉❡ T (v) = cv ✳ ❖
✈❡,♦2 v F ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❛✉,♦✈❡,♦- ❞❡ T ❛&&♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c✳
✶✳ ❆❯❚❖❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ❊ ❆❯❚❖❱❊❚❖❘❊❙ ✷✷✾
❖❜$❡&✈❡♠♦$ *✉❡ $❡ v , ✉♠ ❛✉.♦✈❡.♦& ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& T ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ ✉♠

❛✉.♦✈❛❧♦& c✱ ❡♥.6♦ .♦❞♦ ♠7❧.✐♣❧♦ ♣♦& ❡$❝❛❧❛& ❞❡ v , .❛♠❜,♠ ✉♠ ❛✉.♦✈❡.♦& ❞❡
T ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c✳ ▼❛✐$ ❛✐♥❞❛✱ $❡ A(c) = {v ∈ V ; T (v) = cv}✱ ❡♥.6♦ A(c) ,
✉♠ $✉❜❡$♣❛:♦ ✈❡.♦&✐❛❧ ❞❡ V ✭✈❡❥❛ =&♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✮✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❛✉"♦❡%♣❛'♦ ❞❡ T
❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c✳ ◆♦.❡ *✉❡ A(c) , ❢♦&♠❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦ ✈❡.♦& ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ V ❡ ♣♦& .♦❞♦$ ♦$
❛✉.♦✈❡.♦&❡$ ❞❡ T ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦$ ❛ c✳
❱❡❥❛♠♦$ ❛ $❡❣✉✐& ❛❧❣✉♥$ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦$✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : R2 → R2 ♦ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& ❧✐♥❡❛& ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦& T (x, y) =
(4x − y, 2x + y)✳ ◗✉❡&❡♠♦$ ❞❡.❡&♠✐♥❛& c ∈ R ❡ v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ♥6♦
♥✉❧♦✱ .❛✐$ *✉❡ T (x, y) = c(x, y)✱ ♦✉ $❡❥❛✱ .❛✐$ *✉❡ (4x − y, 2x + y) = c(x, y)✳
❊*✉✐✈❛❧❡♥.❡♠❡♥.❡✱ *✉❡&❡♠♦$ ❞❡.❡&♠✐♥❛& c ∈ R ❡ v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ♥6♦ ♥✉❧♦✱
.❛✐$ *✉❡ 
4x − y = cx
✭✶✮
2x + y = cy.
❉❛ ♣&✐♠❡✐&❛ ❡*✉❛:6♦ ❞♦ $✐$.❡♠❛ ✭✶✮✱ .❡♠♦$ y = 4x − cx✳ ❙✉❜$.✐.✉✐♥❞♦ ❡$.❡

✈❛❧♦& ❞❡ y ♥❛ $❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡*✉❛:6♦ ❞♦ $✐$.❡♠❛✱ ♦❜.❡♠♦$
x(c2 − 5c + 6) = 0, ✭✷✮
*✉❡ , $❛.✐$❢❡✐.❛ $❡ x = 0 ♦✉ c2 − 5c + 6 = 0✳ ❙❡ x = 0✱ ❡♥.6♦ y = 0✳ ▼❛$✱
v = (x, y) ♥6♦ , ♦ ✈❡.♦& ♥✉❧♦✳ ❆$$✐♠✱ $❡❣✉❡ ❞❡ ✭✷✮ *✉❡ c2 − 5c + 6 = 0✳
=♦&.❛♥.♦✱ c = 2 ❡ c = 3 $6♦ ♦$ ❛✉.♦✈❛❧♦&❡$ ❞❡ T ✳ ❱❛♠♦$ ❛❣♦&❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛& ♦$
❛✉.♦✈❡.♦&❡$ ❞❡ T ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦$ ❛ c = 2✳ ❉❡ ✭✶✮ ♦❜.❡♠♦$ ♦ $✐$.❡♠❛

4x − y = 2x
2x + y = 2y,
*✉❡ ❡*✉✐✈❛❧❡ K ❡*✉❛:6♦ 2x − y = 0✱ ❝✉❥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ $♦❧✉:6♦ , ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦&

{(x, 2x) ; x ∈ R}✳ ❆$$✐♠✱ ♦$ ❛✉.♦✈❡.♦&❡$ ❞❡ T ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦$ ❛ c = 2 $6♦ ♦$
✈❡.♦&❡$ ❞❛ ❢♦&♠❛ (x, 2x)✱ ❡♠ *✉❡ x ∈ R✱ x 6= 0✳ =❛&❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛&♠♦$ ♦$ ❛✉.♦✈❡✲
.♦&❡$ ❞❡ T ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦$ ❛ c = 3✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦$ &❡$♦❧✈❡& ♦ $✐$.❡♠❛

4x − y = 3x
2x + y = 3y,
✷✸✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
#✉❡ ❡#✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ *❡+♦❧✈❡* ❛ ❡#✉❛-.♦ x − y = 0✱ ❝✉❥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥3♦ +♦❧✉-.♦ 4 ❞❛❞♦
♣♦* {(x, x) ; x ∈ R}✳ ❆++✐♠✱ ♦+ ❛✉3♦✈❡3♦*❡+ ❞❡ T ❛++♦❝✐❛❞♦+ ❛ c = 3 +.♦ ♦+
✈❡3♦*❡+ ❞❛ ❢♦*♠❛ (x, x)✱ ❝♦♠ x ∈ R✱ x 6= 0✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : R2 → R2 ♦ ♦♣❡*❛❞♦* ❧✐♥❡❛* ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦* T (x, y) = (−y, x)✳
❙❡ c ∈ R ❡ v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ v 6= 0✱ +.♦ 3❛✐+ #✉❡ T (x, y) = c(x, y)✱ ❡♥3.♦
(−y, x) = c(x, y).
❊#✉✐✈❛❧❡♥3❡♠❡♥3❡✱ 
cx = −y
✭✸✮
cy = x,
❞♦♥❞❡ ♦❜3❡♠♦+ ❛ ❡#✉❛-.♦ (c2 +1)y = 0✳ ❈♦♠♦ c ∈ R✱ ❛ ❡#✉❛-.♦ (c2 +1)y = 0

4 ✈❡*✐✜❝❛❞❛ +♦♠❡♥3❡ +❡ y = 0✳ ▼❛+ +❡ y = 0✱ +❡❣✉❡ ❞❛ +❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡#✉❛-.♦ ❞♦
+✐+3❡♠❛ ✭✸✮ #✉❡ x = 0✳ ❈♦♠♦ v ♥.♦ 4 ♦ ✈❡3♦* ♥✉❧♦✱ ✐++♦ ♥.♦ ♣♦❞❡ ♦❝♦**❡*✳
❈♦♥❝❧✉D♠♦+✱ ❡♥3.♦✱ #✉❡ T ♥.♦ 3❡♠ ❛✉3♦✈❛❧♦*❡+ ♥❡♠ ❛✉3♦✈❡3♦*❡+✳
E♦*3❛♥3♦✱ ♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ ♥♦+ ♠♦+3*❛ #✉❡✿
◆❡♠ #♦❞♦ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❧✐♥❡❛' ♣♦,,✉✐ ❛✉#♦✈❛❧♦'❡, ❡ ❛✉#♦✈❡#♦'❡, ✳
❖ ❡+3✉❞♦ ❞❡ ❛✉3♦✈❛❧♦*❡+ 3❡✈❡ ✐♥D❝✐♦ ❝♦♠ ❈❛✉❝❤② ♥♦ ❝♦♠❡-♦ ❞♦ +4❝✉❧♦
❳■❳ ❡♠ +❡✉ 3*❛❜❛❧❤♦ +♦❜*❡ ❢♦*♠❛+ #✉❛❞*M3✐❝❛+✳ ❈♦♥3✉❞♦✱ ♦+ ♣*✐♠❡✐*♦+ ♣*♦✲
❜❧❡♠❛+ ❡♥✈♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ❛✉3♦✈❛❧♦*❡+ ❛♣❛*❡❝❡*❛♠✱ ❞❡ ❢♦*♠❛ ✐♠♣❧D❝✐3❛✱ ❞✉*❛♥3❡ ♦
+4❝✉❧♦ ❳❱■■■✱ ❝♦♠ ♦ ❡+3✉❞♦ ❞❡ +♦❧✉-P❡+ ❞❡ +✐+3❡♠❛+ ❞❡ ❡#✉❛-P❡+ ❞✐❢❡*❡♥❝✐✲
❛✐+ ❧✐♥❡❛*❡+ ❝♦♠ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥3❡+ ❝♦♥+3❛♥3❡+✳ ❏❡❛♥ ❧❡ ❘♦♥❞ ❞✬❆❧❡♠❜❡*3 ✭❋*❛♥-❛✱
✶✼✶✼ ✲ ✶✼✽✸✮✱ ❡♠ +❡✉+ 3*❛❜❛❧❤♦+ ❞❛3❛♥❞♦ ❡♥3*❡ ✶✼✹✸ ❡ ✶✼✺✽✱ ❡ ♠♦3✐✈❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦
❡+3✉❞♦ ❞♦ ♠♦✈✐♠❡♥3♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❝♦*❞❛ ❝♦♠ ✉♠ ♥Z♠❡*♦ ✜♥✐3♦ ❞❡ ♠❛++❛+ ✭❛#✉✐✱
♣♦* +✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞❡✱ ❝♦♥+✐❞❡*❛♠♦+ ❛♣❡♥❛+ 3*[+✮✱ ❝❤❡❣♦✉ ♥♦ +❡❣✉✐♥3❡ +✐+3❡♠❛✿
3
d 2 yi X
+ aij yj = 0, i = 1, 2, 3.
dt2 j=1
E❛*❛ *❡+♦❧✈❡* ❡+3❡ +✐+3❡♠❛✱ ❞✬❆❧❡♠❜❡*3 ❞❡❝✐❞✐✉ ♠✉❧3✐♣❧✐❝❛* ❛ i✲4+✐♠❛ ❡#✉❛-.♦

♣♦* ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥+3❛♥3❡ vi ✱ ♣❛*❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✐✱ ❡ +♦♠❛* ❛+ ❡#✉❛-P❡+✱ ♦❜3❡♥❞♦
3 3
X d 2 yi X
vi 2 + vi aij yj = 0.
i=1
dt i,j=1
✶✳ ❆❯❚❖❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ❊ ❆❯❚❖❱❊❚❖❘❊❙ ✷✸✶
❉❡♥♦'❛♥❞♦ B = [aij ]t ❡ *❡ ♦* vi ✬* *,♦ ❡*❝♦❧❤✐❞♦* ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ 2✉❡✱ ♣❛6❛ ❛❧❣✉♠❛

❝♦♥*'❛♥'❡ λ✱
X 3
vi aij + λvj = 0, para j = 1, 2, 3,
i=1
✐*'♦ 8✱ *❡ (v1 , v2 , v3 ) 8 ✉♠ ❛✉'♦✈❡'♦6 ❝♦66❡*♣♦♥❞❡♥'❡ ❛♦ ❛✉'♦✈❛❧♦6 λ ❞♦ ♦♣❡6❛✲

❞♦6 TB ✱ ❛ *✉❜*'✐'✉✐<,♦ u = v1 y1 + v2 y2 + v3 y3 6❡❞✉③ ♦ *✐*'❡♠❛ ♦6✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❛ ✉♠❛
>♥✐❝❛ ❡2✉❛<,♦ ❞✐❢❡6❡♥❝✐❛❧
d2 u
− λu = 0,
dt2
2✉❡ 8 ❢❛❝✐❧♠❡♥'❡ 6❡*♦❧✈✐❞❛ ❝♦♠ ♠8'♦❞♦* ❞❡*❡♥✈♦❧✈✐❞♦* ♣♦6 ❊✉❧❡6 ✶ ✳
❆ *❡❣✉✐♥'❡ ♣6♦♣♦*✐<,♦ ♠♦*'6❛ 2✉❡ ❛✉'♦✈❡'♦6❡* ❛**♦❝✐❛❞♦* ❛ ❛✉'♦✈❛❧♦6❡*

❞✐*'✐♥'♦* *,♦ ❧✐♥❡❛6♠❡♥'❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡*✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✾✳✶✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V →V ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❧✐♥❡❛( ❡ -❡❥❛♠ c1 , c2 , . . . ,

cr ❛✉.♦✈❛❧♦(❡- ❞✐-.✐♥.♦- ❞❡ T ✳ ❙❡ v1 , v2 , . . . , vr -1♦ ❛✉.♦✈❡.♦(❡- ❛--♦❝✐❛❞♦-
❛♦- ❛✉.♦✈❛❧♦(❡- c1 , c2 , . . . , cr ✱ (❡-♣❡❝.✐✈❛♠❡♥.❡✱ ❡♥.1♦ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } 4 ❧✐♥❡❛(✲
♠❡♥.❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡ ✳
❉❡♠♦♥$/!❛&'♦ ❆ ♣6♦✈❛ *❡6C ❢❡✐'❛ ♣♦6 ✐♥❞✉<,♦ *♦❜6❡ r✳ ❖ 6❡*✉❧'❛❞♦ 8 ✈C❧✐❞♦
♣❛6❛ r = 1✱ ♣♦✐* *❡ T : V → V 8 ✉♠ ♦♣❡6❛❞♦6 ❧✐♥❡❛6 ❝♦♠ ❛✉'♦✈❛❧♦6 c1 ❡ *❡ v1
8 ✉♠ ❛✉'♦✈❡'♦6 ❞❡ T ❛**♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c1 ✱ ❡♥',♦ {v1 } 8 ❧✐♥❡❛6♠❡♥'❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡✱
♣♦✐* v1 6= 0✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦* ❛❣♦6❛ ♦ 6❡*✉❧'❛❞♦ ✈C❧✐❞♦ ♣❛6❛ r−1 ❡ ✈❛♠♦* ♣6♦✈C✲❧♦
♣❛6❛ r✱ r ≥ 2✳ F❛6❛ ✐*'♦✱ ❝♦♥*✐❞❡6❡♠♦* ❛ ❡2✉❛<,♦
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ar vr = 0, ✭✹✮
✶ ▲❡♦♥❤❛&❞ (❛✉❧ ❊✉❧❡& ✭❙✉./❛✱ ✶✼✵✼ ✲ ✶✼✽✸✮ 8 ❝♦♥:✐❞❡&❛❞♦ ♦ ♠❛=❡♠>=✐❝♦ ♠❛✐: ♣&♦❧.❢❡&♦ ❞❡
=♦❞❛ ❛ ❤✐:=A&✐❛✳ ❊&❛ =❛♠❜8♠ ❛:=&D♥♦♠♦✱ ❢.:✐❝♦✱ ❡♥❣❡♥❤❡✐&♦ ❡ F✉.♠✐❝♦✳ ❆ ❝♦❧❡/H♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡=❛
❞♦: ❧✐✈&♦: ❡ =&❛❜❛❧❤♦: ❝✐❡♥=.✜❝♦: ❞❡ ❊✉❧❡& ✭♠❛✐: ❞❡ ✽✼✵ ❛&=✐❣♦: ❡ ❧✐✈&♦:✮ ❝❤❡❣❛ ❛ ♠❛✐:
❞❡ ♦✐=❡♥=❛ ✈♦❧✉♠❡:✳ ❊❧❡ ❞❡✉ ❣&❛♥❞❡: ❝♦♥=&✐❜✉✐/K❡: L ❣❡♦♠❡=&✐❛ ❛♥❛❧.=✐❝❛✱ =&✐❣♦♥♦♠❡=&✐❛✱
❝>❧❝✉❧♦ ✐♥✜♥✐=❡:✐♠❛❧ ❡ =❡♦&✐❛ ❞♦: ♥M♠❡&♦:✱ ❝♦♥=✐♥✉❛♥❞♦ ❛ =&❛❜❛❧❤❛& ♠❡:♠♦ ❞❡♣♦✐: ❞❡ =❡&
✜❝❛❞♦ F✉❛:❡ ❝❡❣♦ ❡♠ ✶✼✼✶✳ ❙✉❛ ♣&♦❞✐❣✐♦:❛ ♠❡♠A&✐❛ ♣❡&♠✐=✐❛ F✉❡ &❡❛❧✐③❛::❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①♦: ❡
❧♦♥❣♦: ❝>❧❝✉❧♦: ♠❡♥=❛✐: ❡✱ ❞❡::❛ ❢♦&♠❛✱ ❞✐=❛& :❡✉: ❛&=✐❣♦: ♣❛&❛ :❡✉: ✜❧❤♦: ❡ ♦✉=&♦:✱ ❛=8 ❛
:✉❛ ♠♦&=❡✳
✷✸✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
♦♥❞❡ a1 , a2 , . . . , ar &'♦ ♥(♠❡*♦& *❡❛✐&✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ T ❡♠ ✭✹✮✱ ♦❜7❡♠♦&
a1 (c1 v1 ) + a2 (c2 v2 ) + · · · + ar (cr vr ) = 0, ✭✺✮
❥: ;✉❡ T (vj ) = cj vj ✱ ♣❛*❛ 7♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ r✳ =♦* ♦✉7*♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ T ♣♦&&✉✐ ♣❡❧♦

♠❡♥♦& ✉♠ ❛✉7♦✈❛❧♦* ♥'♦ ♥✉❧♦✳ ❙❡♠ ♣❡*❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡*❛❧✐❞❛❞❡✱ &✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦& ;✉❡
cr 6= 0✳ ▼✉❧7✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ✭✹✮ ♣♦* cr ✱ ♦❜7❡♠♦&
a1 (cr v1 ) + a2 (cr v2 ) + · · · + ar (cr vr ) = 0. ✭✻✮
❉❡ ✭✺✮ ❡ ✭✻✮✱
a1 (c1 − cr )v1 + a2 (c2 − cr )v2 + · · · + ar−1 (cr−1 − cr )vr−1 = 0. ✭✼✮
=❡❧❛ ❤✐♣F7❡&❡ ❞❡ ✐♥❞✉G'♦✱ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr−1 } H ❧✐♥❡❛*♠❡♥7❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥7❡✳ =♦*✲

7❛♥7♦✱ ❞❡ ✭✼✮✱ &❡❣✉❡✲&❡ ;✉❡
aj (cj − cr ) = 0 ♣❛*❛ 7♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ r − 1. ✭✽✮
❈♦♠♦ ♦& ❛✉7♦✈❛❧♦*❡& c1 , c2 , . . . , cr &'♦ 7♦❞♦& ❞✐&7✐♥7♦&✱ ❞❡ ✭✽✮ ♦❜7❡♠♦& ;✉❡

aj = 0 ♣❛*❛ 7♦❞♦ 1 ≤ j ≤ r−1✳ ❙✉❜&7✐7✉✐♥❞♦ ❡&7❡& ✈❛❧♦*❡& ❡♠ ✭✹✮✱ ❝♦♥❝❧✉L♠♦&
;✉❡ ar = 0 7❛♠❜H♠✱ ❥: ;✉❡ vr 6= 0✳ =♦*7❛♥7♦✱ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } H ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥7❡✳

❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✾✳✶✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → V ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❧✐♥❡❛(✳ ❙❡ dim V = n ❡ T
♣♦..✉✐ n ❛✉/♦✈❛❧♦(❡. ❞✐./✐♥/♦.✱ ❡♥/2♦ V ♣♦..✉✐ ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ ❢♦(♠❛❞❛ ♣♦( ❛✉/♦✲
✈❡/♦(❡. ❞❡ T ✳
❉❡♠♦♥./"❛12♦ =❡❧❛ =*♦♣♦&✐G'♦ ✾✳✶✳✶✱ n ❛✉7♦✈❛❧♦*❡& ❞✐&7✐♥7♦& ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛♠ ♥❛
❡①✐&7P♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥7♦ ❞❡ ❛✉7♦✈❡7♦*❡& {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ❧✐♥❡❛*♠❡♥7❡ ✐♥❞❡✲
♣❡♥❞❡♥7❡✳ ❈♦♠♦ G(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) ⊂ V ❡ dim G(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) = n = dim V ✱
7❡♠♦& ;✉❡ G(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) = V ✱ ❧♦❣♦ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } H ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞❡ V ✳
◆❛ ❙❡G'♦ ✸✱ ✈❡*❡♠♦& ;✉❡ ❛ ❡①✐&7P♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞❡ V ❢♦*♠❛❞❛ ♣♦*
❛✉7♦✈❡7♦*❡& ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡*❛❞♦* ❧✐♥❡❛* T : V → V H ❡;✉✐✈❛❧❡♥7❡ S ❡①✐&7P♥❝✐❛ ❞❡
✉♠❛ *❡♣*❡&❡♥7❛G'♦ ❞❡&7❡ ♦♣❡*❛❞♦* ♣♦* ✉♠❛ ♠❛7*✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ ❆♥7❡&✱ ♣♦*H♠✱
♥❛ ♣*F①✐♠❛ &❡G'♦✱ ✈❛♠♦& ✐♥7*♦❞✉③✐* ❛ ♥♦G'♦ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥U♠✐♦ ❝❛*❛❝7❡*L&7✐❝♦ ;✉❡
✶✳ ❆❯❚❖❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ❊ ❆❯❚❖❱❊❚❖❘❊❙ ✷✸✸
♥♦$ ♣❡'♠✐*✐'+ ❞❡*❡'♠✐♥❛' ♠❛✐$ ❢❛❝✐❧♠❡♥*❡ ♦$ ❛✉*♦✈❛❧♦'❡$ ❡ ❛✉*♦✈❡*♦'❡$ ❞❡ ✉♠

♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❧✐♥❡❛'✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✶✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ T : V→ V ✉♠ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❧✐♥❡❛' ❡ c ∈ R ✉♠ ❛✉*♦✈❛❧♦' ❞❡ T ✳ 6'♦✈❡
7✉❡ ♦ ❛✉*♦❡$♣❛8♦ A(c) ❞❡ T ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c 9 ✉♠ $✉❜❡$♣❛8♦ ✈❡*♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ V ✳
✶✳✷ ❉❡*❡'♠✐♥❡ ♦$ ❛✉*♦✈❛❧♦'❡$ ❡ ♦$ ❛✉*♦✈❡*♦'❡$ ❞❛$ $❡❣✉✐♥*❡$ *'❛♥$❢♦'♠❛8=❡$

❧✐♥❡❛'❡$✿
✭❛✮ T : R2 → R2 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦' T (x, y) = (x − y, x)❀
✭❜✮ T : R3 → R3 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦' T (x, y, z) = (x, −2x − y, 2x + y + 2z)❀
✭❝✮ T : R[x]2 → R[x]2 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦' T (ax2 + bx + c) = ax2 + cx + b❀
!" #$ " #
a b 2c a+c
✭❞✮ T : M(2) → M(2) ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦' T = ✳
c d b − 2c d
✶✳✸ ❉❡*❡'♠✐♥❡ ♦$ ❛✉*♦✈❛❧♦'❡$ ❡ ♦$ ❛✉*♦✈❡*♦'❡$ ❞♦$ $❡❣✉✐♥*❡$ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦'❡$ ❝✉❥❛$
♠❛*'✐③❡$ ♥❛ ❜❛$❡ ❝❛♥C♥✐❝❛ $D♦✿
 
  4 0 2 0
" # 1 0 0
2 2 0 2 0 0
✭❛✮ A = ❀ ✭❜✮ A = −1 0 −2❀ ✭❝✮ A =  ✳
   
2 2 0 0 2 0
1 1 3
0 −1 0 0
✶✳✹ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛ 7✉❡ c 9 ✉♠ ❛✉*♦✈❛❧♦' ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ✐♥✈❡'*F✈❡❧ T ✳ ▼♦$*'❡ 7✉❡
c−1 9 ✉♠ ❛✉*♦✈❛❧♦' ❞❡ T −1 ✳
✶✳✺ ❉❡*❡'♠✐♥❡ T (x, y, z) $❛❜❡♥❞♦ 7✉❡ T : R3 → R3 9 ✉♠ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❧✐♥❡❛'
❝♦♠ ❛✉*♦❡$♣❛8♦$✱ ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦$ ❛♦$ ❛✉*♦✈❛❧♦'❡$ c1 = 1 ❡ c2 = 3✱ ❞❛❞♦$ ♣♦'
{(x, x + y, y) ; x, y ∈ R} ❡ {(0, x, 2x) ; x ∈ R}✱ '❡$♣❡❝*✐✈❛♠❡♥*❡✳
✶✳✻✯ ❖$ ❛✉*♦✈❛❧♦'❡$ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' ❧✐♥❡❛' T : R3 → R3 $D♦ c1 = 1✱ c2 = 2
❡ c3 = −1✱ $❡♥❞♦ v1 = (1, 1, 1)✱ v2 = (0, 1, 1) ❡ v3 = (−1, 1, 0) ♦$ '❡$♣❡❝*✐✈♦$
❛✉*♦✈❡*♦'❡$ ❛$$♦❝✐❛❞♦$✳ ❉❡*❡'♠✐♥❡ T (x, y, z)✳
✶✳✼ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛ 7✉❡ v 9 ✉♠ ❛✉*♦✈❡*♦' ❞♦$ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦'❡$ T ❡ S ✳ ▼♦$*'❡ 7✉❡ v 9

*❛♠❜9♠ ✉♠ ❛✉*♦✈❡*♦' ❞♦ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' aT +bS ✱ ♦♥❞❡ a, b $D♦ ❡$❝❛❧❛'❡$ 7✉❛✐$7✉❡'✳
✷✸✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
✶✳✽ ❊♥❝♦♥'(❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ 3 × 3 ❝♦♠ ❛✉'♦✈❛❧♦(❡1 c = 0, 1 ❡ −1 ❡ ❛✉'♦✈❡'♦(❡1
❛11♦❝✐❛❞♦1 v1 = (0, 1, −1)✱ v2 = (1, −1, 1) ❡ v3 = (0, 1, 1)✱ (❡1♣❡❝'✐✈❛♠❡♥'❡✳
✷ !♦❧✐♥&♠✐♦ ❈❛*❛❝,❡*./,✐❝♦
❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ 8✉❛❞(❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦(❞❡♠ n✳ ❆ ♠❛'(✐③ t In −A✱ ♦♥❞❡ t : ✉♠❛
✐♥❞❡'❡(♠✐♥❛❞❛✱ : ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ♠❛"#✐③ ❝❛#❛❝"❡#()"✐❝❛ ❞❡A✳ ❖ ❞❡'❡(♠✐♥❛♥'❡ ❞❡11❛
♠❛'(✐③ : ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥=♠✐♦ ❡♠ t✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥/♠✐♦ ❝❛#❛❝"❡#()"✐❝♦ ❞❛ ♠❛'(✐③ A
❡ ❞❡♥♦'❛❞♦ ♣♦( PA (t)✳
" #
4 −1
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ A = ❛ ♠❛'(✐③✱ ♥❛ ❜❛1❡ ❝❛♥=♥✐❝❛✱ ❞♦ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❞♦
2 1
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✱ ❞❛ ❙❡AB♦ ✶✳ ❆ ♠❛'(✐③ ❝❛(❛❝'❡(C1'✐❝❛ ❞❡ A : ❛ ♠❛'(✐③
" #
t−4 1
tI2 − A =
−2 t − 1
❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥=♠✐♦ ❝❛(❛❝'❡(C1'✐❝♦ ❞❡ A : ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥=♠✐♦

" #
t−4 1
PA (t) = det = t2 − 5t + 6.
−2 t − 1
" #
0 −1
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❈♦♥1✐❞❡(❡♠♦1 ❛ ♠❛'(✐③ A = ✱ ♥❛ ❜❛1❡ ❝❛♥=♥✐❝❛✱ ❞♦
1 0
♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❞♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✱ ❞❛ ❙❡AB♦ ✷✳ ❆ ♠❛'(✐③ ❝❛(❛❝'❡(C1'✐❝❛ ❞❡ A : ❛ ♠❛'(✐③
" #
t 1
−1 t
❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥=♠✐♦ ❝❛(❛❝'❡(C1'✐❝♦ ❞❡ A : ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥=♠✐♦
PA (t) = t2 + 1.
❖❜1❡(✈❡♠♦1 8✉❡ ❛1 (❛C③❡1 ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥=♠✐♦ ❞♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✱ ♦✉ 1❡❥❛✱ ♦1 ♥E♠❡(♦1

(❡❛✐1 t0 '❛✐1 8✉❡ PA (t0 ) = 0✱ 1B♦ ♦1 ❛✉'♦✈❛❧♦(❡1 ❞♦ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❞❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✶ ❞❛ ❙❡AB♦ ✶✳ ◆♦'❡ 8✉❡ ♦ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( ❞♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✱ ❞❛ ❙❡AB♦ ✶✱ ♥B♦ '❡♠
✷✳ "❖▲■◆'▼■❖ ❈❆❘❆❈❚❊❘❮❙❚■❈❖ ✷✸✺
❛✉%♦✈❛❧♦)❡+ ❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥/♠✐♦ ❝❛)❛❝%❡)2+%✐❝♦ ❞❡ +✉❛ ♠❛%)✐③ ❛++♦❝✐❛❞❛ ♥5♦ %❡♠

)❛2③❡+✳ ❙✉)❣❡✱ ❡♥%5♦✱ ♥❛%✉)❛❧♠❡♥%❡ ❛ +❡❣✉✐♥%❡ ♣❡)❣✉♥%❛✿
❊①✐#$❡ ✉♠❛ )❡❧❛+,♦ ❡♥$)❡ ♦# ❛✉$♦✈❛❧♦)❡# ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡)❛❞♦) ❡ ❛# )❛2③❡# ❞♦
♣♦❧✐♥4♠✐♦ ❝❛)❛❝$❡)2#$✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ ♠❛$)✐③ ❛##♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ❡❧❡❄
❆ )❡+♣♦+%❛ < ❛✜)♠❛%✐✈❛ ❡ < ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧♦ )❡+✉❧%❛❞♦ ❛ +❡❣✉✐)✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✾✳✷✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V →V ✉♠ ♦♣❡)❛❞♦) ❧✐♥❡❛) ❡ #❡❥❛ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }
✉♠❛ ❜❛#❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❊♥$,♦✿
✭✐✮ v = ✉♠ ❛✉$♦✈❡$♦) ❞❡ T ❛##♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t0 #❡✱ ❡ #♦♠❡♥$❡ #❡✱ [v]α = ✉♠❛
#♦❧✉+,♦ ♥,♦ $)✐✈✐❛❧ ❞♦ #✐#$❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛) AX = 0✱ ♦♥❞❡ A = t0 In − [T ]αα ❀
✭✐✐✮ t0 ∈ R = ✉♠ ❛✉$♦✈❛❧♦) ❞❡ T #❡✱ ❡ #♦♠❡♥$❡ #❡✱ t0 = ✉♠❛ )❛✐③ ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥4♠✐♦
❝❛)❛❝$❡)2#$✐❝♦ ❞❛ ♠❛$)✐③ [T ]αα ✱ ♦✉ #❡❥❛✱ P[T ] (t0 ) = 0✳
α
α
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ ✭✐✮✿ ❙❡❥❛ t0 ✉♠ ❛✉%♦✈❛❧♦) ❞❡ T ❡ v ✉♠ ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦) ❞❡ T

❛++♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t0 ✳ ❈♦♠♦ [T (v)]α = [T ]αα [v]α ❡ T (v) = t0 v ✱ %❡♠♦+
[t0 v]α = [T ]αα [v]α ,
♦✉ +❡❥❛✱ t0 In [v]α = [T ]αα [v]α ✳ ❊C✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡♠❡♥%❡✱
(t0 In − [T ]αα )[v]α = 0. ✭✾✮
✭✐✐✮✿ ❈♦♥+✐❞❡)❡♠♦+ ♦ +✐+%❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛) AX = 0✱ ♦♥❞❡ A = t0 In − [T ]αα ✳ ❉❡ ✭✾✮✱

+❡❣✉❡ C✉❡ AX = 0 %❡♠ ✉♠❛ +♦❧✉F5♦ ♥5♦ %)✐✈✐❛❧✱ ❛ +❛❜❡) [v]α ✱ ❥H C✉❡ v ♥5♦ < ♦
✈❡%♦) ♥✉❧♦✳ I❡❧♦ ❈♦)♦❧H)✐♦ ✷✳✷✳✼✱ A ♥5♦ < ✐♥✈❡)%2✈❡❧✳ ❆++✐♠✱ ♣❡❧❛ I)♦♣♦+✐F5♦
✽✳✶✳✼✭✐✐✐✮✱ P[T ]αα (t0 ) = 0✱ ♣)♦✈❛♥❞♦ C✉❡ t0 < ✉♠❛ )❛✐③ ❞❡ P[T ]αα ✳
❘❡❝✐♣)♦❝❛♠❡♥%❡✱ +❡ t0 ∈ R < ✉♠❛ )❛✐③ ❞❡ P[T ]αα ✱ ❡♥%5♦ P[T ]αα (t0 ) = 0✳
I♦)%❛♥%♦✱ ♦ +✐+%❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛) AX = 0✱ ♦♥❞❡ A = t0 In − [T ]αα ✱ %❡♠ ✉♠❛ +♦❧✉F5♦
h it
X1 = x1 x2 . . . xn ♥5♦ ♥✉❧❛✱ ♣♦✐+ det A = 0 ✭❝❢✳ ❈♦)♦❧H)✐♦ ✷✳✷✳✼ ❡
I)♦♣♦+✐F5♦ ✽✳✶✳✼✭✐✐✐✮✮✳ ❱❛♠♦+ ♣)♦✈❛) C✉❡ t0 < ✉♠ ❛✉%♦✈❛❧♦) ❞❡ T ❡ C✉❡ v =
x1 v1 + x2 v2 + · · · + xn vn < ✉♠ ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦) ❞❡ T ❛++♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t0 ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛%♦✱ ❝♦♠♦
X1 < ✉♠❛ +♦❧✉F5♦ ❞♦ +✐+%❡♠❛ AX = 0✱ %❡♠♦+ AX1 = 0✳ ❊C✉✐✈❛❧❡♥%❡♠❡♥%❡✱
(t0 In − [T ]αα )X1 = t0 X1 − [T ]αα X1 = 0,

✷✸✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
♦✉ %❡❥❛✱
[t0 v]α = t0 [v]α = [T ]αα [v]α = [T (v)]α , ✭✶✵✮
♣♦✐%✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❝♦♥%34✉56♦ ❞❡ v ✱ X1 = [v]α ✳ ❉❡ ✭✶✵✮✱ ♦❜3❡♠♦% <✉❡ [T (v)]α =
[t0 v]α ✱ ✐%3♦ =✱ ❛% ❝♦♦4❞❡♥❛❞❛% ❞♦% ✈❡3♦4❡% T (v) ❡ t0 v ♥❛ ❜❛%❡ α %6♦ ✐❣✉❛✐%✳
❈♦♥%❡<✉❡♥3❡♠❡♥3❡✱ ❡%3❡% ✈❡3♦4❡% %6♦ ✐❣✉❛✐%✱ ♦✉ %❡❥❛✱ T (v) = t0 v ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣♦4
❝♦♥%34✉56♦ v 6= 0✱ %❡❣✉❡✲%❡ <✉❡ t0 = ✉♠ ❛✉3♦✈❛❧♦4 ❞❡ T ❡ v = ✉♠ ❛✉3♦✈❡3♦4 ❞❡
T ❛%%♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t0 ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳ ❱❛♠♦% 4❡❢❛③❡4 ♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶ ❞❛ ❙❡56♦ ✶✱ ✉3✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❚❡♦4❡♠❛
✾✳✷✳✶✳ ❘❡❝♦♥%✐❞❡4❡ ♦ ♦♣❡4❛❞♦4 ❧✐♥❡❛4 T : R2 → R2 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦4 T (x, y) = (4x −
y, 2x + y) ❡ %❡❥❛ α ❛ ❜❛%❡ ❝❛♥K♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❚❡♠♦%
" #
t−4 1
P[T ]αα (t) = det = t2 − 5t + 6.
−2 t − 1
❈♦♠♦ t2 − 5t + 6 = 0 %♦♠❡♥3❡ ♣❛4❛ t1 = 2 ❡ t2 = 3✱ ♦ ❚❡♦4❡♠❛ ✾✳✷✳✶ ♥♦%

♠♦%34❛ <✉❡ t1 ❡ t2 %6♦ ♦% L♥✐❝♦% ❛✉3♦✈❛❧♦4❡% ❞❡ T ✳ M❛4❛ ❞❡3❡4♠✐♥❛4♠♦% ♦%
❛✉3♦✈❡3♦4❡% ❞❡ T ❛%%♦❝✐❛❞♦% ❛ t1 ✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦% 4❡%♦❧✈❡4 ♦ %✐%3❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛4
" #" # " #
t1 − 4 1 x1 0
= ,
−2 t1 − 1 x2 0
♦✉ %❡❥❛✱ " #" # " #

−2 1 x1 0
= ,
−2 1 x2 0
<✉❡ ❡<✉✐✈❛❧❡ N ❡<✉❛56♦ ❧✐♥❡❛4 −2x1 + x2 = 0✳ ❆%%✐♠✱ ♦ ❛✉3♦❡%♣❛5♦ ❞❡ T
❛%%♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t1 = {(x, 2x) ; x ∈ R}✳ ❆❣♦4❛✱ ♣❛4❛ ❞❡3❡4♠✐♥❛4♠♦% ♦% ❛✉3♦✈❡3♦4❡%
❞❡ T ❛%%♦❝✐❛❞♦% ❛ t2 ✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦% 4❡%♦❧✈❡4 ♦ %✐%3❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛4
" #" # " #
t2 − 4 1 t1 0
= ,
−2 t2 − 1 t2 0
♦✉ %❡❥❛✱ " #" # " #

−1 1 t1 0
= ,
−2 2 t2 0
✷✳ "❖▲■◆'▼■❖ ❈❆❘❆❈❚❊❘❮❙❚■❈❖ ✷✸✼
#✉❡ ❡#✉✐✈❛❧❡ * ❡#✉❛+,♦ ❧✐♥❡❛/ −x1 + x2 = 0✳ ❆22✐♠✱ ♦ ❛✉5♦❡2♣❛+♦ ❞❡ T

❛22♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t2 9 {(x, x) ; x ∈ R}✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : M(2) → M(2) ♦ ♦♣❡/❛❞♦/ ❧✐♥❡❛/ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦/ T (A) = At ✱
♦♥❞❡ A ∈ M(2)✳ ❙❡❥❛ α ❛ ❜❛2❡ ❝❛♥=♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ M(2)✳ ❚❡♠♦2
 
t−2 0 0 0
 0 t −1 0 
P[T ]αα (t) = det   = (t − 1)3 (t + 1).
 
 0 −1 t 0 
0 0 0 t−1
?♦/5❛♥5♦✱
" t1#= 1 ❡ t2 = −1 2,♦ ♦2 ❛✉5♦✈❛❧♦/❡2 ❞❡ T ✳ ?❡❧♦ ❚❡♦/❡♠❛ ✾✳✷✳✶✱
x y
M= 9 ✉♠ ❛✉5♦✈❡5♦/ ❛22♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t1 = 1 2❡✱ ❡ 2♦♠❡♥5❡ 2❡✱
z w
    
0 0 0 0 x 0
0 1 −1 0  y  0
   
  =  .
 
0 −1

1 0   z   0
0 0 0 0 w 0
❆22✐♠✱ (" # )
x y
; x, y, w ∈ R
y w
9 ♦ ❛✉5♦❡2♣❛+♦
" # ❛22♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t1 = 1✳ ❆❣♦/❛✱ ♣❛/❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛/♠♦2 ♦2 ❛✉5♦✈❡5♦/❡2
x y
M= ❛22♦❝✐❛❞♦2 ❛ t2 = −1✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦2 /❡2♦❧✈❡/ ♦ 2✐25❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛/
z w
    
−2 0 0 0 x 0
 0 −1 −1 0   y  0
   
  =  .
 
 0 −1 −1

0   z  0
0 0 0 −2 w 0
❈♦♠♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥5♦ 2♦❧✉+,♦ ❞♦ 2✐25❡♠❛ ❛❝✐♠❛ 9 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦/ x = w = 0 ❡ y = −z ✱
2❡❣✉❡ #✉❡ (" # )
0 y
; y∈R
−y 0
✷✸✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
# ♦ ❛✉'♦❡)♣❛+♦ ❛))♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t2 ✳
❖❜)❡2✈❡♠♦) 5✉❡✱ ♥♦) ❡①❡♠♣❧♦) ❛❝✐♠❛✱ '♦♠❛♠♦) α )❡♥❞♦ )❡♠♣2❡ ❛ ❜❛)❡

❝❛♥:♥✐❝❛✳ ■)'♦ ♥<♦ 2❡♣2❡)❡♥'❛ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ♣2♦❜❧❡♠❛✱ ♣♦✐) ♦ ♠#'♦❞♦ ❞❡ ❝>❧❝✉❧♦
❞♦) ❛✉'♦✈❛❧♦2❡) ❡ ❛✉'♦✈❡'♦2❡) ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡2❛❞♦2 T ✱ ❞❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦2❡♠❛ ✾✳✷✳✶✱
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❛ ❜❛)❡ ❡)❝♦❧❤✐❞❛✳ ❖ 5✉❡ ♥<♦ # '♦'❛❧♠❡♥'❡ ❝❧❛2♦ # )❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦
❝❛2❛❝'❡2B)'✐❝♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❛ ❜❛)❡ ❡)❝♦❧❤✐❞❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦ ❝❛2❛❝'❡2B)✲
'✐❝♦ ❞❡ T ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❛ ❡)❝♦❧❤❛ ❞❛ ❜❛)❡✱ ♣♦✐) ❞❛❞❛) α ❡ β ❜❛)❡) ❞♦ ❡)♣❛+♦
✈❡'♦2✐❛❧ V ✱ '❡♠♦) 5✉❡ P[T ]αα (t) = P[T ]β (t) ✭✈❡❥❛ H2♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✸✮✳
β
❖ ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦ ❝❛2❛❝'❡2B)'✐❝♦ ♣♦))✉✐ ✈>2✐❛) ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡)✱ ❞❛) 5✉❛✐) ❞❛♠♦)

❛❜❛✐①♦ ❛ ♠❛✐) ❜>)✐❝❛✳
▲❡♠❛ ✾✳✷✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ B ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ *✉❛❞'❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦'❞❡♠ n ❝♦♠ ❡♥&'❛❞❛/ ♣♦✲
❧✐♥3♠✐❛✐/✱ ❞❡ ❣'❛✉/ ≤ 1✱ ♥✉♠❛ ✐♥❞❡&❡'♠✐♥❛❞❛ t✱ &❛❧ *✉❡ ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❡ ❡♠
❝❛❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❤7 ♥♦ ♠7①✐♠♦ ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥3♠✐♦ ♥9♦ ❝♦♥/&❛♥&❡✱ ❡♥&9♦ det A : ✉♠
♣♦❧✐♥3♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣'❛✉ ♠❡♥♦' ♦✉ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❞♦ *✉❡ n✳
❉❡♠♦♥*+,❛-.♦ ❆ ♣2♦✈❛ ♣♦❞❡ )❡2 ❢❡✐'❛ )❡♠ ❞✐✜❝✉❧❞❛❞❡ ♣♦2 ✐♥❞✉+<♦ )♦❜2❡
n✱ ✉'✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❞❡)❡♥✈♦❧✈✐♠❡♥'♦ ❞❡ ▲❛♣❧❛❝❡ ❝♦♠ 2❡❧❛+<♦ N ♣2✐♠❡✐2❛ ❧✐♥❤❛✱ ♣♦2
❡①❡♠♣❧♦✳
/,♦♣♦*✐-.♦ ✾✳✷✳✸✳ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ A ∈ M(n)✱ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥3♠✐♦ ❝❛'❛❝&❡'=/&✐❝♦

pA (t) ❞❡ A : ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥3♠✐♦ ♠3♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❣'❛✉ n ❝♦♠ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥&❡/ ❡♠ R ❡ ❝✉❥♦/
❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥&❡/ ❞❡ tn−1 ❡ ❞❡ t0 /9♦ − tr A ❡ (−1)n det A✳
❉❡♠♦♥*+,❛-.♦ ❊)❝2❡✈❛♠♦) A = (aij )✱ ❧♦❣♦
 
t − a11 −a12 · · · −a1n
 −a21 t − a22 · · · −a2n 
 
pA (t) = det 
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳  .
 ✳ ✳ ✳ 
an1 −an2 · · · t − ann
H❡❧♦ ▲❡♠❛ ❛♥'❡2✐♦2✱ pA (t) # ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣2❛✉ ♥♦ ♠>①✐♠♦ n✳ ❉❡)❡♥✈♦❧✲

✈❡♥❞♦ ♦ ❞❡'❡2♠✐♥❛'❡ )❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦) ❡❧❡♠❡♥'♦) ❞❛ ♣2✐♠❡✐2❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❡ ✉'✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ♦
✷✳ "❖▲■◆'▼■❖ ❈❆❘❆❈❚❊❘❮❙❚■❈❖ ✷✸✾
▲❡♠❛ ✾✳✷✳✷ ✭)❡♣❡+✐❞❛. ✈❡③❡.✮✱ +❡♠♦. 4✉❡

 
t − a22 · · · −a2n
 ✳ ✳✳ 
pA (t) = (t − a11 ) det  ✳✳ ✳  + ♣♦❧✐♥8♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣)❛✉ < n − 1.
−an2 · · · t − ann
❘❡♣❡+✐♥❞♦ ♦ ♣)♦❝❡❞✐♠❡♥+♦✱ ✈❡♠♦. 4✉❡
pA (t) = (t − a11 )(t − a22 ) · · · (t − ann ) + ♣♦❧✐♥8♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣)❛✉ < n − 1.
❙❡❣✉❡✲.❡ 4✉❡ pA (t) > ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥8♠✐♦ ♠8♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❣)❛✉ n ❡♠ t ❡ 4✉❡ ♦ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥+❡

❞❡ tn−1 > − tr A✳
@♦) ♦✉+)♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ♦ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥+❡ ❞❡ t0 ❡♠ pA (t) = det(t In −A) > ♣)❡❝✐.❛♠❡♥+❡
PA (0) = det(−A) = (−1)n det A.

❙❡❥❛♠ ❞❛❞♦. ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥8♠✐♦ p(t) = ar tr + ar−1 tr−1 + · · · + a1 t + a0 ✱ ❝♦♠
❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥+❡. )❡❛✐.✱ ❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛+)✐③ 4✉❛❞)❛❞❛ A ❞❡ ♦)❞❡♠ n✱ ❞❡✜♥❡✲.❡
p(A) = ar Ar + ar−1 Ar−1 + · · · + a1 A + a0 In ,
4✉❡ > ✉♠❛ ♠❛+)✐③ 4✉❛❞)❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦)❞❡♠ n✳

❆ .❡❣✉✐)✱ ❛♣)❡.❡♥+❛♠♦. ✉♠ ❞♦. ✐♠♣♦)+❛♥+❡. ❚❡♦)❡♠❛. ❜E.✐❝♦. ❞❛ ➪❧❣❡❜)❛
▲✐♥❡❛)✱ ♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❚❡♦)❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧+♦♥ ✷ ✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✾✳✷✳✹✳ ✭❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧1♦♥✮ ❙❡❥❛ A ∈ M(n) ❡ $❡❥❛ PA(t) ♦ ♣♦✲
❧✐♥+♠✐♦ ❝❛.❛❝/❡.0$/✐❝♦ ❞❡ A✳ ❊♥/4♦✱ PA (A) = 0✱ ♦♥❞❡ 0 6 ❛ ♠❛/.✐③ ♥✉❧❛ ❞❡
M(n)✳
✷❲✐❧❧✐❛♠ ❘♦✇❛♥ ❍❛♠✐❧*♦♥ ✭■-❧❛♥❞❛✱ ✶✽✵✺ ✲ ✶✽✻✺✮ ❞❡✉ ✈:-✐❛; ❝♦♥*-✐❜✉✐>?❡; @ ❋B;✐❝❛ ❡ @
▼❛*❡♠:*✐❝❛✳ ❈♦♠ ❛♣❡♥❛; ✷✷ ❛♥♦; ❞❡ ✐❞❛❞❡✱ ❢♦✐ ♥♦♠❡❛❞♦ ❘♦②❛❧ ❆;*-♦♥♦♠❡- ♥❛ ■-❧❛♥❞❛✱
❞✐-❡*♦- ❞♦ ❖❜;❡-✈❛*L-✐♦ ❞❡ ❉✉♥;❡❦ ❡ ♣-♦❢❡;;♦- ❞❡ ❆;*-♦♥♦♠✐❛✳ ❉❡✉ ♦ ♣-✐♠❡✐-♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡
✉♠❛ :❧❣❡❜-❛ ♥Q♦ ❝♦♠✉*❛*✐✈❛ ❝♦♠ ❛ ❝-✐❛>Q♦ ❞♦; R✉❛*S-♥✐♦;✳ ❖; ♠S*♦❞♦; ❞♦; R✉❛*S-♥✐♦;✱
*❡♠♣♦; ❞❡♣♦✐;✱ ♠♦*✐✈❛-❛♠ ❛ ✐♥*-♦❞✉>Q♦ ❞❛ ❛♥:❧✐;❡ ✈❡*♦-✐❛❧✳ ❍❛♠✐❧*♦♥ ❡;❝-❡✈❡✉ *❛♠❜S♠
;♦❜-❡ L*✐❝❛ ❡ ❞✐♥T♠✐❝❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛*♦✱ ❍❛♠✐❧*♦♥ S ❛*✉❛❧♠❡♥*❡ ♠❛✐; ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞♦ ♣♦- ;❡✉; *-❛❜❛❧❤♦;
❡♠ ❞✐♥T♠✐❝❛ ❞♦ R✉❡ ♣♦- ;❡✉; *-❛❜❛❧❤♦; ❡♠ ♠❛*❡♠:*✐❝❛✳
✷✹✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ❈♦♠♦ PA (t) & ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥,♠✐♦ ♠,♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❣1❛✉ n ❡♠ t✱ ♣♦❞❡✲
♠♦5 ❡5❝1❡✈❡1
PA (t) = tn + bn−1 tn−1 + · · · + b1 t + b0 , ✭✶✶✮
♦♥❞❡ b0 , . . . , bn−1 5:♦ ♥;♠❡1♦5 1❡❛✐5✳ ❙❡❥❛ C(t) ❛ ♠❛?1✐③ ❛❞❥✉♥?❛ ❞❛ ♠❛?1✐③
t In −A✳ ❈♦♠♦ C(t) &✱ ♣♦1 ❞❡✜♥✐B:♦✱ ❛ ?1❛♥5♣♦5?❛ ❞❛ ♠❛?1✐③ ❝✉❥❛5 ❡♥?1❛❞❛5
5:♦ ♦5 ❝♦❢❛?♦1❡5 ❞❡ t In −A✱ ❧♦❣♦ 5:♦ ♣♦❧✐♥,♠✐♦5 ❡♠ t ❞❡ ❣1❛✉ ♠❡♥♦1 ♦✉ ✐❣✉❛❧
D✉❡ n − 1✳ ❆55✐♠✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦5 ❡5❝1❡✈❡1
C(t) = Cn−1 tn−1 + · · · + C1 t + C0 , ✭✶✷✮
♦♥❞❡ C0 , C1 , . . . , Cn−1 5:♦ ♠❛?1✐③❡5 D✉❛❞1❛❞❛5 ❞❡ ♦1❞❡♠ n✱ D✉❡ ♥:♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♠

❞❡ t✳ F❡❧❛ F1♦♣♦5✐B:♦ ✽✳✸✳✶✱ ?❡♠♦5
(t In −A)C(t) = PA (t) In ,
❥I D✉❡✱ ♣♦1 ❞❡✜♥✐B:♦✱ PA (t) = det(t In −A)✳ ❊D✉✐✈❛❧❡♥?❡♠❡♥?❡✱ ♣♦1 ✭✶✶✮ ❡

✭✶✷✮✱
(t In −A)(Cn−1 tn−1 + · · · + C1 t + C0 ) = (tn + bn−1 tn−1 + · · · + b1 t + b0 ) In .
❉❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛♥?❡1✐♦1✱ ♦❜?❡♠♦5




 Cn−1 = In
Cn−2 − ACn−1 = bn−1 In





 Cn−3 − ACn−2 = bn−2 In

✳✳


 ✳




 C0 − AC1 = b1 In

 −AC = b I .
0 0 n
▼✉❧?✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛5 ❡D✉❛BN❡5 ❛❝✐♠❛ ♣♦1 An , An−1 , . . . , A, In ✱ 1❡5♣❡❝✲

✷✳ "❖▲■◆'▼■❖ ❈❆❘❆❈❚❊❘❮❙❚■❈❖ ✷✹✶
#✐✈❛♠❡♥#❡✱ #❡♠♦,



 An Cn−1 = An
An−1 Cn−2 − An Cn−1 = bn−1 An−1





 An−2 Cn−3 − An−1 Cn−2 = bn−2 An−2

✳✳


 ✳
 AC0 − A2 C1 = b1 A





 −AC = b I .
0 0 n
❙♦♠❛♥❞♦ ♠❡♠❜1♦ ❛ ♠❡♠❜1♦ ❛, ❡2✉❛45❡, ❛❝✐♠❛✱ 1❡,✉❧#❛

PA (A) = An + bn−1 An−1 + · · · + b1 A + b0 In = 0✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳ ❈♦♥,✐❞❡1❡♠♦, ❛ ♠❛#1✐③
" #
1 3
A= .
−1 0
❖ ♣♦❧✐♥<♠✐♦ ❝❛1❛❝#❡1=,#✐❝♦ ❞❡ A >

" #
t − 1 −3
PA (t) = det(t In −A) = det = t2 − t + 3.
1 t
?❡❧♦ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧#♦♥✱ PA (A) = 0✳

❱❛♠♦, ❛❣♦1❛ ✈❡1✐✜❝❛1 ❡,#❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❞✐1❡#❛♠❡♥#❡✳ ❉❡ ❢❛#♦✱
PA (A) = A2 − A + 3 I2
" #2 " # " #

1 3 1 3 1 0
= − +3
−1 0 −1 0 0 1
" # " # " #
−2 3 −1 −3 3 0
= + +
−1 −3 1 0 0 3
" #
0 0
= .
0 0
✷✹✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❯♠❛ ❝♦♥(❡*✉,♥❝✐❛ ✐♠❡❞✐❛/❛ ❞♦ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧/♦♥ 7 *✉❡ ❛ ♣♦✲
/,♥❝✐❛ An ✱ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛/1✐③ A ∈ M(n)✱ ♣♦❞❡ (❡1 ❡(❝1✐/❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛<=♦
❧✐♥❡❛1 ❞❛( ♣♦/,♥❝✐❛( ❞❡ A ❝♦♠ ❡①♣♦❡♥/❡( ♠❡♥♦1❡( ❞♦ *✉❡ n✱ ♣♦✐( (❡
PA (t) = tn + bn−1 tn−1 + · · · + b1 t + b0 ,
❡♥/=♦ PA (A) = 0✱ ♦ *✉❡ ❡*✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛
An = −bn−1 An−1 − · · · − b1 A − b0 In .
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳ ❈♦♥(✐❞❡1❡♠♦( ♥♦✈❛♠❡♥/❡ ❛ ♠❛/1✐③

" #
1 3
A=
−1 0
❞♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳ ❱✐♠♦( *✉❡ A2 − A + 3 I2 = 0❀ ♦✉ (❡❥❛✱ A2 = A − 3 I2 ✳

F❛1❛ ♦❜/❡1♠♦( A3 ✱ ❢❛<❛♠♦(
A3 = AA2 = A(A − 3 I2 ) = A2 − 3A = −2A − 3 I2 .
F❛1❛ ♦❜/❡1♠♦( A4 ✱ ❢❛<❛♠♦(
A4 = AA2 = A(−2A − 3 I2 ) = −2A2 − 3A = −2(A − 3 I2 ) − 3A = −5A + 6 I2 .
❊(/❡ ♣1♦❝❡❞✐♠❡♥/♦ ♠♦(/1❛ *✉❡✱ ❡♠ ❣❡1❛❧✱ (❡ A ∈ M(2)✱ ❡♥/=♦ ♣❛1❛ /♦❞♦

m ∈ N \ {0}✱ ❛ ♠❛/1✐③ Am (❡ ❡(❝1❡✈❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛<=♦ ❧✐♥❡❛1 ❞❡ I2 ❡ A✳
❖❜(❡1✈❛♠♦( ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥/❡ *✉❡✱ ❞❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛/1✐③ A ∈ M(n)✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛1 ♣♦/,♥✲
❝✐❛( Ak , k ∈ N✱ ♣♦❞❡ (❡1 ♠✉✐/♦ /1❛❜❛❧❤♦(♦✳ ❖ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧/♦♥
♥♦( ❞L ✉♠❛ ❢♦1♠❛ ❞❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛1 ❡(/❛( ♣♦/,♥❝✐❛(✳ ❱❡1❡♠♦(✱ ♥♦ ✜♥❛❧ ❞❛ ❙❡<=♦ ✸
❞❡(/❡ ❝❛♣O/✉❧♦✱ *✉❡ ♦ ❝L❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ Ak ✜❝❛ ❜❛(/❛♥/❡ (✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞♦ (❡ ❛ ♠❛/1✐③ A
/✐✈❡1 ❛ ♣1♦♣1✐❡❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ (❡1 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③L✈❡❧✳
❆ ❧❡✐/✉1❛ ❞♦ 1❡(/❛♥/❡ ❞❡(/❛ (❡<=♦ 7 ❢❛❝✉❧/❛/✐✈❛✱ ♣♦✐( ♥=♦ ✉/✐❧✐③❛1❡♠♦( ❛(

✐♥❢♦1♠❛<Q❡( ❛O ❝♦♥/✐❞❛(✱ ❡①❝❡/♦ ♥❛ F1♦♣♦(✐<=♦ ✾✳✹✳✹✱ *✉❡ /❛♠❜7♠ ♥=♦ (❡1L
❡♠♣1❡❣❛❞❛ ❡♠ ♥❡♥❤✉♠❛ ♦✉/1❛ ♣❛1/❡ ❞♦ /❡①/♦✳
✷✳ "❖▲■◆'▼■❖ ❈❆❘❆❈❚❊❘❮❙❚■❈❖ ✷✹✸
❯♠ ♦✉'(♦ ♣♦❧✐♥-♠✐♦ .✉❡ ❞❡1❡♠♣❡♥❤❛ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥'❛❧ 5 ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥%♠✐♦

♠'♥✐♠♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ A✱ ♦✉ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( T ✳
❈♦♥1✐❞❡(❡♠♦1 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦
I(A) = {p(t) ∈ R[t]; p(A) = 0}.
❊1'❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ ♣♦11✉✐ ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥-♠✐♦ ♥=♦ ✐❞❡♥'✐❝❛♠❡♥'❡ ♥✉❧♦✱ ♣♦✐1 ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦✲
(❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧'♦♥✱ pA (t) ∈ I(A)✳
❉❡✜♥✐♠♦1 ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥%♠✐♦ ♠'♥✐♠♦ ❞❡ A ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥-♠✐♦ mA (t) ♠-♥✐❝♦ ❞❡
♠❡♥♦( ❣(❛✉ ❡♠ I(A)✳
➱ ❢F❝✐❧ ✈❡(✐✜❝❛( ✭✈❡❥❛ I(♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✮ .✉❡ 1❡ A 5 ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ .✉❛❞(❛❞❛✱
p ∈ R[t] '❛❧ .✉❡ p(A) = 0 ❡ P 5 ✉♠❛ ♠❛'(✐③ ✐♥✈❡('L✈❡❧ ❞❡ ♠❡1♠❛ ♦(✲
❞❡♠ .✉❡ A✱ ❡♥'=♦ p(A) = 0 1❡✱ ❡ 1♦♠❡♥'❡ 1❡✱ p(P −1 AP ) = 0✳ I♦('❛♥'♦✱
I(A) = I(P −1 AP )✱ ♠♦1'(❛♥❞♦ .✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ I(T ) ❡1'F ❜❡♠ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣❛(❛
✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( T ✳ ❉❡❞✉③✐♠♦1 ❞❛L .✉❡ ❢❛③ 1❡♥'✐❞♦ ❢❛❧❛( ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥%♠✐♦ ♠'♥✐♠♦
mT (t) ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡(❛❞♦( T ✳
❖ ♣(N①✐♠♦ (❡1✉❧'❛❞♦ ♥♦1 ❞❛(F ❛❧❣✉♠❛1 ✐♥❢♦(♠❛PQ❡1 ✐♠♣♦('❛♥'❡1 1♦❜(❡
♣♦❧✐♥-♠✐♦1 ♠L♥✐♠♦1✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✾✳✷✳✺✳ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → V ✉♠ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❧✐♥❡❛- /♦❜-❡ ✉♠ ❡/♣❛1♦ V

❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥/2♦ ✜♥✐4❛✳ ❚❡♠♦/ 7✉❡✿
✭✐✮ ❙❡ p1 (t), p2 (t) ∈ I(T )✱ ❡♥42♦ p1 (t) + p2 (t) ∈ I(T )❀
✭✐✐✮ ❙❡ p(t) ∈ I(T ) ❡ q(t) ∈ R[t]✱ ❡♥42♦ p(t)q(t) ∈ I(T )❀
✭✐✐✐✮ ❙❡ p(t) ∈ I(T )✱ ❡♥42♦ mT (t) ❞✐✈✐❞❡ p(t)✳
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ❆1 ❞✉❛1 ♣(✐♠❡✐(❛1 ♣(♦♣(✐❡❞❛❞❡1 1=♦ ❞❡ ✈❡(✐✜❝❛P=♦ ✐♠❡❞✐❛'❛✳

❱❛♠♦1 ♣(♦✈❛( ✭✐✐✐✮✳ ❙❡❥❛ p(t) ∈ I(t)✳ I❡❧♦ ❛❧❣♦(✐'♠♦ ❞❛ ❞✐✈✐1=♦ ❡✉❝❧✐❞✐❛♥❛ ✭❝❢✳
❬✹❪✮✱ '❡♠♦1 .✉❡ ❡①✐1'❡♠ ♣♦❧✐♥-♠✐♦1 h(t), r(t) ∈ R[t]✱ ❝♦♠ r(t) = 0✱ ♦✉ ❣(❛✉
❞❡ r(t) ♠❡♥♦( ❞♦ .✉❡ ♦ ❣(❛✉ ❞❡ mT (t) '❛✐1 .✉❡ p(T ) = mT (t)h(t) + r(t)✳ ❉❛
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ r(t) = p(t) − mT (t)h(t) = 0✱ '❡♠✲1❡ .✉❡ r(A) = 0 ❡ r(t) ∈ I(T )✳
❈♦♠♦ mT (t) 5 ✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥-♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣(❛✉ ♠L♥✐♠♦ .✉❡ 1❡ ❛♥✉❧❛ ❡♠ A✱ ♣(❡❝✐1❛♠♦1
'❡( r(t) = 0✱ ♦ .✉❡ ♠♦1'(❛ .✉❡ mT (t) ❞✐✈✐❞❡ p(t)✳
✷✹✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
◆♦$❡ &✉❡ ♦ ✐$❡♠ ✭✐✐✐✮ ♣-♦✈❛ ❛ ✉♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ mT (t)✳ ❉❡ ❢❛$♦✱ 7❡ mT (t) ❡
m′T (t) 78♦ ❞♦✐7 ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦7 ♠;♥✐♠♦7✱ ❡♥$8♦ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ♦ ♦✉$-♦✱ ❡ ❝♦♠♦
❡❧❡7 78♦ ♠:♥✐❝♦7✱ ❡❧❡7 78♦ ♥❡❝❡77❛-✐❛♠❡♥$❡ ✐❣✉❛✐7✳ ❆ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭✐✐✐✮ $❛♠✲
❜@♠ ♥♦7 ❞✐③ &✉❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦ ♠;♥✐♠♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❞✐✈✐❞❡ 7❡✉ ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦
❝❛-❛❝$❡-;7$✐❝♦✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✷✳✶✯ ❉❡$❡-♠✐♥❡ ♦7 ❛✉$♦✈❛❧♦-❡7 ❡ ♦7 ❛✉$♦✈❡$♦-❡7 ❞♦ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❝✉❥❛ ♠❛$-✐③ ♥❛
❜❛7❡ ❝❛♥:♥✐❝❛ @ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦-
" #
2 −3
A= .
−1 4
✷✳✷✯ C-♦✈❡ &✉❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$-✐③ &✉❛❞-❛❞❛ A @ ✐♥✈❡-$;✈❡❧ 7❡✱ ❡ 7♦♠❡♥$❡ 7❡✱ c = 0
♥8♦ @ -❛✐③ ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦ ❝❛-❛❝$❡-;7$✐❝♦ ❞❡ A✳
✷✳✸ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ P ❞✉❛7 ♠❛$-✐③❡7 &✉❛❞-❛❞❛7 ❞❡ ♠❡7♠❛ ♦-❞❡♠✱ ❝♦♠ P ✐♥✈❡-$;✈❡❧✳
▼♦7$-❡ &✉❡ 7❡ p(t) ∈ R[t]✱ ❡♥$8♦ p(P −1 AP ) = P −1 p(A)P ✳
✷✳✹ C-♦✈❡ &✉❡ ♠❛$-✐③❡7 7❡♠❡❧❤❛♥$❡7 $G♠ ♦7 ♠❡7♠♦7 ♣♦❧✐♥:♠✐♦7 ❝❛-❛❝$❡-;7$✐✲
❝♦7✳
✷✳✺ ❙❡❥❛ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛$-✐③ &✉❛❞-❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦-❞❡♠ n 7❡♠❡❧❤❛♥$❡ ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$-✐③ $-✐❛♥✲
❣✉❧❛- ✐♥❢❡-✐♦- B ✳ ▼♦7$-❡ &✉❡ ♦7 ❛✉$♦✈❛❧♦-❡7 ❞❡ A 78♦ ❡①❛$❛♠❡♥$❡ ♦7 ❡❧❡♠❡♥$♦7
❞❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣-✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞❡ B ✳
✸ ❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛)*♦ ❞❡ ❖♣❡/❛❞♦/❡0
❉❛❞♦ ✉♠ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❧✐♥❡❛- T : V → V ✱ ♥♦77♦ ♦❜❥❡$✐✈♦ @ ♦❜$❡-✱ 7❡ ♣♦77;✈❡❧✱
✉♠❛ ❜❛7❡ α ❞❡ V ♥❛ &✉❛❧ ❛ ♠❛$-✐③ [T ]αα 7❡❥❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛$-✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ ❖ -❡✲
7✉❧$❛❞♦ ❛ 7❡❣✉✐- ❝❛-❛❝$❡-✐③❛-J $❛✐7 ❜❛7❡7 ❛77♦❝✐❛❞❛7 ❛♦ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- &✉❡ 7❡ &✉❡-
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛-✳
❚❡♦!❡♠❛ ✾✳✸✳✶✳ ❯♠ ♦♣❡%❛❞♦% ❧✐♥❡❛% T : V → V ❛❞♠✐+❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛.❡ β ❡♠
%❡❧❛/0♦ 1 2✉❛❧ ❛ ♠❛+%✐③ [T ]ββ 4 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ .❡✱ ❡ .♦♠❡♥+❡ .❡✱ ❡..❛ ❜❛.❡ β ❢♦%
❢♦%♠❛❞❛ ♣♦% ❛✉+♦✈❡+♦%❡. ❞❡ T ✳
✸✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖-❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ✷✹✺
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ,✉❡ β = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } . ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ V 1❛❧

,✉❡ [T ]ββ . ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦+
 
a1 0 · · · 0
 0 a2 · · · 0 
 
β
[T ]β =  ✳ ✳ ✳ .
✳✳ 
✳ ✳ ✳

 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
0 0 · · · an
❈♦♠♦✱ ♣❛8❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱
T (vj ) = 0v1 + · · · + 0vj−1 + aj vj + 0vj+1 + · · · + 0vn = aj vj ,
+❡❣✉❡ ,✉❡ aj . ✉♠ ❛✉1♦✈❛❧♦8 ❞❡ T ❡ vj . ✉♠ ❛✉1♦✈❡1♦8 ❞❡ T ❛++♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ aj ✳

;♦81❛♥1♦✱ β . ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❢♦8♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❛✉1♦✈❡1♦8❡+ ❞❡ T ✳
❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ❛❣♦8❛ ,✉❡ β = {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } . ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ V ❢♦8♠❛❞❛
♣♦8 ❛✉1♦✈❡1♦8❡+ ❞❡ T ✳ ❊①✐+1❡♠✱ ❡♥1?♦✱ ♥@♠❡8♦+ 8❡❛✐+ b1 , b2 , . . . , bn 1❛✐+ ,✉❡✱
♣❛8❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ T (uj ) = bj uj ✳ ❖❜+❡8✈❛♠♦+ ,✉❡ ♦+ bj ✬+ ♥?♦ +?♦ ♥❡❝❡++❛✲
8✐❛♠❡♥1❡ 1♦❞♦+ ❞✐+1✐♥1♦+✳ ;❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐E?♦ ❞❡ [T ]ββ ✱ 1❡♠♦+
 
b1 0 · · · 0
 0 b2 · · · 0 
 
β
[T ]β =  ✳ ✳ ,
✳✳ 
✳ ✳

 ✳ ✳ ✳
0 0 · · · bn
♦✉ +❡❥❛✱ [T ]ββ . ✉♠❛ ♠❛18✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳

◆❛ ❞❡♠♦♥+18❛E?♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦8❡♠❛ ✾✳✸✳✶ ✜❝❛ ❝❧❛8♦ ,✉❡✱ +❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡8❛❞♦8 ❧✐♥❡❛8
T 1❡♠ ✉♠❛ 8❡♣8❡+❡♥1❛E?♦ ♣♦8 ✉♠❛ ♠❛8✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ [T ]ββ ✱ ❡♥1?♦ ❛+ ❡♥18❛❞❛+ ❞❛
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣8✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞❡ [T ]ββ +?♦ ❞❛❞❛+ ♣❡❧♦+ ❛✉1♦✈❛❧♦8❡+ ❞❡ T ✳ ▼❛✐+ ❛✐♥❞❛✱ ❛
♦8❞❡♠ ❡♠ ,✉❡ ♦+ ❛✉1♦✈❛❧♦8❡+ ❛♣❛8❡❝❡♠ ♥❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣8✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞❛ ♠❛18✐③ . ❛
♠❡+♠❛ ❡♠ ,✉❡ +❡✉+ 8❡+♣❡❝1✐✈♦+ ❛✉1♦✈❡1♦8❡+ +?♦ ❞❛❞♦+ ♥❛ ❜❛+❡ β ✳
❙❡ T . ✉♠ ♦♣❡8❛❞♦8 ❧✐♥❡❛8 ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡+♣❛E♦ V ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥+?♦ n✱ ♦ ❚❡♦8❡♠❛
✾✳✸✳✶ ♥♦+ ❞✐③ ,✉❡ T . ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③N✈❡❧ +❡✱ ❡ +♦♠❡♥1❡ +❡✱ T 1❡♠ n ❛✉1♦✈❡1♦8❡+
❧✐♥❡❛8♠❡♥1❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥1❡+✳ ❊♠ ♣❛81✐❝✉❧❛8✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❈♦8♦❧N8✐♦ ✾✳✶✳✷✱ +❡ T 1❡♠ n
❛✉1♦✈❛❧♦8❡+ ❞✐+1✐♥1♦+✱ ❡♥1?♦ T . ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③N✈❡❧✳
✷✹✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❱❡❥❛♠♦) ❛ )❡❣✉✐- ❛❧❣✉♥) ❡①❡♠♣❧♦)✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳ ❖ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❧✐♥❡❛- T ❞♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶ ❞❛ ❙❡89♦ ✶ : ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③<✈❡❧✳

❯♠❛ -❡♣-❡)❡♥?❛89♦ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣❛-❛ T : ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦-
" #
2 0
[T ]αα = ,
0 3
♦♥❞❡ α = {(1, 2), (1, 1)}✳ ❯♠❛ ♦✉?-❛ -❡♣-❡)❡♥?❛89♦ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣❛-❛ T : ❞❛❞❛
♣♦- " #
β 3 0
[T ]β = ,
0 2
)❡♥❞♦ β = {(1, 1), (1, 2)}✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳ ❖ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❧✐♥❡❛- T ❞♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹ ❞❛ ❙❡89♦ ✷ : ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③<✈❡❧✳

❯♠❛ -❡♣-❡)❡♥?❛89♦ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣❛-❛ T : ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦-
 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
[T ]αα  ,
 
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1
❝♦♠ (" # " # " # " #)
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
α= , , , .
0 0 1 0 0 1 −1 0
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳ ❈♦♥)✐❞❡-❡♠♦) ♦ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❧✐♥❡❛- T : R3 → R3 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦-
T (x, y, z) = (x + y, y, z)✳ ❖ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- T ♥9♦ : ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③<✈❡❧✱ ♣♦✐) ♦ ❛✉?♦❡)✲
♣❛8♦ ❛))♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ )❡✉ D♥✐❝♦ ❛✉?♦✈❛❧♦-✱ k = 1✱ : ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦- {(x, 0, z) ; x, z ∈ R}✳
❱✐♠♦) ♥❛ ❙❡89♦ ✶ ❞♦ ❈❛♣E?✉❧♦ ✻ F✉❡ ?♦❞❛ ♠❛?-✐③ A ∈ M(m, n) ❞❡✜♥❡

✉♠❛ ?-❛♥)❢♦-♠❛89♦ ❧✐♥❡❛- TA : Rn → Rm ✳ ❊♠ ♣❛-?✐❝✉❧❛-✱ )❡ A : ✉♠❛ ♠❛?-✐③
F✉❛❞-❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♦-❞❡♠ n✱ ❡♥?9♦ A ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- ❧✐♥❡❛- TA ❡♠ Rn ✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦)
F✉❡ ❛ ♠❛?-✐③ A : ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③(✈❡❧ F✉❛♥❞♦ TA : ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③<✈❡❧✳ ◆♦ ❝❛)♦ ❞❡ TA
)❡- ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③<✈❡❧✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✾✳✸✳✶✱ ❡①✐)?❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ β ❞❡ Rn ❢♦-♠❛❞❛ ❞❡
❛✉?♦✈❡?♦-❡) ❞❡ TA ✳ ❖✉ )❡❥❛✱ ❡①✐)?❡ ✉♠❛ -❡♣-❡)❡♥?❛89♦ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ D✱ ❛ )❛❜❡-
✸✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖-❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ✷✹✼
D = [TA ]ββ ✱ ♣❛&❛ ♦ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& TA ✳ ❈♦♠♦ [TA ]αα = A✱ ♦♥❞❡ α ❞❡♥♦.❛ ❛ ❜❛0❡
❝❛♥2♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ Rn ✱ 0❡❣✉❡✱ ❞♦ ❚❡♦&❡♠❛ ✻✳✹✳✷✱ 8✉❡
D = P −1 A P,
❝♦♠ P = [IRn ]βα ✳ ■0.♦ ♠♦.✐✈❛ ❛ 0❡❣✉✐♥.❡ ✈❡&0;♦ ♠❛.&✐❝✐❛❧ ❞♦ ❚❡♦&❡♠❛ ✾✳✸✳✶✱
❝✉❥❛ ❝♦♥❞✐A;♦ ♥❡❝❡00B&✐❛ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦0 ❞❡ ❞❡♠♦♥0.&❛&✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✾✳✸✳✷✳ ❯♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ A ∈ M(n) ' ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③-✈❡❧ 0❡✱ ❡ 0♦♠❡♥#❡ 0❡✱
❡①✐0#❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③ P ✐♥✈❡$#4✈❡❧ ❞❡ ♦$❞❡♠ n #❛❧ 5✉❡ P −1 A P ' ✉♠❛ ♠❛#$✐③
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ✳
❉❡♠♦♥,-#❛./♦ C❛&❛ ♣&♦✈❛&♠♦0 ❛ ❝♦♥❞✐A;♦ 0✉✜❝✐❡♥.❡✱ .♦♠❡♠♦0 8✉❡ β =
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }✱ ♦♥❞❡ vj E ♦ ✈❡.♦& j ✲E0✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ P ✳ ❙❡❥❛ α ❛ ❜❛0❡ ❝❛♥2♥✐❝❛
❞❡ Rn ✳ C❡❧♦ ❚❡♦&❡♠❛ ✻✳✸✳✷✱ .❡♠♦0
[TA ]ββ = [IRn ]αβ [TA ]αα [IRn ]βα .
❊8✉✐✈❛❧❡♥.❡♠❡♥.❡✱
[TA ]ββ = P −1 A P,
❥B 8✉❡ [IRn ]βα = P ♣❡❧❛ ♠❛♥❡✐&❛ ❝♦♠♦ β ❢♦✐ ❝♦♥0.&✉J❞❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ P −1 A P E ✉♠❛
♠❛.&✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ 0❡❣✉❡✲0❡ 8✉❡ [TA ]ββ E ✉♠❛ ♠❛.&✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ C♦&.❛♥.♦✱ TA E
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③B✈❡❧ ❡✱ ❡♥.;♦✱ A .❛♠❜E♠ ♦ E✳
◆♦ ❚❡♦&❡♠❛ ✾✳✸✳✷✱ ❛ ♠❛.&✐③ P E ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛#$✐③ 5✉❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛ A✳
❱❡❥❛♠♦0 ❛ 0❡❣✉✐& ❛❧❣✉♥0 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦0✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳ ❆ ♠❛.&✐③  
1 0 2
A = 0 1 3
 
0 0 −1
E ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③B✈❡❧✳ ❉❡ ❢❛.♦✱ 0❡❥❛ α ❛ ❜❛0❡ ❝❛♥2♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❊♥.;♦
 
t−1 0 −2
P[TA ]αα (t) = PA (t) = det  0 t − 1 −3  = 0 ♣❛&❛ t = 1 ♦✉ t = −1.
 
0 0 t+1
✷✹✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❖ ❛✉&♦❡)♣❛+♦ ❛))♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛♦ ❛✉&♦✈❛❧♦1 t = 1 2 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ )♦❧✉+5♦ ❞♦ )✐)&❡♠❛
❧✐♥❡❛1     
0 0 −2 x 0
0 0 −3 y  = 0 ,
    
0 0 2 z 0
♦✉ )❡❥❛✱ 2 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ {(x, y, 0) ; x, y ∈ R}✳ ❏: ♦ ❛✉&♦❡)♣❛+♦ ❛))♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛♦
❛✉&♦✈❛❧♦1 t = −1 2 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ )♦❧✉+5♦ ❞♦ )✐)&❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛1
    
−2 0 −2 x 0
 0 −2 −3 y  = 0 ,
    
0 0 0 z 0
♦✉ )❡❥❛✱ 2 ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ {(−z, −3/2z, z) ; z ∈ R}✳ ❚♦♠❡ β = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0),
(1, 3/2, −1)}✳ ❚❡♠♦) <✉❡ β 2 ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ R3 ❢♦1♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❛✉&♦✈❡&♦1❡) ❞❡ TA ✳
❆))✐♠✱ TA 2 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③:✈❡❧ ❡✱ ♣♦1&❛♥&♦✱ A 2 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③:✈❡❧✳ ❆ ♠❛&1✐③
 
1 1 1
P = 1 0 3/2
 
0 0 −1
2 ✉♠❛ ♠❛&1✐③ <✉❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛ A ❡ ❛ ♠❛&1✐③

 
1 0 0
D = 0 1 0
 
0 0 −1
2 ✉♠❛ 1❡♣1❡)❡♥&❛+5♦ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣❛1❛ TA ✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳ ❈♦♥)✐❞❡1❡♠♦) ❛ ♠❛&1✐③

 
1 −1 2
B = 0 1 3 .
 
0 0 −1
❆ ♠❛&1✐③ B ♥5♦ 2 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③:✈❡❧✱ ♣♦✐) TB ♥5♦ 2 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③:✈❡❧✳ ◆♦&❡ <✉❡ TB

❡ TA &D♠ ♦) ♠❡)♠♦) ❛✉&♦✈❛❧♦1❡)✳ E♦12♠✱ ♦ ❛✉&♦❡)♣❛+♦ ❞❡ TB ❛))♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛
✸✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖-❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ✷✹✾
t = 1 # ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦( {(x, 0, 0) ; x ∈ R} ❡ ♦ ❛✉+♦❡,♣❛-♦ ❞❡ TB ❛,,♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ t = −1

# ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦( {(−7/4z, −3/2z, z) ; z ∈ R}✳ ❆,,✐♠✱ ♥5♦ # ♣♦,,6✈❡❧ ♦❜+❡( ✉♠❛
❜❛,❡ ❞❡ R3 ❢♦(♠❛❞❛ ♣♦( ❛✉+♦✈❡+♦(❡, ❞❡ TB ✳
❚❡(♠✐♥❛♠♦, ❡,+❛ ,❡-5♦✱ ♦❜,❡(✈❛♥❞♦ <✉❡ ♦ ❝=❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ♣♦+>♥❝✐❛, ❞❡ ♠❛+(✐③❡,
# ✉♠❛ +❛(❡❢❛ ❞❡ ❝✉,+♦ ❝♦♠♣✉+❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ♠✉✐+♦ ❡❧❡✈❛❞♦✱ ♣♦✐, # ♥❡❝❡,,=(✐♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛(
m − 1 ♣(♦❞✉+♦, ❞❡ ♠❛+(✐③❡, ♣❛(❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛( Am ✳ ❊♥+(❡+❛♥+♦✱ ,❡ ,♦✉❜❡(♠♦, <✉❡
A # ✉♠❛ ♠❛+(✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③=✈❡❧✱ ♦ ❝=❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ Am ✜❝❛ ❜❛,+❛♥+❡ ,✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞♦✳
❉❡ ❢❛+♦✱ ,❡ A ∈ M(n) ❡ ,❡ P ∈ M(n) # ✐♥✈❡(+6✈❡❧✱ ❡♥+5♦ # ❢=❝✐❧ ✈❡(✐✜❝❛( <✉❡
(P −1 AP )m = P −1 Am P.
▲♦❣♦✱ ,❡ A # ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③=✈❡❧ ❡ ,❡ P −1 AP = D # ✉♠❛ ♠❛+(✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ +❡♠♦,

<✉❡
Dm = P −1 Am P,
♦✉ ❡<✉✐✈❛❧❡♥+❡♠❡♥+❡✱
Am = P Dm P −1 ,
<✉❡ # ❝❛❧❝✉❧=✈❡❧ ✭❝❢✳ F(♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✺✱ ❈❛♣6+✉❧♦ ✶✮ ❝♦♠ ❛♣❡♥❛, ❞✉❛, ♠✉❧+✐♣❧✐✲
❝❛-L❡, ❞❡ ♠❛+(✐③❡,✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳ ❉❡+❡(♠✐♥❡♠♦, ❛ ♠❛+(✐③ A50 ✱ ,❡♥❞♦
" #
1 2
A= .
0 −1
❱❡(✐✜<✉❡♠♦, <✉❡ A # ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③=✈❡❧ ❡ ❡♥❝♦♥+(❡♠♦, ✉♠❛ ♠❛+(✐③ P <✉❡

❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛ A✳ ❖(❛✱
" #
t − 1 −2
det(t I −A) = det = (t − 1)(t + 1),
0 t+1
<✉❡ ,❡ ❛♥✉❧❛ ♣❛(❛ t = 1 ❡ ♣❛(❛ t = −1✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ❡,+❡, ,5♦ ♦, ❛✉+♦✈❛❧♦(❡, ❞❡ A✳

❘❡,♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ❛, ❡<✉❛-L❡, ♠❛+(✐❝✐❛✐,
" #" # " #
0 −2 x 0
=
0 2 y 0
✷✺✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❡ " #" # " #
−2 −2 x 0
= ,
0 0 y 0
♦❜&❡♠♦( ♦( ❛✉&♦❡(♣❛,♦( ❛((♦❝✐❛❞♦( ❛♦( ❛✉&♦✈❛❧♦2❡( 1 ❡ −1✱ 2❡(♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡✳
❚♦♠❡♠♦(✱ ❡♥&7♦✱ v1 = (1, 0) ✉♠ ❛✉&♦✈❡&♦2 ♣❛2❛ t = 1 ❡ v2 = (1, −1) ✉♠
❛✉&♦✈❡&♦2 ♣❛2❛ t = −1✳ ❚❡♠♦(✱
D = P −1 A P,
❝♦♠ " # " #

1 0 1 1
D= e P = .
0 −1 0 −1
❈♦♠♦ D50 = I2 ✱ (❡❣✉❡✲(❡ ;✉❡
A50 = P −1 D50 P = P −1 I2 P = I2 .
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✸✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ T : R3 → R3 ♦ ♦♣❡2❛❞♦2 ❧✐♥❡❛2 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦2
 
1 2 0
[T ]αα =  1 −1 0 ,
 
−1 0 2
♦♥❞❡ α = {(1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} > ✉♠❛ ❜❛(❡ ❞❡ R3 ✳ ❱❡2✐✜;✉❡ ;✉❡ T >
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③B✈❡❧✳
✸✳✷ ❙❡❥❛ A ∈ M(n)✳ ❱❡2❞❛❞❡✐2♦ ♦✉ ❢❛❧(♦❄ ❏✉(&✐✜;✉❡ ❛ 2❡(♣♦(&❛✳

✭❛✮ ❙❡ A > ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③B✈❡❧ ❡ A > ✐♥✈❡2&H✈❡❧✱ ❡♥&7♦ A−1 > ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③B✈❡❧✳
✭❜✮ A ❡ At &I♠ ♦( ♠❡(♠♦( ❛✉&♦✈❛❧♦2❡(✳
✭❝✮ A ❡ At &I♠ ♦( ♠❡(♠♦( ❛✉&♦✈❡&♦2❡(✳
✭❞✮ ❙❡ A > ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③B✈❡❧✱ ❡♥&7♦ ❡①✐(&❡ ✉♠❛ K♥✐❝❛ ♠❛&2✐③ P &❛❧ ;✉❡ P −1 AP
> ✉♠❛ ♠❛&2✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳
✹✳ ❖ ❚❊❖❘❊▼❆ ❊❙)❊❈❚❘❆▲ )❆❘❆ ❖)❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❙■▼➱❚❘■❈❖❙ ✷✺✶
✸✳✸ ❉❡%❡&♠✐♥❡ ♥♦+ ✐%❡♥+ ❛❜❛✐①♦ +❡ A / ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③4✈❡❧✳ ❊♠ ❝❛+♦ ❛✜&♠❛%✐✈♦✱

❡♥❝♦♥%&❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛%&✐③ P <✉❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛ A ❡ ❞❡%❡&♠✐♥❡ P −1 AP ✳
   
4 0 0 " # 1 −2 −2
2 4
✭❛✮ A = 1 4 0 ✳ ✭❜✮ A = ✳ ✭❝✮ A = 0 1 0 ✳
   
3 1
0 1 4 0 2 3
✸✳✹ ?❛&❛ <✉❛✐+ ✈❛❧♦&❡+ ❞❡ c ❛+ ♠❛%&✐③❡+ ❛❜❛✐①♦ +@♦ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③4✈❡✐+❄
" #
1 1
✭❛✮ A= ✳
0 c
" #
1 c
✭❜✮ A= ✳
0 1
 
1 −2 8
✸✳✺ ❙❡❥❛ A = 
0 −1 0 ✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡✿

0 0 −1
✭❛✮ A100 ❀ ✭❜✮ A1321 ❀ ✭❝✮ A−100 ✳
✸✳✻✯ ❙❡❥❛ T : R2 → R2 ♦ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& ❧✐♥❡❛& ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦& T (x, y) = (2x − 2y, −x +

3y)✳ ❉❡%❡&♠✐♥❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ R2 ❡♠ &❡❧❛H@♦ I <✉❛❧ ❛ ♠❛%&✐③ ❞♦ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& T /
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳
✸✳✼ ❙❡❥❛ T : V → V ✉♠ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& +✐♠/%&✐❝♦✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ c1 ❡ c2 ❛✉%♦✈❛❧♦&❡+ ❞✐+✲

%✐♥%♦+ ❞❡ T ✳ ❙❡ v1 ❡ v2 +@♦ ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦&❡+ ❛++♦❝✐❛❞♦+ ❛ c1 ❡ c2 &❡+♣❡❝%✐✈❛♠❡♥%❡✱
♣&♦✈❡ <✉❡ v1 ❡ v2 +@♦ ♦&%♦❣♦♥❛✐+✳
✹ ❖ ❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ❊)♣❡❝,%❛❧ ♣❛%❛ ❖♣❡%❛❞♦%❡) ❙✐♠1✲

,%✐❝♦)
❱✐♠♦+ ♥❛ +❡H@♦ ❛♥%❡&✐♦& <✉❡ +❡ T : V → V / ✉♠ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③4✈❡❧✱
❡♥%@♦ ❡①✐+%❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ V ❢♦&♠❛❞❛ ♣♦& ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦&❡+ ❞❡ T ✳
◆❡+%❛ +❡H@♦✱ ✈❡&❡♠♦+ <✉❡ +❡ V / ✉♠ ❡+♣❛H♦ ❝♦♠ ♣&♦❞✉%♦ ✐♥%❡&♥♦ ❡ +❡
T : V → V / ✉♠ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& +✐♠/%&✐❝♦✱ ❡♥%@♦ ❡①✐+%❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ♦!"♦♥♦!♠❛❧ ❞❡
V ❢♦&♠❛❞❛ ♣♦& ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦&❡+ ❞❡ T ✳ ❊♠ ♣❛&%✐❝✉❧❛&✱ %♦❞♦ ♦♣❡&❛❞♦& +✐♠/%&✐❝♦ /
✷✺✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③*✈❡❧✳ ❊/0❡ 1❡/✉❧0❛❞♦ 3 ❝♦♥❤❡❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ❊'♣❡❝*#❛❧ ❡ 3 ✉♠
❞♦/ 1❡/✉❧0❛❞♦/ ♠❛✐/ ✐♠♣♦10❛♥0❡/ ❞❛ ➪❧❣❡❜1❛ ▲✐♥❡❛1✳
❆♥0❡/ ❞❡ ♣1♦//❡❣✉✐1✱ ❢❛1❡♠♦/ ❛❧❣✉♠❛/ ♦❜/❡1✈❛>?❡/ ✐♠♣♦10❛♥0❡/ /♦❜1❡ ❛
♣♦//✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ❡/0❡♥❞❡1♠♦/ ❛ ♠❛✐♦1✐❛ ❞❛/ ♥♦>?❡/ ❡ 1❡/✉❧0❛❞♦/ ❡/0❛❜❡❧❡❝✐❞♦/
/♦❜1❡ ♦ ❝♦1♣♦ R ❛♦ ❝♦1♣♦ C✳ ❊♠ ♣❛10✐❝✉❧❛1✱ 0♦❞♦/ ♦/ 1❡/✉❧0❛❞♦/ @✉❡ ❢♦1❛♠
♣1♦✈❛❞♦/ ❛03 ♦ ♠♦♠❡♥0♦ @✉❡ ❡♥✈♦❧✈❡♠ /✐/0❡♠❛/ ❧✐♥❡❛1❡/ ❡ ❞❡0❡1♠✐♥❛♥0❡/ /A♦
✈*❧✐❞♦/ /♦❜1❡ ✉♠ ❝♦1♣♦ ❛1❜✐01*1✐♦ K ✳ ❯0✐❧✐③❛♠♦/ K = R✱ ❛♣❡♥❛/ ♣❛1❛ @✉❡ ♦
❧❡✐0♦1 01❛❜❛❧❤❛//❡ ❡♠ ✉♠ ❝♦♥0❡①0♦ ❝♦♥❝1❡0♦ @✉❡ ❧❤❡ 3 ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛1✳ ◆❡/0❡ ♣♦♥0♦
♣1❡❝✐/❛1❡♠♦/ ❝♦♥/✐❞❡1❛1 K = C 0❛♠❜3♠✳ ❉♦ ♠❡/♠♦ ♠♦❞♦ @✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦/
01❛♥/❢♦1♠❛>?❡/ ❧✐♥❡❛1❡/ ❡♥01❡ ❡/♣❛>♦/ ✈❡0♦1✐❛✐/ /♦❜1❡ ♦ ❝♦1♣♦ R✱ ♣♦❞❡1G❛♠♦/
0H✲❧♦ ❢❡✐0♦ /♦❜1❡ ✉♠ ❝♦1♣♦ @✉❛❧@✉❡1 K ✳ ◆❡/0❡ ❝♦♥0❡①0♦ ♠❛✐/ ❣❡1❛❧✱ ❢❛③ 0♦❞♦
♦ /❡♥0✐❞♦ ❞❡✜♥✐♥✐1 ❛✉0♦✈❛❧♦1❡/ ❡ ❛✉0♦✈❡0♦1❡/✱ ♣❛1❛ ♦/ @✉❛✐/ ♣♦❞❡♠♦/ ✉0✐❧✐③❛1
✉♠ ❛♥*❧♦❣♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ✾✳✷✳✶✳ ❈♦♥0✐♥✉❛ ✈❛❧❡♥❞♦ 0❛♠❜3♠ ♥❡/0❡ ❝♦♥0❡①0♦
♦ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧0♦♥✳ ❉❛❞♦ ✉♠ ♦♣❡1❛❞♦1 ❧✐♥❡❛1 T : Rn → Rn ✱
♣♦❞❡♠♦/ ❡/0❡♥❞H✲❧♦ ❛ ✉♠ ♦♣❡1❛❞♦1 TC : Cn → Cn ❞♦ /❡❣✉✐♥0❡ ♠♦❞♦✿ /❡
z = x + iy ∈ Cn ✱ ♦♥❞❡ x, y ∈ Rn ✱ ❞❡✜♥❡✲/❡ TC (z) = T (x) + iT (y)✳ ❖/
♣♦❧✐♥R♠✐♦/ ❝❛1❛❝0❡1G/0✐❝♦/ ❞❡ T ❡ ❞❡ TC ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♠✱ ♠❛/ TC ♣♦❞❡ ♣♦//✉✐1 ♠❛✐/
❛✉0♦✈❛❧♦1❡/ ❡ ❛✉0♦✈❡0♦1❡/ ❞♦ @✉❡ T ✳
!♦♣♦$✐&'♦ ✾✳✹✳✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡'♣❛/♦ ✈❡*♦#✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥'4♦ ✜♥✐*❛ '♦❜#❡ R✳
❙❡ T : V → V 8 ✉♠ ♦♣❡#❛❞♦# '✐♠8*#✐❝♦ ❡ α ✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥*4♦✱ *♦❞❛' ❛'
#❛:③❡' ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥<♠✐♦ ❝❛#❛❝*❡#:'*✐❝♦ P[T ] ❡♠ C '4♦ ♥=♠❡#♦' #❡❛✐' ✳
α
α
❉❡♠♦♥$0!❛&'♦ ❙❡❥❛ A = [T ]αα ✳ ❖ ❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥0❛❧ ❞❛ ➪❧❣❡❜1❛ ✭❝❢✳

❬✹❪✮ ❣❛1❛♥0❡ @✉❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥R♠✐♦ ❝❛1❛❝0❡1G/0✐❝♦ PA 0❡♠ ♣❡❧♦ ♠❡♥♦/ ✉♠❛ 1❛✐③
❝♦♠♣❧❡①❛❀ ❞✐❣❛♠♦/ λ✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♦ /✐/0❡♠❛ (t In −A)Z = 0 ♣♦//✉✐ ✉♠❛ /♦❧✉>A♦
h it
♥A♦ 01✐✈✐❛❧ Z = z1 . . . zn ✱ ❝♦♠ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥0❡/ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①♦/✳
❙❡♥❞♦ A ✉♠❛ ♠❛01✐③ /✐♠301✐❝❛ 1❡❛❧✱ 0❡♠♦/ @✉❡ ✭✈❡❥❛ \1♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✮
(AZ)t Z = Z t AZ,
❡ ❝♦♠♦ AZ = λZ ✱ 0❡♠♦/✱ ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ @✉❡
t
λ Z t Z = (λZ)t Z = (AZ)t Z = Z AZ = Z t λZ = λZ t Z.
✹✳ ❖ ❚❊❖❘❊▼❆ ❊❙)❊❈❚❘❆▲ )❆❘❆ ❖)❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❙■▼➱❚❘■❈❖❙ ✷✺✸
❈♦♠♦
Z t Z = z 1 z1 + · · · + z n zn = |z1 |2 + · · · + |zn |2 6= 0.
&❡❣✉❡ *✉❡ λ = λ✱ ❧♦❣♦ λ ∈ R✳

❋❛❧0❛ ❛✐♥❞❛ ♠♦&04❛4 *✉❡ ❛&&♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ λ ❡①✐&0❡ ✉♠ ❛✉0♦✈❡0♦4 ❡♠ Rn ✳ ❊&❝4❡✲
✈❛♠♦& Z = X +iY ✱ ♦♥❞❡ X ❡ Y 0:♠ ❡♥04❛❞❛& 4❡❛✐&✱ ❝♦♠ X 6= 0 ♦✉ Y 6= 0 ✭4❡✲
❝♦4❞❡ *✉❡ Z 6= 0✮✳ ❉❛ ❡*✉❛>?♦ AZ = λZ ✱ 0❡♠♦& *✉❡ AX + iAY = λX + iλY ✱
♦ *✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ *✉❡ AX = λX ❡ AY = λY ✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ 0❡♠♦& *✉❡ X ♦✉ Y B ✉♠
❛✉0♦✈❡0♦4 ❛&&♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ λ ❝♦♠ ❡♥04❛❞❛& 4❡❛✐&✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✾✳✹✳✷✳ ✭❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ❊,♣❡❝/#❛❧✮ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡&♣❛(♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❞❡
❞✐♠❡♥&1♦ ✜♥✐+❛ &♦❜,❡ R✳ ❙❡ T : V → V 5 ✉♠ ♦♣❡,❛❞♦, &✐♠5+,✐❝♦✱ ❡♥+1♦
❡①✐&+❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ♦,+♦♥♦,♠❛❧ β ❞❡ V +❛❧ 9✉❡ [T ]ββ 5 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ✳
❉❡♠♦♥,/#❛45♦ ❋❛4❡♠♦& ❛ ♣4♦✈❛ ♣♦4 ✐♥❞✉>?♦ &♦❜4❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥&?♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❉❡♥♦✲
0❛4❡♠♦& ❛ ♠❛04✐③ [T ]αα ♣♦4 A✳ ❙❡ dim V = 1✱ ♦ 4❡&✉❧0❛❞♦ B F❜✈✐♦✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦&
*✉❡ n ≥ 1 ❡ *✉❡ ♦ 4❡&✉❧0❛❞♦ B ✈H❧✐❞♦ ♣❛4❛ ❡&♣❛>♦& ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥&?♦ n✳ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠
❡&♣❛>♦ ✈❡0♦4✐❛❧ 0❛❧ *✉❡ dim V = n + 1✳ ❙❡❥❛ α ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞❡ V ❡ &❡❥❛ c ✉♠❛
4❛✐③ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①❛ ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥J♠✐♦ PA ✳ K❡❧❛ K4♦♣♦&✐>?♦ ✾✳✹✳✶✱ c ∈ R✳ K♦40❛♥0♦✱
c B ✉♠ ❛✉0♦✈❛❧♦4 ❞❡ T ✳ ❙❡❥❛ v ✉♠ ❛✉0♦✈❡0♦4 ✉♥✐0H4✐♦ ❞❡ T ❛&&♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c✳
❈♦♥&✐❞❡4❡♠♦& ♦ &✉❜❡&♣❛>♦
W = {w ∈ V ; hw, vi = 0}.
◆♦0❡ *✉❡ W = G(v)⊥ ✳ ❆✜4♠❛♠♦& *✉❡ T (W ) ⊂ W ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛0♦✱ &❡❥❛ w ∈ W ✳

❈♦♠♦ T B ✉♠ ♦♣❡4❛❞♦4 &✐♠B04✐❝♦✱ 0❡♠♦& *✉❡
hT (w), vi = hw, T (v)i = hw, cvi = chw, vi = c 0 = 0,
❞♦♥❞❡ T (w) ∈ W ✳ ❆&&✐♠✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦& ❝♦♥&✐❞❡4❛4 ♦ ♦♣❡4❛❞♦4 4❡&04✐>?♦
S = T |W ∈ L(W, W ),
*✉❡ B 0❛♠❜B♠ ✉♠ ♦♣❡4❛❞♦4 &✐♠B04✐❝♦✳ ❆❧B♠ ❞✐&&♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ dim G(u) = 1✱ &❡✲
❣✉❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦4❡♠❛ ✼✳✸✳✻ *✉❡ dim W = n✳ ❆&&✐♠✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦& ❛♣❧✐❝❛4 ❛ ❤✐♣F0❡&❡
✷✺✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❞❡ ✐♥❞✉()♦ ❛♦ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦- S ♣❛-❛ ❣❛-❛♥/✐- ❛ ❡①✐1/2♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛1❡ ♦-/♦♥♦-♠❛❧
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ❞❡ W ❢♦-♠❛❞❛ ♣♦- ❛✉/♦✈❡/♦-❡1 ❞❡ S ✭❧♦❣♦ ❞❡ T ✮✳ ❈♦♥1❡✲
>✉❡♥/❡♠❡♥/❡✱ β = {v, v1 , . . . , vn } @ ✉♠❛ ❜❛1❡ ♦-/♦♥♦-♠❛❧ ❞❡ V ❢♦-♠❛❞❛ ♣♦-
❛✉/♦✈❡/♦-❡1 ❞❡ T ✳ ❉❛B✱ [T ]ββ @ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳
❖ ♣-D①✐♠♦ -❡1✉❧/❛❞♦ @ ❛ ✈❡-1)♦ ♠❛/-✐❝✐❛❧ ❞♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✾✳✹✳✷✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✾✳✹✳✸✳ ✭❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ❊,♣❡❝/#❛❧✱ ✈❡#,3♦ ♠❛/#✐❝✐❛❧✮ ❙❡ A ∈ MR(n)
" #✐♠"&'✐❝❛✱ ❡♥&,♦ ❡①✐#&❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ ♦'&♦❣♦♥❛❧ P ∈ MR (n) &❛❧ 3✉❡ P −1 AP (=
P t AP ) " ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳
❉❡♠♦♥,/#❛83♦ ❙❡❥❛ A ∈ MR (n) ✉♠❛ ♠❛/-✐③ 1✐♠@/-✐❝❛✳ ❊♥/)♦ ♦ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦-
TA ∈ L(R , R ) /❛♠❜@♠ @ 1✐♠@/-✐❝♦✳ K❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✾✳✹✳✷✱ ❡①✐1/❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛1❡
n n
♦-/♦♥♦-♠❛❧ β ❞❡ Rn /❛❧ >✉❡ [TA ]ββ = D @ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ ❙❡ α @ ❛ ❜❛1❡ ❝❛♥L♥✐❝❛ ❞❡

Rn ✱ ❡♥/)♦
D = [TA ]ββ = [IRn ]αβ [TA ]αα [IRn ]βα = P −1 A P,
1❡♥❞♦ P = [IRn ]βα ✳ ❈♦♠♦ α ❡ β 1)♦ ❜❛1❡1 ♦-/♦♥♦-♠❛✐1✱ 1❡❣✉❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛
✼✳✹✳✼ >✉❡ P @ ✉♠❛ ♠❛/-✐③ ♦-/♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ ♦✉ 1❡❥❛✱ P −1 = P t ✳
◗✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐1/❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛/-✐③ ♦-/♦❣♦♥❛❧ P ∈ MR (n) /❛❧ >✉❡ P −1 AP @ ❞✐❛✲
❣♦♥❛❧✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦1 >✉❡ A @ ♦'&♦❣♦♥❛❧♠❡♥&❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③6✈❡❧ ❡ >✉❡ P ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛ A
♦-/♦❣♦♥❛❧♠❡♥/❡✳
❆ 1❡❣✉✐- ❞❛-❡♠♦1 ✉♠❛ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡ >✉❡ -❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❛1 -❛B③❡1 ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥L♠✐♦
♠B♥✐♠♦ ❡ ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥L♠✐♦ ❝❛-❛❝/❡-B1/✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛/-✐③ ✭♦✉ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♦♣❡-❛❞♦-✮✳
9#♦♣♦,✐83♦ ✾✳✹✳✹ ❙❡ T " ✉♠ ♦♣❡'❛❞♦' #♦❜'❡ ✉♠ ❡#♣❛:♦ ✈❡&♦'✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥#,♦
✜♥✐&❛✱ ❡♥&,♦ ❛# '❛<③❡# ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥=♠✐♦ ❝❛'❛❝&❡'<#&✐❝♦ pT (t) ❡ ❛# ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥=♠✐♦
♠<♥✐♠♦ mT (t) #,♦ ❛# ♠❡#♠❛# ✭♣♦❞❡♥❞♦ &❡' ♠✉❧&✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞❡# ❞✐#&✐♥&❛#✮✳
❉❡♠♦♥,/#❛83♦ ➱ D❜✈✐♦ >✉❡ ❛1 -❛B③❡1 ❞♦ ♣♦❧✐♥L♠✐♦ ♠B♥✐♠♦ 1)♦ -❛B③❡1 ❞♦
♣♦❧✐♥L♠✐♦ ❝❛-❛❝/❡-B1/✐❝♦✱ ♣♦✐1 ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥L♠✐♦ ♠B♥✐♠♦ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥L♠✐♦ ❝❛-❛❝✲
/❡-B1/✐❝♦ ✭❝❢✳ K-♦♣♦1✐()♦ ✾✳✷✳✺✮✳
❘❡❝✐♣-♦❝❛♠❡♥/❡✱ ✈❛♠♦1 ♣-♦✈❛- >✉❡ /♦❞❛ -❛✐③ ❞❡ pT (t) ❡♠ C @ -❛✐③ ❞❡
>✉❛❧>✉❡- ♣♦❧✐♥L♠✐♦ p(t) /❛❧ >✉❡ p(T ) = 0✳ ❉❡ ❢❛/♦✱ 1❡❥❛ t0 ✉♠❛ -❛✐③ ❞❡ pT (t)✱
❧♦❣♦ ❡①✐1/❡ v ∈ Cn \ {0} /❛❧ >✉❡ T v = t0 v ✳ ▼❛1✱
0 = p(T )v = p(t0 )v.

✺✳ ❘❊❈❖◆❍❊❈■▼❊◆❚❖ ❉❊ ❈,◆■❈❆❙ ✷✺✺
❈♦♠♦ v 6= 0✱ &❡❣✉❡ *✉❡ p(t0 ) = 0✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✹✳✶ ❙❡❥❛ A = [aij ] ∈ MC(m, n)✳ ❉❡✜♥❡✲&❡ A = [aij ]✳ ▼♦&45❡ *✉❡
✭❛✮ λA = λ A✱ ♣❛5❛ 4♦❞♦ λ ∈ C✳
✭❜✮ AB = A B ✱ ♣❛#❛ $♦❞♦ B ∈ MC (n, p)✳
✹✳✷ (#♦✈❡ ❛ #❡❝,♣#♦❝❛ ❞♦ ❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ❊0♣❡❝$#❛❧✳ ▼❛✐0 ♣#❡❝✐0❛♠❡♥$❡✱ ♣#♦✈❡ 5✉❡
0❡V 7 ✉♠ ❡0♣❛8♦ 0♦❜#❡ R ❝♦♠ ♣#♦❞✉$♦ ✐♥$❡#♥♦ ❡ 0❡ β 7 ✉♠❛ ❜❛0❡ ♦#$♦♥♦#♠❛❧

❞❡ V ❢♦#♠❛❞❛ ♣♦# ❛✉$♦✈❡$♦#❡0 ❞♦ ♦♣❡#❛❞♦# T : V → V ✱ ❡♥$;♦ ♦ ♦♣❡#❛❞♦# T
7 0✐♠7$#✐❝♦✳
✹✳✸ (#♦✈❡ ❛ #❡❝,♣#♦❝❛ ❞❛ ✈❡#0;♦ ♠❛$#✐❝✐❛❧ ❞♦ ❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ❊0♣❡❝$#❛❧✳ ▼❛✐0 ♣#❡✲
❝✐0❛♠❡♥$❡✱ ♣#♦✈❡ 5✉❡ 0❡ A ∈ MR (n) 7 ✉♠❛ ♠❛$#✐③ ♦#$♦❣♦♥❛❧♠❡♥$❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛✲
❧✐③?✈❡❧✱ ❡♥$;♦ ❛ ♠❛$#✐③ A 7 0✐♠7$#✐❝❛✳
✺ ❘❡❝♦♥❤❡❝✐♠❡♥)♦ ❞❡ ❈,♥✐❝❛.
◆❡0$❛ 0❡8;♦ ♠♦0$#❛#❡♠♦0 ❝♦♠♦ ♣♦# ♠❡✐♦ ❞♦ $❡♦#❡♠❛ ❊0♣❡❝$#❛❧ 7 ♣♦00,✈❡❧
❢❛③❡# ♦ #❡❝♦♥❤❡❝✐♠❡♥$♦ ❞❡ ❝B♥✐❝❛0✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♥♦00♦ ♦❜ ❥❡$✐✈♦ ❛5✉✐ ♥;♦ 7 ♦ ❞❡
✐♥$#♦❞✉③✐# ❝B♥✐❝❛0✱ ✐♥❞✐❝❛♠♦0 ♦ ❧✐✈#♦ ❬✽❪ ❝♦♠♦ #❡❢❡#H♥❝✐❛ ♣❛#❛ ♦ ❧❡✐$♦#✳
❈♦♥0✐❞❡#❡♠♦0 ❛ ❡5✉❛8;♦ ❣❡#❛❧ ❞♦ 0❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❣#❛✉ ♥❛0 ❞✉❛0 ✈❛#✐?✈❡✐0 x ❡ y✿
ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0, ✭✶✮
♦♥❞❡ a, b, c, d, e ❡ f 0;♦ ♥M♠❡#♦0 #❡❛✐0 ❞❛❞♦0✳ ➱ ♣♦00,✈❡❧ ♠♦0$#❛# 5✉❡ ❛ ❡5✉❛✲
8;♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ #❡♣#❡0❡♥$❛ ✉♠❛ ❝B♥✐❝❛ ♦✉ ✉♠❛ #❡$❛ ♦✉ ❞✉❛0 #❡$❛0 ♦✉ ✉♠ ♣♦♥$♦ ♦✉
♥❡♥❤✉♠ ❧✉❣❛# ❣❡♦♠7$#✐❝♦ ❡♠ R2 ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ✈❡❥❛♠♦0 5✉❡ ❧✉❣❛# ❣❡♦♠7✲
2
$#✐❝♦ ❡♠ R ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛0 ❡5✉❛8P❡0 ❛❜❛✐①♦ #❡♣#❡0❡♥$❛✳
✶✳ x 2 + y 2 + 1 = 0❀
✷✳ 2x2 + 4y 2 = 0❀
✸✳ x2 − 9 = 0 ❀
✷✺✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
✹✳ 4x2 + 9y 2 − 8x − 36y + 4 = 0❀
✺✳ y 2 + 6y 2 − 8x + 1 = 0✳
✶✳ ❊()❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ 1❡♣1❡(❡♥)❛ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ❧✉❣❛1 ❣❡♦♠8)1✐❝♦ ❡♠ R2 ✱ ♣♦✐(
{(x, y) ∈ R2 ; x2 + y 2 + 1 = 0} = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 = −1} = ∅;
✷✳ ❊()❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ 1❡♣1❡(❡♥)❛ ❛ ♦1✐❣❡♠ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❝❛1)❡(✐❛♥♦✱ ♣♦✐(
2x2 + 4y 2 = 0
❡,✉✐✈❛❧❡ > ❡,✉❛./♦ x2 = −2y 2 ✱ ,✉❡ 8 ✈❡1✐✜❝❛❞❛ (♦♠❡♥)❡ ♣❛1❛ x = y = 0❀
✸✳ ❊()❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ 1❡♣1❡(❡♥)❛ ❞✉❛( 1❡)❛( ❡♠ R2 ✳ ▼❛✐( ♣1❡❝✐(❛♠❡♥)❡✱ ❛( 1❡)❛(

x = 3 ❡ x = −3❀
✹✳ ❊()❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ 1❡♣1❡(❡♥)❛ ✉♠❛ ❡❧✐♣(❡✳ ❉❡ ❢❛)♦✱ (❡❥❛ (x, y) ∈ R2 )❛❧ ,✉❡
4x2 + 9y 2 − 8x − 36y + 4 = 0✳ ◆♦)❡ ,✉❡ ❡()❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ 8 ❡,✉✐✈❛❧❡♥)❡ > ❡,✉❛./♦
4(x2 − 2x) + 9(y 2 − 4y) = −4.
❈♦♠♣❧❡)❛♥❞♦ ♦( ,✉❛❞1❛❞♦( ❞❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ ❛♥)❡1✐♦1✱ ♦❜)❡♠♦(
4(x − 1)2 + 9(y − 2)2 = 36,
♦✉ (❡❥❛✱
(x − 1)2 (y − 2)2
+ = 1,
9 4
,✉❡ 8 ❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ 1❡❞✉③✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❡❧✐♣(❡ ❞❡ ❝❡♥)1♦ ✭✶✱✷✮ ❡ ❡✐①♦( ♠❛✐♦1 ❡ ♠❡♥♦1
♠❡❞✐♥❞♦ ✻ ❡ ✹✱ 1❡(♣❡❝)✐✈❛♠❡♥)❡ ✭❋✐❣✉1❛ ✷✶✮✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✷✶
✺✳ ❊()❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ 1❡♣1❡(❡♥)❛ ✉♠❛ ♣❛1M❜♦❧❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛)♦✱ (❡❥❛ (x, y) ∈ R2 )❛❧ ,✉❡
y 2 + 6y − 8x + 1 = 0✳ ◆♦)❡ ,✉❡ ❡()❛ ❡,✉❛./♦ 8 ❡,✉✐✈❛❧❡♥)❡ > ❡,✉❛./♦
(y 2 + 6y) = 8x − 1.
✺✳ ❘❊❈❖◆❍❊❈■▼❊◆❚❖ ❉❊ ❈,◆■❈❆❙ ✷✺✼
❈♦♠♣❧❡)❛♥❞♦ ♦ -✉❛❞/❛❞♦ ❞❛ ❡-✉❛01♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜)❡♠♦6
(y + 3)2 = 8(x + 1),
-✉❡ 7 ❛ ❡-✉❛01♦ /❡❞✉③✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♣❛/9❜♦❧❛ ❞❡ ✈7/)✐❝❡ (−1, −3) ❡ ♣❛/;♠❡)/♦

✷ ✭❋✐❣✉/❛ ✷✷✮✳
✷✺✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✷✷
❖❜%❡'✈❡♠♦% +✉❡ ❡♠ -♦❞♦% ♦% ❡①❡♠♣❧♦% ❛♥-❡'✐♦'❡% ♦ -❡'♠♦ xy ❞❛ ❡+✉❛56♦

✭✷✮✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❡"♠♦ ♠✐& ♦ ❞❛ ❡+✉❛56♦✱ ♥6♦ ❛♣❛'❡❝❡✳ ❆ ->❝♥✐❝❛ ✉%✉❛❧♠❡♥-❡
✉-✐❧✐③❛❞❛ ♥❡%%❡ ❝❛%♦ > ❛ ->❝♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡-❛' +✉❛❞'❛❞♦%✳ @♦'>♠✱ ❡♠ ❡+✉❛5A❡%
❡♠ +✉❡ ♦ -❡'♠♦ ♠✐%-♦ ❛♣❛'❡❝❡✱ ♣'❡❝✐%❛♠♦% ❞❡ ✉♠❛ B❧❣❡❜'❛ ♠❛✐% ❛✈❛♥5❛❞❛
♣❛'❛ '❡❞✉③✐'♠♦% ❛ ❡+✉❛56♦ ❞❛❞❛✳ @♦' ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡-❡'♠✐♥❛' ♦ ❧✉❣❛'
❣❡♦♠>-'✐❝♦ ❡♠ R2 '❡♣'❡%❡♥-❛❞♦ ♣❡❧❛ ❡+✉❛56♦
√ √
2x2 + 2xy + 2y 2 + 7 2x + 5 2y + 10 = 0? ✭✷✮
@❛'❛ '❡%♣♦♥❞❡'♠♦% ❡%-❛ ♣❡'❣✉♥-❛✱ ✈❛♠♦% ✉%❛' ♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ❊%♣❡❝-'❛❧✳ @'✐✲

♠❡✐'❛♠❡♥-❡✱ ♥♦-❡ +✉❡ ❛ ❡+✉❛56♦ ✭✷✮ ❡+✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ❡+✉❛56♦ ♠❛-'✐❝✐❛❧
" #" # " #
2 1 x √ √ x
[x y] + [7 2 5 2] + [10] = [0]. ✭✸✮
1 2 y y
" #
2 1
❈❤❛♠❡ A = ✳ ❈♦♠♦ A > ✉♠❛ ♠❛-'✐③ %✐♠>-'✐❝❛✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛
1 2
❊%♣❡❝-'❛❧✱ A > ♦'-♦❣♦♥❛❧♠❡♥-❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③B✈❡❧✳ ❉❡❢❛-♦✱ ♦% ❛✉-♦✈❛❧♦'❡% ❞❡
A %6♦ t1 = 3 ❡ t2 = 1✳ ❖ ✈❡-♦' ✉♥✐-B'✐♦ v1 = √12 , √12 ❡ ♦ ✈❡-♦' ✉♥✐✲

-B'✐♦ v2 = − √12 , √12 %6♦ ❛✉-♦✈❡-♦'❡% ❞❡ t1 ❡ t2 ✱ '❡%♣❡❝-✐✈❛♠❡♥-❡✳ ❆%%✐♠✱
β = {v1 , v2 } > ✉♠❛ ❜❛%❡ ♦'-♦♥♦'♠❛❧ ❞❡ R2 ❢♦'♠❛❞❛ ♣♦' ❛✉-♦✈❡-♦'❡% ❞❡ TA ✳
✺✳ ❘❊❈❖◆❍❊❈■▼❊◆❚❖ ❉❊ ❈,◆■❈❆❙ ✷✺✾
❙❡❥❛ P = [IR2 ]βα ✱ ♦♥❞❡ α + ❛ ❜❛-❡ ❝❛♥/♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❈❤❛♠❡ D = P −1 A P ✳

❚❡♠♦- " # " #
√1 − √1 3 0
P = 12 2
❡ D= .
√ √1 0 1
2 2
❈♦♠♦ A = P D P t ✱ ❥6 7✉❡ P −1 = P t ✱ -❡❣✉❡ ❞❡ ✭✸✮ 7✉❡

" # " # " #
3 0 x √ √ x
[x y]P · Pt + [7 2 5 2] + [10] = [0]. ✭✹✮
0 1 y y
" #
x
❖❜-❡?✈❡♠♦- 7✉❡ ♦ ♣?♦❞✉B♦ ♠❛B?✐❝✐❛❧ P t + ❛ ♠❛B?✐③ ❞❛- ❝♦♦?❞❡♥❛❞❛- ❞❡
y
✉♠ ✈❡B♦? v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ❡♠ ?❡❧❛EF♦ G ❜❛-❡ β ✱ ♣♦✐-
" #
x
Pt = [IR2 ]αβ [v]α .
y
" #
x′
❈❤❛♠❡♠♦- [v]β ❞❡ ′ ✳ ❙✉❜-B✐B✉✐♥❞♦ ❡♠ ✭✹✮✱ ♦❜B❡♠♦-
y
" #" # " #" #
3 0 x′ √ √ √1 − √1 x′
[x′ y ′ ] + [7 2 5 2] 2 2
+ [10] = [0]
0 1 y′ √1 √1 y ′
2 2
♦✉ -❡❥❛✱
′ ′
3x 2 + y 2 + 12x′ − 2y ′ + 10 = 0. ✭✺✮
❈♦♠ ❛ ♠✉❞❛♥E❛ ❞❛ ❜❛-❡ ❝❛♥/♥✐❝❛ α ♣❛?❛ ❛ ❜❛-❡ β ✱ ?❡❞✉③✐♠♦- ❛ ❡7✉❛EF♦ ✭✷✮
G ❡7✉❛EF♦ ✭✺✮✱ 7✉❡ ♥F♦ ❛♣?❡-❡♥B❛ ♦ B❡?♠♦ ♠✐-B♦ x′ y ′ ✳ ❆❣♦?❛✱ ✈❛♠♦- ?❡❞✉③✐?
✭✺✮ ❝♦♠♣❧❡B❛♥❞♦ 7✉❛❞?❛❞♦-✳ ❖?❛✱
′ ′
3x 2 + y 2 + 12x′ − 2y ′ + 10 = 0
❡7✉✐✈❛❧❡ G ❡7✉❛EF♦
3(x′ + 2)2 + (y ′ − 1)2 = 3,
♦✉ -❡❥❛✱
(y ′ − 1)2
(x′ + 2)2 + = 1.
3
✷✻✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
#♦%&❛♥&♦✱ ❛ ❡+✉❛-.♦ ✭✷✮ %❡♣%❡2❡♥&❛ ✉♠❛ ❡❧✐♣2❡✳ #❛%❛ ❡2❜♦-❛%♠♦2 ♦ ❣%9✜❝♦
❞❡22❛ ❡❧✐♣2❡✱ ♣%❡❝✐2❛♠♦2 ❝♦♥2✐❞❡%❛% ❛2 ♥♦✈❛2 ❝♦♦%❞❡♥❛❞❛2 x′ ❡ y ′ ✳ ❆22✐♠✱
♥❡22❡ 2✐2&❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦%❞❡♥❛❞❛2✱ ❛ ❡❧✐♣2❡ &❡♠ ❝❡♥&%♦ (−2, 1)✱ 2❡♠✐✲❡✐①♦ ♠❡♥♦%
√
♠❡❞✐♥❞♦ ✶ ❡ 2❡♠✐✲❡✐①♦ ♠❛✐♦% ♠❡❞✐♥❞♦ 3✱ 2❡♥❞♦ ❡2&❡ 2❡♠✐✲❡✐①♦ ♣❛%❛❧❡❧♦ ❛♦
❡✐①♦ y ′ ✭❋✐❣✉%❛ ✷✸✮✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✷✸
●❡♥❡%❛❧✐③❛%❡♠♦2 ❡2&❡ ♣%♦❝❡❞✐♠❡♥&♦ ❛ 2❡❣✉✐%✳
❙❡❥❛ ❞❛❞❛ ❛ ❡+✉❛-.♦
ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0.
❊2&❛ I ❡+✉✐✈❛❧❡♥&❡ J ❡+✉❛-.♦ ♠❛&%✐❝✐❛❧

" #" # " #
a b/2 x x
[x y] + [d e] + [f ] = [0]. ✭✻✮
b/2 c y y
" #
a b/2
❙❡❥❛ A = ✳ ❈♦♠♦ A I ✉♠❛ ♠❛&%✐③ 2✐♠I&%✐❝❛✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ❊2✲
b/2 c
♣❡❝&%❛❧✱ ❡①✐2&❡ ✉♠❛ ❜❛2❡ ♦%&♦♥♦%♠❛❧ β ❞❡ R2 ❢♦%♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❛✉&♦✈❡&♦%❡2 ❞❡ TA ✳
❆22✐♠✱ 2❡ t1 ❡ t2 2.♦ ❛✉&♦✈❛❧♦%❡2 ❞❡ TA ✭♣♦❞❡ 2❡% +✉❡ t1 = t2 ✮✱ ❡①✐2&❡♠ ❛✉&♦✲
✈❡&♦%❡2 v1 ❡ v2 ❛22♦❝✐❛❞♦2 ❛ t1 ❡ t2 ✱ %❡2♣❡❝&✐✈❛♠❡♥&❡✱ &❛✐2 +✉❡ β = {v1 , v2 } I
✺✳ ❘❊❈❖◆❍❊❈■▼❊◆❚❖ ❉❊ ❈,◆■❈❆❙ ✷✻✶
✉♠❛ ❜❛'❡ ♦*+♦♥♦*♠❛❧ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❆ ♠❛+*✐③ P = [IR2 ]βα ✱ ♦♥❞❡ α 4 ❛ ❜❛'❡ ❝❛♥6♥✐❝❛

❞❡ R2 ✱ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛ A ♦*+♦❣♦♥❛❧♠❡♥+❡✱ ❥9 :✉❡
D = P −1 A P
" #
k1 0
4 ❛ ♠❛+*✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♠ P −1 = P t ✳ ;♦*+❛♥+♦✱
0 k2
A = P D P t. ✭✼✮
❙✉❜'+✐+✉✐♥❞♦ ✭✼✮ ❡♠ ✭✻✮✱ ♦❜+❡♠♦' ❛ ❡:✉❛@A♦ ♠❛+*✐❝✐❛❧

" #! " #
x x
([x y]P ) D P t + [d e] + [f ] = [0]. ✭✽✮
y y
" #
x
❖ ♣*♦❞✉+♦ ♠❛+*✐❝✐❛❧ P t ✱ :✉❡ ❛♣❛*❡❝❡ ♥❛ ❡:✉❛@A♦ ✭✽✮✱ 4 ❛ ♠❛+*✐③ ❞❛'
y
❝♦♦*❞❡♥❛❞❛' ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡+♦* v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ❡♠ *❡❧❛@A♦ F ❜❛'❡ β ✱ ♣♦✐'
" #
x
Pt = [IR2 ]αβ [v]α .
y
" #
x′
❈❤❛♠❡♠♦' [v]β ❞❡ ′ ✳ ❙✉❜'+✐+✉✐♥❞♦ ❡♠ ✭✽✮✱ ♦❜+❡♠♦'
y
" # " #
′
x x′
[x′ y ′ ] D ′ + [d e] P + [f ] = [0] ✭✾✮
y y′
✉♠❛ ✈❡③ :✉❡ " # " #
x′ x
′
= Pt
y y
✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ :✉❡ " #!t " #t
x x
[x′ y ′ ] = Pt = (P t )t = [x y]P
y y
❡ " # " #! " # " #
x′ x x x
P ′ =P Pt = (P P −1 ) = .
y y y y
✷✻✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✾✳ ❉■❆●❖◆❆▲■❩❆➬➹❖ ❉❊ ❖"❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙
❙❡ v1 = (x1 , y1 ) ❡ vv = (x2 , y2 )✱ ♦❜'❡♠♦) ❞❡ ✭✾✮ ❛ ❡/✉❛12♦
" #" # " #" #
′
k 1 0 x x 1 x 2 x′
[x′ y ′ ] + [d e] + [f ] = [0],
0 k2 y ′ y1 y2 y ′
♦✉ )❡❥❛✱ ♦❜'❡♠♦) ❛ ❡/✉❛12♦

′ ′
k1 x 2 + k2 y 2 + (dx1 + ey1 )x′ + (dx2 + ey2 )y ′ + f = 0. ✭✶✵✮
❈♦♠♦ ❛ ❡/✉❛12♦ ✭✶✵✮ ♥2♦ ❛♣9❡)❡♥'❛ ♦ '❡9♠♦ ♠✐)'♦ x′ y ′ ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦) ❝♦♠✲

♣❧❡'❛9 ♦) /✉❛❞9❛❞♦)✱ ❡ ❛))✐♠ ❞❡'❡9♠✐♥❛9 ♦ ❧✉❣❛9 ❣❡♦♠?'9✐❝♦ ❡♠ R2 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦9
ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0✳
!♦❜❧❡♠❛(
✺✳✶✯ ◗✉❡ ❧✉❣❛9 ❣❡♦♠?'9✐❝♦ ❡♠ R2 ❛) ❡/✉❛1B❡) ❛❜❛✐①♦ 9❡♣9❡)❡♥'❛♠❄
✭❛✮ x2 − 4x − 2y + 4 = 0✳
✭❜✮ 4x2 − 3y 2 + 24xy − 156 = 0✳
✺✳✷ ◗✉❡ ❧✉❣❛9 ❣❡♦♠?'9✐❝♦ ❞❡ R2 ❛) ❡/✉❛1B❡) ❛❜❛✐①♦ 9❡♣9❡)❡♥'❛♠❄ ❊)❜♦❝❡ ♦
❣9F✜❝♦✱ /✉❛♥❞♦ ♣♦))H✈❡❧✳
✭❛✮ x2 + y 2 − 2x − 2y + 4 = 0✳
✭❜✮ 16x2 + 9y 2 − 96x + 72y + 144 = 0✳
√
✭❝✮ 2x2 + 2 2xy + y 2 − 12 = 0✳
✭❞✮ x2 + 2xy + y 2 = 0✳
√ √
✭❡✮ 7x2 − 8xy + y 2 − 17 5x + 11 5y + 41 = 0✳
√ √
✭❢✮ x2 + xy + y 2 + 5 2x + 4 2y + 1 = 0✳
✭❣✮ 16x2 − 24xy + 9y 2 − 15x − 20y + 50 = 0✳
✭❤✮ 5x2 + 4xy + 2y 2 − 12 = 0✳
√
✭✐✮ 2x2 + 2 6xy + y 2 − 16 = 0✳
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣&❛✜❛
❬✶❪ ❍✳ %✳ ❇✉❡♥♦✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛%✱ ✉♠ -❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉%-♦ ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ❚❡①2♦3 ❯♥✐✈❡7✲
3✐297✐♦3✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✵✻✳
❬✷❪ %✳ ❍❛❧♠♦3✱ ❚❡♦%✐❛ ■♥❣3♥✉❛ ❞♦- ❈♦♥❥✉♥6♦- ✱ ❊❞✐2♦7❛ ❈✐C♥❝✐❛ ▼♦❞❡7♥❛✱
✷✵✵✶✳
❬✸❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ❈7❞✐❣♦- ❈♦%%❡6♦%❡- ❞❡ ❊%%♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡✲
♠92✐❝❛ ❡ ❆♣❧✐❝❛.L❡3✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✵✽✳
❬✹❪ ❆✳ ❍❡❢❡③ ❡ ▼✳ ▲✳ ❚✳ ❱✐❧❧❡❧❛✱ ◆:♠❡%♦- ❈♦♠♣❧❡①♦- ❡ =♦❧✐♥>♠✐♦- ✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
%❘❖❋▼❆❚✱ ❙❇▼✱ ✷✵✶✷✳
❬✺❪ ❱✳ ❏✳ ❑❛2③✱ ❆ ❍✐-6♦%② ♦❢ ▼❛6❤❡♠❛6✐❝- ✲ ❛♥ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ ✱ ❍❛7♣❡7❈♦❧❧✐♥3
❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ %✉❜❧✐3❤❡73✱ ✶✾✾✸✳
❬✻❪ ❙✳ ▲❛♥❣✱ ■♥6%♦❞✉❝6✐♦♥ 6♦ ▲✐♥❡❛% ❆❧❣❡❜%❛ ✱ ✷

♥❞ ❡❞✐2✐♦♥✱ ❯♥❞❡7❣7❛❞✉❛2❡ ❚❡①23
✐♥ ▼❛2❤❡♠❛2✐❝3✱ ❙♣7✐♥❣❡7✱ ✶✾✽✻✳
❬✼❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✸

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦ ▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱
■▼%❆✱ ✶✾✾✽✳
❬✽❪ ❊✳▲✳ ▲✐♠❛✱ ●❡♦♠❡6%✐❛ ❆♥❛❧G6✐❝❛ ❡ ➪❧❣❡❜%❛ ▲✐♥❡❛% ✱ ✷

❛ ❡❞✐./♦✱ ❈♦❧❡./♦
▼❛2❡♠92✐❝❛ ❯♥✐✈❡73✐297✐❛✱ ■▼%❆✱ ✷✵✶✵✳
✸✵✵
✶✵
▲✐✈#♦✿ ■♥(#♦❞✉+,♦ - ➪❧❣❡❜#❛ ▲✐♥❡❛#
❆✉(♦#❡5✿ ❆❜#❛♠♦ ❍❡❢❡③
❈❡❝<❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❙♦✉③❛ ❋❡#♥❛♥❞❡③
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✶✵✿ ❙♦❧✉,-❡/ ❡ ❘❡/♣♦/$❛/
✷✻✸
✷✻✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✶
✷✳✶✯ ❚❡♠♦'
" # " # " #
2 −4 6 −3 6 0 5 −10 6
2A = , 3B = ❡ 2A − 3B = .
8 2 0 3 −6 0 5 8 0
✷✳✷ x = 10✱ y = 3 ❡ z = 1✳
✷✳✸  
" # −2 "#
−1 5 −4 −3
✭❛✮ ✳ ✭❜✮ −2✳ ✭❝✮ ✳
 
2 1 −2 −1
−6
 
−1 1 "#
−5 h i
✭❞✮ −1 1✳ ✭❡✮ ✳ ✭❢✮ 3 −4 1 ✳
 
−2
−3 3
✷✳✹✯ ✭❛✮ ◆2♦✳ 3♦45✉❡ ♣❛4❛ '❡ ❞❡8❡4♠✐♥❛4 c63 ✱ ❛ ♠❛84✐③ A ❞❡✈❡4✐❛ 8❡4✱ ♥♦
♠=♥✐♠♦✱ ✻ ❧✐♥❤❛'✳
✭❜✮ 3♦4 ❞❡✜♥✐A2♦✱
5
X
c36 = a3k · bk6 .
k=1
❆''✐♠✱
5
X 5
X
c36 = (3 − k)6 = (18 − 6k) = 0.
k=1 k=1
✷✳✻✯ ❙❡ X D ✉♠❛ ♠❛84✐③ 5✉❡ ❝♦♠✉8❛ ❝♦♠ A✱ ❡♥82♦ X D ✉♠❛ ♠❛84✐③ 5✉❛❞4❛❞❛
❞❡ ♦4❞❡♠ ✷✳ ❆''✐♠✱ ✈❛♠♦' ❞❡8❡4♠✐♥❛4 ❛' ♠❛84✐③❡'
" #
a b
X=
c d
8❛✐' 5✉❡ AX = XA✳ ❖4❛✱
" #" # " # " #
a b 1 0 1 0 a b
= · ,
c d 0 3 0 3 c d
✷✻✺
#❡✱ ❡ #♦♠❡♥)❡ #❡✱ " # " #

a 3b a b
= .
c 3d 3c 3d
*♦+)❛♥)♦✱ " #
a b
X=
c d
❝♦♠✉)❛ ❝♦♠ A #❡✱ ❡ #♦♠❡♥)❡ #❡✱ b = c = 0 ❡ a ❡ d #/♦ ♥0♠❡+♦# +❡❛✐# 2✉❛✐#2✉❡+✳
"
#
x y
✷✳✼ ✭❜✮ M = ✱ ❝♦♠ x ❡ y ♥0♠❡+♦# +❡❛✐# 2✉❛✐#2✉❡+✳
0 x
✷✳✶✵✯ ✭❛✮  
1 0
At = 2 −1 .
 
3 4
✭❜✮ ❙❡❥❛ A = (aij )n×n ✉♠❛ ♠❛)+✐③ )+✐❛♥❣✉❧❛+ #✉♣❡+✐♦+ ❡ #❡❥❛ At = [bij ]n×n ❛
)+❛♥#♣♦#)❛ ❞❡ A✳ *♦+ ❞❡✜♥✐?/♦✱
bij = aji ,
♣❛+❛ )♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n✳ ▼❛#✱ #❡ j > i✱ #❡❣✉❡ 2✉❡ aji = 0✱ ❥A 2✉❡ A B ✉♠❛

♠❛)+✐③ )+✐❛♥❣✉❧❛+ #✉♣❡+✐♦+✳ *♦+)❛♥)♦✱ bij = 0 #❡♠♣+❡ 2✉❡ i < j ✱ ♦✉ #❡❥❛✱ At B
✉♠❛ ♠❛)+✐③ )+✐❛♥❣✉❧❛+ ✐♥❢❡+✐♦+✳
✭❝✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ A = [aij ]m×n ❡ B = [bij ]m×n ✳ ❙❡❥❛ k ∈ R✳ ❊♥)/♦✱
(A + B)t = [aji + bji ]n×m = [aji ]n×m + [bji ]n×m = At + B t
❡
(kA)t = [kaji ]n×m = k[aji ]n×m = kAt .
✭❞✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ A = [aij ]m×n ❡ B = [bij ]n×p ✳ ❊♥)/♦✱ AB = [cij ]m×p ✱ ❝♦♠
n
X
cij = aik · bkj ,
k=1
✷✻✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
♣❛$❛ %♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ p✱ ❡ B t At = [dij ]p×m ✱ ❝♦♠
n
X
dij = bki · ajk ,
k=1
♣❛$❛ %♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ p ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ m✳ ❈♦♠♦ (AB)t = [eij ]p×m ♦♥❞❡✱ ♣❛$❛ %♦❞♦

1 ≤ i ≤ p ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ m✱
eij = cji ,
/❡❣✉❡ 2✉❡
n
X n
X
eij = ajk · bki = bki · ajk = dij ,
k=1 k=1
♣❛$❛ %♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ p ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ m✳ 3♦$%❛♥%♦✱ (AB)t = B t At ✳
✭❡✮ ❙❡❥❛ A = [aij ]m×n ✳ ❊♥%9♦ At = [aji ]n×m ✱ ♣♦$%❛♥%♦✱ (At )t = [aij ]n×m = A✳
✷✳✶✶✯ ✭❛✮ 3❡❧♦ 3$♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✵✱ ✐%❡♥/ ✭❝✮ ❡ ✭❡✮✱ %❡♠♦/ (B +B t )t = B t +(B t )t =
B t + B = B + B t ✱ ♦♥❞❡ ♥❛ ?❧%✐♠❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ✉/❛♠♦/ ♦ ❢❛%♦ 2✉❡ ❛ ❛❞✐A9♦ ❞❡
♠❛%$✐③❡/ C ❝♦♠✉%❛%✐✈❛✳ ❆❣♦$❛ ♣❡❧♦ ✐%❡♥/ ✭❞✮ ❡ ✭❡✮ ❞♦ ♣$♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✵✱ %❡♠♦/
(B · B t )t = (B t )t · B t = B · B t ✳
✭❜✮ 3❡❧♦ 3$♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✵✱ ✐%❡♠ ✭❝✮✱ /❡❣✉❡ 2✉❡ (B − B t )t = B t + (−B t )t =
B t − B = −(B − B t )✳
✭❝✮ ❙❡❣✉❡ ✐♠❡❞✐❛%❛♠❡♥%❡ ❞❡ ✭❛✮ ❡ ✭❜✮✳
✭❞✮ ❙❡❥❛ B ✉♠❛ ♠❛%$✐③ 2✉❛❞$❛❞❛ 2✉❡ /❡ ❡/❝$❡✈❡ ❝♦♠ B = B1 + B2 ✱ ♦♥❞❡
B1 C /✐♠C%$✐❝❛ ❡ B2 C ❛♥%✐//✐♠C%$✐❝❛✳ ❊♥%9♦✱ B1t = B1 ❡ B2t = −B2 ✳ ❈♦♠♦
B t = B1t + B2t ✱ /❡❣✉❡ 2✉❡ B t = B1 − B2 ✳ ❆//✐♠✱
B = B1 + B2 ❡ B t = B1 − B2
✐♠♣❧✐❝❛♠ 2✉❡
B + Bt B − Bt
B1 = ❡ B2 = .
2 2
✷✳✶✻ ✭❛✮ X = C −1 B ✳ ✭❜✮ X = (A−1 )t ✳ ✭❝✮ X = B −1 A−1 C ✳
✷✻✼
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✷
✶✳✶✯ ✭❛✮
" # " # " #
2 1 −1 3 1 −3
−→ −→ −→
−1 3 e1 : L1 ↔L2 2 1 e2 : L1 →−L1 2 1 e3 : L2 →L2 −2L1
" # " # " #

1 −3 1 −3 1 0
−→ −→ .
0 7 e4 : L2 → 17 L2 0 1 e5 : L1 →L1 +3L2 0 1
✭❜✮ ❙✐♠✳ +♦-.✉❡ ❛ ❢♦-♠❛ ❡2❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ A 7 ❛ ♠❛8-✐③ ✐❞❡♥8✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♦-❞❡♠ ✷✳
✭❝✮ ❚❡♠♦2
A−1 = E5 · E4 · E3 · E2 · E1 ,
♦♥❞❡ E1 = e1 (I)✱ E2 = e2 (I)✱ E3 = e3 (I)✱ E4 = e4 (I) ❡ E5 = e5 (I)✳ ❆22✐♠✱

" #" #" #" #" #
1 3 1 0 1 0 −1 0 0 1
A−1 = .
0 1 0 1/7 −2 1 0 1 1 0
❈♦♠♣✉8❛♥❞♦ ♦ ♣-♦❞✉8♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜8❡♠♦2

" #
3/7 −1/7
A−1 = .
1/7 2/7
 
" # −1 −1 0
3 −7
✶✳✷ ✭❛✮ A−1 = ✳ ✭❜✮ B −1 =  0 −1 −1✳
 
−5 12
1 −1 −3
 
1 −1 0 2
−1 2 2 0
✭❝✮ C −1 = ✳
 
 0 −1 0 1
1 0 1 2
   
1 0 −7/2 5/2 1 2 0 0 4/3
✶✳✹ ✭❛✮ 0 1

3 −2 ✳

✭❜✮ 0 0 1 0

0 ✳

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 −1/6
✷✻✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
 
1 0 4/11 13/11
0 1 −5/11 3/11 
✭❝✮  ✳
 
0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0
✶✳✽✯ ✭❛✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ♠❛,-✐③❡0 1✉❛❞-❛❞❛0 ❞❡ ♠❡0♠❛ ♦-❞❡♠ n ,❛✐0 1✉❡ AB =
I ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦0 1✉❡ A ♥8♦ 9 ✐♥✈❡-,;✈❡❧✳ ❊♥,8♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❈♦-♦❧@-✐♦ ✷✳✶✳✼✱ A ♥8♦
,❡♠ ♣♦0,♦ n✱ ❧♦❣♦ A 9 ❡1✉✐✈❛❧❡♥,❡ ♣♦- ❧✐♥❤❛0 ❛ ✉♠❛ ♠❛,-✐③ ❝♦♠ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛
♥✉❧❛✱ ♦✉ 0❡❥❛✱ ❡①✐0,❡♠ ♠❛,-✐③❡0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥,❛-❡0 E1 , . . . , Es ,❛✐0 1✉❡ Es . . . E2 E1 A
,❡♠ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛✳ E♦-,❛♥,♦✱ ,❡♠♦0 Es · · · E2 E1 AB = C ✱ ♦♥❞❡ C ,❛♠❜9♠
9 ✉♠❛ ♠❛,-✐③ ❝♦♠ ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛ ✭❝❢✳ E-♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✶✸✭❛✮✱ ❈❛♣;,✉❧♦ ✶✮✳ ❉❡00❛
❢♦-♠❛✱ AB = (E1−1 . . . E1−1 )C ❡✱ ♣♦-,❛♥,♦✱ ,❛♠❜9♠ AB 9 ✉♠❛ ♠❛,-✐③ ❝♦♠
✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥✉❧❛✳ ▼❛0 ✐00♦ ❝♦♥,-❛❞✐③ ♦ ❢❛,♦ ❞❡ 1✉❡ AB = I ✳ E♦-,❛♥,♦✱ A 9
✐♥✈❡-,;✈❡❧✳ ❈♦♥0❡1✉❡♥,❡♠❡♥,❡✱
A−1 = A−1 I = A−1 (AB) = (A−1 A)B = IB = B.
❆00✐♠ AB = I 0❡✱ ❡ 0♦♠❡♥,❡ 0❡✱ BA = I ✱ ♣♦✐0 0❡ AB = I ✱ ♣❡❧♦ ♦ 1✉❡ ✈✐♠♦0

❛❝✐♠❛ B = A−1 ❡✱ ❡♥,8♦✱ BA = A−1 A = I ✳ ❊ -❡❝✐♣-♦❝❛♠❡♥,❡✱ 0❡ BA = I ✱
♣❡❧♦ ♦ 1✉❡ ✈✐♠♦0 ❛❝✐♠❛ A = B −1 ❡✱ ❡♥,8♦✱ AB = B −1 B = I ✳
✭❜✮ ❙❡ A ❡ B 08♦ ✐♥✈❡-,;✈❡✐0✱ ,❡♠♦0 ❞❛ E-♦♣♦0✐L8♦ ✶✳✷✳✹✭❜✮ 1✉❡ AB 9 ✐♥✈❡-,;✈❡❧✳
❘❡❝✐♣-♦❝❛♠❡♥,❡✱ 0❡ AB 9 ✐♥✈❡-,;✈❡❧✱ ❡♥,8♦ ❡①✐0,❡ C ,❛❧ (AB)C = C(AB) = I✳
▲♦❣♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ A(BC) = (AB)C = I✱ ♣❡❧♦ ✐,❡♠ ✭❛✮✱ ,❡♠♦0 1✉❡ A 9 ✐♥✈❡-,;✈❡❧✳
E♦- ♦✉,-♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ (CA)B = C(AB) = I✱ ♣❡❧♦ ✐,❡♠ ✭❛✮✱ ,❡♠✲0❡ 1✉❡ B 9
✐♥✈❡-,;✈❡❧✳
✷✳✶✯ ❈♦♠♦ ♦0 ,❡-♠♦0 ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥,❡0 ❞♦ 0✐0,❡♠❛ 08♦ ,♦❞♦0 ✐❣✉❛✐0 ❛ ③❡-♦✱ ❡0,❡0
♥8♦ 0❡ ❛❧,❡-❛♠ ♣♦- ,-❛♥0❢♦-♠❛LQ❡0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥,❛-❡0✳ E♦- ✐00♦✱ ♣❛-❛ -❡0♦❧✈❡-♠♦0
✉♠ 0✐0,❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛- ❤♦♠♦❣R♥❡♦ ♣❡❧♦ ♠9,♦❞♦ ❞❡ ❡0❝❛❧♦♥❛♠❡♥,♦✱ ❜❛0,❛ ❝♦♥0✐❞❡✲
-❛-♠♦0 ❛ ♠❛,-✐③ ❞♦0 ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥,❡0✳ ❖-❛✱
   
0 1 3 −2 2 3 2 −1
−→
 2 1 −4 3  2 1 −4 3
 −→   L2 → L 2 − L 1
   
2 −1 L1 ↔L3  0 3 −2

 2 3 1
L4 → L4 + 2L1
−4 −3 5 −4 −4 −3 5 −4
✷✻✾
   
2 3 2 −1 2 0 −7 5 −→
0
 −2 −6 4
 −→ 0 −2 −6
 4  L1 → 1/2L2

3 −2 L1 → L1 − L4 0 3 −2 L2 → L2 + 2L3
   
0 1 1
0 3 9 −6 0 3 9 −6 L4 → L4 − 3L3
   
1 0 −7/2 5/2 1 0 −7/2 5/2
 −→ 0 1 3 −2 
0 0 0 0 
,
 
3 −2  L2 ↔ L3 0 0
  
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
❞♦♥❞❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉*♠♦, -✉❡ x = 7/2z − 5/2t ❡ -✉❡ y = −3z + 2t✳ ❋❛③❡♥❞♦ z = a ❡
t = b✱ ♦♥❞❡ a ❡ b ∈ R✱ ♦❜4❡♠♦, -✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥4♦ ,♦❧✉67♦ ❞♦ ,✐,4❡♠❛ ❞❛❞♦ 9
7 5
S = {( a − b, −3a + 2b, a, b) ; a, b ∈ R}.
2 2
✷✳✷✯ ◆♦4❡ -✉❡
   
1 2 −3 m −→ 1 2 −3 m
2 6 −11 n  L2 → L2 − 2L1 0 2 −5 n − 2m
   
1 −2 7 p L3 → L3 − L1 0 −4 10 p − m
 
1 2 −3 m
−→
0 2 −5 n − 2m  ,
 
L3 → L3 + 2L2
0 0 0 p + 2n − 5m
♦ -✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ -✉❡ ♦ ,✐,4❡♠❛ ❞❛❞♦ 9 ♣♦,,*✈❡❧ ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥4❡ ,❡✱ p+2n−5m = 0✳
❆,,✐♠✱ ♣♦> ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛>❛ m = 1✱ n = 2 ❡ p = 1 ♦ ,✐,4❡♠❛ 4❡♠ ,♦❧✉67♦✳ ◆♦4❡
-✉❡ ,❡ p + 2n − 5m = 0 ♦ ,✐,4❡♠❛ 4❡>@✱ ❞❡ ❢❛4♦✱ ♠❛✐, ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ,♦❧✉67♦✳ ❊♠
♦✉4>❛, ♣❛❧❛✈>❛,✱ ♦ ,✐,4❡♠❛ ♥7♦ ♣♦❞❡ 4❡> ,♦❧✉67♦ C♥✐❝❛✳
✷✳✸ " #
1 0 −1
X= .
3 2 1
✷✳✹  
1
 0 .
 
1
✷✼✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
✷✳✺ ✭❛✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ S1 ❡ S2 ♦+ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦+ +♦❧✉12❡+ ❞❡ AX = B1 ❡ AX = B2 ✱
5❡+♣❡❝/✐✈❛♠❡♥/❡✳ ❊♥/;♦
S1 = {(1/2 + 7/8t, 1/2 + 1/4t, 1/2 − 11/8t) t ∈ R}
❡
S2 = {(1/4 + 7/8t, 1/4t, 3/4 − 11/8t) ; t ∈ R}.
✭❜✮
{(5/4 + 7/8t, 3/2 + 1/4t, 3/4 − 11/8t) ; t ∈ R}.
✷✳✽ a = 2✱ b = −1✱ c = 1✳
✷✳✾
✭❛✮ ✭✐✮ k 6= 3❀ {(3k + 6, −2k − 4, −1)}✳
✭✐✐✮ ◆;♦ ❡①✐+/❡ k ∈ R✳
✭✐✐✐✮ k = 3❀ {(5 − 10z, −3 + 7z, z) z ∈ R}✳
✭❜✮ ✭✐✮ k 6= 1 ❡ k 6= −2❀ {(1/(k + 2), 1/(k + 2), 1/(k + 2) )}✳
✭✐✐✮ k = −2✳
✭✐✐✐✮ k = 1❀ {(1 − y − z, y, z) y, z ∈ R}✳
✭❝✮ ✭✐✮ k 6= 1 ❡ k 6= −1❀ {(0, 0, 0)}✳
✭✐✐✮ ◆;♦ ❡①✐+/❡ k ∈ R✳
✭✐✐✐✮ k = ±1❀ {(−z, 0, z) : z ∈ R} ♣❛5❛ k = 1 ❡ {(z, 0, z) : z ∈ R}

♣❛5❛ k = −1✳
✷✳✶✵ −5a + 2b + c = 0✳
✷✳✶✶ ✭❛✮ a = −3✳ ✭❜✮ a = 2✳ ✭❝✮ a 6= −3 ❡ a 6= 2✳
✷✼✶
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✸
✶✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ W ✉♠ )✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ♥/♦ ✈❛③✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡)♣❛5♦ ✈❡.♦6✐❛❧ V ✳ ◗✉❡6❡♠♦)
♠♦).6❛6 :✉❡ W ; ✉♠ )✉❜❡)♣❛5♦ ✈❡.♦6✐❛❧ )❡✱ ❡ )♦♠❡♥.❡ )❡✱ au + bv ∈ W ♣❛6❛
:✉❛✐):✉❡6 a, b ∈ R ❡ ♣❛6❛ :✉❛✐):✉❡6 u, v ∈ W ✳
(⇒) ❈♦♠♦ W ; ✉♠ ❡)♣❛5♦ ✈❡.♦6✐❛❧✱ .❡♠♦) au, bv ∈ W ✳ ▲♦❣♦ ❛ )♦♠❛ au + bv
; ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦ ❞❡ W ✳
(⇐) ❚❡♠♦) :✉❡ .❛♥.♦ ❛ ❛❞✐5/♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ♠✉❧.✐♣❧✐❝❛5/♦ ♣♦6 ❡)❝❛❧❛6 ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛)
❡♠ V :✉❛♥❞♦ 6❡).6✐.❛) ❛ W )/♦ ❢❡❝❤❛❞❛)✱ ♦✉ )❡❥❛✱ )❡ u, v ∈ W ❡ a ∈ R
❡♥./♦ u + v = 1u + 1v ∈ W ❡ au = au + 0v ∈ W ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛ ❛❞✐5/♦ ❡ ❛
♠✉❧.✐♣❧✐❝❛5/♦ ♣♦6 ❡)❝❛❧❛6 )❛.✐)❢❛③❡♠ ❛) ❝♦♥❞✐5D❡) ✭✐✐✮✱ ✭✐✐✐✮✱ ✭✈✐✐✮✱ ✭✈✐✐✐✮✱ ✭✐①✮
❡ ✭①✮ ♣❛6❛ :✉❛✐):✉❡6 a, b ∈ R ❡ ♣❛6❛ :✉❛✐):✉❡6 u, v ∈ V ✱ ❡❧❛) ❝♦♥.✐♥✉❛♠
)❛.✐)❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ❡).❛) ♣6♦♣6✐❡❞❛❞❡) ♣❛6❛ :✉❛✐):✉❡6 a, b ∈ R ❡ ♣❛6❛ :✉❛✐):✉❡6
u, v ∈ W ✳ ❘❡).❛ )I ✈❡6✐✜❝❛6 ❛) ❝♦♥❞✐5D❡) ✭✐✈✮ ❡ ✭✈✮✳ ❙❡❥❛ w ∈ W ✳ ❊♥./♦
.❡♠♦) o = 0w + 0w ∈ W ❡ −w = (−1)w + 0w ∈ W ✳
✶✳✷ ✭❛✮ ➱✳ ✭❜✮ ◆/♦ ;✳ ◆♦.❡ :✉❡ (0, 0) ∈/ W✳
✭❝✮ ◆/♦ ;✳ ❚❡♠♦) (1, 1) ∈ W ✱ ♠❛) 2(1, 1) ∈
/ W✳ ✭❞✮ ➱✳
✶✳✸ ✭❛✮ ➱✳ ✭❜✮ ◆/♦ ;✳ ◆♦.❡ :✉❡ (1, 0, 0) ∈ W ✱ ♠❛) −1(1, 0, 0) ∈
/ W✳
✭❝✮✱ ✭❞✮✱ ✭❡✮ ➱✳
✶✳✹ ✭❛✮✱ ✭❜✮✱ ✭❝✮ ➱✳ ✭❞✮ ◆/♦ ;✳ ❚❡♠♦) I3 ∈ W ✱ ♠❛) 2I3 ∈/ W ✳
✭❡✮ ◆/♦ ;✳ ❆ ♠❛.6✐③ ♥✉❧❛ ♥/♦ ♣❡6.❡♥❝❡ ❛ W ✳
✶✳✺ ✭❛✮ ◆/♦ ;✳ ❚❡♠♦) p(x) = 1 + x + x2 ∈ W ✱ ♠❛) 12 p(x) ∈/ W ✳
✭❜✮✱ ✭❝✮ ➱✳ ✭❞✮ ◆/♦ ;✳ ❚❡♠♦) p(x) = x2 ∈ W ✱ ♠❛) −1p(x) ∈
/ W✳
✶✳✻ ✭❛✮ V ∩ W = W ❡ V + W = V ✳
✭❜✮ V ∩ W = {[aij ]2×2 ; a11 = a12 = a21 = a22 }❀
V + W = {[aij ]2×2 ; a11 = −a12 + a21 + a22 }✳
✭❝✮ V ∩ W = {(0, 0, 0)} ❡ V + W = R3 ✳
✭❞✮ V ∩ W = {(0, 0, 0, 0)} ❡ V + W = R4 ✳
✭❡✮ V ∩ W = {(0, 0, 0)} ❡ V + W = {(x, x, y) ; x, y ∈ R}✳
❆) )♦♠❛) ❞❛❞❛) ❡♠ ✭❝✮ ❡ ✭❞✮ )/♦ )♦♠❛) ❞✐6❡.❛)✳

✷✼✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
✶✳✶✶✯ ◗✉❡%❡♠♦( ❞❡*❡%♠✐♥❛% a, b, c ∈ R ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ .✉❡ ♦ ✈❡*♦% w = (a, b, c)
(❡❥❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❞❡ u = (2, −6, 4) ❡ v = (2, −1, 1)✳ 7❛%❛ w (❡% ✉♠❛
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❞❡ u ❡ v ❞❡✈❡♠ ❡①✐(*✐% ❞♦✐( ♥9♠❡%♦( %❡❛✐( x ❡ y *❛✐( .✉❡
(a, b, c) = xu + yv = (2x + 2y, −6x − y, 4x + y).
❊.✉✐✈❛❧❡♥*❡♠❡♥*❡✱ (x, y) ❞❡✈❡ (❡% ✉♠❛ (♦❧✉34♦ ❞♦ (✐(*❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛%


2x + 2y = a



−6x − y = b


4x + y = c .

❙♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❛( *%=( ❡.✉❛3>❡(✱ ♦❜*❡♠♦( 2y = a+b+c ❡ (♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❛( ❞✉❛( 9❧*✐♠❛(✱

*❡♠♦( b + c = −2x✳ ❆((✐♠ ❛( ❝♦♦%❞❡♥❛❞❛( a, b, c ❞❡✈❡♠ (❛*✐(❢❛③❡% ❛ ❡.✉❛34♦
a = 3b + 5c✳
✶✳✶✷✯ ✭❛✮ ❉❛❞♦ α = {(−1, 3, 1), (1, −2, 4)}✱ ♦ ❡(♣❛3♦ ❣❡%❛❞♦ ♣♦% α✱ G(α)✱
G ♣♦% ❞❡✜♥✐34♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ❞❡ *♦❞❛( ❛( ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛3>❡( ❧✐♥❡❛%❡( ❞❡ (−1, 3, 1) ❡
(1, −2, 4)✳ ❆((✐♠
G(α) = {a(−1, 3, 1) + b(1, −2, 4) ; a, b ∈ R}

= {(−a + b, 3a − 2b, a + 4b) ; a, b ∈ R}.
●❡♦♠❡*%✐❝❛♠❡♥*❡✱ G(α) G ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ .✉❡ ♣❛((❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦%✐❣❡♠✳ ❙❡ (x, y, z) ∈ R3

G ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ❞❡ G(α)✱ ❡♥*4♦
x = −a + b,
y = 3a − 2b, ✭✶✮
z = a + 4b,
♦♥❞❡ a, b ∈ R✳ ❆( ❡.✉❛3>❡( ❡♠ ✭✶✮ (4♦ ❛( ❡.✉❛3>❡( ♣❛%❛♠G*%✐❝❛( ❞❡ G(α)✳
✭❜✮ ❖ ✈❡*♦% (5, k, 11) ∈ G(α)✱ (❡
5 = −a + b
k = 3a − 2b
11 = a + 4b,
✷✼✸
♣❛%❛ ❝❡%(♦* a ❡ b ❡♠ R✳ ❘❡*♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ♦ *✐*(❡♠❛


−a + b = 5
a + 4b = 11,
♦❜(❡♠♦* a = − a5 ❡ b = 16
5
✳ 4♦%(❛♥(♦✱ k = 3a − 2b = − 59
5
✳
✶✳✶✸ ✭❛✮ {(2, 1, 0), (−3, 0, 1)}✳ ✭❜✮ {(1, 1, 0, −1), (0, 0, 1, 0)}✳
(" # " #)
1 0 0 0
✭❝✮ {1 + x2 , x − 12 x2 }✳ ✭❞✮ , ✳
−1 0 1 1
✶✳✶✺ ✭❛✮✱ ✭❝✮ ❡ ✭❞✮✳

✶✳✶✻ ✭❛✮ −1p1 (x) − 2p2 (x) + 2p3 (x)✳
✭❜✮ 3p1 (x) + 0p2 (x) − 2p3 (x)✳
✭❝✮ 2p1 (x) − 1p2 (x) + 0p3 (x)✳
✷✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ f (x) = x3 + 4x2 − 2x + 3✱ g(x) = x3 + 6x2 − x + 4 ❡ h(x) =

2x3 + 8x2 − 8x + 7 ❡ *❡❥❛♠ a, b, c ∈ R (❛✐* :✉❡ af (x) + bg(x) + ch(x) = 0✳
❚❡♠♦* 


 a + b + 2c = 0

4a + 6b + 8c = 0



 2a + b + 8c = 0


3a + 4b + 7c = 0 .

❘❡*♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ♦ *✐(❡♠❛✱ ♦❜(❡♠♦* a = b = c = 0✱ ❆**✐♠✱ ♦* (%>* ♣♦❧✐♥?♠✐♦* *@♦

❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥(❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡*✳
✷✳✷ ✭❛✮ ❡ ✭❜✮ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡*✱ ✭❝✮ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡✳

✷✳✸ ✭❛✮✱ ✭❜✮ ❡ ✭❝✮ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡*✳
✷✳✹ a = −1 ♦✉ a = 2✳
✸✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ V ✉♠ ❡*♣❛A♦ ✈❡(♦%✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥*@♦ n✳ ◗✉❡%❡♠♦* ♠♦*(%❛% :✉❡ :✉❛❧✲
:✉❡% ❝♦♥❥✉♥(♦ ❧✐♥❡❛%♠❡♥(❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥(❡ ❝♦♠ n ✈❡(♦%❡* ❢♦%♠❛ ✉♠❛ ❜❛*❡ ❞❡
✷✼✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
V ✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ✈❡*♦,❡- ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡-✳ ❙❡ ❡-*❡- ✈❡*♦,❡-
♥3♦ ❣❡,❛♠ V ✱ ❡♥*3♦ ❡①✐-*❡ ✉♠ ✈❡*♦, w ∈ V 8✉❡ ♥3♦ ♣♦❞❡ -❡, ❡-❝,✐*♦ ❝♦♠♦
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛;3♦ ❧✐♥❡❛, ❞❡❧❡-✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ α1 , . . . , αn ✱ β ∈ R *❛✐- 8✉❡
α1 v1 + · · · + αn vn + βw = 0.
❖❜-❡,✈❡♠♦- 8✉❡ -❡ β = 0✱ ❡♥*3♦ αi = 0 ♣❛,❛ *♦❞♦ i = 1, . . . , n✱ ♣♦✐- ♦-

✈❡*♦,❡- v1 , v2 , . . . , vn -3♦ ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡-✳ ❙❡ β 6= 0✱ ❡♥*3♦
1
− (α1 v1 + · · · + αn vn ) = w,
β
♦ 8✉❡ ❝♦♥*,❛❞✐③ ❛ ❡-❝♦❧❤❛ ❞❡ w✳ ❆--✐♠✱ β = α1 = · · · = αn = 0✳ ❈♦♠♦ *❡♠♦-
8✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ❝♦♠ n + 1 ✈❡*♦,❡- ❢♦,♠❛❞♦ ♣♦, v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , w B ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥*❡
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡✱ ❡♥*3♦ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥-3♦ ❞❡ V B ♣❡❧♦ ♠❡♥♦- n + 1✳ ❆❜-✉,❞♦✳
❆❣♦,❛ ✈❛♠♦- ♣,♦✈❛, 8✉❡ *♦❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ❢♦,♠❛❞♦ ♣♦, n ❣❡,❛❞♦,❡- ♥3♦
♥✉❧♦- B ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ✈❡*♦,❡- ♥3♦ ♥✉❧♦- 8✉❡
❣❡,❛♠ ♦ ❡-♣❛;♦ V ✳ ❙❛❜❡♠♦- 8✉❡ -❡♠♣,❡ B ♣♦--C✈❡❧ ❡①*,❛✐, ❞❡♥*,❡ ❡❧❡- ✉♠
-✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦- v1 , . . . , vk ✳ ❆✜,♠❛♠♦- 8✉❡
❡-*❡- k ✈❡*♦,❡- ❛✐♥❞❛ ❣❡,❛♠ V ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛*♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ v1 , . . . , vk , vk+1 B ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥*❡
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦- *❡, 8✉❡
α1 v1 + · · · + αk vk + βvk+1 = 0,
♦♥❞❡ ♦- ❡-❝❛❧❛,❡- ♥3♦ -3♦ *♦❞♦- ♥✉❧♦-✳ ▼❛✐- ❛✐♥❞❛✱ ♥♦*❡ 8✉❡ β 6= 0✳ ❆--✐♠✱
vk+1 ♣♦❞❡ -❡, ❡-❝,✐*♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛;3♦ ❧✐♥❡❛, ❞♦- ✈❡*♦,❡- v1 , . . . , vk ✳
❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥*❡✱ ♠♦-*,❛♠♦- 8✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ vk+j ✱ ❝♦♠ 1 ≤ j ≤ n − k ✱ *❛♠❜B♠ ♣♦❞❡
-❡, ❡-❝,✐*♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛;3♦ ❧✐♥❡❛, ❞♦- ✈❡*♦,❡- v1 , . . . , vk ✳ ❉❡-*❛ ❢♦,♠❛✱
♣❡❧❛ G,♦♣♦-✐;3♦ ✸✳✶✳✼✱ ❝♦♥❝❧✉C♠♦- ❛ ♣,♦✈❛ ❞❛ ❛✜,♠❛;3♦✳ G♦,*❛♥*♦✱ ♦- ✈❡*♦,❡-
v1 , . . . , vk ❢♦,♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛-❡ ❞❡ V ✳ ❈♦♠♦ dim V = n✱ -❡❣✉❡ 8✉❡ k = n✱ ♦✉
-❡❥❛✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ♦,✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❥J ❡,❛ ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡✳
✸✳✷✯ ❙❡❥❛ V ♦ ❡-♣❛;♦ ❞❛- ♠❛*,✐③❡- -✐♠B*,✐❝❛- 2 × 2✱ ♦✉ -❡❥❛✱
(" # )
a b
V = a, b, c ∈ R .
b c
✷✼✺
❱❡❥❛♠♦) *✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ β / ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ V ✱ ♦♥❞❡

(" # " # " #)
1 0 0 1 0 0
β= , , .
0 0 1 0 0 1
❉❡ ❢❛.♦✱ β ❣❡6❛ V ✱ ✉♠❛ ✈❡③ *✉❡ .♦❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥.♦ ❞❡ V / ❞❛ ❢♦6♠❛

" # " # " # " #
a b 1 0 0 1 0 0
=a +b +c .
b c 0 0 1 0 0 1
❙❡❥❛♠ a, b, c ∈ R .❛✐) *✉❡

" # " # " # " #
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
a +b +c = .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
❚❡♠♦) *✉❡ a = b = c = 0✱ ♦ *✉❡ ♠♦).6❛ *✉❡ β / ❧✐♥❡❛6♠❡♥.❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡✳

✸✳✸✯ ✭❛✮ ❚❡♠♦) *✉❡
U = {(a, b, c, d) ; b + c + d = 0)} = {(a, b, c, −(b + c)) ; a, b, c ∈ R}.
❆✜6♠❛♠♦) *✉❡ BU = {(1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, −1), (0, 0, 1, −1)} / ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ U ✳
❉❡ ❢❛.♦✱ )❡ (a, b, c, d) ∈ U ✱ ❡♥.C♦
(a, b, c, d) = a(1, 0, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0, −1) + c(0, 0, 1, −1)
❡ )❡ α, β, γ ∈ R )C♦ .❛✐) *✉❡
α(1, 0, 0, 0) + β(0, 1, 0, −1) + γ(0, 0, 1, −1) = 0,
)❡❣✉❡ *✉❡ α = β = γ = 0✳ D♦6.❛♥.♦✱ BU / ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ U ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥)C♦ ❞❡

U / .6E)✳
✭❜✮ ❚❡♠♦) *✉❡
W = {(a, b, c, d) ; a + b = 0, c = 2d} = {(a, −a, 2d, d) ; a, d ∈ R}.
❆✜6♠❛♠♦) *✉❡ BW = {(1, −1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 2, 1)} / ✉♠❛ ❜❛)❡ ❞❡ W ✳ ❙❡❥❛
(a, b, c, d) ∈ W ✳ ❊♥.C♦
(a, b, c, d) = a(1, −1, 0, 0) + d(0, 0, 2, 1)

✷✼✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
❡ $❡ α, β ∈ R $%♦ '❛✐$ *✉❡
α(1, −1, 0, 0) + β(0, 0, 2, 1) = (α, −α, 2β, β) = 0,
$❡❣✉❡ *✉❡ α = β = 0✳ .♦/'❛♥'♦✱ BW 2 ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ W ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥$%♦ ❞❡ W 2

❞♦✐$✳
✭❝✮ ❚❡♠♦$ *✉❡
U ∩W = {(a, b, c, d) ; b+c+d = 0, a+b = 0, c = 2d} = {(3d, −3d, 2d, d) ; d ∈ R}.
❆✜/♠❛♠♦$ *✉❡ B = {(3, −3, 2, 1)} 2 ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ U ∩ W ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛'♦✱ $❡

(a, b, c, d) ∈ U ∩ W ✱ ❡♥'%♦
(a, b, c, d) = (3d, −3d, 2d, d) = d(3, −3, 2, 1).
.♦/'❛♥'♦✱ B 2 ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ U ∩ W ❡ ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥$%♦ ❞❡ U ∩ W 2 ✉♠✳
✭❞✮ ❖❜$❡/✈❡ *✉❡
dim(U + W ) = dim U + dim W − dim(U ∩ W ) = 4.
▲♦❣♦✱ U + W = R4 ✳ ❆$$✐♠✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦$ ❡$❝♦❧❤❡/ ❝♦♠♦ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ U + W *✉❛❧✲

*✉❡/ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ R4 ✳ .♦/ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛ ❜❛$❡ ❝❛♥F♥✐❝❛ {(1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0)✱
(0, 0, 0, 1)}✳
✸✳✹ ✭❛✮ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡✱ ❥H *✉❡ v3 = 2v1 − 2v2 ✳
✭❜✮ β = {(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, −1)}✳
✭❝✮ dim(G(α)) = 2✱ ♣♦/*✉❡ β 2 ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ♣❛/❛ G(α)✳
✸✳✻ ❖$ ✈❡'♦/❡$ ❢♦/♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ♣❛/❛ M(2, 2)✳

✸✳✾ ✹✳
#"
2 1
✸✳✶✵ ✭❛✮ ✷✳ ✭❜✮ ◆%♦✳ .♦/*✉❡ / W✳
∈
3 4
✸✳✶✶ ✭❛✮ {(−3, 1, −3, 5)}, 1✳
✭❜✮ {(−1, 1, , 0, 0), (2, 0, 1, 0), (−1, 0, 0, 1)}, 3✳
✷✼✼
✸✳✶✸ ✭❛✮ 11/28, 1/14✳ ✭❜✮ 1, −1✳ ✭❝✮ 2, 0, −1✳
✹✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛ U ⊆ R4 ❣❡,❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦1 ✈❡3♦,❡1 (1, −2, 3, −3), (2, 3, 1, −4), (3, 8, −3, −5)✳
✭❛✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ a, b, c ∈ R 3❛✐1 6✉❡
a(1, −2, 3, −3) + b(2, 3, 1, −4) + c(3, 8, −3, −5) = 0.
❚❡♠♦1 6✉❡ a, b, c ❞❡✈❡♠ 1❛3✐1❢❛③❡, ♦ 1✐13❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛,




 a + 2b + 3c = 0

−2a + 3b + 8c = 0



 3a + b − 3c = 0


−3a − 4b − 5c = 0 .

❙♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❛1 ❞✉❛1 <❧3✐♠❛1 ❡6✉❛=>❡1 ♦❜3❡♠♦1 3b = −8c ❡ 1✉❜13✐3✉✐♥❞♦ ♥❛ 1❡✲

❣✉♥❞❛ ❡6✉❛=@♦ ♦❜3❡♠♦1 2a = 0✳ ❆11✐♠✱ a = b = c = 0✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ (1, −2, 3, −3)✱
(2, 3, 1, −4)✱ (3, 8, −3, −5) D ✉♠❛ ❜❛1❡ ❞❡ U ❡ 1✉❛ ❞✐♠❡♥1@♦ D 3,E1✳
✭❜✮ ❈❤❛♠❡♠♦1 u1 = (1, −2, 3, −3)✱ u2 = (2, 3, 1, −4) ❡ u3 = (3, 8, −3, −5)✳
❉❡✈❡♠♦1 ❛❝❤❛, ✉♠ ✈❡3♦, v ∈ R4 ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ 6✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥3♦ B = {u1 , u2 , u3 , v}
1❡❥❛ ❧✐♥❡❛,♠❡♥3❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥3❡✱ ♦✉ 1❡❥❛✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦1 ❛❝❤❛, ✉♠ ✈❡3♦, v 6✉❡ ♥@♦
1❡❥❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛=@♦ ❧✐♥❡❛, ❞♦1 ✈❡3♦,❡1 u1 , u2 ❡ u3 ✳ ❖,❛✱ U D ♦ ❡1♣❛=♦ ❣❡,❛❞♦ ♣♦,
u1 , u2 ❡ u3 ✳ ❊6✉✐✈❛❧❡♥3❡♠❡♥3❡✱ U D ♦ ❡1♣❛=♦ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛ ♠❛3,✐③
 
1 −2 3 −3
A = 2 3 1 −4 .
 
3 8 −3 −5
❘❡❞✉③✐♥❞♦ ❛ ♠❛3,✐③ A ❛ 1✉❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ❡1❝❛❧♦♥❛❞❛ ♦❜3❡♠♦1 ❛ ♠❛3,✐③

 
1 0 0 −3
R = 0 1 0 0 .
 
0 0 1 0
✷✼✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
❖$ ✈❡'♦)❡$ ❧✐♥❤❛ ♥/♦ ♥✉❧♦$ ❞❛ ♠❛')✐③ R $/♦ w1 = (1, 0, 0, −3)✱ w2 = (0, 1, 0, 0)
❡ w3 = (0, 0, 1, 0)✳ ❆$$✐♠✱
U = G(u1 , u2 , u3 )
= G(w1 , w2 , w3 )
= {a(1, 0, 0, −3) + b(0, 1, 0, 0) + c(0, 0, 1, 0) ; a, b, c ∈ R}
= {(a, b, c, −3a) ; a, b, c ∈ R}.
7♦)'❛♥'♦✱ ♣❛)❛ ✉♠ ✈❡'♦) v ∈ R4 ♥/♦ $❡) ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛;/♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞♦$ ✈❡'♦)❡$ u1 , u2

❡ u3 ✱ ❜❛$'❛ v ♥/♦ $❡) ❞❛ ❢♦)♠❛ (a, b, c, −3a)✱ ♦♥❞❡ a, b, c ∈ R✳ ❉❡$$❡ ♠♦❞♦✱
'♦♠❡♠♦$ v = (1, 0, 0, 0)✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ B = {u1 , u2 , u3 , v} ? ❧✐♥❡❛)♠❡♥'❡ ✐♥❞❡✲
♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡ ❡✱ ♣♦)'❛♥'♦✱ ? ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ❞❡ R4 ✳
✹✳✷✯ ❙❡❥❛ U ⊆ R4 ❣❡)❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦$ ✈❡'♦)❡$ u1 = (2, 4, −2, 6)✱ u2 = (1, 2, 1/2, −1)
❡ u3 = (3, 6, 3, −5) ❡ $❡❥❛ W ⊆ R4 ❣❡)❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦$ ✈❡'♦)❡$ w1 = (1, 2, −4, 11)
❡ w2 = (2, 4, −5, 14)✳ 7❛)❛ ♠♦$')❛)♠♦$ C✉❡ U = W ✱ ❜❛$'❛ ♠♦$')❛)✱ ♣❡❧❛
7)♦♣♦$✐;/♦ ✸✳✶✳✼✱ C✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡'♦) ui ? ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛;/♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞♦$ ✈❡'♦)❡$ w1 ❡ w2
♣❛)❛ i = 1, 2, 3 ❡ C✉❡✱ ♣❛)❛ j = 1, 2✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡'♦) wj ? ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛;/♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞♦$
✈❡'♦)❡$ u1 , u2 ❡ u3 ✳
❱❛♠♦$ ♠♦$')❛) C✉❡ u1 ? ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛;/♦ ❧✐♥❡❛) ❞♦$ ✈❡'♦)❡$ w1 ❡ w2 ✳ 7❛)❛ ✐$'♦✱
'❡♠♦$ C✉❡ ❛❝❤❛) a, b, ∈ R '❛✐$ C✉❡ u1 = aw1 + bw2 ✳ ❈♦♠♦ u1 = −2w1 + 2w2 ✱
♠♦$')❛♠♦$ ♦ C✉❡ C✉❡)H❛♠♦$✳ ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥'❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦$ ✈❡) C✉❡
u2 = −2w1 + (3/2)w2 ,
u3 = −7w1 − (5/7)w2 ,
w1 = (5/4)u1 + 0u2 − (1/2)u3 ,
w2 = (13/8)u1 + 1u2 − (3/4)u3 .
✹✳✸ ❖$ ✈❡'♦)❡$ ❢♦)♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ♣❛)❛ R3 ✳

✹✳✹ {w1 , w2 } ? ✉♠❛ ❜❛$❡ ♣❛)❛ W ✱ ♣♦✐$ {w1 , w2 } ? ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥'❡ ❡ w3 ∈
G(w1 , w2 ) ❥I C✉❡ w3 = 2w1 + 6w2 ✳ 7♦)'❛♥'♦✱ dim W = 2✳
✷✼✾
❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ {w1 , w2 , (0, 0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1)} ❡+)❡♥❞❡ {w1 , w2 } ❛ ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡
❞❡ R4 ✳
✹✳✺ (0, 0, 0, 1, 0) ❡ (0, 0, 0, 0, 1)✳
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✹
✶✳✷✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ u, v ❡ w )23+ ✈❡)♦2❡+ 5✉❛✐+5✉❡2 ❡♠ R3 ✳ 7♦❞❡♠♦+ +✉♣♦2 5✉❡ u ❡ v
+9♦ ♥9♦ ♥✉❧♦+✳
✭⇒✮ ❙❡ u, v ❡ w +9♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥)❡+✱ ❡①✐+)❡♠ a, b, c ∈ R ♥9♦ +✐♠✉❧)❛♥❡❛♠❡♥)❡

♥✉❧♦+ )❛✐+ 5✉❡ au + bv + cw = 0✳ ❙❡ a 6= 0✱ )❡♠♦+ 5✉❡ u = −(b/a)v − (c/a)w✱
♦ 5✉❡ ♠♦+)2❛ 5✉❡ u, v ❡ w ♣❡2)❡♥❝❡♠ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ 5✉❡ ♣❛++❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦2✐❣❡♠ 5✉❡ )❡♠
v ❡ w ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡)♦2❡+ ❜❛+❡✳
✭⇐✮ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ 5✉❡ u, v ❡ w ♣❡2)❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ π 5✉❡ ♣❛++❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦2✐❣❡♠✳

❙❛❜❡♠♦+ 5✉❡ π A ✉♠ +✉❜❡+♣❛B♦ ❞❡ R3 ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥+9♦ ❞♦✐+✳ ❆++✐♠✱ 5✉❛❧5✉❡2
❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ❝♦♠ ♠❛✐+ ❞❡ ❞♦✐+ ❡❧❡♠❡♥)♦+ ❞❡ π +❡2D ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥)❡✱ ❡♠ ♣❛2)✐❝✉❧❛2✱
{u, v, w} A ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥)❡✳
✶✳✸✯ ❈♦♥+✐❞❡2❡♠♦+ v1 = B − A = (3, −3, 1) ❡ v2 = C − A = (0, −3, 1)✳ ❙❡❥❛
π ♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ 5✉❡ ♣❛++❛ ♣❡❧♦+ ♣♦♥)♦+ A, B ❡ C ✳ ❯♠ ✈❡)♦2 ♥♦2♠❛❧ n ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π A
❞❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦ ♣2♦❞✉)♦ ✈❡)♦2✐❛❧ ❞❡ v1 ❡ v2 ✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ n = v1 × v2 = (0, 3, 6) A ✉♠ )❛❧
✈❡)♦2✳ ❆++✐♠✱ 3y + 6z + d = 0 A ✉♠❛ ❡5✉❛B9♦ ❣❡2❛❧ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ π ✱ ♦♥❞❡ d A ✉♠
♥H♠❡2♦ 2❡❛❧ ❛ +❡ ❞❡)❡2♠✐♥❛2✳ ❈♦♠♦ A ∈ π ✱ +❡❣✉❡ 5✉❡ 3(2) + 6(0) + d = 0✱ ♦
5✉❡ ♥♦+ ❞D 5✉❡ d = −6✳ ❆++✐♠✱ 3y + 6y − 6 = 0 A ❛ ❡5✉❛B9♦ ❣❡2❛❧ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦
π✳
✶✳✹ ✭❛✮ {(1, 0, 3), (0, 1, −4)}✳ ✭❜✮ {(2, −1, 3)}✳ ✭❝✮ {(1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}✳
✶✳✺ x−2
4
=y+4= z−7
−8
✳
✶✳✼ x − 2 = y − 3 = −z ✳
✶✳✽ x = 2z+1
−3
✱ y = 1 − z✳
✶✳✾ k = −5✳
✷✽✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
✶✳✶✶ k = −21/7✳
✶✳✶✸ x = −4/3t−2s✱ y = t✱ z = 2+s✱ %❡♥❞♦ t ❡ s ♥*♠❡,♦% ,❡❛✐% /✉❛✐%/✉❡,✳
✶✳✶✹ x = 2 − 7t + 3s✱ y = −1 + t + s✱ z = −5t + 2s✱ %❡♥❞♦ t ❡ s ♥*♠❡,♦%
,❡❛✐% /✉❛✐%/✉❡,✳
✶✳✶✺ (2, 1, 0), (0, −3, 2), (3/2, 0, 1/2)✱ ,❡%♣❡❝3✐✈❛♠❡♥3❡✳

✷✳✶✯ ✭❛✮ ⇒ ✭❜✮✿ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦% /✉❡ r1 ❡ r2 ❡%3❡❥❛♠ ♥✉♠ ♠❡%♠♦ ♣❧❛♥♦✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦%
π(Q, u1 , u2 )✳ ❖,❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ r1 ⊂ π ❡ r2 ⊂ π ✱ %❡❣✉❡ /✉❡ A1 ∈ π ❡ A2 ∈ π ✳ ❆%%✐♠✱
❡①✐%3❡♠ m, n, t, s ∈ R 3❛✐% /✉❡
A1 = Q + mu1 + nu2 ✭✶✮
❡
A2 = Q + tu1 + su2 . ✭✷✮
❈♦♥%❡/✉❡♥3❡♠❡♥3❡✱ v ∈ G(u1 , u2 )✳ ❈♦♠♦ A1 + v1 ∈ r1 ❡ A2 + v2 ∈ r2 ✱ %❡❣✉❡

/✉❡ ❡①✐%3❡♠ a, b, c, d ∈ R 3❛✐% /✉❡
A1 + v1 = Q + au1 + bu2 ✭✸✮
❡
A2 + v2 = Q + cu1 + du2 , ✭✹✮
❥E /✉❡ A1 + v1 , A2 + v2 ∈ π ✳ ❙✉❜%3✐3✉✐♥❞♦ ✭✶✮ ❡♠ ✭✸✮ ❡ %✉❜%3✐3✉✐♥❞♦ ✭✷✮ ❡♠

✭✹✮✱ ❝♦♥❝❧✉F♠♦% /✉❡ v1 ∈ G(u1 , u2 ) ❡ v2 ∈ G(u1 , u2 )✳ ▼♦%3,❛♠♦%✱ ❡♥3H♦✱ /✉❡
{v, v1 , v2 } ⊂ G(u1 , u2 )✳ ❈♦♠♦ dim(G(u1 , u2 )) = 2✱ /✉❛❧/✉❡, ❝♦♥❥✉♥3♦ ❝♦♠
♠❛✐% ❞❡ ❞♦✐% ✈❡3♦,❡% I ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥3❡✳ J♦,3❛♥3♦✱ {v, v1 , v2 } I ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥3❡✳
✭❜✮ ⇒ ✭❛✮✿ ❖% ✈❡3♦,❡% v, v1 ❡ v2 ♣❡,3❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ ✉♠ ♠❡%♠♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ /✉❡ ♣❛%%❛ ♣❡❧❛

♦,✐❣❡♠✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦% π = π(0, w1 , w2 )✳ ❆%%✐♠✱ ❡①✐%3❡♠ a, b, c, d, e, f ∈ R 3❛✐% /✉❡
v = aw1 + bw2 ,
v1 = cw1 + dw2 ,
v2 = ew1 + f w2 .
✷✽✶
❚♦♠❡ P ∈ r1 ✳ ❊♥*+♦✱ ❡①✐/*❡ t ∈ R *❛❧ 2✉❡ P = A1 + tv1 = A1 + (tc)w1 +

(td)w2 ✱ ♠♦/*4❛♥❞♦ 2✉❡ r1 ⊂π(A1 , w1 , w2 )✳ ❆✜4♠❛♠♦/ 2✉❡ r2 ⊂π(A1 , w1 , w2 )
*❛♠❜9♠✳ ❖4❛✱ /❡ P ∈ r2 ✱ ❡♥*+♦ ❡①✐/*❡ t ∈ R *❛❧ 2✉❡ P = A2 + tv2 =
A1 + aw1 + bw2 + (te)w1 + (tf )w2 = A1 + (a + te)w1 + (b + tf )w2 ✱ ♠♦/*4❛♥❞♦
2✉❡ P ∈ π(A1 , w1 , w2 )✳ ;♦4*❛♥*♦✱ ❛♠❜❛/ ❛/ 4❡*❛/ r1 ❡ r2 ♣❡4*❡♥❝❡♠ ❛♦ ♣❧❛♥♦
π(A1 , w1 , w2 )✳
✷✳✷✯ ◆♦*❡ 2✉❡
r1 = {(0, −3, 0) + t(1, 2, −1) ; t ∈ R}
❡
r2 = {(1, 4, 0) + t(−36, −6, 3) ; t ∈ R}.
❉❡✈❡♠♦/ ✈❡4✐✜❝❛4 /❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ {(1, 2, −1), (−36, −6, 3), v}✱ ❡♠ 2✉❡ v =
(1, 7, 0)✱ 9 ❧✐♥❡❛4♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡ ♦✉ ♥+♦✳ ➱ ❢D❝✐❧ ✈❡4✐✜❝❛4 2✉❡ 9 ❧✐♥❡✲
❛4♠❡♥*❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥*❡✳ ❆//✐♠✱ ❛/ 4❡*❛/ /+♦ 4❡✈❡4/❛/✳
✷✳✸ ❈♦♥❝♦44❡♥*❡/✳
✷✳✺ a = 1✱ b = −2✱ c = 4✳
✷✳✻ a = 4✱ b = 3✳
✸✳✺ x = 10✳
✸✳✻✯ ❉❡✈❡♠♦/ 4❡/♦❧✈❡4 ♣❡❧❛ 4❡❣4❛ ❞❡ ❈4❛♠❡4 ♦ /✐/*❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛4 AX = B ✱ ♦♥❞❡
" # " # " #
cos θ − sen θ x′ x
A= , X= ′ ❡B= .
sen θ cos θ y y
❈♦♠♦ det A = 1✱ /❡❣✉❡ ♣❡❧❛ 4❡❣4❛ ❞❡ ❈4❛♠❡4 2✉❡
det A1 det A2
x′ = = det A1 ❡ y′ = = det A2 ,
det A det A
❡♠ 2✉❡ " # " #
x − sen θ cos θ x
A1 = ❡ A2 = .
y cos θ sen θ y
;♦4*❛♥*♦✱
x′ = x cos θ + y sen θ ❡ y ′ = −x sen θ + y cos θ.

✷✽✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✺
✶✳✹✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ A, C ∈ V ❡ '❡❥❛♠ a, c ∈ R✳ ❚❡♠♦'
T (aA + cC) = (aA + cC)B + B(aA + cC)
= aAB + cCB + aBA + cBC
= a(AB + BA) + c(CB + BC)
= aT (A) + cT (C),
♠♦'+,❛♥❞♦ /✉❡ T 1 ✉♠❛ +,❛♥'❢♦,♠❛34♦ ❧✐♥❡❛,✳

✶✳✻ ✭❛✮ T (u + v) = 3u + v ✳ ✭❜✮ T (3v) = 3u + 3v ✳
✭❝✮ T (−3u) = −6u✳ ✭❞✮ T (u − 5v) = −3u − 5v ✳
✶✳✼ ✭❛✮✱ ✭❝✮ ❡ ✭❡✮ '4♦ +,❛♥'❢♦,♠❛3<❡' ❧✐♥❡❛,❡'✳
✭❜✮ ◆4♦✱ ♣♦✐' T (2(1, 1)) 6= 2T (1, 1)✳
✭❞✮ ◆4♦✱ ♣♦✐' T (−1(1, 1)) 6= −1T (1, 1)✳
✭❢✮ ➱ ❧✐♥❡❛, '♦♠❡♥+❡ '❡ a = 0✳
✶✳✽ ✭❛✮ n = 2✱ m = 3 ❡ T (x, y) = (−x + 2y, −3x + 2y, y − x)✳
✭❜✮ n = m = 3 ❡ T (x, y, z) = (−x + 4y − z, 5x − 5y − z, x + 3z)✳
✷✳✶✯ @❛,❛ ♠♦'+,❛,♠♦' /✉❡ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ T 1 ✉♠ '✉❜❡'♣❛3♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❞❡ W ✱
❞❡✈❡♠♦' ♠♦'+,❛, /✉❡ '❡ w1 , w2 ∈ Im T ❡ a ∈ R✱ ❡♥+4♦ w1 + w2 , aw1 ∈ Im T ✳
❖,❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ w1 , w2 ∈ Im T ✱ ❡①✐'+❡♠ v1 , v2 ∈ V +❛✐' /✉❡ T (v1 ) = w1 ❡ T (v2 ) =
w2 ✳ ❆''✐♠ w1 + w2 = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ) = T (v1 + v2 ) ❡✱ ♣♦,+❛♥+♦✱ w1 + w2 ∈ Im T ✳
❈♦♠♦ aw1 = aT (v1 ) = T (av1 )✱ +❡♠♦' /✉❡ aw1 ∈ Im T ✳
✷✳✷✯ ✭❛✮ @❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐34♦✱ (x, y, z) ∈ Ker T /✉❛♥❞♦ (x, y, z) 1 '♦❧✉34♦ ❞♦ '✐'+❡♠❛
❧✐♥❡❛, 
x + 2y − z = 0



y + 2z = 0


x + 3y + z = 0.

❘❡'♦❧✈❡♥❞♦ ♦ '✐'+❡♠❛ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦❜+❡♠♦' x = 5z ❡ y = −2z ✱ ❝♦♠ z ∈ R✳ ❆''✐♠✱

Ker T = {(5z, −2z, z) ; z ∈ R}✳ ❈♦♠♦ Ker T 1 ✉♠ '✉❜❡'♣❛3♦ ❞❡ R3 ❡ '✉❛
❞✐♠❡♥'4♦ 1 ✶✱ Ker T 1 ✉♠❛ ,❡+❛ /✉❡ ♣❛''❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦,✐❣❡♠✳
✷✽✸
✭❜✮ 
x = 5t



y = −2t, t∈R .


z = t

✭❝✮ ❈♦♠♦ dim Ker T = 1✱ +❡❣✉❡ ❞♦ 0❡♦1❡♠❛ ❞♦ ♥4❝❧❡♦ ❡ ❞❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ 7✉❡

dim Im T = 2✳ 9♦10❛♥0♦✱ Im T : ✉♠ ♣❧❛♥♦ 7✉❡ ♣❛++❛ ♣❡❧❛ ♦1✐❣❡♠✳
✭❞✮ ❖1❛✱
Im T = G(T (1, 0, 0), T (0, 1, 0), T (0, 0, 1))

= G(((1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 3), (−1, 2, 1))
= G((1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 3)),
❥> 7✉❡ (−1, 2, 1) = −5(1, 0, 1) + 2(2, 1, 3)✳ 9♦10❛♥0♦✱
Im T = π(0, v1 , v2 ),
♦♥❞❡ v1 = (1, 0, 1) ❡ v2 = (2, 1, 3)✳ ❆++✐♠✱


x = m + 2n



y = n, m, n ∈ R


z = m + 3n

+@♦ ❛+ ❡7✉❛AB❡+ ♣❛1❛♠:01✐❝❛+ ♣1♦❝✉1❛❞❛+✳

✷✳✹✯ ❙❡ {v1 , . . . , vn } : ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ V ✱ ❡♥0@♦ {T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )} ❣❡1❛ Im T ✳
❈♦♠♦ dim Im T = n✱ +❡❣✉❡ 7✉❡ {T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )} : ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ Im T ❡✱
❝♦♥+❡7✉❡♥0❡♠❡♥0❡✱ ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ W ✱ ❥> 7✉❡ Im T = W ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ❛❣♦1❛
7✉❡ {T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )} : ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ W ✳ 9❛1❛ ♣1♦✈❛1♠♦+ 7✉❡ {v1 , . . . , vn }
: ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ V ✱ ❜❛+0❛ ♠♦+01❛1 7✉❡ ❡+0❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥0♦ : ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥0❡✳ ❙❡❥❛♠
a1 , . . . , an ∈ R 0❛✐+ 7✉❡ a1 v1 +· · ·+an vn = 0✳ ❚❡♠♦+ a1 T (v1 )+· · ·+an T (vn ) =
0✱ ♣♦10❛♥0♦✱ ai = 0 ♣❛1❛ 0♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✳
✷✳✻✯ ❱❛♠♦+ 1❡+♦❧✈❡1 ❡+0❡ ❡①❡1❝I❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❞♦✐+ ♠♦❞♦+✿
✷✽✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
✶♦✠ ✮ ❯&❛♥❞♦ R[x]3 ✿ &❡ p(x)=ax3 + bx2 + cx + d∈W ✱ ❡♥./♦ a − b + c − d=0✳
❆&&✐♠✱
p(x) = (b − c + d)x3 + bx2 + cx + d
✭✶✮
= b(x3 + x2 ) + c(−x3 + x) + d(x3 + 1).
❈❤❛♠❛♥❞♦ q1 (x) = x3 + x2 ✱ q2 (x) = −x3 ❡ q3 (x) = x3 + 1 .❡♠♦&✱ ♣♦8 ✭✶✮✱
9✉❡ W = G(q1 (x), q2 (x), q3 (x))✳ ❈♦♠♦ {q1 (x), q2 (x), q3 (x)} ; ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡✱
&❡❣✉❡ 9✉❡ ❡&.❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ; ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ❞❡ W ✳ @♦8.❛♥.♦✱ dim W = 3✳
✷♦✠ ✮ ❯&❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❢❛.♦ 9✉❡ R[x]3 ; ✐&♦♠♦8❢♦ ❛♦ R4 ✿ ❛ ❢✉♥B/♦ T : R[x]3 → R4 ❞❛❞❛

♣♦8 T (ax3 + bx2 + cx + d) = (a, b, c, d) ; ✉♠ ✐&♦♠♦8✜&♠♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ T (W ) =
{(b − c + d, b, c, d) ; b, c, d ∈ R}✱ ♣❛8❛ ❞❡.❡8♠✐♥❛8♠♦& ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥&/♦ ❞❡ W ✱ ❜❛&.❛
❞❡.❡8♠✐♥❛8♠♦& ❛ ❞✐♠❡♥&/♦ ❞❡ T (W )✳ ❈♦♥&✐❞❡8❡♠♦& v1 = (1, 1, 0, 0)✱ v2 =
(−1, 0, 1, 0) v3 = (1, 0, 0, 1)✳ ❈♦♠♦ {v1 , v2 , v3 } ; ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥.❡ ❡ ❣❡8❛ T (W )✱
❥D 9✉❡
(b − c, d, b, c, d) = bv1 + cv2 + dv3 ,
&❡❣✉❡ 9✉❡ {v1 , v2 , v3 } ; ✉♠❛ ❜❛&❡ ♣❛8❛ T (W )✳ @♦8.❛♥.♦✱ dim T (W ) = 3 ❡✱
❝♦♥&❡9✉❡♥.❡♠❡♥.❡✱ dim W = 3✳
✷✳✼ ✭❛✮ Ker T = {(x, x, x) ; x ∈ R}✱ ■♠ T = R2 ✳
✭❜✮ Ker T = {(0, 1/2w, 3/2w, w) ; w ∈ R}✱ ■♠ T = R3 ✳
✭❝✮ Ker T = {0}✱ ■♠ T = {p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx ; a, b, c ∈ R}✳
(" # ) (" # )
a b a b
✭❞✮ Ker T = ; a, b ∈ R ✱ ■♠ T = ; a, b ∈ R ✳
a b −4a −4b
✭❡✮ Ker T = {0}✱ ■♠ T = {(a + b, 2b + c, a + 2b − c, c) ; a, b, c ∈ R}✳
✷✳✽ ✐♥❥❡.✐✈❛&✿ ✭❝✮ ❡ ✭❡✮❀ &♦❜8❡❥❡.✐✈❛&✿ ✭❛✮ ❡ ✭❜✮✳
✷✳✶✵ T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, x+y+3z
3
)✳
✷✳✶✶ T (x, y, z, t) = (−x − y + z, t − 2x − y, 0)✳
✷✳✶✷ T (x, y, z) = (x, 2x + y, 3x − y)✳
✷✳✶✸ T (x, y, z) = (y + z, 3y, −y + z, 2y − z)✳
✷✳✶✻ ✭❛✮ T (x, y, z) = (x, y)✳ ✭❜✮ ◆/♦ ; ♣♦&&I✈❡❧✳
✷✽✺
✭❝✮ T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)✳ ✭❞✮ T (x, y, z) = (x + z, 0, 0, 0)✳

✷✳✶✾ ➱ ✐♥✈❡-./✈❡❧❀
T −1 (x, y, z) = (4x − 2y − 3z, −11x + 6y + 9z, −12x + 7y + 10z).
✷✳✷✵ ✭❛✮ ai 6= 0 ♣❛-❛ .♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✳

✭❜✮ T −1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (a−1
1 x1 , a2 x2 , . . . , an xn )✳
−1 −1
✷✳✷✷ T : V → W ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦- T ([aij ]) = [bij ]✱ ❝♦♠ bij = aij 8❡ i > j ❡ bij = 0 8❡
i < j✳
✸✳✶✯ ❈♦♠♦ T : R3 → R4 ❡8.: ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦- T (x, y, z) = (x + y, z, x − y, y + z) ❡
S : R2 → R3 ❡8.: ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦- S(x, y) = (2x + y, x − y, x − 3y)✱ ♦❜.❡♠♦8
(T ◦ S)(x, y) = T (2x + y, x − y, x − 3y)

= ((2x + y) + (x − y), x − 3y, (2x + y) − (x − y),
(x − y) + (x − 3y))
= (3x, x − 3y, x + 2y, 2x − 4y).
✸✳✸ ✭❛✮ (T + S)(x, y) = (x, x)✳

✭❜✮ (5T − 4S)(x, y) = (5x + 9y, −4x)✳
✭❝✮ (S ◦ T )(x, y) = (0, x + y)✳
✭❞✮ (T ◦ S)(x, y) = (x − y, 0)✳
✭❡✮ T 3 (x, y) = T (x, y)✳
✭❢✮ S −3 (x, y) = (−y, x)✳
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✻
✶✳✷✯ ✭❛✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ α = {v1 , . . . , vn } ✉♠❛ ❜❛8❡ ❞❡ Rn ❡ β = {w1 , . . . , wm } ✉♠❛
❜❛8❡ ❞❡ Rm ✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ u, v ∈ Rn ❡ a ∈ R✳ ❉✐❣❛♠♦8 A✉❡ u = x1 v1 + · · · + xn vn ❡
v = y1 v1 + · · · + yn vn ✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ u + av = (x1 + ay1 )v1 + · · · + (xn + ayn )vn ✳ C❡❧❛
❞❡✜♥✐EF♦ ❞❡ T ✱
[T (u + av)]β = A[u + av]α = A[u]α + aA[v]α = [T (u)]β + a[T (v)]β ,

✷✽✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
♦♥❞❡ ❛ (❡❣✉♥❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ (❡❣✉❡ ❞❛( ♣.♦♣.✐❡❞❛❞❡( ❞♦ ♣.♦❞✉/♦ ❞❡ ♠❛/.✐③❡(✳
▲♦❣♦✱ T 5 ✉♠❛ /.❛♥(❢♦.♠❛78♦ ❧✐♥❡❛.✳
✭❜✮ <❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐78♦ ❞❛ ♠❛/.✐③ [T ]αβ ✱ (❛❜❡♠♦( >✉❡ ❛ ♣.✐♠❡✐.❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡(/❛
♠❛/.✐③ 5 [T (v1 )]β ❡ ✉(❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐78♦ ❞❡ T ✈❡♠♦( >✉❡ [T (v1 )]β 5 ♣.❡❝✐(❛♠❡♥/❡
❛ ♣.✐♠❡✐.❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ A✳ <.♦❝❡❞❡♠♦( ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡✐.❛ ❛♥A❧♦❣❛ ♣❛.❛ ❛( ♦✉/.❛(
❝♦❧✉♥❛(✳
✶✳✹✯ ❇❛(/❛ ♠♦(/.❛. >✉❡ dim Im T = r✱ ♣♦✐( dim Ker T = dim V − dim Im T ✳
❖ ♣♦(/♦ ❞❛ ♠❛/.✐③ ♥♦( ❞✐③ >✉❡ /❡♠♦( r ❝♦❧✉♥❛( ❧✐♥❡❛.♠❡♥/❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡( ❡
>✉❡ >✉❛❧>✉❡. ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ❝♦♠ ♠❛✐( ❞❡ r ❝♦❧✉♥❛( (❡.A ❧✐♥❡❛.♠❡♥/❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡✳
<♦. ♦✉/.♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ (❛❜❡♠♦( >✉❡ ❛( ❝♦❧✉♥❛( ❞❛ ♠❛/.✐③ ❣❡.❛♠ ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❡ >✉❡
♣♦❞❡♠♦( ♦❜/❡. ❛ ♣❛./✐. ❞❡❧❛( ✉♠❛ ❜❛(❡ ♣❛.❛ Im T ❡(❝♦❧❤❡♥❞♦ ✉♠ (✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦
❧✐♥❡❛.♠❡♥/❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥/❡ ♠❛①✐♠❛❧✳ ❆((✐♠ ♣❡❧♦ ✈✐(/♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ❡(/❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦
❝♦♥/❡.A ❡①❛/❛♠❡♥/❡ r ❝♦❧✉♥❛(✳
✶✳✺ T (x, y, z) = (−x + 2z, −4x − y + 6z)✳

✶✳✻  
3/2 −1 −1/2
[T ]αβ = −1/2 1 −1/2 .
 
−1/2 0 1/2
✶✳✽ β = {(0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (−3, 7, 1)}✳
✶✳✾  
1 1 1
[T ]ββ = 0 2 4 .
 
0 0 4
✶✳✶✶  
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
[T ]αα =  .
 
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
✷✽✼
✶✳✶✷ ❛✮ ◆&♦ ❡①✐+,❡ v ∈ R2 ,❛❧ .✉❡ T (v) = I2 ✳

" #
5 −3
✭❜✮ T (3, −1) = ✳
5 4
✷✳✶ T (x, y, z) = ( 23 x + 43 y − 13 z, 13 x + 23 y + 13 z, 2y − z)}✳
✷✳✷ ✭❛✮ Ker TA = {0}✳ ✭❜✮ ■♠ TA = G((1, 0, 1), (2, 1, −1))✳
✭❝✮ Ker TB = {0}✳ ✭❞✮ ■♠ TB = R3 ✳
✭❡✮ Ker(TB ◦ TA ) = {0}✳ ✭❢✮ ■♠ (TB ◦ TA ) = G((2, −1, 2), (2, −2, 3))✳
✸✳✶✯ ❱❡❥❛♠♦+ .✉❛❧ : ❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♠ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡,♦= ❞❛ ❜❛+❡ ❝❛♥?♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❖ ✈❡,♦=
(1, 0) +❡ ,=❛♥+❢♦=♠❛ ♥♦ ✈❡,♦= (0, 1) ♣❡❧❛ =♦,❛B&♦ ❡ ❞❡♣♦✐+ ♥♦ ✈❡,♦= (0, 1) ♣❡❧❛
=❡✢❡①&♦✳ ❏E ♦ ✈❡,♦= (0, 1) +❡ ,=❛♥+❢♦=♠❛ ♥♦ ✈❡,♦= (−1, 0) ♣❡❧❛ =♦,❛B&♦ ❡ ❞❡♣♦✐+
♥♦ ✈❡,♦= (0, −1)✳ ❆++✐♠✱ ❛ ♠❛,=✐③ ❞❡+,❛ ,=❛♥+❢♦=♠❛B&♦ ♥❛ ❜❛+❡ ❝❛♥?♥✐❝❛ :
" #
1 0
A= .
0 −1
✸✳✷✯ ❱❛♠♦+ ❞❡,❡=♠✐♥❛= ❛ ♠❛,=✐③ ❞❛ ,=❛♥+❢♦=♠❛B&♦ ♥❛ ❜❛+❡ ❝❛♥?♥✐❝❛✱ ♣♦✐+
+❛❜❡♠♦+ .✉❡ ❛ ✐♥✈❡=+❛ ❞❡+,❛ ♠❛,=✐③ : ❛ ♠❛,=✐③ ❞❛ ,=❛♥+❢♦=♠❛B&♦ ✐♥✈❡=+❛✳
❚❡♠♦+  
1 0 0
A = 0 1 0 .
 
0 0 −1
◆❡+,❡ ❝❛+♦✱ ❛ ♠❛,=✐③ ✐♥✈❡=+❛ : ✐❣✉❛❧ J ♠❛,=✐③✳ ❆++✐♠ ❛ ,=❛♥+❢♦=♠❛B&♦ ✐♥✈❡=+❛
: ❛ ♣=K♣=✐❛ ,=❛♥+❢♦=♠❛B&♦✳
" # " √ √ #
2 2
0 0 −
✸✳✼ ✭❛✮ ✳ ✭❜✮ 4√ √4 ✳
3 0 − 42 − 42
" # " # " # " #
1 4
1 0 1 0 −2
✹✳✶ ✭❛✮ 3
1
3
2
, , 1 1
✳ ✭❜✮ [v]β = ✳
3
−3 1 2 −2 2 3
✹✳✷ α = {(1, 3), (−5, −12)}✳
 
−1 1 0
✹✳✸  1

0 0✳

0 −1 1
✷✽✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
✹✳✽✯ ❆ ❞❡♠♦♥()*❛,-♦ ❞❡ ✭❛✮ ♥-♦ ❛♣*❡(❡♥)❛ ❞✐✜❝✉❧❞❛❞❡✳ ❱❛♠♦( ♣*♦✈❛* ✭❜✮✳
Pn
❊(❝*❡✈❛♠♦( A = (aij ) ❡ B = (blk )✳ ❚❡♠♦( <✉❡ (AB)ii = j=1 aij bji ❡
(BA)jj = ni=1 bji aij ✳ ❆((✐♠✱
P
tr AB = ni=1 nj=1 aij bji = nj=1 ni=1 aij bji

P P P P
= nj=1 ni=1 bji aij = tr BA.

P P
❱❛♠♦( ♣*♦✈❛* ✭❝✮✳ ❉❡ ❢❛)♦✱ ❡①✐()❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛)*✐③ ✐♥✈❡*)B✈❡❧ P )❛❧ <✉❡ [T ]αα =
P −1 [T ]ββ P ✱ ❧♦❣♦
tr[T ]αα = tr P −1 [T ]ββ P = tr[T ]ββ P −1 P = tr[T ]ββ .
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✼
✶✳✶✯ ✭❛✮ ❙❡❥❛♠ u = (x1 , x2 )✱ v = (y1 , y2 ) ❡ w = (z1 , z2 ) ❡♠ R2 ❡ (❡❥❛ c ❡♠ R✳
❚❡♠♦(✿
✶✳ hu, ui = 19 x21 + 14 x22 ≥ 0❀

✷✳ hu, ui = 19 x21 + 14 x22 = 0 (❡✱ ❡ (♦♠❡♥)❡ (❡ x1 = x2 = 0✱ ♦✉ ❡<✉✐✈❛❧❡♥)❡✲
♠❡♥)❡ u = 0❀
✸✳ hu, vi = 19 x1 y1 + 14 x2 y2 = 19 y1 x1 + 14 y2 x2 = hv, ui❀
✹✳ hu + v, wi = 19 (x1 + y1 )z1 + 14 (x2 + y2 )z2 = ( 19 x1 z1 + 14 x2 z2 ) + ( 19 y1 z1 +
1
y z ) = hu, wi + hv, wi❀
4 2 2
✺✳ hcu, vi = 19 (cx1 )y1 + 14 (cx2 )y2 = c( 19 x1 y1 + 14 x2 y2 ) = chu, vi✳

M♦*)❛♥)♦✱ ❛ ❡①♣*❡((-♦ ❞❛❞❛ ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♠ ♣*♦❞✉)♦ ✐♥)❡*♥♦ ❡♠ R2 ✳
✭❜✮ ❙❡ V N ✉♠ ❡(♣❛,♦ ❝♦♠ ♣*♦❞✉)♦ ✐♥)❡*♥♦✱ ❡♥)-♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ❞♦( ✈❡)♦*❡( v

❞❡ V <✉❡ (❛)✐(❢❛③❡♠ ||v|| = 1 N ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝!"❝✉❧♦ ✉♥✐()"✐♦ ❞❡ V ✳ ❆((✐♠✱ ♦
❝B*❝✉❧♦ ✉♥✐)P*✐♦ ❞❡ R2 ✉(❛♥❞♦ ♦ ♣*♦❞✉)♦ ✐♥)❡*♥♦ ❡♠ ✭❛✮ N ❞❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦
❞♦( ✈❡)♦*❡( v = (x, y) ❡♠ R2 )❛✐( <✉❡
r
1/2 1 2 1 2
||v|| = hv, vi = x + y = 1,
9 4
✷✽✾
♦✉ ❡&✉✐✈❛❧❡♥,❡♠❡♥,❡✱
x2 y 2
+ = 1.
9 4
❆ ❡&✉❛01♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ 3❡♣3❡5❡♥,❛ ✉♠❛ ❡❧✐♣5❡ ❞❡ ❝❡♥,3♦ ♥❛ ♦3✐❣❡♠ ❡ ❡✐①♦5 ♠❛✐♦3 ❡
♠❡♥♦3 ♣❛3❛❧❡❧♦5 ❛♦5 ❡✐①♦5 ❝♦♦3❞❡♥❛❞♦5 ✭❋✐❣✉3❛ ✷✹✮✳
✭❝✮ ❙❡ v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ❡♥,1♦

p
||v|| = hv, vi1/2 = x2 + y 2 = 1,
5❡✱ ❡ 5♦♠❡♥,❡ 5❡
x2 + y 2 = 1.
❆ ❡&✉❛01♦ ❛❝✐♠❛ 3❡♣3❡5❡♥,❛ ✉♠ ❝?3❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❝❡♥,3♦ ♥❛ ♦3✐❣❡♠ ❡ 3❛✐♦ ✶ ✭❋✐✲

❣✉3❛ ✷✹✮✳
✭❞✮ ❙✐♠✳ ❖ ❝?3❝✉❧♦ ✉♥✐,C3✐♦ ❝♦♠ ❛ ♥♦3♠❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣❡❧♦ ♣3♦❞✉,♦ ✐♥,❡3♥♦ ❡♠ ✭❛✮
,❡♠ ✉♠ ❢♦3♠❛,♦ ❡❧?♣,✐❝♦✳
❋✐❣✉$❛ ✷✹
✶✳✹ ✭❛✮ ✽✳ ✭❜✮ −11✳ ✭❝✮ ✶✹✳

√ √
✷✳✶ ✭❛✮ 0✳ ✭❜✮ 2
2
✳ ✭❝✮ 3
6
✳
✷✾✵ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
✷✳✷✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ u ❡ v ❞♦✐+ ✈❡-♦.❡+ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡+♣❛1♦ ❝♦♠ ♣.♦❞✉-♦ ✐♥-❡.♥♦✳ ❊♥-6♦
||u + v||2 + ||u − v||2 = hu + v, u + vi + hu − v, u − vi

= hu, ui + 2hu, vi + hv, vi
+ hu, ui − 2hu, vi + hv, vi
= 2hu, ui + 2hv, vi
= 2||u||2 + 2||v||2 .
✷✳✾✯ ❋❛.❡♠♦+ ❛ ♣.♦✈❛ ♣♦. ✐♥❞✉16♦ +♦❜.❡ n✳ ❙❡ n = 2✱ ❡♥-6♦
||v1 + v2 ||2 = hv1 + v2 , v1 + v2 i

= hv1 , v1 i + 2hv1 , v2 i + hv2 , v2 i
= ||v1 ||2 + ||v2 ||2 ,
❥: ;✉❡ hv1 , v2 i = 0✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦+ ❛❣♦.❛ ♦ .❡+✉❧-❛❞♦ ✈:❧✐❞♦ ♣❛.❛ n = k − 1✳

❱❛♠♦+ ♠♦+-.❛. ;✉❡ ❡❧❡ @ ✈:❧✐❞♦ ♣❛.❛ n = k ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛-♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❝❛+♦ n = 2 ❡ ♣❡❧❛
❤✐♣C-❡+❡ ❞❡ ✐♥❞✉16♦✱ +❡❣✉❡ ;✉❡
||v1 + · · · + vk−1 + vk ||2 = ||v1 + · · · + vk−1 ||2 + ||vk ||2

= ||v1 ||2 + · · · + ||vk−1 ||2 + ||vk ||2 ,
♣♦✐+ hv1 + · · · + vk−1 , vk i = hv1 , vk i + · · · + hvk−1 , vk i = 0✳ D♦. ✐♥❞✉16♦✱ ♦

.❡+✉❧-❛❞♦ ✈❛❧❡ ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦ n ∈ N \ {0}✳
✷✳✶✷✯ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ {u, v} ( ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡ W✳ /❛0❛ ♠♦,'0❛0 1✉❡ ✉♠ ✈❡'♦0 ṽ

❡♠ R5 ∈ W ⊥ ✱ ♦✉ ,❡❥❛✱ 1✉❡ hṽ, wi = 0 ♣❛0❛ '♦❞♦ w ∈ W ✱ ❜❛,'❛ ♠♦,'0❛0
5
1✉❡ hṽ, ui = hṽ, vi = 0✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦, ṽ = (x, y, z, w, t) ∈ R ✳ ❚❡♠♦, 1✉❡
hṽ, ui = hṽ, vi = 0 ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥'❡ ,❡✱


x + 2y + 3z − w + 2t = 0
2x + y + 3z − 2w − t = 0.
✷✾✶
❊$✉✐✈❛❧❡♥,❡♠❡♥,❡✱
4 5
x = 5z + w + t ❡ y = −z − t,
3 3
♦♥❞❡ z, w, t ∈ R✳
2♦3,❛♥,♦✱
4 5
W ⊥ = {(5z + w + t, −z − t, z, w, t) ; z, w, t ∈ R}.
3 3
❆55✐♠✱
α = {(5, −1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0, 1, 0), (4/3, −5/3, 0, 0, 1)}
6 ✉♠❛ ❜❛5❡ ♣❛3❛ W ⊥ ✳
✷✳✶✸ ❇❛5,❛ ✈❡3✐✜❝❛3 $✉❡ hv, v1 i = 0 ❡ hv, v2 i = 0✱ ♣♦✐5 hv, av1 + bv2 i =
ahv, v1 i + bhv, v2 i = 0✱ ♣❛3❛ $✉❛✐5$✉❡3 a ❡ b ❡♠ R✳
✷✳✶✹ x = 1 + t✱ y = −2t✱ z = −3t✱ 5❡♥❞♦ t ∈ R✳
✸✳✶ ✭❛✮ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦5 $✉❡ α = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }✳ ❊♥,@♦
v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ,
❥B $✉❡ a1 , a2 , . . . , an 5@♦ ❛5 ❝♦♦3❞❡♥❛❞❛5 ❞❡ v ♥❛ ❜❛5❡ α✳ ❈♦♠♦ α 6 ✉♠

❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦ ♦3,♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ 5❡❣✉❡ ♣❡❧♦ 23♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✷✳✾ $✉❡
||v||2 = ||a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ||2

= ||a1 v1 ||2 + ||a2 v2 ||2 + · · · + ||an vn ||2 .
2❡❧❛ 23♦♣♦5✐E@♦ ✼✳✷✳✷✭❝✮✱ ,❡♠♦5
||a1 v1 ||2 + ||a2 v2 ||2 + · · · + ||an vn ||2

= |a1 |2 ||v1 ||2 + |a2 |2 ||v2 ||2 + · · · + |a2n ||vn ||2
= a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n ,
♣♦✐5 ||v1 || = ||v2 || = · · · = ||vn || = 1✳ 2♦3,❛♥,♦✱
||v||2 = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n .

✷✾✷ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
❊①$%❛✐♥❞♦ ❛+ %❛,③❡+ /✉❛❞%❛❞❛+ ❞❡ ❛♠❜♦+ ♦+ ❧❛❞♦+ ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛ ♦❜$❡♠♦+
q
||v|| = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n .
✭❜✮ 8♦% ❞❡✜♥✐:;♦✱ d(v, w) = ||v − w||✳ ❈♦♠♦
v − w = (a1 − b1 )v1 + (a2 − b2 )v2 + · · · + (an − bn )vn ,
+❡❣✉❡ ❞♦ ✐$❡♠ ✭❛✮ /✉❡

p
d(v, w) = (a1 − b1 )2 + (a2 − b2 )2 + · · · + (an − bn )2 .
✭❝✮ ❖%❛✱
hv, wi = ha1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn , b1 v1 + b2 v2 + · · · + bn vn i
= a1 b1 hv1 , v1 i + a1 b2 hv1 , v2 i + · · · + a1 bn hv1 , vn i
+ a2 b1 hv2 , v1 i + a2 b2 hv2 , v2 i + · · · + a2 bn h2 , vn i
+ · · · + an b1 hvn , v1 i + an b2 hvn , v2 i + · · · + an bn hvn , vn i
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn ,
❥A /✉❡ hvi , vj i = 0 +❡♠♣%❡ /✉❡ i 6= j ❡ hvi , vi i = 1 ♣❛%❛ $♦❞♦ i✳

✸✳✹✯ ✭❛✮ 8❡❧♦ ❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ✶✹✱ v = v1 + v2 ♦♥❞❡ v1 = ♣%♦❥W v ∈ W ❡ v2 = v − v1 ∈
W ⊥ ✳ ❈♦♠♦ v1 ∈ W ❡ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } F ✉♠❛ ❜❛+❡ ❞❡ W ✱ v1 +❡ ❡+❝%❡✈❡ ❞❡
♠♦❞♦ H♥✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛:;♦ ❧✐♥❡❛% ❞♦+ ✈❡$♦%❡+ w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦+
v1 = a1 w1 + a2 w2 + · · · + an wn . ✭✶✮
❱❛♠♦+ ♠♦+$%❛% /✉❡✱ ♣❛%❛ ❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✱ ai = hv, wi i✳ ❖%❛ ❝♦♠♦

v − v1 ∈ W ⊥ ✱ +❡❣✉❡ /✉❡ hv − v1 , wi = 0 ♣❛%❛ $♦❞♦ w ∈ W ✳ ❊♠ ♣❛%$✐❝✉❧❛%✱
hv − v1 , wi i = 0 ♣❛%❛ $♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✳ ❈♦♥+❡/✉❡♥$❡♠❡♥$❡✱
hv, wi i = hv1 , wi i ♣❛%❛ $♦❞♦ 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
❋✐①❡♠♦+ ❛❣♦%❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ n✳ ❚❡♠♦+
hv, wi i = hv1 , wi i = ha1 w1 + a2 w2 + · · · + an wn , wi i = ai , ✭✷✮

✷✾✸
♣♦✐& {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } ' ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ♦.-♦♥♦.♠❛❧✳ ❙✉❜&-✐-✉✐♥❞♦ ✭✷✮ ❡♠ ✭✶✮✱

♦❜-❡♠♦&
♣.♦❥W v = hv, w1 iw1 + hv, w2 iw2 + · · · + hv, wn iwn .
✭❜✮ ❆ ❞❡♠♦♥&-.❛;<♦ ' ❛♥=❧♦❣❛ ? ♣.♦✈❛ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ &❡♥❞♦ A✉❡✱ ♥❡&-❡ ❝❛&♦✱ ♣❛.❛
❝❛❞❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ n
hv, wi i = ai hwi , wi i = ai ||wi ||2
❡✱ ❝♦♥&❡A✉❡♥-❡♠❡♥-❡✱
hv, wi i
ai = .
||wi ||2
✸✳✺ {w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 }✱ &❡♥❞♦ w1 = (0, 2, 1, 0)✱ w2 = (1, −1/5, 2/5, 0)✱
w3 = (1/2, 1/2, −1, −1) ❡ w4 = ( 15
4 4 8 4
, 15 , − 15 , 5 )✳
✸✳✻ (−1/2, 5/2, −2, 4)✳
√ √ √ √
✸✳✼ {(2/ 5, 1/ 5, 0), (−1/ 5, 2/ 5, 0), (0, 0, 1)}✳
✹✳✶✯ ❙❡❥❛♠ S ❡ T ♦♣❡.❛❞♦.❡& ❧✐♥❡❛.❡& ♥✉♠ ❡&♣❛;♦ ❝♦♠ ♣.♦❞✉-♦ ✐♥-❡.♥♦ ❞❡
❞✐♠❡♥&<♦ ✜♥✐-❛ V ❡ &❡❥❛ k ∈ R✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ u, v ∈ V A✉❛✐&A✉❡.✳
✭❛✮ h(S + T )(u), vi = hS(u), vi + hT (u), vi = hu, S ∗ (v)i + hu, T ∗ (u)i

= hu, (S ∗ + T ∗ )(v)i❀
❆&&✐♠✱ (T + S)∗ = T ∗ + S ∗ ✳
✭❜✮ h(kT )(u), vi = khT (u), vi = hu, T ∗ (v)i = hu, kT ∗ (v)i❀
▲♦❣♦✱ (kT )∗ = kT ∗ ✳
✭❝✮ h(ST )(u), vi = hT (u), S ∗ (v)i = hu, T ∗ (S ∗ (v))i❀
❆&&✐♠✱ (ST )∗ = T ∗ S ∗ ✳
✭❞✮ hT ∗ (u), vi = hv, T ∗ (u)i = hT (v), ui = hu, T (v)i✳
▲♦❣♦✱ (T ∗ )∗ = T ✳
✹✳✷ u = (1, 4, −5)✳

✹✳✸ T ∗ (x, y, z) = (2x + 3y, 2x + z, −4y)✳
✷✾✹ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
✹✳✻ ✭❛✮✱ ✭❝✮ ❡ ✭❞✮ *+♦ ♦♣❡.❛❞♦.❡* ♦./♦❣♦♥❛✐*✳
✹✳✼✯ ❆ *❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ (a, b, c) ❞❡✈❡ *❛/✐*❢❛③❡. ❞✉❛* ❝♦♥❞✐;<❡*✿ a2 +b2 +c2 = 1√❡
a+2b+2c = 0✳ ❆**✐♠✱ 5b2 +5c2 +8bc = 1✳ ❊*❝♦❧❤❡♥❞♦ c = 0✱ ♦❜/❡♠♦* b = 55
√
❡ a = − 2 5 5 ✳ A❛.❛ ❛ /❡.❝❡✐.❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ (d, e, f )✱ B✉❡.❡♠♦* B✉❡ d2 + e2 + f 2 = 1✱
√
d + 2e + 2f = 0 ❡ B✉❡ −2e + f = 0✱ ♦✉ *❡❥❛✱ ❞❡✈❡♠♦* /❡. B✉❡ d = −215 5 ✱
√ √
e = −415 5 ❡ f = 5155 ✳
" #
√2 √1
✹✳✾ ✭❛✮ 1
5 5
✳
− 5
√ √2
5
 
1
3
− 23 2
3
✭❜✮ − 23 − 13 ✳
 2
− 3

− 23 1
3
2
3
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✽
✷✳✷✯ A♦. ✐♥❞✉;+♦ *♦❜.❡ n✳ A❛.❛ n = 2✱ ♦ .❡*✉❧/❛❞♦ D E❜✈✐♦✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❤❛♠♦* ♦
.❡*✉❧/❛❞♦ ✈G❧✐❞♦ ♣❛.❛ n − 1 ❡ *❡❥❛ A = [aij ] ✉♠❛ ♠❛/.✐③ /.✐❛♥❣✉❧❛. *✉♣❡.✐♦.
❞❡ ♦.❞❡♠ n✳ ❊♥/+♦ aij = 0 ♣❛.❛ /♦❞♦ j < i✳
A❡❧♦ ❚❡♦.❡♠❛ ✽✳✷✳✶✱
det A = a11 det(A(1|1)),
❥G B✉❡ ai1 = 0 ♣❛.❛ /♦❞♦ 2 ≤ i ≤ n✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛ ♠❛/.✐③ A(1|1) D ✉♠❛ ♠❛/.✐③

/.✐❛♥❣✉❧❛. *✉♣❡.✐♦. ❞❡ ♦.❞❡♠ n − 1✱ ❝♦♠ a22 , . . . , ann ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥/♦* ❞❛
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♣.✐♥❝✐♣❛❧✱ /❡♠♦*✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❤✐♣E/❡*❡ ❞❡ ✐♥❞✉;+♦✱ B✉❡
det A(1|1) = a22 . . . ann ,
♦ B✉❡ /❡.♠✐♥❛ ❛ ♣.♦✈❛ ♦ .❡*✉❧/❛❞♦✳
✷✳✸✯ ❙❡❥❛ a ∈ R✳ ❋❛③❡♥❞♦ ♦ ❞❡*❡♥✈♦❧✈✐♠❡♥/♦ ❞❡ ▲❛♣❧❛❝❡ ♣❡❧❛ ♣.✐♠❡✐.❛ ❧✐♥❤❛

✷✾✺
♦❜%❡♠♦(
   
a a2 a3 1 a2 a3
 2 3 4  − det 
det A = det a a a 1 a3 a4 

a3 4
a a 5
1 a4 a5
   
1 a a3 1 a a2
+ det 1 a2 a4  − det 1 a2 a3 
   
1 a3 a5 1 a3 a4
   
a a a3 1 a2 a2
 2 2 4  − a det 
= a det a a a 1 a3 a3 

a3 3
a a 5
1 a4 a4
   
1 a a 1 a a
2 2 2
+a det 1 a a − det 1 a2 a2  .
  
3 3
1 a a 1 a 3 a3
◆♦%❡ *✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❛( ♠❛%/✐③❡( ❛♥%❡/✐♦/❡( %❡♠ ❞✉❛( ❝♦❧✉♥❛( ✐❣✉❛✐( ❡✱ ♣♦/✲
%❛♥%♦✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❞❡❧❛( %❡♠ ❞❡%❡/♠✐♥❛♥%❡ ♥✉❧♦✳ ❈♦♥(❡*✉❡♥%❡♠❡♥%❡✱ det A = 0✳
✹✳✶ ✭❛✮ {(0, 0, 0)}✳ ✭❜✮ {(−1, 3, 1, −1)}✳
❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✾
✶✳✶✯ A(c) = {v ∈ V ; T (v) = cv}✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦( v ❡ w ❡♠ A(c) ❡ %♦♠❡♠♦( a ❡ b
❡♠ R✳ =❡❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛/✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ T ✱ T (av + bw) = aT (v) + bT (w)✳ ❈♦♠♦ T (v) = cv
❡ T (w) = cw✱ (❡❣✉❡ *✉❡ T (av + bw) = a(cv) + b(cw) = c(av + bw)✱ ♠♦(%/❛♥❞♦
*✉❡ av + bw ∈ A(c)✳ =♦/%❛♥%♦✱ A(c) > ✉♠ (✉❜❡(♣❛?♦ ✈❡%♦/✐❛❧ ❞❡ V ✳
✶✳✷ ✭❛✮ ◆A♦ %❡♠ ❛✉%♦✈❛❧♦/❡( ❡ ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦/❡(✳

✭❜✮ 1, {(x, −x, −x) ; x6=0}❀ −1, {(0, −3x, x) ; x6=0}❀ 2, {(0, 0, x) ; x6=0}✳
✭❝✮ 1, {ax2 + bx + b ; a 6= 0 ♦✉ b 6= 0}❀ −1, {ax − a ; a 6= 0}✳
✷✾✻ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
(" # )
0 0
✭❞✮ 1, ; a 6= 0 ❀
0 a
(" # )
−2a a
−1, ; a 6= 0 ❀
a 0
(" # )
a 0
−2, ; a 6= 0 ✳
−a 0
✶✳✸ ✭❛✮ c = 0✱ {(x, −x) ; x 6= 0}❀ c = 4✱ {(x, x) ; x 6= 0}✳
✭❜✮ c = 1✱ {(−y − 2z, y, z) ; y 6= 0 ♦✉ z 6= 0}❀ c = 2✱ {(0, y, −y) ; y 6= 0}✳
✭❝✮ c = 0✱ {(0, 0, 0, x) ; x 6= 0}❀ c = 2✱ {(−x, −2y, x, y) ; x 6= 0 ♦✉ y 6= 0}❀
c = 4✱ {(x, 0, 0, 0) ; x 6= 0}✳
✶✳✺ T (x, y, z) = (x, 2x − y + 2z, 4x − 4y + 5z)✳
✶✳✻✯ ❙❡❥❛ (x, y, z) ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❊♥45♦✱
(x, y, z) = (x + y − z)(1, 1, 1) + (−x − y + 2z)(0, 1, 1) + (y − z)(−1, 1, 0),
♦ 6✉❡ ♣❡❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛:✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ T ♥♦; ❞< 6✉❡
T (x, y, z) = (x + y − z)T (1, 1, 1) + (−x − y + 2z)T (0, 1, 1) + (y − z)T (−1, 1, 0).
❈♦♠♦ T (1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1)✱ T (0, 1, 1) = (0, 2, 2) ❡ T (−1, 1, 0) = (1, −1, 0)✱
;❡❣✉❡ 6✉❡
T (x, y, z) = (x + y − z)(1, 1, 1) + (−x − y + 2z)(0, 2, 2) + (y − z)(1, −1, 0)

= (x + 2y − 2z), −x − 2y + 4z, −x − y + 3z).
✶✳✽  
1 0 0
−1 − 12 − 12  .
 
1 − 12 − 12
✷✾✼
✷✳✶✯ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛( ♦* ❛✉+♦✈❛❧♦(❡* ❡ ♦* ❛✉+♦✈❡+♦(❡* ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ♠❛+(✐③ A ♥❛❞❛ ♠❛✐* 3

❞♦ 4✉❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛( ♦* ❛✉+♦✈❛❧♦(❡* ❡ ♦* ❛✉+♦✈❡+♦(❡* ❞❡ TA ✳ ❆**✐♠✱
" #
c−2 3
det = c2 − 6c + 5,
1 c−4
♥♦* ❞❛♥❞♦ 4✉❡ c = 1 ❡ c = 5 *8♦ ♦* ❛✉+♦✈❛❧♦(❡* ❞❡ A✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ *♦❧✉;8♦ ❞♦

*✐*+❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛( " #" # " #
−1 3 x 0
=
1 −3 y 0
3 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦( {(3x, x) ; x ∈ R} ❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ *♦❧✉;8♦ ❞♦ *✐*+❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛(
" #" # " #
3 3 x 0
=
1 1 y 0
3 ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦( {(x, −x) ; x ∈ R}✳ ❆**✐♠✱ ♦* ❛✉+♦✈❡+♦(❡* ❛**♦❝✐❛❞♦* ❛ c = 1 *8♦

♦* ✈❡+♦(❡* ❞❛ ❢♦(♠❛ (3x, x)✱ x 6= 0 ❡ ♦* ❛✉+♦✈❡+♦(❡* ❛**♦❝✐❛❞♦* ❛ c = 4 *8♦ ♦*
✈❡+♦(❡* ❞❛ ❢♦(♠❛ (x, −x)✱ x 6= 0✳
✷✳✷✯ ❙❡❥❛ A ∈ M(n)✳ ❆ ♠❛+(✐③ A 3 ✐♥✈❡(+?✈❡❧ *❡✱ ❡ *♦♠❡♥+❡ *❡✱ Ker TA = {0}✳
❆❣♦(❛✱ Ker TA = {0} *❡✱ ❡ *♦♠❡♥+❡ *❡✱ ♥8♦ ❡①✐*+❡ v ∈ Rn ✱ ♥8♦ ♥✉❧♦✱ +❛❧ 4✉❡
TA (v) = 0 = 0 · v ✳ B♦(+❛♥+♦✱ A 3 ✐♥✈❡(+?✈❡❧ *❡✱ ❡ *♦♠❡♥+❡ *❡✱ c = 0 ♥8♦ 3 ✉♠
❛✉+♦✈❛❧♦( ❞❡ A✳
✸✳✶✯ ❙❛❜❡♠♦* 4✉❡ ♦ ❝D❧❝✉❧♦ ❞♦* ❛✉+♦✈❛❧♦(❡* ❞❡ T ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❛ ❜❛*❡ ❝♦♥*✐✲

❞❡(❛❞❛ ❡♠ R3 ✳ ❆**✐♠✱
 
t − 1 −2 0
√ √
det  −1 t + 1 0  = (t − 2)(t − 3)(t + 3).
 
1 0 t−2
B♦(+❛♥+♦✱ T +❡♠ +(F* ❛✉+♦✈❛❧♦(❡* ❞✐*+✐♥+♦*✳ ❈♦♠♦ dim R3 = 3✱ ❡①✐*+❡ ✉♠❛

❜❛*❡ ❞❡ R3 ❢♦(♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❛✉+♦✈❡+♦(❡* ❞❡ T ❡✱ ❛**✐♠✱ T 3 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③D✈❡❧✳
✸✳✷ ✭❛✮ ✈❡(❞❛❞❡✐(♦ ✭❜✮ ✈❡(❞❛❞❡✐(♦ ✭❝✮ ❢❛❧*♦ ✭❞✮ ❢❛❧*♦

✸✳✸ ✭❛✮ ◆8♦ 3 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③D✈❡❧✳
✷✾✽ ❈❆"❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✵✳ ❙❖▲❯➬-❊❙ ❊ ❘❊❙"❖❙❚❆❙
 
" # 0 1 −1
1 4
✭❜✮ P = ✳ ✭❝✮ P =  1 0 0 ✳
 
−1 3
−1 0 1
✸✳✹ ✭❛✮ c 6= 1✳ ✭❜✮ c = 0✳
✸✳✺ ✭❛✮ I3 ✳ ✭❜✮ A✳ ✭❝✮ I3 ✳
✸✳✻✯ ❙❡❥❛ α ❛ ❜❛,❡ ❝❛♥.♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❊♥23♦✱

" #
t−2 2
P[T ]αα (t) = det = t2 − 5t + 4,
1 t−3
♦ 6✉❡ ♥♦, ❞8 6✉❡ c1 = 1 ❡ c2 = 4 ,3♦ ♦, ❛✉2♦✈❛❧♦;❡, ❞❡ T ✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥2♦ ,♦❧✉=3♦

❞♦ ,✐,2❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛; " #" # " #
−1 2 x 0
=
1 −2 y 0
❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥2♦ ,♦❧✉=3♦ ❞♦ ,✐,2❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛;
" #" # " #
2 2 x 0
=
1 1 y 0
? ♦ ❛✉2♦❡,♣❛=♦ ❛,,♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c1 = 1 ❡ ♦ ❛✉2♦❡,♣❛=♦ ❛,,♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c2 = 4✱ ;❡,♣❡❝✲

2✐✈❛♠❡♥2❡✳ ❆,,✐♠✱ (2, 1) ? ✉♠ ❛✉2♦✈❡2♦; ❛,,♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c1 = 1 ❡ (1, −1) ? ✉♠
❛✉2♦✈❡2♦; ❛,,♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c2 = 4✳ C♦;2❛♥2♦✱ β = {(2, 1), (1, −1)} ? ✉♠❛ ❜❛,❡ ❞❡
R2 2❛❧ 6✉❡ [T ]ββ ? ✉♠❛ ♠❛2;✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳
✺✳✶✯ ✭❛✮ ❚❡♠♦, 6✉❡

1
x2 − 4x − 2y + 4 = 0 ⇐⇒ (x − 2)2 = 2y ⇐⇒ y = (x − 2)2 .
2
C♦;2❛♥2♦✱ ❛ ❡6✉❛=3♦ ;❡♣;❡,❡♥2❛ ✉♠❛ ♣❛;8❜♦❧❛✳
✭❜✮ ❆ ❡6✉❛=3♦ 4x2 − 3y 2 + 24xy − 156 = 0 ❡6✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ❡6✉❛=3♦ ♠❛2;✐❝✐❛❧
" #" #
h i 4 12 x
x y + [−156] = [0]. ✭✶✮
12 −3 y
✷✾✾
❆ ♠❛%&✐③ " #
4 12
A=
12 −3
) *✐♠)%&✐❝❛✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦&❡♠❛ ❊*♣❡❝%&❛❧✱ A ) ♦&%♦❣♦♥❛❧♠❡♥%❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛✲
❧✐③9✈❡❧✳ ❉❡ ❢❛%♦✱ c1 = 13 ❡ c2 = −12 *=♦ ♦* ❛✉%♦✈❛❧♦&❡* ❞❡ A✳ ❖ ✈❡%♦&
v1 = (4/5, 3/5) ) ✉♠ ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦& ❛**♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c1 = 13 ❡ ♦ ✈❡%♦& v2 = (−3/5, 4/5)
) ✉♠ ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦& ❛**♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ c2 = −12✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ❛ ❜❛*❡ β = {v1 , v2 } ) ✉♠❛ ❜❛*❡
♦&%♦♥♦&♠❛❧ ❞❡ R2 ❢♦&♠❛❞❛ ♣♦& ❛✉%♦✈❡%♦&❡*✳ ❙❡❥❛ P = [IR2 ]βα ✱ ♦♥❞❡ α ) ❛ ❜❛*❡
❝❛♥C♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ R2 ✳ ❈❤❛♠❡ D = P −1 AP ✳ ❚❡♠♦*
" # " #
4 3
− 13 0
P = 35 4 5 ❡ D= . ✭✷✮
5 5
0 −12
" #
x′
❈❤❛♠❛♥❞♦ [v]β ❞❡ ′ ✱ ♦♥❞❡ v = (x, y) ∈ R2 ✱ ❞❡ ✭✶✮ ❡ ✭✷✮ ♦❜%❡♠♦* ❛ ❡I✉❛J=♦
y
♠❛%&✐❝✐❛❧ " #" #
h i 13 0 x′
x′ y ′ + [−156] = [0],
0 −12 y ′
I✉❡ ❡I✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ❡I✉❛J=♦
13x′2 − 12y ′2 − 156 = 0,
♦✉ *❡❥❛✱
x′2 y ′2
− = 1.
12 13
K♦&%❛♥%♦✱ ❛ ❡I✉❛J=♦ 4x2 − 3y 2 + 24xy − 156 = 0 &❡♣&❡*❡♥%❛ ✉♠❛ ❤✐♣)&❜♦❧❡✳
✺✳✷
✭❛✮ ∅✳ ✭❜✮ ❡❧✐♣*❡✳ ✭❝✮ ❞✉❛* &❡%❛* ♣❛&❛❧❡❧❛*✳
✭❞✮ ✉♠❛ &❡%❛✳ ✭❡✮ ❤✐♣)&❜♦❧❡✳ ✭❢✮ ❡❧✐♣*❡✳
✭❣✮ ♣❛&9❜♦❧❛✳ ✭❤✮ ❡❧✐♣*❡✳ ✭✐✮ ❤✐♣)&❜♦❧❡✳

Algebra Linear Profmat

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Algebra Linear Profmat

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Introdução à Álgebra Linear

Capítulo 2: Transformação de Matrizes e Resolução de Sistemas

1.1 Transformações Elementares de Matrizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30

1.2 Forma Escalonada de uma Matriz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Capítulo 3: Espaços Vetoriais

Capítulo 4: O Espaço Vetorial R3

Capítulo 5: Transformações Lineares

1 O que são as Transformações Lineares? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Capítulo 6: Transformações Lineares e Matrizes

❈❛♣#$✉❧♦ ✶✿ ❙✐,$❡♠❛, ▲✐♥❡❛1❡, ❡ ▼❛$1✐③❡,

✶ ❖ "✉❡ % ➪❧❣❡❜*❛ ▲✐♥❡❛*❄

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ),

❡ ❛ ♠✉❧+✐♣❧✐❝❛&0♦ ❞♦ ✈❡+♦, (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ♣❡❧♦ ♥?♠❡,♦ ,❡❛❧ a✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡

a(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (ax1 , ax2 , . . . , axn ).

❈♦♠♦ ❛ ❡&'(✉'✉(❛ ❞❡ ❝♦(♣♦ ❞❡ R ❞❡&❡♠♣❡♥❤❛(/ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥'❛❧✱ ✈❛♠♦&

D♦('❛♥'♦✱ &:♦ ❝♦(♣♦& ♦& ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦& Q✱ R ❡ C✱ ❝♦♠ ❛& &✉❛& (❡&♣❡❝'✐✈❛&

✶✳✷ ❊$♣❛'♦$ ❱❡+♦,✐❛✐$

❆✹ ❆ ❛❞✐%&♦ ♣♦))✉✐ )✐♠,-.✐❝♦)✿

❊ ❛❧,♠ ❞✐))♦✱ ❡①✐)-❡ ✉♠❛ ♦♣❡.❛%&♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠✉❧#✐♣❧✐❝❛()♦ ♣♦+ ❡-❝❛❧❛+

▼❊✸ (a a )v = a (a v)✱ ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦) a , a ∈ K ❡ v ∈ V ✳

▼❊✹ 1v = v✱ ♣❛.❛ -♦❞♦ v ∈ V ✳

❖ ♣.✐♠❡✐.♦ ♠❛-❡♠;-✐❝♦ ❛ ❞❛. ✉♠❛ ❞❡✜♥✐%&♦ ❛❜)-.❛-❛ ♣❛.❛ ✉♠ ❡)♣❛%♦

❖ ❢❛-♦ ❛ )❡❣✉✐. ❞❡❝♦..❡ ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐%&♦ ❞❡ ❡)♣❛%♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧✳ A❛.❛ a ∈ K ❡

❉❡ ❢❛"♦✱ &❡❥❛♠ a ∈ K ❡ 0 ∈ V ✳ ❈♦♠♦ 0 + 0 = 0✱ ♣❡❧❛ ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡ ▼❊✶✱

❙♦♠❛♥❞♦ ♦ &✐♠;"2✐❝♦ −a 0 ❞❡ a 0 ❛ ❛♠❜♦& ♦& ❧❛❞♦& ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❛❝✐♠❛ ❡

0 = a 0 + (−a 0) = (a 0 + a 0) + (−a 0) = a 0 + [a 0 + (−a 0)] = a 0 + 0 = a 0.

❉❡ ♠♦❞♦ &❡♠❡❧❤❛♥"❡✱ ♠♦&"2❛✲&❡ ✭❢❛D❛✲♦✮ '✉❡ ♣❛2❛ 0 ∈ K ❡ v ∈ V "❡♠✲&❡

0 = a−1 0 = a−1 (av) = (a−1 a)v = 1v = v.

❉♦✐& ✈❡"♦2❡& u ❡ v ❡♠ ✉♠ ❡&♣❛D♦ ✈❡"♦2✐❛❧ V &❡2G♦ ❞✐"♦& ❝♦❧✐♥❡❛'❡(✱ &❡

➱ ✉♠ ❡①❡2❝M❝✐♦ ❢N❝✐❧ ♠♦&"2❛2 '✉❡ Rn ; ✉♠ ❡&♣❛D♦ ✈❡"♦2✐❛❧ &♦❜2❡ ♦ ❝♦2♣♦

−(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (−x1 , −x2 , . . . , −xn ).

♦♣❡$❛&'❡( (❡♠❡❧❤❛♥-❡( .( ❞❡ ❛❞✐&1♦ ❞❡ ✈❡-♦$❡( ❡ ❞❡ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛&1♦ ❞❡ ✈❡-♦$❡(

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), ♣❛'❛ ,♦❞♦ x ∈ A,

❡ ❛ ♠✉❧,✐♣❧✐❝❛/0♦ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥/0♦ f ♣♦' ✉♠ ❡)❝❛❧❛' a ∈ R 3 ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

un+1 = aun + bun−1 , n ≥ 2,

♦♥❞❡ a ❡ b )0♦ ❞♦✐) ♥F♠❡'♦) '❡❛✐) ✜①❛❞♦)✱ 3 ✉♠ ❡)♣❛/♦ ✈❡,♦'✐❛❧ )♦❜'❡ R✳ ❊♠

K[x]n = {p(x) ∈ K[x] ; ❣'❛✉✭p(x)✮ ≤ n} ∪ {0}

,❛♠❜3♠ )0♦ ❡)♣❛/♦) ✈❡,♦'✐❛✐) )♦❜'❡ K ✳ ❊♠ ♣❛',✐❝✉❧❛'✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥,♦

3 ✉♠ ❡)♣❛/♦ ✈❡,♦'✐❛❧ )♦❜'❡ R✳

♠0/✐❝♦ ❡✉*♦♣❡✉ ❞❛ ■❞❛❞❡ ▼@❞✐❛✳

✶✳✸ ❙✐%&❡♠❛% ❞❡ ❊,✉❛./❡% ▲✐♥❡❛2❡%

❖# #✐#'❡♠❛# ❝♦♠ ❞✉❛# ❡8✉❛9:❡# ❧✐♥❡❛.❡#✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ❥/ ❡.❛♠ ❝♦♥#✐✲

8✉❡ #❡❣✉✐♠♦# '.❛♥#❢♦.♠❛♥❞♦ ❛'F ♦❜'❡.♠♦# ✉♠ #✐#'❡♠❛ ♦♥❞❡ ❛# #♦❧✉9:❡# #7♦

❊♠ ❤♦♠❡♥❛❣❡♠ ❛ ❈❛)❧ ❋)✐❡❞)✐❝❤ ●❛✉11 ✭❆❧❡♠❛♥❤❛✱ ✶✼✼✼ ✲ ✶✽✺✺✮✱ ❝♦♥1✐❞❡)❛❞♦ ✉♠ ❞♦1

♠❛✐♦)❡1 ♠❛;❡♠<;✐❝♦1 ❞❡ ;♦❞♦1 ♦1 ;❡♠♣♦1✳

♦♥❞❡ ♦# aij ✬# ❡ ♦# bi ✬#✱ ♣❛*❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ #?♦ ♥@♠❡*♦# *❡❛✐# ❞❛❞♦#✱

S = {(c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) ∈ Rn ; ai1 c1 + ai2 c2 + · · · + ain cn = bi , 1 ≤ i ≤ m}.

❊##❡ #✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ ❞❡ Rn & ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥"♦ ♦❧✉)1♦ ❞♦ #✐#'❡♠❛ ✭✷✮✳ ➱

◆♦'❡ 4✉❡ ♣❛*❛ *❡#♦❧✈❡* ♦ #✐#'❡♠❛ ✭✶✮✱ ❞♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦ ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛♠♦#

❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛ ♣♦* 1❀ , %*❛♥#✐%✐✈❛✱ ♣♦✐# ❜❛#%❛ ❝♦♥❝❛%❡♥❛* ✉♠❛ #❡3✉4♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ %*❛♥#✲

❊##❡# #✐#%❡♠❛# ♣♦##✉❡♠ ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛*✐❞❛❞❡# ♥;♦ ❝♦♠♣❛*%✐❧❤❛❞❛# ♣❡❧♦# #✐#%❡♠❛#

u + u′ = (c1 + c′1 , c2 + c′2 , . . . , cn + c′n ) ❡ au = (ac1 , ac2 , . . . , acn )

%❛♠❜,♠ #;♦ #♦❧✉78❡# ❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛ ✭✸✮ ✭❧❡✐%♦*✱ ✈❡*✐✜3✉❡✮✳

−1(c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) = (−c1 , −c2 , . . . , −cn ) ∈ Sh ,

♦ 3✉❡ ♠♦#%*❛ 3✉❡ ❛ ❛❞✐7;♦ ❡♠ Sh ♣♦##✉✐ %❛♠❜,♠ ❛# ♣*♦♣*✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❆✸ ❡ ❆✹✳

◗✉❛♥❞♦ ♦ (✐(6❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡0✉❛1&❡( A ❤♦♠♦❣B♥❡♦✱ ❛ ❡❧❡ ❛((♦❝✐❛♠♦( ❛ ♠❛6.✐③

❡❧✐♠✐♥❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❝♦❧✉♥❛ ❞❡ ③❡.♦( ❞❛ ❞✐.❡✐6❛ ♥❛ ♠❛6.✐③ ✭✹✮✳

✶✳✷ ❙❡❥❛ v ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ♥@♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡*♦%✐❛❧ V 6♦❜%❡ R✳ ▼♦6*%❡

✶✳✸ ❙❡❥❛♠ v1 ❡ v2 ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦6 ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡*♦%✐❛❧ V 6♦❜%❡ R✳ ▼♦6*%❡ (✉❡ ❛

✶✳✺ ❙❡❥❛♠ U ❡ W ❞♦✐6 ❡6♣❛=♦6 ✈❡*♦%✐❛✐6 6♦❜%❡ ✉♠ ❝♦%♣♦ K ✳ ❈♦♥6✐❞❡%❡ ♦

(u1 , w1 ) + (u2 , w2 ) = (u1 + u2 , w1 + w2 ) e a(u1 , w1 ) = (au1 , aw1 ),

♦♥❞❡ u1 , u2 ∈ U ✱ w1 , w2 ∈ W ❡ a ∈ K ✳ ▼♦6*%❡ (✉❡ V ❝♦♠ ❛6 ♦♣❡%❛=E❡6 ❞❡

✷✳✶ ❆ ❉❡✜♥✐)*♦ ❞❡ ▼❛/0✐③

9 ✉♠❛ ♠❛&'✐③ 2 × 3✳ ❆# ❡♥&'❛❞❛# ❞❛ ♣'✐♠❡✐'❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛ ♠❛&'✐③ #+♦ ❞❛❞❛# ♣❡❧♦#

✶ ❖ "✉❡ % ➪❧❣❡❜❛ ▲✐♥❡❛❄

♦♥❞❡ ♦# aij ✬# ❡ ♦# bi ✬#✱ ♣❛❛ 1 ≤ i ≤ m ❡ 1 ≤ j ≤ n✱ #?♦ ♥@♠❡♦# *❡❛✐# ❞❛❞♦#✱

◆♦'❡ 4✉❡ ♣❛❛ ❡#♦❧✈❡* ♦ #✐#'❡♠❛ ✭✶✮✱ ❞♦ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❛❝✐♠❛✱ ♦ ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛♠♦#

❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛ ♣♦* 1❀ , %❛♥#✐%✐✈❛✱ ♣♦✐# ❜❛#%❛ ❝♦♥❝❛%❡♥❛ ✉♠❛ #❡3✉4♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ %*❛♥#✲

❊##❡# #✐#%❡♠❛# ♣♦##✉❡♠ ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛✐❞❛❞❡# ♥;♦ ❝♦♠♣❛%✐❧❤❛❞❛# ♣❡❧♦# #✐#%❡♠❛#

%❛♠❜,♠ #;♦ #♦❧✉78❡# ❞♦ #✐#%❡♠❛ ✭✸✮ ✭❧❡✐%♦✱ ✈❡✐✜3✉❡✮✳

♦ 3✉❡ ♠♦#%❛ 3✉❡ ❛ ❛❞✐7;♦ ❡♠ Sh ♣♦##✉✐ %❛♠❜,♠ ❛# ♣♦♣*✐❡❞❛❞❡# ❆✸ ❡ ❆✹✳

✶✳✷ ❙❡❥❛ v ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥♦ ♥@♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡♦%✐❛❧ V 6♦❜%❡ R✳ ▼♦6*%❡

✶✳✸ ❙❡❥❛♠ v1 ❡ v2 ❡❧❡♠❡♥♦6 ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡6♣❛=♦ ✈❡♦%✐❛❧ V 6♦❜%❡ R✳ ▼♦6*%❡ (✉❡ ❛

❙❡❥❛♠ A ❡ B ♠❛+✐③❡& ❞❡ ♦+❞❡♠ m × n✳ ❆ ♠❛+✐③ A 1 ❞✐*❛ &❡+ ❡!✉✐✈❛❧❡♥(❡